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Peter Baumann
Selected
Sensor
Circuits
From Data Sheet to Simulation
Selected Sensor Circuits
Peter Baumann
Selected Sensor Circuits

From Data Sheet to Simulation
Peter Baumann
Hochschule Bremen
Bremen, Germany
ISBN 978-3-658-38211-7 ISBN 978-3-658-38212-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38212-4
The translation was done with the help of artificial intelligence (machine translation by the service DeepL.com). A
subsequent human revision was done primarily in terms of content.
# The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden
GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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Preface to the Third Edition of Selected Sensor
Circuits
Preface to the Third Edition
When presenting selected sensor circuits, it has proven useful in teaching that first the
sensor function is explained on the basis of data sheet information and then a corresponding
circuit is analyzed with the program PSPICE.
In the third edition, minor corrections were made to the ultrasonic transmission. The
optical sensors are supplemented by an infrared light barrier and the foil force sensors by
applications in interaction with a comparator and a triangle-rectangle generator. In the
chapter on piezoelectric buzzers, another section on self-triggering buzzers has been added
to the existing section on externally triggered buzzers. In the new Chap. 10, surface-wave
devices in the form of delay lines, filters, and resonators are presented. This is followed by
analyses of a Colpitts and a Pierce oscillator for the frequency of 315 MHz. As in previous
years, a sensor circuits project was offered in the summer semester 2019 at the University
of Applied Sciences Bremen and successfully completed by a group of students.
I would like to thank Reinhard Dapper, Chief Editor for Electrical Engineering at
Springer Vieweg, for his helpful support in the publication of this third extended edition.
I would also like to thank Dipl.-Ing. Johannes Aertz, who edited the manuscript according
to the publisher’s specifications.
Bremen, Germany Peter Baumann

August 2019
v
Contents
1 Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 NTC Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 PTC Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Silicon Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Platinum Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Bandgap Source as Voltage Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Humidity Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Capacitive Humidity Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Sensor KFS 140-D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 Sensor KFS 33-LC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Electrolytic Humidity Sensor EFS-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Resistive Humidity Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3 Optical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Photoresistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Light Control of a DC Micromotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Silicon Photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Light-Voltage Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5 Photovoltaic MOSFET Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 RGB Colour Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.7 Phototransistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.8 Fork Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.9 Reflex Light Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.10 Infrared Light Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4 Force Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.1 Definition of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.2 Foil Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
vii
viii Contents
4.3 Voltage Follower with Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

4.4 Inverting Amplifier with Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.5 Schmitt Trigger Multivibrator with Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6 Schmitt Trigger with Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.7 Counting Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.8 Counting the Impact Load Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.9 MOSFET Control with Foil Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.10 Comparator with Foil Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.11 Triangle-Rectangle Generator with Foil Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5 Pressure Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1 Strain Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.2 Structural Steel Bending Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.3 Piezoresistive P-Silicon Pressure Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6 Hall Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1 Mode of Operation and Characteristic Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.2 Hall Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3 Switching Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.4 Hall Voltage with Cosine Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7 Reed Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1 Mode of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2 Reed Relay as Normally Open Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.3 Light Barrier with Reed Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.4 Reed Sensor as Proximity Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.1 Basic Circuitry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4.2 Circuit with Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4.3 Representation of the Hysteresis Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8 Piezoelectric Buzzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.1 Buzzer for External Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.1.1 PSPICE Models of Buzzers with External Control . . . . . . . . 183
8.1.2 Circuits with Buzzers for External Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.2 Selve-Drive Buzzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.2.1 PSPICE Models of Self-Driving Buzzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.2.2 Circuits with Self-Triggering Buzzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Contents ix
9 Ultrasonic Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

9.1 PSPICE Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.2 Ultrasonic Transmitter and Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.2.1 US Transmitter and US Receiver as Single Stage Transistor
Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.2.2 US Transmitter with US Receiver as OP- NF Amplifier . . . . 226
9.3 Ultrasonic Distance Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.3.1 Distance Warning with E-POLY Source as Coupling
Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.3.2 Distance Warning with Inductance Coupling Element . . . . . 235
9.4 Transmitting Impulses to the Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10 Surface Acoustic Wave Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.1 AOW Delay Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.1.1 AOW Delay Line with Quartz Substrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.1.2 AOW Delay Line with Lithium Niobate Substrate . . . . . . . . 250
10.1.3 Sensor Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2 Surface Acoustic Wave Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.2.1 One-Port Surface Wave Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
10.2.2 Colpitts Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.2.3 Pierce Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.2.4 Two-Port Surface Acoustic Wave Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Temperature Sensors
1
1.1 NTC Sensors
NTC sensors (Negative Temperature Coefficient) are hot conductors whose resistance does
not decrease linearly when heated, because as the temperature rises, more and more charge
carriers are released from the metal-oxide ceramic.
Equation (1.1) describes the temperature response of the NTC resistor.

1 1
RT ¼ RN exp B ð1:1Þ
T TN
Where RN is the nominal resistance at temperature TN and B is a material constant in units

of Kelvin.
Data Sheet
NTC sensor M87-10, Siemens-Matsushita [1]:
Glass-encased bead for measuring the temperature of irons or vehicle intake air RN ¼ 10
kΩ at TN ¼ 298 K, B ¼ 3474 K.
Task: NTC Sensor Characteristic Curve

For the sensor M87-10 the characteristic curve RT ¼ f(Temp) for the temperature range
from 50 C to 100 C is to be analyzed with the program PSPICE [2].
Solution
In the circuit of Fig. 1.1, Eq. (1.1) is enclosed in curly brackets and entered as the value of
the resistor. The parameter specifications were taken from the data sheet.
# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, 1

part of Springer Nature 2023
P. Baumann, Selected Sensor Circuits,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38212-4_1
2 1 Temperature Sensors
Fig. 1.1 Circuit for simulating the sensor characteristic curve
Analysis
• PSPICE, Edit Simulation Profile

• Simulation Settings – Fig. 1.1: Analysis
• Analysis type: DC Sweep
• Options: Primary Sweep
• Sweep variable: Global Parameter
• Parameter Name: T
• Sweep type: Linear
• Start value: 223
• End value: 373
• Increment: 1
• Plot, Axis Settings, Axis variable: T-273
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 1.2 shows the simulated sensor characteristic curve.
The plot RT ¼ f(T ) with T in Kelvin is available via Plot, Axis Settings, Axis variable,
T-273 to obtain the temperature in degrees Celsius on the abscissa.
Task: Temperature Coefficient of the NTC Sensor

Starting from Eq. (1.1), derive the temperature coefficient TKRT of the resistor RT and plot it
with PSPICE for the temperature range from 50 C to 100 C.
Solution
Differentiation of Eq. (1.1) gives dRT/dT ¼ BRT/T2. From this follows the temperature
coefficient given in Eq. (1.2).
1.1 NTC Sensors 3
Fig. 1.2 Characteristic curve of the temperature sensor M87_10 with the temperature in C
1 dRT B
TK RT ¼ ¼ 2 ð1:2Þ
RT dT T
Analysis
The analysis shall be carried out in the same way as for Fig. 1.2.
The analysis result according to Fig. 1.3 shows that the temperature coefficient does not
decrease linearly when the temperature increases.
Task: Temperature Display

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.4. The LED-red is remodeled via a diode Dbreak as
follows:
.model LED_red (IS ¼ 1.2E-20 N ¼ 1.46 RS ¼ 2.4 EG ¼ 1.95).
At the temperature of 25 C, the resistance R-M87-10 has the value of 10 kΩ. Further-
more, R4 ¼ 10 kΩ as well.
• What are the voltages at the inputs of the OP at 25 C?

Fig. 1.3 Temperature dependence of the temperature coefficient of RT
Fig. 1.4 Setting temperatures with the bridge resistor R4

1.2 PTC Sensors 5
• Will the LED light up when the temperature rises above 25 C?

• In principle, what is the effect of changing R4 to 1.87 kΩ or 104.78 kΩ?
Solution
A voltage of UB/2 ¼ 5 V is applied to each input of the operational amplifier.
The LED-red lights up at temperatures above 25 C because UN > UP.
It is I(D1) ¼ (UB – U(D1))/R5 (10 V–1.6 V)/470 Ω ¼ 17.8 mA.
Analysis
• PSpice, Edit Simulation Profile

• End value: 373
• Increment: 0.1
• Options: Parametric Sweep
• Parameter Name: R4
• Sweep type: Value List: 1.87 k, 10 k, 104.78 k
• Plot, Axis Settings, Axis variable: T-273
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 1.5 shows:
• with R4 ¼ 104.78 kΩ the LED lights up for Temp ≧ 25 C,

• with R4 ¼ 10 kΩ the LED lights up for Temp ≧25 C and
• with R4 ¼ 1.87 kΩ the LED lights up for Temp ≧75 C.
1.2 PTC Sensors
PTC sensors (Positive Temperature Coefficient) are PTC thermistors whose resistance
increases with increasing temperature because the mobility of the charge carriers decreases.
Fig. 1.5 Depending on R4, the LED lights up above 25 C, 25 C or 75 C
1.2.1 Silicon Temperature Sensors
Silicon temperature sensors are based on the principle of silicon spreading resistance
according to the sketch of Fig. 1.6. Starting from an n-silicon single crystal, they are
manufactured using planar technology and are used in the temperature range from 50 C
to 150 C.
The temperature dependence of this sensor type can be described with two temperature
coefficients according to Eq. (1.3). For the PTC sensors, the temperature analysis can thus
be used in the PSPICE program with the specification in degrees Celsius.
h i
RT ¼ R25 1 þ TC 1 ðTemp TnomÞ þ TC 2 ðTemp TnomÞ2 ð1:3Þ
Data Sheet
PTC sensor KTY11-5, Infineon [3]:
R25 min ¼ 1950 Ω, R25 max ¼ 1990 Ω, it follows that R25 ¼ (R25 min–R25 max)1/2 ¼ 1970 Ω.
For the temperature range from 30 C to 130 C, Infineon gives the following tempera-
ture coefficients:
1.2 PTC Sensors 7
Fig. 1.6 Silicon temperature sensor with current paths
TC1 ¼ 7.88–103 K1 and TC2 ¼ 1.937–105 K2.

