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Chapter 2
The Chemical Basis of Life
Lecture Outline

 Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
 Cinnamon VanPutte
 Jennifer Regan
 Andrew Russo

 Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.

Relevance of Chemistry to Anatomy and Physiology:

 Chemicals make up the body’s structures, and the

interactions of chemicals with one another are
responsible for the body’s function

 processes of nerve impulse generation, digestion,

muscle contraction, and metabolism can all be
described in chemical terms

 many abnormal conditions and their treatments can

also be explained in chemical term; ex. Parkinson
disease, which causes uncontrolled shaking
movements, results from a shortage of a chemical
called dopamine in certain nerve cells in the brain

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Inorganic Chemistry versus Organic Chemistry

• Inorganic chemistry - substances that do not contain

carbon
• Organic chemistry - carbon-containing substances

• Exception: some carbon-containing compounds

are not organic in that they do not also contain
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Organic Molecules/Biomolecules
- Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with
other atoms makes it possible the
formation of large, diverse, complicated
molecules for life

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Biomolecules
 All of our biomolecules are classified into
four groups:
– Carbohydrates
– Lipids
– Proteins
– Nucleic Acids
 Each of these classes have different
structures and functions

1) Carbohydrate

 The simplest biomolecule

 Contain 3 elements:
– Carbon
– Hydrogen
– Oxygen

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Facts

 Serve 2 main functions:

1. Source of chemical energy for cells in many
living things.
2. Part of the structural material of plants

 Come in all sizes, from small rings to long

chains.

 Important functions of carbohydrates in humans:

– Carbohydrates provide parts of other organic
molecules (ex., nucleotides in DNA)
– Carbohydrates are broken down to provide
energy
– When undigested carbohydrates provide bulk
(fiber) in feces

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Two Types of Carbohydrates

Simple
Carbohydrates

Complex SUGAR

Carbohydrates

STARCH CELLULOSE

Sugar
 Break down quickly in the body
 Provide a quick burst of energy or a
“sugar rush”
 Glucose (blood sugar) is the most
important & simplest sugar on Earth.
– Used in cells & created by photosynthesis
– It comes in many forms

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 Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, O
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• Example: C6H12O6
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks
• Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
• Examples: glucose and fructose

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 Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose

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 Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables,
glycogen

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Starch
 Long chains of simpler sugars joined together
 These big molecules are called macromolecules
 Also called polysaccharides or polymers
 Slower to break down in the body & provide
energy for a longer period of time than regular
sugars.

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Did you know that?

Marathon runners, tri-athletes, cyclists like
Lance Armstrong, and other endurance
runners eat carbohydrates for weeks
leading up to a big event. They call it
“carbo-loading”. Even high school athletes
occasionally have “pasta feeds” the night
before a big game. What’s the point? As
the athletes consume massive amounts of
starch and pasta, the energy begins to
store up in their body, saving itself for use
during the event.

Starch Examples

Potatoes
Wheat Corn

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Cellulose
 Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a cell wall made of
cellulose.
 The cell wall is a large part of vegetables such as lettuce &
celery. It also is what gives stems & wood strength.
 Made from chains of thousands of glucose molecules, but
the difference is in how they’re linked.
 Because of this small difference, your body cannot digest
cellulose the same way it can starches & sugars.

2) Lipids

FACTS STRUCTURE

SATURATED &
CHOLESTEROL
UNSATURATED

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Lipid Facts
 Lipids include:
– Fats
– Oils
 Most lipids are made of just carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
 But unlike carbohydrates, fats are more
complex & take much longer to break
down.
 So, fats are high-energy molecules that
plants and animals use to store energy
in reserves for longer periods.

Functions of Lipids:

 Long term energy storage

 Insulates against heat loss
 Protective cushion for organs
 Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane
structure

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Lipid Facts
 Plants store energy in oils, like
olive oil, corn oil, or peanut oil.
 An oil is a fat that is liquid at
room temperature.

Lipid Structure
 Fats & oils store energy super-
efficiently, 1 gram of fat
contains about twice the Glycerol Fatty acid
energy as 1 gram of backbone chains
carbohydrate.
 A fat molecule has a 2-part
structure.
 The first part is called glycerol.
 Attached to the glycerol are
3 long chains called fatty
acids.

