`Try to understand the main purpose of the biochemistry:

- Definition
- Study area
- Type of biomolecules and their basic structures and roles.

• What are metabolism, anabolism, catabolism.

• As a biomedical engineer, how you can use the knowledge of biochemistry.
• What are the types of macromolecules.
• Classification of macromolecules.
• From monomers to a polymer which reactions we see.
• What is bioenergetics? How it works?
• How the energy of sun light stored in carbohydrates can be utilized by cells?
• How the actual ATP synthesis is accomplished?
• How does the ATP/ADP cycle work?
• Definition of carbohydrates.
• Classification of carbohydrates.
• Functional groups of carbohydrates (aldoses and ketoses)
• Enantiomerism
• Epimerism
• Anomerism
• Hemiacetal and hemiketal formation/cyclization. Be sure you can draw the cyclic
form of glucose to create two different isomer (alpha and beta anomerism should
be well understood)
• Type of glycosidic bonds. Nomenculature of glycosdidic bonds.
• Reducing properties of carbohydrates
• Clinically important disaccharides
• Polysaccharides (types, bonds, classification)
• Digestion and absorbtion of carbohydrates (enzymes, transporters, mechanism,
etc.)
• Glycogen metabolism → synthesis, breakdown and regulation. regulatory steps,
regulatory enzymes, inhibitors, stimulators. DO NOT MEMORIZE EVERY SINGLE
ENZYME. Memorize the only important ones mentioned in the classroom. The slide
below is so important.
• Major fates of glucose in the body
• Explanation of glycolysis in one sentence.
• Phases of glycolysis.
• Regualtory steps and enzymes of glycoslysis. inhibitors, stimulators. DO NOT
MEMORIZE EVERY SINGLE ENZYME.
• ATP and NADH balance of glycolysis.
• Which steps of glycolysis produce NADH
• Which steps produce ATP
• Which steps consume ATP
• Fate of pyruvate
• Effects of Insulin and Glucagon on the Synthesis of Key Enzymes of Glycolysis

• Definition of TCA in one sentence: Final pathway where the oxidative catabolism of
carbohydrates, amino acids, and fatty acids converge, their carbon skeletons
being converted to CO2.
• Where does it occur?

• Why is it so close to mitochondrial membrane?

• Why is it a aerobic pathway?

• What is the catabolic role of TCA?

• What is the anabolic role of TCA? What are the examples?

• What is anaplerotic reaction?

• Which anaplerotic reactions does TCA have?

• What are the 3 main stages of cellular respiration? Each stage requires a brief
explanation.

• Regualtory steps and enzymes of glycoslysis. inhibitors, stimulators. DO NOT

MEMORIZE EVERY SINGLE ENZYME.

• PDH enzyme comple. Coenzymes, roles of those coenzymes, required vitamins etc.

• Regulation of TCA in fasting, well fed states.

• Regulation of glycolysis in fastin, well fed states

• Regulation of glyocgen metabolism in fasting and. Well fed state.

• Organization of ETC

• Each member of ETC, structure, functions, etc.

• Water produced by ETC

• ATP produced by ETC

• ETC logic, how does it work? How does it synthesize ATP? How does it produce
water?

• What are the specific inhibitors?

• Structure of ATP synthase enzyme in detail.

• Regulation of ETC-Oxidative Phos Coupling during resting, exercising in detail.

 1.Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
1. The ETC is a series of protein complexes and electron carriers located in
the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2. During cellular respiration, high-energy electrons derived from the
breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules are transferred to the
first complex of the ETC, usually NADH or FADH2.
3. These electrons then move along the electron transport chain, passing
from one protein complex to another in a series of redox reactions. As
electrons move through the chain, they lose energy, which is used to pump
protons (H⁺ ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a
proton gradient.
2. Proton Gradient Formation:
As protons are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the
intermembrane space, they create an electrochemical gradient. This proton
gradient stores potential energy.

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3. Oxidative Phosphorylation (OXPHOS):

• OXPHOS is the process by which ATP is synthesized using the energy
released from the transfer of electrons down the electron transport
chain.
• The enzyme ATP synthase, located in the inner mitochondrial
membrane, utilizes the proton gradient generated by the ETC to
drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi)
through a process called chemiosmosis.
• As protons flow back across the inner mitochondrial membrane
through ATP synthase (from the intermembrane space to the
matrix), the enzyme harnesses the energy released by this flow to
catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.

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4. ATP Production:
• The coupling of electron transport and proton pumping by
the ETC with ATP synthesis by ATP synthase is what links
electron transport to ATP production. This coupling is
essential for efficient ATP generation during cellular
respiration.

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Overall

• The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are

tightly integrated processes that work together to transfer
electrons derived from fuel molecules to oxygen, generating ATP in
the process. This ATP serves as the primary energy currency of the
cell, providing the energy necessary for various cellular activities
and processes.

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