SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

WHY SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY?

Unlike lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy or magnetostratigraphy, generally
aimed at characterizing a sedimentary succession, sequence stratigraphy
is not only a descriptive disciple but deals also with SEDIMENTATION
CONTROLLING FACTORS and PREDICTION of stratigraphic architectures
in areas outside the range of observation.
after Catuneanu et al, 2009
 THE BIRTH OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Sloss et al. (1949) – A sequence is a stratigraphic unit bounded by
“subaerial unconformities”.

Vail (1975); Vail et al. (1977) – Definition of the basic principles of

seismic stratigraphy, which is aimed at defining how sea level changes affect
basin margin sedimentation. According to these authors, eustatic variations
are the only controlling factor on sequence development (see Global Cycle
Chart of Vail et al., 1977).

Posamentier and Vail (1988); Posamentier et al. (1988) – Integration

among seismic data, well logs and outcrop data. They established the modern
sequence stratigraphy.
Winter (1984) – Whereas eustatic control was generally considered as the
only sedimentation controlling factor promoting and affecting the
development of sequences, he stressed the importance of tectonics.

Van Wagoner et al.

(1990) – these authors
established the modern
sequence stratigraphy by
introducing the “relative sea
level” concept, thus
releasing depositional
sequences from a pure
eustatic control.
CONCEPTS
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY (Posamentier et al. 1988)

It deals with the relationships among conformable sedimentary successions

bounded by erosional or non-depositional surfaces and by the corresponding
correlative conformities.

DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCE (Mitchum, 1977)

A succession of conformable sedimentary rocks bounded by unconformities
and related correlative conformities.

BASE LEVEL (Sloss, 1962)

An imaginary equilibrium surface above which a clast can not stay for a long
time and below which sedimentation is not possible.
Note: Sloss' definition include all the depositional systems and energy conditions, whereas
according to other authors the base level corresponds to relative sea level.
In a marine setting, relative sea level rise may result from different combinations of
eustatism and subsidence.

after Catuneanu, 2002

…..and how many combinations we have to lower it?

after Catuneanu, 2002

ACCOMMODATION (Jervey, 1988)
Available space to be filled with sediment.
Note: the concept is similar (although not identical..) to the subsidence concept. Since the
accommodation space is intended as a “vertical” space, it is strictly dependent from base level. A
base level rise will increase the accommodation, whereas a base level fall will decrease it.

TRANSGRESSION
Landward shoreline migration
Note: a transgression requires a base level rise,
whereas a base level rise does not imply a
transgression.

REGRESSION
Seaward shoreline migration.
Note: a regression does not necessitate a base
level fall, whereas a base level fall always promotes
a regression.

after Catuneanu, 2002

after Catuneanu, 2002
Established a base level fall as the onset of a sedimentary cycle (removal of accommodation space: FORCED
REGRESSION), the time at which the base level variation rate (slope of the curve) will be maximum, will
correspond to the intersection of the curve with X-axis. Such a variation rate will then begin to lower as the base
level will approach its minimum (end of base level fall). After this minimum, as the base level will begin to rise,
even its rate will progressively increase. Nevertheless, new accommodation space will not be created until such a
rate will be less than sedimentation rate (removal of accommodation by sedimentation: NORMAL
REGRESSION).
When the rate in base level rise will be greater than sedimentation rate, then accommodation will be created
(TRANSGRESSION). Finally, when the rate in base level rise will be less than sedimentation rate,
accommodation space will be removed by sedimentation (normal regression).

after Catuneanu, 2002

 GIVEN A CURVE REPRESENTING A SINGLE
CYCLE OF BASE LEVEL FALL AND RISE OF N-
DURATION AND ABSOLUTE VERTICAL
OSCILLATION OF 2x

Let’s take into account the effect of base level variation

on coastal sediment architecture starting from time t=0.
Deposits pertaining to the forced regressive, the first
normal regression, the transgression and the second
normal regression will show different architectures.
They are bounded by key-stratigraphic surfaces and
belong to different limbs of a sedimentary cycle.
These units are referred to as SYSTEMS TRACTS and
all together form a DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCE.