Task: Characteristic curve of the silicon temperature sensor.
With the program PSPICE the characteristic RT ¼ f(Temp) of the sensor KTY11-5 for
the temperature range from 50 C to 150 C is to be analyzed.
Solution
Call a resistor Rbreak from the break library and model it via Edit, PSPICE Model as
follows:
.model KTY11_5 RES R ¼ 1 TC1 ¼ 7.88 m, TC2 ¼ 19.37u, TNOM ¼ 25.
The circuit for simulating the characteristic curve is shown in Fig. 1.7.
Analysis

• Sweep variable: Temperature
• Start value: 50
• End value: 150
Fig. 1.7 Circuit for simulating

the characteristic curve of sensor
KTY11_5
• Increment: 0.1
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The simulated characteristic curve in Fig. 1.8 shows the non-linear increase in resistance
with increasing temperature. The characteristic curve corresponds to that of the data sheet.
Task: Calculation of the Sensor Characteristic Curve

A silicon temperature sensor is used with a donor impurity concentration of
ND ¼ 1.05–1014 cm3 is produced. At the temperature of 25 C, the associated electron
mobility reaches μn25 ¼ 1600 cm2/(Vs). The diameter of the contact tip is d ¼ 30 μm
[4]. The temperature dependence of the electron mobility can be calculated by Eq. (1.4)
according to [5]. The temperature T is to be used in Kelvin.
2,42
T
μn ¼ μn25 ð1:4Þ
T 298
The electrical conductivity of the electrons is described by Eq. (1.5) with
κ n ¼ e N D μn ð1:5Þ
The sensor resistance is obtained according to Eq. (1.3) via Eq. (1.6).
1
R¼ ð1:6Þ
2 π d κn
The temperature response of the resistor R in the range from 50 C to 150 C is to be
determined.
Solution
From Eqs. (1.4), (1.5), and (1.6), the notation of the resistance given by Eq. (1.7) follows to
be
1.2 PTC Sensors 9
Fig. 1.8 Simulated characteristic curve of the silicon temperature sensor
2,42
T
R ¼ R25 ð1:7Þ
T 298
with R25 ¼ 1/(2πdeNDμn25) ¼ 1974 Ω.

Equation (1.7) can be analyzed with PSPICE. The circuit is shown in Fig. 1.9.
Analysis

• End value: 423
• Increment: 10 m
• Plot. Axis Settings, Axis variable: T-273
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
Fig. 1.9 Circuit for displaying the temperature dependence of the PTC sensor
The analysis result in Fig. 1.10 shows good agreement with the sensor characteristic
curve in Fig. 1.8, thus illustrating that the decrease in electron mobility with temperature
increase is the decisive criterion for the resistance increase of the silicon temperature
sensor.
Task: Linear Temperature Display

The circuit for a linear temperature display from 0 C to 150 C is to be realized with the
PTC sensor KTY11_5 and an operational amplifier.
Solution
The starting point for consideration is the non-linear PTC sensor characteristic curve
according to Fig. 1.8. For a lower, medium and upper temperature, the following resistance
values are taken from this characteristic curve Eq. (1.6):
RTu ¼ 1.6058 kΩ at 0 C, RTm ¼ 2.8416 kΩ at 75 C, and RTo ¼ 4.5067 at 150 C.

The next step is to calculate the resistance for linearization according to Eq. (1.8) to the
circuit shown in Fig. 1.11.
Rm ðRu þ R0 Þ 2 Ru R0
Rlin ¼ ð1:8Þ
Ru þ R0 2 Rm
Using the above resistance values, we get Rlin ¼ 6672 Ω.

Figure 1.12 shows the linearization achieved.
Analysis

• Start value: 0
• End value: 150
1.2 PTC Sensors 11
Fig. 1.10 Temperature response of the silicon spreading resistor KTY11
Fig. 1.11 Circuit for linearizing

the PTC sensor characteristic
curve
• Increment: 10 m
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
At output A1 the following voltages are obtained for the lower or upper temperature:
Uu ¼ 0.96992 V at 0 C and Uo ¼ 2.0158 V at 150 C.

Given that the output voltage of the operational amplifier should increase linearly from
UA ¼ 0 V at the temperature 0 C to UA ¼ 3 V at the temperature of 150 C, calculate the
voltage gain vu according to Eq. (1.9).
Fig. 1.12 Linearized sensor characteristic curve
U A1o U A1u
vu ¼ ð1:9Þ
Uo Uu
From this it follows that vu ¼ (3 V–0 V)/(2.0158 V–0.96992 V) ¼ 2.8684.

The resistance R3 for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.13 follows from Eq. (1.10) given in [6]
to be
Rlin Ru
R 3 ¼ vu ð1:10Þ
Rlin þ Ru
We obtain R3 ¼ 3713 Ω.
The resistance R2 can be calculated using Eq. (1.11) according to [6].
R3 Ru
R2 ¼ ð1:11Þ
R3 Ru
For this, R2 ¼ 2830 Ω.

1.2 PTC Sensors 13
Fig. 1.13 Circuit of the electronic thermometer
Analysis

• Simulation settings – Fig. 1.13: Analysis
• Start value: 0
• End value: 150
• Increment: 10 m
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
With the diagram according to Fig. 1.14, the objective is fulfilled.
Task: Comparator with PTC Sensor

To be considered is the comparator circuit with the PTC sensor KTY11-5 shown in
Fig. 1.15. At 25 C, RT ¼ R1 ¼ 1970 Ω. The LEDs are modeled as follows [2]:
.model LED_red D (IS ¼ 1.2E-20, N ¼ 1.46, RS ¼ 2.4, EG ¼ 1.95)

. model LED_green D (IS ¼ 9.8E-29, N ¼ 1.12, RS ¼ 24.4, EG ¼ 2.2).
Fig. 1.14 Linear temperature display with the PTC-KTY11-5 sensor thermometer
Fig. 1.15 Comparator circuit for displaying temperatures
• Which of the two LEDs lights up when the temperature exceeds 25 C?

• How does the resistance increase of R1 affect the LED displays?
Solution
At temperatures above 25 C, RT > R1. Approximately UB+ is present at the OP output,
LED green is lit and LED red is disabled.
1.2 PTC Sensors 15
For example, if R1 is increased to the value R1 ¼ 3349 Ω, then RT will reach this value
only at the temperature of 100 C and the LED-green would then light up only above this
temperature.
Analysis

• Start value: 0
• End value: 150
• Increment: 10 m
• Parameter Name: R1
• Sweep type: value list: 1970, 3349
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 1.16 states:
• with R1 ¼ 1970 Ω lights LED-green at temp ≧25 C

• with R1 ¼ 3349 Ω lights LED-green at temp ≧100 C.
For LED-red then applies according to Fig. 1.17:
with R1 ¼ 1970 Ω LED red lights up at temp ≦25 C.

with R1 ¼ 3349 Ω lights LED-red at temp ≦100 C.
1.2.2 Platinum Temperature Sensors
At the temperature Tnom ¼ 0 C, the Pt 100 sensor exhibits the basic resistance R0 ¼ 100 Ω.
The sensor can be produced by evaporating a platinum layer onto a ceramic carrier.
Because of the relatively low sensor resistance, the lead resistances as well as the self-
heating must be taken into account. The positive temperature coefficient is based on the fact
that the electrons with higher temperature are slowed down by thermal oscillations.
Data Sheet
In the temperature range from 0 to 850 C, the following applies to the Pt100 sensor
according to Eq. (1.12):
Fig. 1.16 Temperature indication by LED-green
h i
RT ¼ R0 1 þ TC 1 ðTemp TnomÞ þ TC 2 ðTemp TnomÞ2 ð1:12Þ
with the temperature coefficients according to [4]:
TC1 ¼ 3.908–103 and TC2 ¼ 5.802 107 K2.