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Saturated and Unsaturated

 Saturated fats
– only single bonds in the
carbon chain
– Most animal fats
– “bad” fats
– Diets high in saturated fat
are linked to heart disease

 Unsaturated fats
– one or more double bonds
in the carbon chain
– Most oils from plants
– “good” fats

Fat Examples
Saturated Fats

Unsaturated Fats

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Cholesterol
 Cholesterol is another lipid in cell membranes
 It is also needed to make hormones like
adrenaline
 Your body makes the cholesterol that it needs,
but it is also found in many foods that come from
animals, like meat and eggs.
 Although you need cholesterol, eating too much
of it can block arteries and lead to heart disease.

3) Proteins

FACTS AMINO
ACIDS

ENZYMES PROTEINS
IN THE DIET
DONE!

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Protein Facts
 Proteins are big molecules called macromolecules
 Made of smaller molecules called amino acids
 20 different naturally occurring amino acids

 Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,

sulfur, & some other elements
 There are at least 100,000 proteins in your body
 Each has a different structure that gives it a
specific job
 There are 4 types of structure, including coils & curls

Proteins

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Proteins
Aside from the protein found in animal
sources…protein can also be found in
fruits, vegetables, grains, and nuts.
(it just does not have as many amino acids)

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Cell Membrane

• surrounds everything in a cell so it

doesn’t leak out
• made mostly of protein AND lipids

Muscles, ligaments, tendons,

and bones

Without these
particular structural
proteins, we would
look more like this….

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Enzymes
 Some proteins curl up into a
shape like a ball of
enzymes.
 An enzyme is a special
protein & a catalyst for a
chemical reaction in living
things.
 Catalysts speed up the rate
of a reaction.
 Enzymes are needed for
many chemical reactions in
your body.
 Without them, these
reactions would occur too
slowly to keep you alive.

Antibodies are part of the immune system. When

something enters the body that isn’t supposed to be
there, like certain bacteria, antibodies find the invader
and stick themselves onto it. When a white blood cell
finds the invader covered with antibodies, it knows it
doesn’t belong there and kills it.

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• chemicals made in glands that are in one place

in the body and then put into the blood to be
used in another

These are where the

hormone producing glands
are located in your body.

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4) Nucleic Acids
 Largest & most complex biomolecule
 Includes:
– DNA
– RNA
 Contain information that cells use to
make proteins
 Made of:
– Carbon
– Hydrogen
– Oxygen
– Nitrogen

Nucleic Acids
 biomolecules that
contain the blueprints
for making proteins
 transmit genetic
information to the next
generation
 Includes:
– DNA
– RNA

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DNA Facts

 Deoxyribonucleic acid
 One of the largest
molecules
 A single DNA molecule
has more than 1 million
atoms.

DNA Structure
 Twisted ladder or double
helix
 The sides of the ladder
are made of:
– sugar molecules called
deoxyribose
– phosphate group
 The “rungs” of the ladder
are made of:
– Nitrogen bases

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4 Nitrogen Bases
 Occur in matched sets:
– Adenine (A) to Cytosine (C)
– Thymine (T) to Guanine (G)
 The order of the bases in DNA is the way in which
DNA stores instructions for making proteins.
 Each of the 20 amino acids is represented by a
series of 3 DNA bases.
 For example, the sequence T-A-C is the code for the
amino acid tyrosine.

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Vitamins & Minerals

 Minerals are inorganic
elements that come from
 Vitamins are organic
the earth.
substances made by
plants or animals.
 Animals & humans absorb
minerals from plants they
 Vitamins and minerals
eat.
are nutrients that your
body needs to grow
and develop.

Vitamins
 Water Soluble Vitamins
- Vit C  Water-soluble
- Vit B Complex vitamins must be
(B1..B12) replaced each day.


 Fat-soluble vitamins
Fat Soluble Vitamins
dissolve in fat before
– Vitamin A
absorbed in the
– Vitamin D blood stream.
– Vitamin E Excess of these
– Vitamin K vitamins are stored
in the liver.

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Vitamin C
 Ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, is
needed for several important
processes in your brain &
nervous system.
 Scurvy results from a lack of
vitamin C in your diet.
 It causes of spotting on the
skin, spongy gums, and
bleeding membranes, and can
eventually lead to death.
 The British Royal Navy were
among the first to discover this
vitamin deficiency, when they
noticed their sailors would get
sick without fresh fruits &
vegetables.