Shoreline

Base level
 During the forced regression, former deposits are
eroded and sedimented in more basinward
positions, while previously submerged areas will
experience suberial exposure.
The shoreline will move basinward with a
descendant vertical component of the shoreline
trajectory.
Sediments pertaining to this stage are referred to
as FALLING STAGE SYSTEMS TRACT (FSST).
The FSST is characterized by a complex
architecture due to the dominance of by-pass
condition (see later).

Shoreline t=0

Shoreline 0<t<1/2n

Base level

Shoreline shift

FSST
 During the first normal regression phase, the
shoreline is moving basinward, although this
trajectory will be characterized by a rising
component, manifesting the progressive base
level rise.
Deposits pertaining to thie phase are referred to
as LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT (LST).

Shoreline t=0

Shoreline t=n1

Base level

LST Shoreline shift

FSST Shoreline t=1/2n

 During the transgressive phase, the shoreline
moves landward and its trajectory is characterized
by a vertical rising component related to sediment
supply, whose rate is always lower than the rising
base level rate.
Deposits pertaining to this phase are referred to
as TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT (TST).

Shoreline t=0

Base level
Shoreline t=n1
TST
LST Shoreline shift

FSST Shoreline t=1/2n

 During the second normal regression the
shoreline will move again basinward, although this
trajectory will be characterized by a rising
component, manifesting the base level rise before
a new fall.
The sediment pertaining to this phase are referred
to as HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT (HST).

Shoreline t=0

Shoreline t=n
Base level
Shoreline t=n1 HST
TST
LST Shoreline shift

FSST Shoreline t=1/2n

Systems tracts formed during a fall and rise in base level show different
stratigraphic architectures. Stratal terminations (reflection terminations, in seismic
profiles) are of great importance in recognizing systems tracts.

after Catuneanu, 2002

The 2D shoreline trajectory (typically visible in seismic lines, rarely in outcrop) is a
powerfull tool in unraveling the ratio between sedimention rate and the rate of base level
variation.

SHORELINE MOVEMENTS
Progradation : basinward movement with a small
vertical (upward) component.

HST
Retrogradation : landward movement with a small
(upward) component.
TST
Aggradation : mainly vertical movement.

LST FSST Downward shift : basinward movement with a

small vertical (downward) component.
 HST low sediment supply

TST low sediment supply

FSST
LST low sediment supply

HST high sediment supply

TST high sediment supply

FSST
LST high sediment supply
The depositional sequence concept does not include any spatial and time significance.
Accordingly, the above-mentioned concept can be applied in a wide range of situations,
i.e. from the sedimentary infill of a small pond (see below) to a passive margin
succession.
Since sequences can form at different scale, it results that a
higher-rank sequence is made of lower-rank sequences.
The rank can be established based on sequence duration
(Vail, 1977) or taking into account the amplitude of base
4
level variation (Embry, 1995)

HST4

TST4
LST4 FSST4 HST3

TST3
LST3 FSST3 HST2

TST2
LST2 FSST2 HST1
TST
TST1
LST1 FSST1
 Although events occurring
during a base level cycle
are easily understandable,
the recognition of each
systems tract in the
sedimentary record results
from the identification of
specific stratal geometries
and key bounding surfaces
(e.g. maximum flooding
surface)

after Catuneanu, 2002

 FALLING STAGE SYSTEMS TRACT
First sequence stratigraphic models did not take into account deposits developed during a relative
base level fall, since this was considered mainly as an erosional event. Neverthless, the eroded
sediments must, by definition, be re-sedimented somewhere else......