The operating current must be set to IB ¼ 1 mA at TNOM ¼ 0 C.
Task: Characteristic Curve of the Pt 100 Sensor

With the circuit shown in Fig. 1.18, the characteristic RT ¼ f(Temp) in the range of
200 C to 800 C to be simulated. The sensor resistance is to be modelled using the
resistance type Rbreak via Edit, PSPICE Model with the above values for TC1, TC2 and
TNOM as follows:
.model Pt100 RES R ¼ 1 TC1 ¼ 3908 m TC2 ¼ 0.5082u TNOM ¼ 0.
Analysis

1.2 PTC Sensors 17
Fig. 1.17 Temperature indication by LED red
Fig. 1.18 Circuit for simulating

the sensor characteristic curve

• End value: 800
• Increment: 0.1
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 1.19 shows the braking influence of the temperature
coefficient TC2 on the increase of the PTC sensor.
Fig. 1.19 Simulated characteristic curve of the Pt 100 sensor
Task: Temperature Display with Pt 100 Sensor

A linear temperature display is to be realized with the PTC sensor Pt 100 in the range from
50 C to 100 C according to [7]. The operating current should be IB ¼ 1 mA.
Solution
UN ¼ 0.1 V at 0 C, UN ¼ 0.139 V at 100 C,

IR1 ¼ (UR4 – UN)/10 kΩ ¼ (0.1 V–0.139 V)/10 kΩ ¼ 3.9 μA.
UR2 ¼ IR1 – R2 ¼ 30 μA 285 kΩ ¼ 1.11 V.
UA ¼ UR2 + UN ¼ 1.11 V + 0.139 V ¼ 1.249 V.
The circuit shown in Fig. 1.20 contains a JFET constant current source and an OP.
Analysis

1.3 Bandgap Source as Voltage Reference 19
Fig. 1.20 Circuit for temperature display with the Pt 100 sensor
• Start value: 50

• End value: 100
• Increment: 50 m
• Apply, OK
• PSpice, run
As an analysis result according to Fig. 1.21, the output voltage increases in the range of
50 C to 50 C with 1 V/100 C an.
1.3 Bandgap Source as Voltage Reference
With the circuit shown in Fig. 1.22 from [7], an output voltage independent of temperature
is achieved, which corresponds approximately to the bandgap voltage of silicon. To
achieve the quotient IC1/IC2 10, R2 was fixed at 37 kΩ (instead of 33 kΩ).
The base-emitter voltage of the transistor Q1 is given by Eq. (1.13) with
Fig. 1.21 Temperature display for switching with the Pt 100 sensor
Fig. 1.22 Bandgap source for generating the voltage reference

1.3 Bandgap Source as Voltage Reference 21

I
U BE1 ¼ U T ln C1 ð1:13Þ
IS
At room temperature, UBE1 0.6 V is obtained and for IC1/IC2 ¼ 10 further UBE2 0.54 V.
The output voltage follows from Eq. (1.14) to
U BE2 U BE1
U A ¼ U BE1 R4 ð1:14Þ
R3
One obtains UA ¼ 1.2 V.

For UBE1, the TK1 2 mV/K and for -(UBE2 – UBE1)- 10 is TK2 +2 mV/K.
Task: Verification of the Temperature-Independent Voltage Reference

In the range from 20 C to 60 C, the output voltage curve is to be analysed.
Analysis

• Start value: 20
• End value: 60
• Increment: 0.1
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 1.23 shows the reference voltage of approx. 1.28 V,
which is almost independent of the temperature, and the base-emitter voltages of the two
transistors Q1 and Q2. The voltage difference 10– (UBE2 – UBE1) or 10-(UBE1 – UBE2)
increases with temperature and provides the temperature compensation to the negative
temperature response of UBE1.
Fig. 1.23 Simulated temperature dependence of stresses of the band gap source
References
1. Siemens-Matsushita: Datenblatt des NTC-Sensors M87-10. München (1998)

2. Baumann, P.: Sensorschaltungen. Vieweg und Teubner, Wiesbaden (2010)
3. Infineon; Datenblatt des PTC-Sensors KTY11-5. München (2000)
4. Elbel, T.: Mikrosensorik. Vieweg, Wiesbaden (1996)
5. Hering, E., Bressler, K., Gutekunst, J.: Elektronik für Ingenieure. VDI, Düsseldorf (1994)
6. Schmidt, W.-D.: Sensor-Schaltungstechnik. Vogel, Würzburg (1997)
7. Kainka, B.: Handbuch der Analogen Elektronik. Franzis, Poing (2000)
Humidity Sensors
2
Humidity is used to measure the water vapour concentration contained in the air. The
absolute humidity Fa in the unit g/m3 corresponds to the quotient of the mass mw of the
water vapor to the volume VL of the air. The maximum soluble, temperature-dependent
humidity is the saturation humidity Fs. From these two quantities, the relative humidity
results with Fr ¼ Fa/Fs. The relative humidity lies between 0% and 100%.
2.1 Capacitive Humidity Sensors
2.1.1 Sensor KFS 140-D
Figure 2.1 shows the basic structure of a capacitive humidity sensor. Comb-shaped
interlocking electrodes embedded in a polymer layer are mounted on a ceramic substrate.
The overlying top layer is permeable to moisture [1–3].
At higher humidity, the relative permittivity εr of the hygroscopic polymer layer
increases, and so does the sensor capacitance according to Eq. (2.1).
ε0 A
C ¼ εr ð2:1Þ
d
Data Sheet
Capacitive polymer humidity sensor KFS 140-D from Hygrosens [4],

Relative humidity: Fr ¼ 0 to 100%, Temperature range: 30–150 C,
Capacitance: C ¼ 150 pF +/ 50 pF at Fr ¼ 30% and 23 C, Slope: m ¼ 0.25 pF/%Fr.
# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, 23

part of Springer Nature 2023
P. Baumann, Selected Sensor Circuits,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-38212-4_2
24 2 Humidity Sensors
Fig. 2.1 Design and wiring of the humidity sensor KFS140-D
From this follows C0 ¼ 144.25 pF at Fr ¼ 0% and the sensor capacitance C according to

Eq. (2.2) with
C ¼ C0 þ m F r ð2:2Þ
Frequency range: 1–100 kHz, signal form: alternating voltage without DC component.
Response time: <12 s. The characteristic C ¼ f(Fr) has a linear increase.
Application: air conditioning, ventilation, industrial measurement technology.
Task: Display of the Sensor Characteristic Curve

Using the circuit shown in Fig. 2.1 for the sensor KFS140-D, the dependence of the
capacitance C on the relative humidity Fr is to be simulated with the program PSPICE.
The range of relative humidity is to be set to Fr ¼ 0–100%. The measuring frequency is
f ¼ 10 kHz.
Analysis

• Analysis type: AC Sweep/Noise
• AC Sweep type: Logarithmic Decade
• Start Frequency: 10 k
• End Frequency: 10 k
• Points/Decade: 1
• Parameter Name: Fr
2.1 Capacitive Humidity Sensors 25
Fig. 2.2 Capacity of the KFS140-D sensor as a function of relative humidity in percent
• Start value: 0
• End value: 100
• Increment: 1
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 2.2 shows that the capacitance C increases linearly
with 0.25 pF/%Fr increases. When the relative humidity is increased from 0% to 100%, the
capacitance increases by only about 25 pF.
Task: Astable CMOS Multivibrator

The circuit according to Fig. 2.3 shows two astable multivibrators (AMV) with CMOS
inverters. One AMV is determined by the capacitance C1 of the sensor KFS140-D. The
other AMV contains the variable capacitance C2. The outputs A1 and A2 are fed to a NAND
gate. The N- and P-channel MOSFETs are to be modeled using MBreakN and MBreakP
from the break library. For the protection diode Dbreak has to be called.
. model Mn NMOS W ¼ 100u L ¼ 5u VTO ¼ 1 KP ¼ 30u, KP ¼ UO-ε0-εox/Tox

.model Mp PMOS W ¼ 200u L ¼ 5u VTO ¼ -1 KP ¼ 15u
. model DS D IS ¼ 10f ISR ¼ 1n CJO ¼ 5p.
Fig. 2.3 AMV with humidity sensor and comparison AMV
The limiting diodes D1 and D2 as well as the resistor RS belong to the integrated input
protection circuit [5]. The pulse frequency fp is obtained according to [3] with Eq. (2.3) to:
1
fp ¼ ð2:3Þ
2 R1 C1 ln 3
The square-wave oscillations of the upper AMV from Fig. 2.3 for the relative humidities
Fr ¼ 0% and 100% are to be shown.
To be used in both cases is an analysis Time Domain (Transient) for the time Δt ¼ 0 to
250 μs.
Analysis

