c. v.
White
Kettering University
G. Krauss and D.K. Matlock
Colorado School of Mines
INTRODUCTION
The traditional steel
production process
consisted of the
refining and teeming
of liquid steel into
large ingots. Thesein-
gots required exten-
sive high temperature
soaking and hot roll-
ing to produce slabs,
blooms and billets that
were subsequentlyhot
rolled to finished
product shapes. Although some ingot
casting capacity still exists, continuous
casting directly to slabs, blooms and
billets has largely displaced ingot cast-
ing. Continuous casting has grown to
more than 80 percent of steel produc-
tion in North America, and to more than
85 percent in the United Kingdom.1,2
The popularity of continuous casting
has been driven by improvements in
surface quality, greater uniformity in
composition (due to the elimination of
top-to-bottom ingot segregation), en-
ergy savings,high yields and increased
production efficiency. The history and
evolution of continuous caster design
and technology have been described in
detail by IMng.2
A concern exists that smaller as-cast
sectionsof continuously caststeelprod-
ucts may not receive sufficient hot work
to produce microstructures and prop-
erties characteristic of more highly de-
formed steelproducts. This is especially
a concern in bar steelsthat are forged to
complex shapes.This article will review
the literature related to the effectsof hot
reduction on the properties and perfor-
mance of continuously cast bar steels.
Diminished mechanical properties and
fatigueperformance havebeenreported
in strand-caststeelssubjectedto limited
reduction. Properties representative of
wrought steel eventually are attained
with increasing hot reduction. The
amount of hot reduction required to
achieve the transition from cast to
wrought structure and properties is of
great interest, especially in small con-
tinuously cast billets that may receive
little hot reduction to finished bar sizes.
The causesof reduced performance
as a function of limited hot work have
been difficult to unravel. Performance
depends on a multitude of factors: the
homogenizing effectsof hot work; steel-
making, which establishes the cleanli-
ness and inclusion content of the prod-
uct; caster design,which establishesthe
sizeand geometryof the as-castproduct;
the nature ofhotwork or roll passdesign
of the hot rolling standsused to produce
bars of various sizes;and, ultimately, the
microstructure of the heat-treatedbar or
forgings, such as ferrite-pearlite or high
strength tempered martensite.
Thus, the amount of hot work re-
quired to produce wrought properties
is caster- and mill-specific. A universal
criterion for acceptability, such as a
single value of the commonly used hot
reduction ratio, based on reduction of
SEPTEMBER 1998 g 73
 and recrystallization of the austenite grain
structure is achieved by the same method.
Despite this, microsegregation persists
even after extensive hot deformation.
Figure 6 presents evidence for
interdendritic microsegregation, al-
though with increasingly finer spacing,
in bars of 10V45 steel for reduction
ratios between 7:1 and 49:1.10 The
chemical segregation was revealed by
etching with picric acid and sodium
tridecylbenzene. The austenite grain
structure and the ferrite-pearlite micro-
structure formed on cooling of this steel
were superimposed on the chemical
variations. When tested in torsional fa-
tigue, all specimens showed wrought
Figure 3 The histogram shows the frequency of inclusions with various shapefactors as a
function of the hot reduction ratio.9 JOThe shape factor is defined in the text. behavior and fatigue crack initiation at
inclusions within the ferritic compo-
nent of the microstructure.
and a central zone with equiaxed den- distribution of porosity often is charac- Thus, in this experiment, microstruc-
drites with random orientations. As dis- terized by secondarydendrite arm spac- ture and inclusions controlled fatigue
cussed here, extensive porosity may exist ing, which is directly related to heat performance. The coarser effects of so-
in the central equiaxed zone. The relative transfer during solidification. lidification, such as columnar dendrite
areas of the columnar and equiaxed zones Figure 5 shows secondary dendrite crystal orientation and porosity, were
depend on caster speed, which deter- arm spacing as a function of the dis- dissipated by a reduction ratio of 7: 1.
mines thermal gradients and solidifica- tance from the chill surface for a num- Residual effects of dendritic segrega-
tion velocity. Electromagnetic stirring is ber of casters.14The larger the section tion may contribute to ferritelpearlite
used to promote the size of the equiaxed size and further the distance from the banding beyond association with as-cast
zone, minimize centerline porosity and surface, the coarser the dendrite spac- structures! Also, residual chemical seg-
reduce the size of the columnar zone. ing and associated micro segregation regation effects from the corners of square
The scale of the dendritic structure and porosity. billets eventually may contribute to
determines the distribution of inter-
dendrite chemical segregation and M.CROSEGREGA T.ON
porosity due to solidification shrinkage Center macroporosity and interdendrite
or gas evolution. These factors may microporosity are healed by hot work,
be detrimental to mechanical proper-
ties and performance. The fine-scale
3.~ .Low carbon steels
2.
2 .Stainless steels (type 304) .
...A

.-14 1.8 ~ .. ..