The FSST paradigm consists of a base level

fall proceeding by pulses, which progressively
lowers the wave base thus promoting erosion
up to the lower shoreface.
The erosional surface produced during a base
level fall is referred to as REGRESSIVE
SURFACE OF SUBMARINE EROSION
(RSSE), which represents the basal bouding
surface of the FSST. However, the surface at
the base of all the FSST deposits is the
BASAL SURFACE OF FORCED
REGRESSION (BSFR).
The FSST deposits are typically topped by a
subaerial exposure and erosion surface
referred to as SUBAERIAL UNCONFORMITY
(SU). At end of the FSST such a surface
passes downdip to the related CORRELATIVE
CONFORMITY, located at the top of the
subacqueous FSST deposits.

after Catuneanu, 2002

The degree of base level fall and sediment supply may promote the development of bacinal FSST
deposits (Hunt e Tucker, 1992). Accordingly this systems tract is bipartite.
Considering the stratal geometries, the FSST coastal deposits are characterized by offlapping
sedimentary bodies.
after Catuneanu, 2002
The architecture of the FSST shelfal
deposits as reported in the literature
takes into account a “composite fall”,
i.e. a fall characterized by the
occasional formation of
accommodation space filled with
sediment above the RSSE.
Moreover, the FSST is typically
considered erosionally-based, even
though the base of its distal portion is
transitional.

SU

CC

RSSE
BSFR
 SU
soil

SU
soil

FSST

shoreface

RSSE

RSSE
offshore
 LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT
The LST originates during a base level rise and is characterized by a progradational
shoreline with an aggradational component.
In the LST the shoreline trajectory defines a concave-upward curve. The distal portion
of the LST downlaps onto the correlative conformity, the latter marking the top of the
underlying FSST. The proximal LST, typically consisting of fluvial deposits, onlaps onto
the subaerial exposure (SU). Finally, the LST is topped by the maximum regressive
surface (MRS). The grain-size trend is coarsening-upward.

MRS
Onlap (fluvial)
SU

CC

Downlap
 MRS
Onlap (fluvial)

SU

CC

Downlap

SU

LST (FLUVIAL)

SU

HST (OFFSHORE)
 TRANSGRESSIVE SYSTEMS TRACT
The TST originates during a rise in base level and is characterized by retrogradational
depositional systems which is typically, although not always, associated with a low
aggradational rate.
 The TST is mainly developed above the subaerial portion of the MRS and partly above the
subacqueous one. Accumulation of transgressive deposits above the subaerial portion of the
MRS often implies the destruction of the surface itself, since wave action is capable to remove up
to 20 m of sediment. The newly formed surface at the base of a TST within a former subaerial
area is termed RAVINEMENT SURFACE (RS). In areas still submerged at the time of the MRS
(i.e. end of LST) the ravinement counterpart is represented by a FLOODING SURFACE (FS; see
later), that is a surface developed under starving depositional conditions due to the thickening of
water column and associated confinement of sediment supply within fluvial valley and
retrograding coastal areas. The TST is bounded at the top by the MAXIMUM FLOODING
SURFACE (MFS), that is a surface recording the maximum landward position of the shoreline
(note: although not the maximum water depth, see later). Typical grain-size trend of the TST is
Fining Upward.

RS

MFS
MRS
(rarely preserved)
Onlap (fluvial and coastal)

FS
Whereas the recognition of the others systems tracts relies on stratal architecture and assessment
of system’s evolution trough time, when it comes to TST, its identification is easier when the top
(MFS) and basal (RS e FS) surfaces are recognized.
RAVINEMENT SURFACE
This surface is generated by wave action
following a marine (or lacustrine)
transgression over a formerly emerged
area. Deposits resting onto the
ravinement surface are referred to as
TRANGRESSIVE LAG. Notwithstanding Shoreface deposits
such a lag results from wave action, it is
not characterized by a high textural
maturity, since it manifests a variety of
superimposing “winnowing conditions”
(typically from foreshore to lower
shoreface processes). Nevertheless, Transgressive lag
these deposits are lacking mud, except for
infiltrating post-depositional fines.
Given the common reduced thickness of
transgressive lags compared to the time
they record, they commonly show
evidence of stratigraphic condensation,
such as abundant,often fragmented,
shells.

