The Evolution of Geography as a Scientific Discipline: Paradigmatic Shifts and

Methodological Refinements

Introduction:
Geography, as a discipline, has undergone significant transformations throughout history,
shaped by paradigmatic shifts and methodological refinements. This paper aims to provide a
comprehensive overview of the evolution of geography, tracing its development from ancient
times to the present day. By examining key schools of thought, paradigm shifts, and
methodological concerns, this research sheds light on the dynamic nature of geographical
inquiry and its contribution to our understanding of the world.

Pre-Modern Period:
The Pre-Modern period encompasses ancient and medieval traditions, characterized by
descriptive approaches to geography and the influence of religion as a primary source of
knowledge. The emergence of the Greco-Roman and Arab Schools represented paradigmatic
shifts, laying the foundation for climatic determinism and philosophical inquiries into the
nature of the Earth. However, crises such as the Dark Age and Age of Discovery posed
challenges to geographical thought, impacting human thinking, writings, and the art of map-
making.
Modern Period:
The Modern period witnessed significant developments in geographical thought, including
the emergence of the Chorological perspective, Videlian Tradition, and Man-Environment
studies. German, French, American, and British Schools played pivotal roles in shaping
geographical inquiry, with methodological concerns revolving around systematic and regional
approaches. The Schaefer-Hartshorne debate, a key moment in mid-20th-century geography,
challenged the chorological viewpoint, leading to a paradigmatic turning point.
Post-Modern Period:
In the Post-Modern period, geography experienced faster paradigmatic shifts driven by
Radicalism, Humanistic trends, and Social Relevance of Geography. Postmodernism brought
epistemological pluralism and methodological concerns, with crises emerging from debates
such as the Schaefer-Hartshorne Debate, Quantitative Revolution, Critical Revolution, and
Digital Revolution. Methodological debates intensified, with Richard Hartshorne advocating
the chorological approach and Fred K. Schaefer promoting spatial laws for geographic
explanation.

Key Developments and Methodological Concerns:

Throughout its evolution, geography witnessed key developments such as the dominance of
the Greco-Roman School in the Pre-Modern period, the emergence of determinism and the
Videlian tradition in the Modern period, and the rise of human studies with a regional
approach in the Post-Modern period. Methodological concerns centered on systematic and
regional approaches, empiricism, logic, and the adoption of quantitative methods during the
Quantitative Revolution.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the evolution of geography as a scientific discipline has been characterized by
paradigmatic shifts and methodological refinements, reflecting changes in societal,
intellectual, and technological contexts. By tracing the trajectory of geographical thought
from ancient times to the present day, this research paper highlights the dynamic nature of
geography and its enduring relevance in understanding the complexities of the world. From
the descriptive approaches of the Pre-Modern period to the methodological pluralism of the
Post-Modern era, geography continues to evolve, driven by intellectual curiosity and the
quest for understanding the world around us.
Contributions of Greeks in Geographical Thought
Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes is often hailed as the 'Father of Geography', credited with coining the term
"Geography" by combining "ge" (meaning 'the earth') and "graphy" (meaning 'to describe').
He provided a definition of geography as the "study of the earth as the home of man". His
most renowned achievement, recognized worldwide, is his calculation of the earth's
circumference. Utilizing Thales' theorem, which states that when two parallel lines are
intersected by a straight line, the opposite angles are equal, Eratosthenes measured the earth's
circumference. Additionally, he created a world map that accurately depicted distances. His
notable work, "Geographica", further solidified his legacy. Eratosthenes also divided the
world into five climatic zones: one Torrid Zone, two temperate zones, and two frigid zones,
and conducted measurements of various latitudes and longitudes. For these reasons,
Eratosthenes is revered as the pioneer of 'Geodesy'.
Homer
The oral traditions of classical Greece, as reflected in the writings of Homer, particularly in
his epic poem, the Odyssey, contain descriptive accounts of lands and peoples across the
Earth's surface. Homer, often referred to as the father of geography by Greek geographers
themselves, provides geographical narratives within the context of Odysseus' journey back to
Ithaca after the fall of Troy. The Odyssey recounts Odysseus' wanderings, spanning twenty
years, during which he encounters various distant lands and peoples.
In the epic, there are references to regions characterized by continuous sunshine and others
marked by perpetual darkness. While these descriptions may seem fantastical, they reflect
real geographical phenomena, possibly derived from accounts of far northern European
regions with their long summer days and polar nights. Homer's incorporation of these
geographical elements into his narrative adds depth and realism to the epic adventure.
The Odyssey has inspired numerous interpretations and attempts to identify the locations
mentioned in the poem. Similar to Kalidas' Meghdoot, the Odyssey's rich geographical
imagery continues to captivate scholars and readers alike, highlighting the enduring
fascination with ancient geographical narratives and their connection to the broader human
experience.