• Analysis type: Time Domain (Transient)
• Options: General Settings
• Run to time: 250 us
• Start saving data after: 0
• Transient Options
• Maximum Step size: 0.1 us
• Sweep type: Value list: 0, 100
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis results according to Figs. 2.4 and 2.5 are similar to the results of Eq. (2.3) with
T ¼ 63.47 μs at Fr ¼ 0% and T ¼ 73.70 μs at Fr ¼ 100%.
The pulse frequencies follow from this with fp ¼ 15.76 kHz for Fr ¼ 0% and
fp ¼ 13.57 kHz for Fr ¼ 100%.
Task: AMV Comparison

In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.3, the astable multivibrator containing the humidity sensor is
set to the parameter value Fr ¼ 80%. The capacitance of the comparator AMV is given the
value C2 ¼ 164.25 pF for Fr ¼ 80% by Eq. (2.2). The voltages at the outputs A1 to A3 are to
be compared.
Analysis
Time Domain (Transient), Run to time: 250 us, Start saving data after: 0, Maximum
Step size: 0.1 us, o.k.
The analysis result according to Fig. 2.6 gives identical output voltages UA1 and UA2 for
C1 ¼ C2 ¼ 164.25 pF. With the dual NAND, negation occurs for UA3.
2.1.2 Sensor KFS 33-LC
Compared to the humidity sensor KFS 140-D, the capacitive polymer humidity sensor KFS
33-LC has a steeper increase of the linear characteristic C ¼ f(Fr). Furthermore, the data
sheet contains additional information on the temperature and frequency dependence of this
characteristic curve.
Fig. 2.4 Square-wave oscillations at 0% relative humidity
Data Sheet
• Humidity sensor KFS 33-LC by B + B Thermotechnik [6]

• Relative humidity: Fr ¼ 0 to 100%.
• Temperature range: 40–120 C
• Capacitance: C ¼ 330 pF +/ 20 pF at Fr ¼ 55% and 23 C
• Slope: m ¼ 0.6 pF/%Fr
• Temperature drift: 0.16 pF/K from 5 C to 70 C.
For the capacitance, again C ¼ C0 + m – Fr, see Eq. (2.2).

From the values of the manufacturer’s characteristic curve C ¼ 330 pF at Fr ¼ 55% and
C ¼ 354 pF at Fr ¼ 90% for 23 C, the slope m23 ¼ 0.68 pF/%Fr follows. This gives
C023 ¼ 292.6 pF for Fr ¼ 0%.
At Fr ¼ 55%, C ¼ 330 pF at 23 C. With the drift of 0.16 pF/K, it follows that
C ¼ 322.5 pF at Fr ¼ 55% and 70 C. At Fr ¼ 90% and 70 C, C 344 pF. Thus, the slope
m70 ¼ 0.61 pF/%Fr and C070 ¼ 0.61 pF for Fr ¼ 0% at 70 C. These values are the
parameters in the circuits for the simulation.
Fig. 2.5 Square-wave oscillations at 100% relative humidity
Fig. 2.6 Time dependence of three output voltages

Fig. 2.7 Circuits for simulating the characteristic curves of the sensor KFS 33-LC
Task: Sensor Characteristic Curve

The circuit shown in Fig. 2.7 shall be used to simulate the characteristic C ¼ f(Fr) for
Fr ¼ 20% to 90% at frequency f ¼ 50 kHz.
A frequency domain analysis AC Sweep/Noise with the same start and end frequency of
50 kHz is to be carried out first. The relative humidity Fr is to be entered as a parameter. In
the result of the analysis the abscissa appears as relative humidity.
The temperature dependence of the characteristic curve is achieved with the different
specifications for the initial capacitance C0 and the slope m under PARAMETERS in
Fig. 2.7.
Analysis

• AC Sweep type: Logarithmic Decade
• Start Frequency: 50 k
• End Frequency: 50 k
• Start value: 20
• End value: 90
• Increment: 1
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 2.8 follows from C ¼ 1/XC – ω. Here XC is the
reactance.
Fig. 2.8 Dependence of sensor capacity on relative humidity in percent
The characteristic curves show the linear increase of the sensor capacity with increasing
humidity. The simulated temperature dependence of the sensor characteristics is
reproduced as in the data sheet.
Task: Astable 555D Multivibrator

The humidity sensor KFS33-LC is to be used as capacitance CS in the astable multivibrator
with the timer circuit 555D according to Fig. 2.9.
The pulse frequencies fp according to Eq. (2.4) for the relative humidity values
Fr ¼ 20% and Fr ¼ 90% are to be compared.
1:44
fp ¼ ð2:4Þ
ðR1 þ 2 R2 Þ C S
Analysis

Fig. 2.9 Astable multivibrator with humidity sensor KFS33-LC
• Run to time: 2 ms
• Maximum step size: 10 us
• Sweep type: Value list: 20, 90
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
Equation (2.4) gives: fp ¼ 2350 kHz at Fr ¼ 20% and fp ¼ 2034 kHz at Fr ¼ 90%. The
corresponding values of period T ¼ 425.49 μs for Fr ¼ 20% and T ¼ 491.63 μs for
Fr ¼ 90% are approximately confirmed with Figs. 2.10 and 2.11. The difference in pulse
frequencies for Fr ¼ 20% and 90% is relatively small. An astable multivibrator with fixed
capacitors can be used to generate differential pulses.
Task: Capacitance Measuring Bridge

Figure 2.12 shows a capacitance measuring bridge according to [7]. The capacitance C1
with the given parameters corresponds to the humidity sensor KFS33-LC at the tempera-
ture of 23 C. The three remaining capacitances are set to the nominal sensor capacitance
C ¼ 330 pF, which is valid for relative humidity Fr ¼ 55%. The diagonal voltage
Ud ¼ UA – UB for the values Fr ¼ 40%, 55% and 90% is to be plotted. Expectation:
Ud ¼ 0 for Fr ¼ 55%.
Fig. 2.10 Vibration curve at 20% relative humidity
Analysis

• Run to time: 80 us
• Maximum step size: 0.1 us
• Sweep type: Value list: 40, 55, 90
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
Fig. 2.11 Vibration curve at 90% relative humidity
Fig. 2.12 Capacitance measuring bridge with humidity sensor KFS33-LC
The analysis result shown in Fig. 2.13 shows the diagonal voltage of zero volts for
Fr ¼ 55% with the bridge tuned. For Fr ¼ 90% the sine peak is higher than for Fr ¼ 40%.
Between these two values, which are respectively above and below the standard of
Fr ¼ 55%, a phase shift of 180 occurs.
2.2 Electrolytic Humidity Sensor EFS-10 35
Fig. 2.13 Diagonal stresses for three values of relative humidity
2.2 Electrolytic Humidity Sensor EFS-10
The electrolytic humidity sensor EFS-10 shows a strong reduction of its impedance with
increasing relative humidity.
Data Sheet
Electrolytic polymer sensor from B + B Thermotechnik [6].
• Relative humidity: Fr ¼ 20–95%,

• Temperature range: 0–60 C
• Signal form: AC voltage with 1 Veff, Measuring frequency: 1 kHz (0.1–5 kHz)
• Application: climate control, building services, air dryer
Table 2.1 shows the dependence of the impedance Z on the relative humidity Fr at three
temperatures as an excerpt from the manufacturer’s specifications.
The characteristic log(Z) ¼ f(Fr) consists of two sections with different slopes at the
respective temperatures:
Table 2.1 Sensor impedance as a function of relative humidity according to [6]

20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
10 C 9 MΩ 2.5 MΩ 740 kΩ 220 k 72 kΩ 25.8 kΩ 9.50 kΩ 3.72 kΩ
25 C 2.89 MΩ 900 kΩ 270 kΩ 81 kΩ 33 kΩ 13 kΩ 5.30 kΩ 2.20 kΩ
40 C 1.3 MΩ 420 kΩ 135 kΩ 45 kΩ 18.20 kΩ 7.40 kΩ 3.22 kΩ 1.41 kΩ
1. Z1 ¼ f(Fr) for Fr ¼ 20–50% according to Eq. (2.5)

F r
Z 1 ¼ Z 01 exp ð2:5Þ
100% n1
2. Z2 ¼ f(Fr) for Fr ¼ 50–90% according to Eq. (2.6)

F r
Z 2 ¼ Z 02 exp ð2:6Þ
100% n2
The calculation of the parameter n1 follows from the logarithmization of Eq. (2.5) with
Eq. (2.7)
F rb F ra
n1 ¼ ð2:7Þ
100% ln ðZ 1a =Z 1b Þ
At the temperature of 25 C one obtains with the values Z1a ¼ 2890 kΩ at Fra ¼ 20% and
Z1b ¼ 81 kΩ at Frb ¼ 50% from Table 2.1 the result: n1 = 84–103. From Eq. (2.5) it
follows as a further parameter: Z01 = 31.32–106 Ω.
Similarly, from Eq. (2.6), one arrives at the parameter n2 according to Eq. (2.8).
F rd F rc
n2 ¼ ð2:8Þ
100% ln ðZ 1c =Z 1d Þ
At the temperature of 25 C one calculates with the values Z2c ¼ 81 kΩ at Frc ¼ 50% and
Z2d ¼ 2.2 kΩ at Fr ¼ 90% the parameters: n2 = 111–103 and Z02 = 7.35–106 Ω.
At the temperatures of 10 C and 40 C, respectively, the characteristic curves according
to the data sheet in both humidity sections run largely parallel to those with the temperature
of 25 C, so that the values of n1 and n2 determined there can be adopted. For the
temperature of 10 C the following parameters are calculated: n1 = 84–103 and
Z01 = 97.34–106 Ω as well as n2 = 111–103 and Z02 = 19.89–106 Ω. For the temperature
of 40 C the parameters follow: n1 = 84–103 and Z01 = 14.06–106 Ω as well as
n2 = 111–103 and Z02 = 4.07–106 Ω.
2.2 Electrolytic Humidity Sensor EFS-10 37
Fig. 2.14 Circuit for simulating the characteristic curves for two humidity ranges
Task: Characteristics of the Electrolytic Humidity Sensor