I != 1.0
.6 ..

1- Chill zone
I 2

= -.2

Columnarzone o -.6
..I -1.0

-2.4 -1.6 -0.8 -0.0 0.8 1.6 2.4

Equiaxed zone Log x (mm) Figure 6 A picric acid-sodium
tridecylbenzene etchJOdepicts effects
Figure 5 The secondary dendrite arm associated with residual interdendritic
Figure 4 The diagram shows various spacingfor a number of dijJerent casters microsegregation in bars of 10V45 steel
solidification zones in a continuously is shown as a function of distance from subjected to hot reduction ratios of (a)
cast billet.12
the chill surface. !4 7:1, (b) 10:1, (c) 27:1 and (d) 49:1.

SEPTEMBER 1998 a 75

~
nonsyrnmetrical distortion during final
heat treatment of bars and forgings.15.
16
SOLIDIFICATION POROSITY
Porosity is a major consequenceof so-
lidification and hasbeen shown to cause
diminished fatigue performance. For
example, Figures 7 and 8 show fatigue
crack initiation at porosity in as-cast
continuously cast 152-mm-square bil-
lets and hardened 4140 steeV 7Figure 7
illustrates fatigue fracture surfaces de-
veloped by axial fatigue testing of
specimensremoved from the columnar
dendritic zone. Meanwhile, Figure 8
illustrates fatigue in the equiaxed
zone. The interdendritic morphology
of the porosity is revealed, especially in
the second example; the former re-
vealed better fatigue life. Specimens
removed from bars of the same billet
subjected to hot reduction ratios of
3.3: lor greater showed marked im-
provement in fatigue resistance.Fatigue
initiation of hardened specimens from
hot worked bars largely was associated
I Figure 7 Porosity is a major conseqltence of solidification. The micrographs show the
porosity at the fatigue crack initiation in a hardened 4140 steel specimen taken from the
columnar dendritic zone of an as-cast sti"ed billet.ll
76 H SEPTEMBER 1998
with discontinuities caused by speci- stirring produces an extensive equiaxed
men machining.17 dendritic zone and eliminates macro-
Solidification porosity increaseswith scopic centerline shrinkage. A light-
greater distance from the surface of as- etching band, because of solute deple-
cast billets. As the dendritic structure tion, marks the initiation of electromag-
coarsens, the interior cooling rate de- netic stirring.
creases,the last liquid steelsolidifies and In addition to stirring, porosity and
final shrinkage develops. Density mea- the extent of the equiaxed central zone
surements,asa function of distancefrom of billets also are affected by superheat.
the surfacesof 140-mm-squarecast bil- High superheat in unstirred billets in-
lets, show porosity is low in columnar creases the extent of columnar solidifi-
dendrite solidification zones and in- cation by retarding the nucleation of
creasesto high levelscloseto and at billet equiaxed dendrites:Q, 21High superheats
centerlines.18Brada has shown that cor- also have been found to increase
ners of square billets, where columnar interdendrite segregation and internal
dendrite zonesfrom orthogonal surface porosity, requiring higher reduction
impinge, also are locations of high po- ratios for the elimination of porosity.21
rosity in continuous cast billets.19 Electromagnetic stirring offsets the ef-
Figure 9 shows macroetched trans- fect of high superheats, but does not
verse sections of electromagnetically compensate completely for the in-
stirred and unstirred continuously creased size of columnar solidification
castbillets of 4140 steel,171n
theunstirred zones at higher superheat temperatures.
billet, the columnar dendrite zone occu- Hot work eliminates porosity, but
pies most of the cross section, and mac- the amount required to produce full
roscopic porosity is present at the density in bars is a function of the meth-
centerline of the billet. Electromagnetic ods by which the hot work is applied.
~ ~10J.lrn
 For example, Figure 10 shows poros-
ity is eliminated by relatively low reduc-
tion ratios, and rolling schedules with
heavy passes increase
readily than those with light passes.22The
heavy passes were accomplished
larger diameter cylindrical rolls. A study
of the elimination of porosity in continu-
ously cast slabs also emphasized that a
combination of rolling
rolling shape factor (as related to radius
of the work rolls) must be considered for
the elimination of porosity.23
Another study was conducted on the
effectiveness of various
processes on consolidating
looseness and voids in bars produced
from strand-cast billets. Morris