Scurvy

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Scurvy Affecting Gums

Scurvy treated with Vitamin C

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Scurvy Affecting Joints/Skin

Vitamin A
 play an important role in vision, bone growth,
reproduction, cell division, and cell differentiation
 helps regulate the immune system
 promotes healthy surface linings of the eyes and the
respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts
 helps the skin and mucous membranes function as a
barrier to bacteria and viruses

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 Vitamin A found in foods that come from

animals is called preformed vitamin A
 Sources include: liver, whole milk, and
some fortified food products

 Vitamin A that is found in colorful fruits and

vegetables such as carrots, cantaloupes,
sweet potatoes, and spinach.

Vitamin B6
 water soluble vitamin
 helps with protein metabolism
 plays a role in cognitive development
 found in: fish, beef liver,
other organ meat, potatoes
and other starchy vegetables

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Vitamin B12

 helps keep the body’s nerve and blood cells

healthy
 helps make DNA
 helps prevent megaloblastic anemia

 vitamin B12 can be found in: fish, meat,

poultry, eggs, milk, and other dairy
products

Vitamin D
 needed for health and to maintain strong
bones
 helps the body absorb calcium
 muscles need vitamin D to move, immune
system needs vitamin D to fight off
bacteria & viruses
 fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel
are among the best sources of vitamin D

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Vitamin E
 fat-soluble nutrient found in many foods
 acts as an antioxidant helping to protect cells
 boosts the immune system to fight off
invading bacteria and viruses
 found in: vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, green
vegetables, some breakfast cereals

Vitamin K
 makes proteins for healthy bones and
normal blood clotting

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Minerals
 Calcium  Phosphorus
 Chromium  Sodium
 Folate  Potassium
 Iron  Chloride
 Magnesium  Sulfur
 Selenium  Copper
 Zinc  Iodine
 Selenium  Cobalt
 Fluoride

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Calcium
 helps build strong bones and healthy
teeth
 body needs calcium for muscles to move
and nerves to carry messages.
 helps move blood through blood vessels
and release hormones and enzymes
 food rich in calcium: milk, cheese,
yogurt, canned salmon and sardines,
leafy green vegetables, and calcium
fortified foods

Iron
 Iron helps the body transport oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of your body
 Essential for the regulation of cell growth and
differentiation
 A deficiency of iron can result in fatigue, poor
work performance, and decreased immunity
 Iron rich foods: red meat, tuna, salmon, eggs,
beans, baked potato with skin, dried fruit,
leafy green vegetables, whole and enriched
grains

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Potassium
 keeps muscles and nervous system working
properly
 an electrolyte that conducts electricity in the
body
 Potassium rich foods: bananas, broccoli,
tomatoes, potatoes with skins, leafy green
vegetables, citrus fruits,
dried fruits, and legumes

Sodium
 both an electrolyte and mineral
 helps keep the water (the amount of
fluid inside and outside the body’s
cells) and electrolyte balance of the
body
 for nerves and muscles functioning

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Zinc
 supports normal growth and development during
pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence
 required for the proper sense of taste and smell
 Involved in numerous aspects of cellular
metabolism
 foods rich in zinc: beef, pork, lamb, & legumes

Trace Minerals
 Iron, Manganese, Copper, Iodine, Zinc,
Fluoride, and Selenium
 Manganese is important for production of
enzymes and antioxidants
 Copper is necessary for your body to make
connective tissue and metabolism of iron
 Iodine is used to synthesize thyroid hormones

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Trace minerals
 Fluoride is used for strong bones and teeth. Reduces
the number of cavities in your teeth.

 Selenium combines with proteins to make antioxidants

and is also essential for normal thyroid function.

Magnesium
 Approximately 50% of total body magnesium is
found in bone. The other half is found
predominantly in cells of body tissue and organs.
 Helps maintain muscle and nerve function, keeps
heart rhythm steady, supports a healthy immune
system, keeps bones strong.
 Help regulate blood sugar levels, promotes normal
blood pressure.
 Eating a wide variety of legumes, nuts, whole
grains, and vegetables will help meet your daily
need for magnesium.

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