Using the circuit shown in Fig. 2.14, the characteristic curves Z1 ¼ f(Fr) in the range
Fr ¼ 20–50% and Z2 ¼ f(Fr) in the range Fr ¼ 50–90% shall be simulated. The analysis
shall be performed for the temperature of 25 C and extended to temperatures of 10 and
40 C.
Analysis

• AC Sweep type: Logarithmic, Decade
• Start Frequency: 1 kHz
• End Frequency: 1 kHz
• Start value: 20
• End value: 50
• Increment: 10 m
• Apply: OK
• PSpice, run
The analysis result according to Fig. 2.15 shows the exponential decrease of the sensor
resistance with an increase of the relative humidity. At higher temperatures a further
decrease of the resistance occurs. The values of Table 2.1 are fulfilled.
The following analysis applies to the higher relative humidity range.
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descended to the wharf, and continued his walk, though with little
success. On board some of the vessels, the men were so busy at
their labors that he could get no answer to his inquiries; and those
who did notice him so much as to reply, were sure to say “No.”
Jerry’s hopes began to fall very fast, and he felt his courage giving
way, in consequence of these continued rebuffs. Still he thought he
would not give up his purpose yet, and so he passed along. He
received the usual reply, from the next vessel he approached, and
had just turned away, when he heard somebody cry out:—
“Hallo, there, what youngster is that?”
On looking round, Jerry saw that the voice came from a brig which
was slowly moving past the vessel on whose deck he stood.
“He’s a chap that wants to ship,” replied the sailor to whom Jerry
had spoken.
“You aint the boy that shipped with us yesterday, are you?”
continued the man on board the brig, as Jerry turned towards him.
“No, sir,” replied Jerry, “but I should like to ship with you.”
“Well, come along then—we’re off this minute, and can’t wait for
the other fellow. You may take his place—only be spry about it.”
Here the man, who was captain of the brig, gave some orders in a
loud tone to the crew, which were unintelligible to Jerry. In a moment
the brig was hauled to along side the vessel in which Jerry was
waiting, and, in his confusion scarcely knowing what he did, he
quickly jumped over the railing, into the brig. The sailors then re-
commenced hauling her out from the dock into the stream. Jerry
threw his bundle down upon the deck, and stood watching the
movements of those around him. He could scarcely realize that he
was going to sea, in this unceremonious manner, and began to
suspect that the sailors were playing a joke upon him. But all
seemed in earnest, and as busy as they could be, and on the whole
he concluded they were not sporting with him. No one spoke to him,
however, or set him to work, and as he was as yet totally
unacquainted with the duties of a sailor-boy, he did not venture to
volunteer his services. But his long-cherished hopes were realized,
and his heart beat fast at the prospect before him. Strange boy! He
had shipped with no outfit for the voyage, and he did not know where
he was bound, nor even the name of the vessel, or of the captain.
He did not know what wages he was to receive, what duties he was
expected to perform, or how long he was to be absent. And yet he
thought of none of these things, so delighted was he to find himself
actually afloat. One by one the white sails of the brig were spread to
the wind, and she was soon in full headway towards the broad
ocean.
CHAPTER XII.
THE SAILOR-BOY.
F OR the first few hours at sea, Jerry was little better than a piece
of lumber, in everybody’s way. Nobody told him what to do, and,
indeed, he was pretty diligently employed in watching the quick
movements of the sailors, for the purpose of dodging out of their
path. But, with all his alertness, he was not quick enough to avoid
being sometimes rudely shoved one side, with a muttered
imprecation on his head for getting in the way. The city now began to
recede rapidly from view. The State House dome, the church spires,
and the forest of ship-masts along the water-side, were all that could
be distinguished in the city proper. East Boston, with clouds of
smoke ascending from its numerous foundries, was in full view in the
distance; while nearer at hand, on the right, was South Boston, with
its highlands, its large public buildings, and its many work-shops with
tall chimneys. The last sound that came from shore, was the striking
of the church clocks. There was a brisk north-west wind, before
which the brig dashed along at a rapid rate. Soon they were sailing
between two fortresses, situated on islands about a mile apart, and
commanding the only channel by which large vessels can enter or
leave the port. Several other islands were in sight, on some of which
there were large buildings. They also passed near two light-houses
—tall towers built on islands, with dwelling-houses near by for their
keepers. Towards noon, the pilot, whose business it is to guide
vessels in and out of the harbor, took leave of the brig, and returned
to port in a small sail-boat. But little land was now in sight, and the
broad ocean, dotted with white sails, was spread out before them.
The sun shone pleasantly upon the waters, but the wind was raw
and cold, and Jerry began to realize that he must stir about to keep
warm. He was slowly sauntering along, to see for the fiftieth time if
he could find anything to do, when he was accosted in a rough voice
by one of the men, who said:—
“Here, you land-lubber, did you ship for a gentleman, or a figure-
head, or what do you mean to do with yourself?”
“I mean to do my duty, if anybody will tell me what it is,” replied
Jerry, who did not like the tone in which he was addressed, and
answered accordingly. The surly manner in which this was said, was
more objectionable than the language itself. In an instant, the man to
whom it was addressed (who was the chief-mate), gave Jerry a blow
with his hard fist, which sent the boy reeling across the deck.
“There, you young snapping-turtle,” said he, “that’s your first
lesson; and hereafter look out when you’re spoken to, and give a
civil answer, or I’ll crack your tow-head for you. Now bear a hand
here, and clean out that pig-pen,” he continued, pointing to a shovel
and scrubbing brush standing in one corner.
Pigs and poultry are frequently carried to sea, to furnish a supply
of fresh meat for passengers and sailors; but these particular pigs, to
whose acquaintance Jerry was so summarily introduced, were
themselves passengers, on their way to a foreign land. A small pen
had been fitted up for them on deck, and as cleanliness is one of the
cardinal virtues on ship-board, it was necessary that they should be
continually looked after. And cleaning out a hog-sty was to be Jerry’s
first experience of “a life on the ocean wave!” Had any one at home
ordered him to do such a job, it is very doubtful whether he would
have obeyed; but here, after the lesson he had just received, he dare
not refuse or even hesitate, and so he leaped into the pen, scraped
up the filth, and threw it overboard.
Shortly after Jerry had completed this useful but most unromantic
task, he began to grow ill. His stomach rolled and pitched with the
brig, and his head was light and dizzy. When he walked he reeled
like a drunken man, and the deck seemed about to fly up into his
face. Every moment, his sensations became more distressing. He
laid himself down in a sheltered part of the deck, but found no relief.
His pale, wo-be-gone countenance bore the impress of his misery.
O, how he wished he was once more on shore! How he cursed in his
heart the hour that he turned his wayward steps from Brookdale! As
the motion of the vessel rolled him about like a log, he almost wished
that it might pitch him overboard, and thus put an end to his misery.
Should such an accident happen, it seemed to him he would not lift a
finger to escape a watery grave. Such thoughts as these were
passing through the brain of the sea-sick boy, when some one stole
slyly up behind him, and dropped a large piece of greasy salt pork
almost directly into his mouth. Any fatty substance is very
disagreeable to a sea-sick person; and this mischievous prank, with
the laughter and jibes of the sailors which followed it, put the climax
upon the misery of Jerry. He got upon his feet, and, clinging to the
rail, began to vomit, or “throw up Jonah,” as the sailors term it. The
more he retched, and gagged, and groaned, the more his tormentors
ridiculed him. The most conspicuous among them was a raw,
freckle-faced lad, apparently a little older than himself, who was now
on his second voyage, and was retaliating upon Jerry the treatment
he had himself suffered but six or eight months before. He it was that
dropped the pork into Jerry’s face. The sailors called him Bob, for
they seldom use any but nick-names, and those of the shortest kind.
Jerry remained upon the deck nearly all the afternoon; and no one,
from Bob to the Captain, took any notice of him, except to laugh at
his condition. Sea-sick people generally get but little sympathy from
old salts. Towards sunset, feeling no better, Jerry asked one of the
sailors if he would please to show him to his bed-room,—for, in his
simplicity, it had never occurred to him that a bed-room, and even a
bed, were luxuries that did not belong to the sea. The old tar, with
the utmost gravity, called out:—
“Come here, Bob,—this ’ere young gentleman wants you to show
him the way up to his bed-room.”
Bob came, and conducted Jerry to the ratlin, or ladder, leading up
the mast,—and told him to “go up two pair of stairs, and knock at the
left-hand door.” If there was anything funny in this, Jerry was too sick
to apprehend it. His good-nature had long since given out; but now
he was getting positively angry, and retorted upon his tormentors
with some spirit. But this only increased their sport and aggravated
his misery. At length, however, they became weary of their bantering,
and one of the sailors, whom they called Tom, led Jerry down into
the forecastle, as that part of the vessel, where the sailors sleep, is
called. This apartment was in the forward part of the brig,
immediately under the deck. It was a small place, barely high
enough to stand erect in, and with no light except what entered at
the door-way. Great chests were strewed around the floor, so that it
was difficult to walk without running into them. The sides of the
forecastle were fitted up with three tiers of what looked like large