Alluvial deposits
 TST

FU

Transgressive lag

Ravinement surface
Bedrock
 Transgressive lag

Ravinement surface
 Offshore
TST

Offshore transition

Transgressive lag

FU

Ravinement surface Braided river

Nevertheless, within low-energy conditions transgressive lags consist of mud-free sand with a
various degree of sorting.

Offshore transition

Transgressive lag
Fluvial channel
Ravinement surface
Locally transgressive lags develop under marked starving conditions, as they may consist of
bioclastic deposits.
In other situations, such starving conditions are not manifested by bioclastic-rich deposits, but by
the formation of a peculiar greenish clay mineral termed glaucony (K-phyllosilicate). It occurs as
films on pre-existing clasts or as sand-sized “flakes”. This mineral forms only in a starving marine
setting.

Transgressive lag

FU

Ravinement surface
FLOODING SURFACE
The term “flooding surface” is a general one
and it refers to any surface recording an
increase in water depth. Accordingly, the
ravinement surface is particular type of
flooding surface as well as the maximum
flooding surface.
The term flooding surface can be used to
shoreface
indicate either the bacinal part of the
ravinement surface or lower rank flooding
offshore transition
surfaces, such as those bounding
parasequences (see later the parasequence
concept). flooding surface

Diagnostic features of a flooding surface result

from depositional starving, such as higher shoreface
degree of bioturbation, deposition of fines and
enrichment of bioclastic debris.
offshore transition
NOTE: the above-mentioned features are not
always indicative of flooding (e.g. accumulation shoreface
flooding surface
of a mud drape in delta front may result from a
lateral shifting of a distributary channel). offshore transition

flooding surface shoreface

A flooding surface manifests a deepening in water depth, thus promoting starving conditions.

shoreface

flooding surface

shoreface
shoreface

offshore transition

flooding surface

shoreface
MAXIMUM FLOODING SURFACE
This particular type of flooding surface is
of primary importance since it separates
the TST from the HST of a depositional
sequence. It can be easily detected in the
field.
Similarly to the others flooding surfaces,
it manifests sediment starving features, offshore
although in the case of the MFS they are
typically more marked. Specifically, MFS
deposits are deeply bioturbated, contain
abundant shells, occasionally in life
position, and glaucony. Glaucony can be
abundant and dark green to black in
colour, tha latter manifesting a high-
content in potassium indicative of
submarine prolonged exposure.
Nevertheless, within mud-prone deep-
offshore
water settings the recognition of the MFS
can be difficult.
MF
(glaucon
 offshore

MFS
(glaucony-rich)

offshore
 HIGHSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

The HST is characterized by a stratigraphic architecture similar to that of the LST, since
it forms during a relative base level rise. Accordingly, it comprises prograding
depositional systems with an aggradational component.
Within the HST, the shoreline trajectory defines a concave-upward curve approaching
a horizontal line or even a downward line during the first occurrence of base level fall.
The HST sediment body downlaps onto the MFS and is bounded at the top by a
composite surface. It is formed by the SU passing basinward to the RSSE which, in
turn grades to the BSFR. Grain-size trend of HST is typically Coarsening Upward.

SU
RSSE
BSFR
MFS Downlap
CU

HST (delta)
after Catuneanu, 2002
after Catuneanu, 2002
PARASEQUENCE
The term PARASEQUENCE is quite common in sequence stratigraphic studies. A
parasequence (Van Wagoner, 1995) consists of a conformable strata succession
bounded by two flooding surfaces.
In short, a parasequence is made of basal transgressive deposits overlying a FS, which
grade upward to regressive deposits (the transition is marked by a low-rank MFS), the
latter topped by a FS.
Notwithstanding this simple definition, it is quite obvious that a parasequence may be
represented by a variety of deposits, according to the significance given to the term
“flooding surface” (see before).

FS
CU
PARASEQUENCE

Regressive portion

MFS
transgressive portion
FU
FS
 shoreface
P3 shoreface

offshore transition offshore transition

flooding surface

shoreface P3 shoreface

offshore transition offshore transition

P1
shoreface shoreface
flooding surface
offshore transition offshore transition

flooding surface shoreface shoreface

In a more general view, parasequences are considered as the main building blocks of a
depositional sequence. Actually, the vertical stacking of parasequences with a well
defined vertical trend is diagnostic in determining a systems tract. For example, a
succession constituted by superimposing parasequences whose transgressive portion
thickens upward can be attributed to the TST.