found that hammer forging restored full
density at a nominal reduction ratio of
3:1.18 But, when continuous
groove rolling and flat rolling were used
for hot deformation, reduction ratios of
at least 5:1 were required.
Figure 11, from the study by Schultz et
al., shows in continuously cast 4140 bars
subjected to a reduction
some residual center porosity persists in
the bar produced from an unstirred bil-
let. 17No macroscopic evidence ofporos-
ity is visible in the bar produced from an
electromagnetically stirred
0 tions, and are adversely affected by
Heavy pass~ ~
C')-
E
()
...
s 01
.02
.03
1 15 2 2.5
Rolling Ratio
Figure 10 Density differences between
core and surface zones of cast plates, shown
as a function of reduction ratio and rolling
severity, indicate that porosity is eliminated
by relatively low reduction ratios!2
etchingeffectsassociated with chemical
segregationare still apparent.
density more MINIMUM HOT REDUCTION
RATIOS
with Table I lists a number of investigations
that have been designed to evaluatethe
transition from cast to wrought me-
chanical behavior and structure in con-
reduction and tinuously cast steels. The criteria, as
identified by each set of authors, dif-
fered for an effective transition. The
criteria included an elimination of
porosity, mechanical behavior charac-
deformation teristic of products produced from in-
central got cast steels or mechanical behavior
that attained a stable high level as a
et al. function of increasing hot reduction.
A number of the investigations of
mechanical properties determined by
forging, tensile testing show yield and tensile
strength are relatively insensitive to
microstructural components intro-
duced by solidification or hot work of
the as-cast structures. 17,18,21,24
How-
ever, the properties that measure duc-
ratio of 3:3, tility, such as reduction of area or total
elongation, are sensitive to solidifica-
tion structures and improve with in-
creasing hot reduction.
The ductility parameters are deter-
billet, but mined by ductile fracture mechanisms
related to pore and inclusion distribu-
thosedistributions in as-castspecimens.
3
Figure 12, taken from the work of Fett
and Ross, shows strength and ductility
parameters as a function of the reduc-
tion ratio for normalized specimens of
1040 steel,24 As noted previously, ulti-
mate strength and hardness are not
degraded in as-cast structures, but elon-
gation and reduction of area are re-
duced by the effects of solidification.
Figure 13, from the same study, shows
dependence of impact energy on the
reduction ratio, similar to that of the
ductility parameters. Both the impact
and ductility measures of fracture resis-
tance reach constant values at the low
reduction ratio of 3:1. Morris et al.
show similar sets of data for tensile
properties, but greater variation in im-
pact properties in specimens is obtained
from billets subjected to low reduction
ratios of between 3:1 and 7:1.18
The studies of fatigue in as-cast and
hot rolled continuously cast billets show
that specimens from as-cast billets fail
for one of two reasons: coarse as-cast
columnar grain structure or porosity
incorporated during solidification.17
After relatively small amounts of hot
reduction, the effects of residual solidi-
fication no longer playa significant role
in the initiation of fatigue cracks. In-
stead, fatigue initiates at inclusions or
surface defects, which are determined
by steel cleanliness, specimen prepara-
tion and microstructure.
SEPTEMBER
1998 a 77
 14. A.W. Cramb, "Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacings
superheat and electromagnetic stirring. the Advanced Steel Processing and Prod-
in Continuous Cast, Thin Steel Sections," Casting
Deternlination of the success of these ucts Research Center, a National Sci- of Near Net Shape Products, TMS, 1988, pp.

efforts must then be made on a case-by- ence Foundation Industry-University Co- 673-682.
15. S. Gunnarson, "Effect of Strand Casting on Distortion
case basis. The mechanical properties operative Research Center at the of Carburized Steel Crown Wheels," Harterei-

Colorado School of Mines. ~ TechniscbeMitteilungen, Vol. 46,1991, p. 216.

must be evaluated and demonstrate that
16. H. Mallender, "Dimension and Shape Changes by
the properties are adequate for the pro- Carburizing," Einsatzharten, J. Grosch and J.
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SEPTEMBER 1998 la 79