shelves, with raised edges. These were the bunks in which the
sailors slept. Each man had his own bunk, which was just large
enough to lie down in. Two or three of these bunks were unclaimed,
and Tom told Jerry he could take his choice of them. But Jerry had
come on board without the slightest preparation for sea, and of
course had neither mattress nor blankets, which each sailor is
expected to provide for himself. What was he to do in this
emergency? Luckily for him, Tom happened to have some spare
bed-clothing in his chest; and as he rather pitied Jerry, he offered to
let him use it until he should have an opportunity to furnish himself
with an outfit. Jerry gladly accepted the offer, and taking off a portion
of his clothing, crawled into this narrow, box-like resting-place.
Our young sailor did not enjoy a very sound sleep, on his first night
at sea. The motion of the vessel, the creaking and straining of the
rigging, the noise of the water dashing against the bows, the
dolorous sighing of the wind through the blocks and ropes, the loud,
sharp-spoken orders on deck, and the frequent passing of the
seamen to and from the forecastle, together with his sea-sickness,
allowed him but little repose. Nor did he quite fancy the atmosphere
of the forecastle, which became close and stifled before morning,
and was flavored with various odors, the most prominent of which
seemed to be tar, bilge-water, and tobacco. However, he made out to
catch a few short naps, from one of which, about daylight, he was
aroused by a hearty shake, and ordered on deck. It at first seemed
to him that he had not strength sufficient to arise, but he managed to
get upon his feet, and staggered up on deck, where the mate at once
set him to work, washing down the decks. Weak and sick as he was,
he worked at the pump awhile, the cold water in the meantime
running in streams about his feet, his shoes offering but little
resistance to the flood. Then he was obliged to kneel down and
scrub the deck with small stones, called by the sailors, “holy-stones,”
and used at sea for cleaning the decks of vessels. This laborious
employment continued for more than an hour, and whenever Jerry
attempted to relax his efforts in the slightest degree, he would hear
the stern voice of the mate:—
“Bear a hand there, sir,—no skulking here!”
On one occasion, this admonition was enforced by a smart stroke
of a rope’s-end laid over his shoulders. Jerry began to regard the
mate as a monster; and, indeed, he looked upon the officers and
men, generally, as little better than the pirates of whom he had read
in some of his juvenile books. But these men were not so bad as he
imagined. It is stern, rough discipline that makes the hardy sailor;
and Jerry’s initiation was no more severe than that of most boys who
go to sea “before the mast.”
After the deck had been holy-stoned, Jerry made his first meal at
sea,—he having been too sick hitherto to eat anything. His breakfast
consisted of hard ship-bread, cold salt junk, or beef, and rye coffee,
without milk. He ate but little, for the fare was not very tempting, and
his stomach had not yet got accustomed to the ups and downs, the
pitchings, and tossings, and reelings, of a life at sea. He was kept
busily employed, most of the day, in doing various little chores about
the vessel; for being the youngest, he was obliged to run at
everybody’s call. He learned from one of the sailors, during the day,
that the brig was bound for Valparaiso; but this did not give him a
very definite idea of his destination,—for so sadly had he neglected
his geography at school, that he could not tell in what quarter of the
globe Valparaiso was situated, or whether it was a week’s, or
month’s, or six months’ sail from Boston. He also discovered that the
name of the brig was “The Susan.”
Towards the evening of the second day out, the weather grew
milder and the sea more calm. The brig, which had dashed through
the water as if on a race, from the moment they got under headway,
now began to slacken her speed,—and one of the old sailors
predicted an “Irishman’s hurricane,” as a calm is sometimes
humorously called. The motion of the vessel was much less
perceptible, and Jerry began to get over his sea-sickness. He now
took some interest in the strange scenes spread out before him: the
level ocean stretching away in every direction, until it apparently
touched the sky; no hill bounding the horizon, and not a speck of
land to be seen. But one other vessel was in sight, and that was so
far off that only the white sails could be discerned, the hull being
hidden from sight by the roundness of the earth. Dolphins and
porpoises were sporting round the brig in a very amusing manner,—
now darting entirely out of water, and now plunging to the bottom, or
scudding along very swiftly near the surface. Occasionally, a small
bird was seen flitting past the vessel, or skimming along upon the
water, in its wake. At first, Jerry took them to be swallows, but he
soon learned from Tom, that they were stormy petrels, or, as the
sailors call them, Mother Carey’s Chickens. The sailors regard these
birds with much superstitious fear, because they appear in greatest
numbers just before a storm, and are besides very singular in their
habits; but the petrels are really very inoffensive birds, and have no
more to do with getting up a tempest than our ducks, geese,
swallows, snow-birds, and other land birds, which are uncommonly
noisy and busy just before a storm. Tom, however, like most sailors,
believed the traditions concerning the petrel, and when he told Jerry
they were messengers of the evil one, they lost none of their interest
in the eyes of the young sailor. At night, while stowed away in his
little bunk, sound asleep, they appeared to him in countless flocks,
and he dreamed that they settled around him in such vast numbers,
that he had to struggle desperately to avoid being suffocated by
them.
Thus passed Jerry’s first two days at sea. You would hardly have
patience to follow him through all the long voyage; nor is it necessary
that you should, for the experience of one day was much like that of
another. He found going to sea a very different thing from what he
expected. To be sure, there were at first some pleasant novelties
about it, but these wore away after a while. This was not the case,
however, with the toils and hardships,—which only grew more
distasteful the longer they were continued. The romantic, free-and-
easy life of the sailor, which he had pictured in imagination, he found
to be in reality a life of severe labor, drudgery, exposure, and
deprivation. There were few idle moments for him, even in the most
delightful weather. At daylight, each morning, rain or shine, he must
scrub the decks; and clean out the pig-pen. Next, perhaps, he would
be ordered to assist in shifting sails, and would be obliged to haul
rough ropes until his hands were sore, and his back felt ready to
break; then, for an hour or two, he would be kept hard at work
scraping and oiling the masts and yards,—or be sent aloft with a
bucket of tar and grease, called slush, and, hanging in mid-air, be
compelled to dip his hand into the nasty mixture, and rub down some
portion of the rigging or mast. He also had his own washing and
mending to do; and when there was nothing else to employ his time,
he must pick oakum, or make spun-yarn and sennit. Even at night,
he could not claim exemption from toil,—but was liable at any hour to
be turned out by the shrill cry of “All hands, ahoy!” to face rain or
snow, or to feel his way aloft in a gale of wind, and in pitch-darkness!
There was one thing, however, that Jerry, at first, felt more than
even the hard work and poor fare of his new calling; this was, the
iron discipline to which he found himself subjected. He had never
been accustomed to obey any one, at home; but here, it was prompt,
instant obedience, or a blow. This deep-rooted habit of disobedience,
together with his settled habit of laziness, made his “breaking in” at
sea much more painful than it would otherwise have been. One
morning he did not instantly obey the summons when called up, and,
without intending it, dropped asleep again; a moment afterwards he
found himself sprawling among the chests in the forecastle, every
bone in his body aching as though it had been twitched out of its
place. The captain, with one jerk, had brought him from his bunk to
the floor, and accompanied the act with an imprecation on his eyes,
for not turning out when called. Jerry had to take his turn in watching
on deck, at night. One night he was greatly fatigued, and sitting
down on the boom he fell asleep with his head in his lap. The second
mate happened to be on deck, and seeing the situation of Jerry, he
seized the rope’s-end, and approaching him stealthily, brought it
down with all his strength upon the back and shoulders of the boy.
Jerry, in his fright, came near leaping overboard, and it was a long
time before he again took a nap at the watch. At work, too, a kick, or
cuff, or a bit of rope was always handy, if there was any inclination to
skulk. “Hurrah, there! bear a hand! heave along! heave along!” was
constantly sounding in his ears,—a system of driving which he found
anything but agreeable.
Jerry also added unnecessarily to the bitterness of his lot, during
the first few weeks of the voyage, by his surly, insolent manners
towards the sailors. Being treated as inferiors themselves by their
officers, sailors have no opportunity to play the superior except
towards the boys on ship-board, and they are very apt to make the
most of this opportunity. It is best for the boy to submit patiently and
good-naturedly to this petty tyranny; for, if he is saucy or surly, they
show him no mercy. Jerry soon learned this, from his own
experience. He at first bore the treatment of the crew with much ill-
grace; but he was soon cured of this fault, and learned to be civil and
obliging towards them.
In addition to all these troubles and hardships, Jerry found himself
thrown into intimate companionship with men, some of whom were
not only shockingly profane and disgustingly indecent, in their
language, but even boasted of the immorality of their lives. But these
evil influences, though they startled Jerry a little, at first, were not the
things that troubled him;—and yet, with his unformed habits and
principles, they were a thousand times worse for him than all the
stern hardships of the sea.
CHAPTER XIII.
MARY.
J ERRY was missed at home;—to be sure, his departure was not