IV Shoreline trajectory

TST
III

II

I
“FALSE” PARASEQUENCES
As a whole, a parasequence records a first phase characterized by low sedimentation rate
(consistent with a transgression) followed by an increase in sedimentation rate (consistent with a
regression). Nevertheless, a sedimentary succession whose architecture conforms to the
parasequence concept cannot be always interpreted as a transgressive-regressive cycle.

B
A straightforward example
producing the above
2 2 described situation is
represented by deltaic lobe
3 progradation and shifting
following distributaries
1 1 1 avulsion.

A
A B
1 3 2

R Progradation of lobe 3
3
T Mud deposition during lobe 3 progradation

1 Progradation of lobe 1
SEQUENCES AND PARASEQUENCES: DIFFERENT PRODUCTS OF THE SAME
CONTROLLING FACTORS
The main difference between the sequence and the parasequence concepts is that whereas the
former records a base level fall and rise, the latter do not include any falling stage. In short,
sequences are “up and down” cycles, whereas parasequences are “up and up” cycles.
Actually, the same fall and rise in base level may produce sequences or parasequences according
to local constraints. In strongly subsiding areas eustatic falls may not promote relative sea level fall,
thus favouring the development of parasequences which will be coeval to sequences of poorly
subsiding area.
LATERAL VARIABILITY
The sequence stratigraphic concepts works perfectly when applied along depositional dip, whereas
some problems may arise when applied along depositional strike. Indeed, it may happen that
(similarly to the coeval development of sequences and parasequences) adjacent coastal areas may
experience contrasting shoreline trends. For example, a base level rise may promote a
transgression in an area with low sedimentation rate, whereas a coeval normal regression may
occur within an adjacent area characterized by a high sedimentation rate.

Transgression
Normal regression
Similarly, even the topographic gradient may play an important role in determing contrasting
shoreline trends of adjacent areas. Indeed, low-gradient areas, such as a coastal alluvial plain, may
be easily transgressed by a thin extensive sheet of water unlikely high-gradient zones, such as a
fan-delta front.
Fluvial fan delta front: low
sedimentation rate compared
to that of the opposite valley
(smaller catchment), but
higher gradient = NORMAL
REGRESSION

RISING BASE LEVEL

Fluvial valley: higher

sedimentation rate, but
lower gradient =
TRANSGRESSION
 TYPES OF DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES
Once defined the sedimentary responses to base level variations, the different types of depositional
sequences according to its lower and upper boundaries (sequence boundaries) must be discussed.
Two main approaches are present in the geological literature: in defining a depositional sequence,
the first one takes into account the base level curve (type II, III and IV sequences ), whereas the
second one considers the T-R curve (genetic and T-R sequences).

after Catuneanu, 2002

 INCISED VALLEYS
An issue strictly related to sequence stratigraphy is represented by the incised valley
paradigm. Notwithstanding most of the sequence stratigraphic concepts deal with
marine environments (e.g. regressive surface of marine erosion), it is quite obvious
that depositional and erosional patterns will affect coastal fluvial systems.
Accordingly, fluvial systems will typically react to a base level fall by incising valleys
turning into estuaries during the subsequent base level rise. However, although
estuaries clearly represent incised valleys, not all the incised valleys are filled with
estuarine successions. Indeed, incised-valley successions can manifest entirely
fluvial to deltaic settings passing trough estuarine depositional environments. Within
the latter, tidal or fluvial influences can substantially modify the architecture of the
resulting succession.
 Drowned portion of
the incised-valley

Filled portion of
the incised-valley

Filled portion of
Bay head deltas the incised-valley
after Boyd et al., 2006
 In a sequence-stratigraphic
framework the estuarine
model is nothing but a stage of
the incision-to-filling cycle of a
valley.
A valley is incised during a
base level fall and its filling
begins with the following
rising.
Accordingly, the oldest strata
being sedimented in an
incised valley are fluvial
lowstand deposits, followed by
trasgressive and highstand
deposits. The latter manifest
normal regressive conditions
when sediment supply
overcomes the rate of base
level rise.

after Boyd et al., 2006

after Boyd et al., 2006
 SHORELINE

SLOPE
 FSST
(delta)
 LST (delta;
prog. +aggr.)