Thales of Miletus
Thales of Miletus, a prosperous businessman from the town near the Aegean Sea, is
recognized as the first Greek to focus on measuring and locating places on Earth's surface.
Inspired by the geometrical traditions he encountered during a trip to Egypt, Thales
introduced some of these ideas to the Greeks. His contemporary, Anaximander, pioneered the
use of a sundial to measure the sun's position, aiding in determining longitude. Anaximander
is also credited with creating a map of the known world, centered on Greece. Together,
Thales and Anaximander are considered the originators of the mathematical tradition in
ancient Greek geography.
Anaximander
Anaximander is recognized for bringing the Babylonian instrument called the Gnomon into
Greek literature. The Gnomon, a pole erected vertically over a level surface, allowed for the
measurement of the changing positions of the sun and celestial bodies by observing the length
and direction of the shadow it cast. Additionally, Anaximander is attributed with creating a
scaled world map, drawing upon information obtained from the Sumerians, who possessed
pictorial maps in their archives. Notably, this map depicts an ocean encircling the entire
world.
Hecataeus
Hecataeus of Miletus, born around the time of Thales and Anaximander's passing, initiated
the literary tradition in geography with his work "Ges-Periodos" (Description of the Earth).
He synthesized available knowledge about the world, contributing to the development of
prose in classical Greek literature.
Hecataeus for the first time gave two approaches for the study of geography:
a) Nomothetic or law seeking approach.
b) Idiographic approach (descriptive).
Hecataeus prepared the world map but it was based on the map of Anaximander; he had just
modified it. He divided it into two parts by drawing a line passing through Hellespont, the
Caspian Sea and Caucasus mountains. The northern part he named as Europa and southern
part of Libya that includes Africa and Asia.

Herodotus
Herodotus, known as the father of history, is also regarded as one of the founders of
geography. His accounts of the Greek struggle with "barbarians" included descriptions of
various places visited, intertwining geography with history. Herodotus believed geography
provided context for historical events, and he traveled extensively, maintaining a keen interest
in geographical phenomena. Despite his focus on descriptive geography, Herodotus showed
no interest in mathematical traditions and accepted the Homeric view of the Earth as a flat
disc traversed by the sun.

Plato
Plato (428-348 B.C.) contributed significantly to the development of geographical ideas
through his emphasis on deductive reasoning. He proposed that observable phenomena on
Earth's surface were imperfect copies of ideal forms. Plato illustrated this with the example of
Attica, suggesting that the region had degenerated from its original fertile state to a barren
landscape. He also argued for the spherical shape of the Earth, influenced by the Greek belief
in symmetry and perfection, without providing empirical evidence.
Aristotle
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Plato's student, further advanced geographical thought through his
emphasis on inductive reasoning and the systematic observation of facts. He laid down four
fundamental principles of scientific explanation: understanding the nature, substance,
process, and purpose of phenomena. Aristotle's teleological perspective, which emphasized
that everything followed a preexisting plan, distinguished him as the first teleologist in the
history of philosophy.

Overall, Plato and Aristotle's contributions laid the groundwork for both deductive and
inductive approaches to geographical inquiry, shaping the methodology and theoretical
underpinnings of the discipline.