felt so sensibly as it would have been, had he acted the part of a
dutiful son and an affectionate brother. Still, all mourned his sudden
disappearance; especially, as they knew not what had become of
him. For a while, Mrs. Preston looked up the road, many times every
day, to see if she could discern anything of the runaway, for she had
strong expectations that he would return. But he did not come, nor
were any tidings received from him. In her distress and anxiety on
his account, she forgot all his bad conduct, and only remembered
that he was her son,—her only son. Little Mary, too, was much
troubled at the loss of her brother. She did not fully comprehend the
occasion of his absence, and as little was said in her presence about
it, she somehow got the notion into her head that Jerry had been
seized and carried off by certain wicked people whom she called
“bugaboos.” “Mother,” she would say, “when Jerry gets to be a great-
big man, wont he get away from the bugaboos; and come back
again?” And then her mother would look sad, and reply, “I hope so,
my dear.”
About a fortnight after Jerry’s departure, Mrs. Preston received a
letter from her husband’s brother in Boston. She opened it with
mingled hope and trembling, for it was in reply to one she had
addressed him, the day after Jerry left home. But it gave her no
information in regard to his whereabouts. Jerry’s uncle simply stated
that he had been absent from home, and did not get her letter till a
few days previous; that he had made inquiries, but could learn
nothing of Jerry; and that he would be on the look-out for him, and
give her immediate information should he hear anything concerning
the runaway. She laid the letter down with a sigh; and that evening
she wrote to her husband, informing him of the situation of affairs,—
for she had delayed doing so until now, in hope of hearing what had
become of Jerry. Being at work in the woods, far away from any
post-office, Mr. Preston did not receive this letter until it had got to be
quite an old affair, and so he did not think it worth while to return
home, to look after his son.
Clinton continued to be a frequent visiter at Mrs. Preston’s, and
was regarded as one of the family, rather than a stranger. When
riding down to the Cross Roads, he always stopped to inquire if they
had any errands to be done at the store; and often, when going back
and forth, he would drop in a few moments, to chat with the children,
or join in their sports. There was in the yard a great image of snow,
twice as large as a man, which Clinton had made to amuse little
Mary. The frequent thawings and freezings to which this snow giant
was subjected, gave him a smooth, thick coating of ice, so that a
snow ball made no impression upon him. This, Clinton said, was his
coat of mail. By causing water to drop down its chin, when it was
freezing cold, Clinton made a beard of icicles for the image, which
gave it a very grotesque look. One morning, after a thaw, Mary was
highly delighted with a discovery she made of a long icicle hanging
from the nose of the “old man,” as she called him. A few days after
there was a heavy fall of moist snow, which swelled the image to
gigantic proportions, the outline of the figure being still preserved;
but soon it tumbled to pieces of its own weight, and only a heap of
hardened snow and ice remained to tell its story.
Clinton was a favorite with the family, and his visits gave them
much pleasure; yet Mrs. Preston could not look upon him without a
feeling of sadness, for his presence always reminded her of her own
son—the playmate from infancy of Clinton. Nor could she help
contrasting their characters and prospects. She thought what a
difference a few years had made, in the two boys; and then she
wondered whether this difference was to go on, ever widening, to the
end of their lives.
Thus week after week passed away, and the family were
beginning to recover from the melancholy occasioned by Jerry’s
flight from home, when a new and unwelcome guest entered the
house. This guest was sickness, and Mary was its victim. She grew
ill so alarmingly fast, from the hour of her attack, that James was
soon despatched for the
doctor. When this
functionary arrived, he felt of
Mary’s pulse and temples,
looked at her tongue, and
made some inquiries of her
mother in relation to her
symptoms. He then
pronounced her to be in a
fever, but expressed some
hope of being able to throw
it off. Opening the little
leathern trunk, which he
always carried with him in
his professional visits, he
took from it several kinds of
medicines, and gave them
to Mary’s mother, with
directions how to administer
them. But Mary continued to
grow worse and worse, in
spite of the good doctor’s
medicine. She tossed about on her little bed, moaning piteously, and
complaining continually of the dreadful pain in her head. Night came,
and she could not sleep, although the lamp in the room was shaded,
and her mother moved noiselessly about in her gentle ministries to
the sick one. Every little while she would call for drink, for she said
she was burning up with the heat; but she ate nothing.
The doctor called the next day, and after the usual examination, he
left some more medicine, and departed. But his little patient grew no
better. And so daily he repeated his visits, and each time remained
longer, and looked more anxious; but his skill seemed to be of little
avail. At length one morning, as Emily and Harriet were sitting at the
bed-side of the sufferer, while their mother was necessarily absent,
Mary awoke from a short, troubled sleep, and, with a wild, unnatural
look, began to talk very fast and very singularly about a great many
different things.
“There’s my old snow man,” she said, pointing to a bed-post on
which some light-colored clothing was hanging; “old man, old man,
old man, do you know who made you? I know who it was—’twas
Clinty. O mother, see that! see that! isn’t it beautiful! Now it’s gone,
and I shan’t see it again. Yes I will too. There it goes—buz-z-z-z-z—
do n’t you sting me, you naughty bee—I’ll tell my mother if you do.
See! see! see! there he comes—that’s Jerry—no it aint—yes it is too
—I tell you it is Jerry—don’t you see him? O, how glad I am he’s got
away from the bugaboos! Look! look quick! that’s him—there it goes
—up there—don’t you see it way up there, going round and round?
By-low baby,—by-low baby,” she continued, twisting the bed-clothes
into something that seemed to her a doll; and then she repeated a
verse of one of her little songs:—
“Dance, little baby, dance up high;

Never mind, baby, mother is by;
Crow and caper, caper and crow,
There, little baby, there you go.”
Thus she continued to talk, her mind flying from one thing to
another in a most singular manner. Her sisters spoke to her, but she
took no notice of them; and Harriet ran down to her mother, and
bursting into tears, cried:—
“O, mother, do come up stairs—Mary’s gone crazy, and is talking
about everything!”
The poor little sufferer continued in a delirious state most of the
day, though occasionally, for a few moments at a time, reason would
seem to resume its sway. The doctor looked more grave than ever,
and when Mrs. Preston followed him into the entry, and entreated
him to tell her exactly what he thought of the case, he replied:—
“I think she is a very sick child, but as the fever has not reached
the turning-point, it is impossible to tell how it will result. I do not
despair of saving her, however, for I have seen more than one
patient live through as violent an attack as this appears to be.”
Clinton called daily at the house, to inquire after Mary, but as it
was important to keep her as quiet as possible, he did not go into the
sick chamber. His mother, however, came over every day, and
sometimes remained all night, greatly assisting Mrs. Preston in
taking care of the sick one. Mary’s delirium continued with little
interruption for two or three days. When she came out of this state,
she cast a recognizing look at her mother and sisters, who were
seated in the room, and then, in a low voice, inquired:—
“Mother, where is Jerry?”
“Jerry is not here, dear,” replied Mrs. Preston; “he has not yet got
back.”
“Where has he gone?”
“I don’t know where he is—he went away before you was taken
sick, but we hope he will be back soon.”
“But I saw him here yesterday, mother,” continued Mary, who had
a confused remembrance of some of the impressions of her delirium.
“No, darling, you are mistaken, you dreamed that you saw him—
that was all.”
Mary looked disappointed; and as her recollection of Jerry’s
disappearance returned, she added mournfully:—
“Then I shan’t see Jerry again before I die—nor father either.”
“O, yes you will,” quickly replied her mother, startled at these
words; “you will soon get well, I hope, and father will be home,
before many weeks, and Jerry, too, perhaps.”
Mary sadly shook her head, but made no reply. That night she
slept a few hours, but in the morning it was evident that she was
rapidly failing. Calling her mother to the bed-side, she said, with a
beautiful smile upon her face:—
“Dear mother, I am going to-day—I have seen the angel that is to
carry me over the river. O, I wish I could tell you all about it, but I
can’t talk much now. I saw a beautiful country—there was no snow
there, but the grass was all green, and there were flowers of every
kind. There was a great temple, too, as high as the clouds, and it
dazzled my eyes to look at it, it glittered so in the sun. And I saw
thousands of little children, dressed in white, and the Saviour
gathered them around him, and kissed them, and then they all sang,
and looked so happy, and he looked so kind. But there was a dark,
ugly river between me and them, and while I was thinking how I
should like to get across, a tall, beautiful angel came up to me, and
asked me if I would not like to become one of the Saviour’s little
lambs. I told him I should, but I was afraid of the terrible river. Then
he kissed me, and told me not to be afraid, for he would come for me
in a few hours, and carry me over; and he said I never should be sick
any more, nor go astray. And I asked if he, would not take you too,
and father, and Jerry, and Emily, and Harriet, but he said:—‘Not yet.’
And while the angel was talking to me, the Saviour looked towards
us, and stretched out his arms; and so I am sure that I shall go to
heaven to-day.”
Mrs. Preston listened to this recital in tears, and was too much
overpowered with her emotions to make any reply. It was but too
evident that Mary’s presentiment of her approaching death was not
unlikely to prove true. She continued to sink through the day. The
doctor came once more, but he told the weeping mother he could do
nothing more for the sufferer. In the afternoon, Mary desired that all
the members of the family should be gathered around her. In a few
simple, childish words, she bade each a farewell, and looked the
affection which she could not express. And then, remembering the
absent ones, she left messages of love for her father and Jerry. She
soon after sank into a stupor, and apparently did not recognize her
mother and sisters, who sat silently and tearfully watching her
breathing, as each minute it became shorter and more labored. Just
as the last spark of life was expiring, a heavenly smile beamed upon
her pure young face, and the exclamation, “There he is!—the angel
is coming!” faintly trembled upon her lips. A moment after, little Mary
was gathered into the fold of the Good Shepherd, in heaven.
A little grave was dug in the frozen earth, in one corner of the
garden, and there the dust of Mary now sleeps, in hope of a
resurrection. But it is only the body that lies there. She went with the
good angel, we trust, to become one of the lambs in the Saviour’s
flock.
“There past are death and all its woes,