LST
(fluvial)
 TST
(offshore
mud
drape)
TST TST (fluvial)
(backstepping
delta)
 HST (delta; HST (fluvial)
prog. +aggr.)
 FLUVIAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

The upcurrent/proximal portion of a fluvial valley systems not HST

necessarily experiences marine conditions, particularly if the river (fluvial)
valley profile is steep and the base level rise is of small amplitude.
This results in long-lasting fluvial sedimention during a complete TST
base level cycle. (fluvial)

Nevertheless, depositional patterns of upcurrent/proximal incised

LST
valleys fluvial systems will be severely affected by accommodation (fluvial)
variations at the shoreline.
But how far accommodation variations at shoreline can propagate upstream? There is no common
agreement on this issue. Neverthelss, some authors believe that, under favourable constraints, the
shoreline behaviour can affect river depositional patterns up to 300 Kms inland form the shoreline.
In this context, local morphological conditions (such as gradient, thresholds, etc.) play a major role
in determining such a “propagation distance”. Moreover, in landward direction fluvial systems are
increasingly affected by tectonic and climatic variations of the source area.

after Shanley and McCabe, 1994

Most of base level falls result in fluvial erosion, which is typically manifested by the formation of
incised valleys.
Contrary, in the proximal portions of fluvial systems a base level rise promotes an increase in
accommodation space.
In short, it can be stated that the variation in fluvial accommodation space controls the lateral and
vertical channel clustering, and thus the net/gross ratio of a given fluvial succession.
Specifically, within low accommodation conditions fluvial channels are forced to migrate laterally
in the floodplain rather than vertically aggrading. Indeed, in this situation aggradation cannot
exceed the top surface of the accommodation space available at that time.
During low-accommodation times most of fine-grained deposits are removed and by-pass
conditions will dominate in the system.
In case of high accommodation, fluvial channels will be free to aggradate without cannibalization
of floodplain fines. The latter will preserve preferentially during high accommodation times.

LOW ACCOMMODATION HIGH ACCOMMODATION

Base level
4

2 3
1 2 4 3 1
after Boyd et al., 2006
after Shanley and McCabe, 1994
According to some authors, when base level variations at shoreline are not easily correlatable with fluvial
patterns, it is preferable to subdivide the fluvial succession into low- and high-accommodation systems
tracts. This is a good way to deal with a climatically- or tectonically driven fluvial patterns.

after Martinsen et al., 1999

 SUMMARY

1) Sequence Stratigraphy is a powerful predictive tool in terms of spatial and temporal distribution of
sedimentary bodies
2) Keyword: depositional sequence, base level, accommodation, transgression regression
3) Building blocks of a sequence: systems tracts
4) FSST: base level is lowering; rate of sediment supply (not relevant); forced regression
5) LST: base level is rising; rate of sediment supply > rate of base level rise; normal regression
(progradation)
6) TST: base level is rising; rate of sediment supply < rate of base level rise; transgression (retrogradation)
7) HST: base level is rising; rate of sediment supply > rate of base level rise; normal regression
(progradation)
8) Key stratal surfaces: BSFR, MFS, FS, RS, CC….
9) Parasequences: a conformable strata succession bounded by two flooding surfaces.
10) Lateral variability of sequences: adjacent coastal areas may experience contrasting shoreline trends.
11) Incised valley systems as key elements to apply sequence stratigraphic models
12) Fluvial sequence stratigraphy: role of changes in accommodation in shaping distribution of
channelized deposits within alluvial successions.

after Martinsen et al., 1999