There beauty’s stream for ever flows,
And pleasure’s day no sunset knows.”
CHAPTER XIV.
THE FORESTS.
M ARCH had come—the month which is usually considered the

beginning of spring, though in the part of the country where
Clinton resided it seemed more like the last month of winter. The
winter school had closed, and as it was too early to commence
labors on the farm, the scholars were enjoying a long holiday. There
was little for Clinton to do, at home, and even his father was at
leisure much of the time, having chopped and hauled his year’s
supply of wood, cleaned and repaired his tools, and done such other
jobs as are usually deferred to the winter season. The deportment of
Clinton, since his frank confession of the errors into which Jerry had
led him, had been unexceptionable, both at home and at school. He
seemed like himself again. His parents began to feel sorry that they
had deprived him of his promised journey to Boston, although he had
never once spoken of the matter from the day they announced their
intention. In talking over the subject one evening after the children
had gone to bed, they concluded to make up for Clinton’s
disappointment, in part at least, by treating him to an excursion of
another kind. The next morning, at the breakfast table, Mr.
Davenport introduced the matter by saying:—
“Clinton, you’ve behaved pretty well, for some time past, and as I
believe in rewards as well as punishments, I am going to propose to
treat you to a little excursion, next week. Where should you prefer to
go—to Portland, or to Bangor, or back into the forests, among the
loggers? As the sleighing is now excellent, and bids fair to remain so
for a week or two longer, we will take Fanny—or rather she shall take
us; and you shall decide to which of these points we shall steer.”
“I should like to go to either of the places, first-rate,” said Clinton,
“but I don’t know as I have any choice about them. I’ll leave it with
you to say which shall be the trip.”
“No,” resumed his father, “you think the matter over to-day, and
perhaps you will find that you have some preference.”
Clinton did so, and after weighing in his mind the attractions of the
several places, he came to the conclusion that he had rather visit a
logging camp, of which he had heard so much, than to go to either
Portland or Bangor. He had already once visited the former city, and
the other had no special interest for him, beyond any other large
place. So he informed his father of his decision, and the logging
camp was determined upon as the object of their journey.
The rest of the week was spent in preparing for and talking about
their approaching excursion. Clinton watched the weather very
closely, and was constantly on the look out for a storm; but no storm
came, though there were at times indications of foul weather, which
somewhat dampened his ardor. His mother cooked a large amount
of dough-nuts, ginger cakes, fried apple pies, and other eatables
convenient for a journey; for they were going through a section of the
country which was little settled, and might have to depend upon
themselves, in part at least, for their provisions. The sleigh was
cleaned, and even Fanny received extra care, and an extra
allowance of fodder, in consideration of the long jaunt before her.
Monday morning, at length, came. The weather was just what they
desired. The sun shone pleasantly, the air was mild, and the
sleighing,—which had not been interrupted for a day, since the first
considerable fall of snow in December,—was smooth and easy. Mrs.
Davenport stowed away in the sleigh-box, under the seat, an ample
supply of provisions for the journey; and, also, a quantity of extra
clothing, to be used in case they should need a change. Nor did Mr.
Davenport forget to provide something for Fanny’s comfort on the
way. He lashed a bag of grain between the dasher and the front of
the sleigh, and inside he put as much hay as he could conveniently
carry, tied up in wisps of a convenient size for bating the horse.
Some friction matches, an umbrella, a rifle, a hatchet, and two good
buffalo skins, completed their outfit.
The sun was hardly half an hour up, when Clinton and his father
bade good-bye to Mrs. Davenport and Annie, and started on their

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Selected Sensor Circuits: From Data

Sheet to Simulation Peter Baumann

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Sensor Data Understanding 1st Edition Marcin Grzegorzek

Primary Mathematics 3A Hoerst

Sensor Circuits and Switching for Stringed Instruments

Radiation Detection Systems: Sensor Materials, Systems,

Beginning Ruby From Novice to Professional Peter Cooper

Advances in Robotics, Automation and Data Analytics:

Selected Sensor Circuits

ISBN 978-3-658-38211-7 ISBN 978-3-658-38212-4 (eBook)

Preface to the Third Edition

Bremen, Germany Peter Baumann

4.3 Voltage Follower with Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

9 Ultrasonic Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

1.1 NTC Sensors

Where RN is the nominal resistance at temperature TN and B is a material constant in units

Task: NTC Sensor Characteristic Curve

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, 1

Fig. 1.1 Circuit for simulating the sensor characteristic curve

• PSPICE, Edit Simulation Proﬁle

Task: Temperature Coefﬁcient of the NTC Sensor

Task: Temperature Display

.model LED_red (IS ¼ 1.2E-20 N ¼ 1.46 RS ¼ 2.4 EG ¼ 1.95).

• What are the voltages at the inputs of the OP at 25 C?

Fig. 1.3 Temperature dependence of the temperature coefﬁcient of RT

Fig. 1.4 Setting temperatures with the bridge resistor R4

• Will the LED light up when the temperature rises above 25 C?

• PSpice, Edit Simulation Proﬁle

The analysis result according to Fig. 1.5 shows:

• with R4 ¼ 104.78 kΩ the LED lights up for Temp ≧ 25 C,

1.2 PTC Sensors

Fig. 1.5 Depending on R4, the LED lights up above 25 C, 25 C or 75 C

1.2.1 Silicon Temperature Sensors

Fig. 1.6 Silicon temperature sensor with current paths

TC1 ¼ 7.88–103 K1 and TC2 ¼ 1.937–105 K2.

.model KTY11_5 RES R ¼ 1 TC1 ¼ 7.88 m, TC2 ¼ 19.37u, TNOM ¼ 25.

• PSpice, Edit Simulation Proﬁle

Fig. 1.7 Circuit for simulating

Task: Calculation of the Sensor Characteristic Curve

The electrical conductivity of the electrons is described by Eq. (1.5) with

Fig. 1.8 Simulated characteristic curve of the silicon temperature sensor

with R25 ¼ 1/(2πdeNDμn25) ¼ 1974 Ω.

• PSpice, Edit Simulation Proﬁle

Task: Linear Temperature Display

RTu ¼ 1.6058 kΩ at 0 C, RTm ¼ 2.8416 kΩ at 75 C, and RTo ¼ 4.5067 at 150 C.

Using the above resistance values, we get Rlin ¼ 6672 Ω.

• PSpice, Edit Simulation Proﬁle

Fig. 1.10 Temperature response of the silicon spreading resistor KTY11

Fig. 1.11 Circuit for linearizing

Uu ¼ 0.96992 V at 0 C and Uo ¼ 2.0158 V at 150 C.

Fig. 1.12 Linearized sensor characteristic curve

From this it follows that vu ¼ (3 V–0 V)/(2.0158 V–0.96992 V) ¼ 2.8684.

For this, R2 ¼ 2830 Ω.

Fig. 1.13 Circuit of the electronic thermometer

• PSpice, Edit Simulation Proﬁle

With the diagram according to Fig. 1.14, the objective is fulﬁlled.