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176 Chapter 5

note that signals are added by using the appropriate setting for the potentiometers
associated with the various amplifiers and integrators scaled to operate within the
analog computer rating. This scaling is best illustrated by an example, and in Example
5.6 the scaling is given in detail for the simulation of the synchronous machine.
The initial conditions may be calculated from the steady-state equations (as in
Examples 5.1-5.3), and these values may be used to initialize the integrators. However,
the analog computer may be used to compute these initial conditions. To initialize the
system for analog computation, the following procedure is used. The integrator for the
speed is kept at hold position, maintaining the speed constant. The integrators for the
flux linkages are allowed to operate with the torque T, at zero. This builds the flux
linkages to values corresponding to the no-load conditions. The load T, is then applied
with the speed integrator in operation. The steady-state conditions thus reached cor-
respond to initialization of the system for transient studies.

Example 5.6
The synchronous machine discussed in Examples 4.1-4.3, 5. I , and 5.2 is to be simu-
lated on an analog computer. The operating conditions as stated in Example 5.1
represent the steady-state conditions. The system response to changes in U, and T, is
to be examined.
Solution
The data for the synchronous machine and transmission line in pu is given by:
L, = 1.700 L,D = 0.02838
L, = 1.640 L,e = 0.02836
LD = 1.605 r = 0.001096
Le = 1.526 rF = 0.00074
LAD = 1.550 rD = 0.0131
LA, = 1.490 rQ = 0.0540
LF = 1.651 R = 100.0
4d = = 0.150 R, = 0.02
&F = 0.101
4, = 0.055 H = 2.37 s
&Q= 0.036 T:,, = 5.90 s
Le = 0.400 V, = 0.828

The additional data needed is T, = 1.00 pu and E F D 2.666. Note that EFD = E in
E

the steady state. This value of E F D with the proper scaling is introduced into the in-
tegrator for A,.
As explained in Section 5.9.5, the analog computer is made to initialize itself by
allowing the integrators to reach the steady-state conditions in two steps. In the first
step E F D is applied with T, = 0 and w = w R = constant. Then T, is switched on
with all integrators, including the w integrator, in operation.
The basic connection diagrams for the analog simulation are given in Figures 5.12
5.17. The overall connection diagram is shown in Figure 5.18. In that figure the analog
unit numbers and the scaling factors for the various signals are given; e.g., the scaling
factor for A, is 10, which is given in parentheses. The time scaling used is 20. The
settings of the various potentiometers and the scaling are listed in Table 5 . I.
 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 177
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 Chapter 5
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 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 179
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180 Chapter 5

Fig. 5.19 Response of a machine initially at 90% load and 90% excitation to a 20% step change in excita-
tion.

The steady-state conditions reached by the analog computer are listed in Table 5.2.
They are compared with the values computed in Example 5.1.
Figures 5.19-5.21 show the following analog computer outputs: the change in the
exciter voltage E F D , the mechanical torque T,+, the electromagnetic torque T,,, the
field flux linkage A,, the stator d axis current id, the terminal voltage error V,,, the
angular velocity error a,, and the rotor angle 6 . The results of the simulation are
shown in Figures 5.19-5.23, where all plotted quantities are given in pu. Example 5.1 is
used as a base for the computer runs. Thus a 10% change in EFDis 0.2666, which is
10% of the nominal value computed in Example 5.1. Similarly, 10% T, is 0.3 pu, and
zero V,, corresponds to a terminal voltage V, of 6 p u (or V, = 1 .O).
 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 181

Fig. 5.20 Response of a machine initially at lOOu/, load (Example 5.1 conditions) to a 10% increase in T,
followed by a 10% increase in EFD to assure stable operation.

Figure 5.19 shows the response of the loaded machine to a 20% change in E F D . The
generator is initially loaded at 90% of rated load (T'+ = 2.7). Note that the response
to this change in E F D does not excite an oscillatory response except for a small, well-
damped oscillation in ob. The terminal voltage responds nearly as a first-order system
with a time constant of about 4 s (.io = 5.9 s).
Figure 5.20 shows the system response to 10% step changes in both T,,, and E F D . The
system is initially in exactly the condition calculated in Example 5.1 with computer
voltages given in Table 5.2. A 10% increase in T,,,is the first disturbance. This excites a
well-damped oscillatory response, particularly in T,, id, V,, w , and 6 (as well as other
variables that are not plotted). A good degree of damping is evident. However, this
182 Chapter 5

Fig. 5.21 Response of a machine initially at 90% load to a 20% increase in T,,,
followed by a 20% increase
in EFDto restore stability.

overload on the system results in a gradual increase in 6 with time, which if not arrested
will cause the machine to fall out of step. Repeated runs of the system have indicated
that corrective action is required before 6 reaches about 95". The corrective action
chosen was a 10% increase in EFD. This quickly restores the system to a stable operating
state at about the same angle 6 as the initial angle, but at a higher A, than the initial
value.
Figure 5.21 is similar to 5.20 except that the increments of T, and EFD are each 20%.
The system is initially at 9U% load and 90% EFD(0.9 x 2.666 = 2.399). Then a 20% step
increase in T,,,is applied. The result is a fast movement toward instability, as evidenced
by the rapid increase in 6 and the drop in terminal voltage. A 20% increase in EFD is
 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 183

Table 5.2. Comparison of Digital and Analog Computed Variables

Analog computed values Percent
Variable Computed value pu
V LW
error

I .732 68.66 1.717 -0.90

- 1.092 -44.I2 - I .I03 - 1.01
1.344 52.63 1.316 -2.10
- I .925 -38.39 - I .920 0.29
0.667 13.42 0.67I 0.60
2.979
1.634 48.12 1.604 - I .84
0.994 30.10 1.003 0.94
1.345 39.49 1.316 -2.13
I .094 33.10 1.103 0.85
I .935 19.04 I .904 - 1.60
3.004 29.97 2.997 -0.10
66.995 33.89 67.78 1.17
*Angle between q axis and infinite bus = 8 - a.

applied at about the time 6 reaches IOO”,and the system is quickly restored to a stable
operating state. Finally, the excess load and excitation are removed.
Figure 5.22 shows a plot in the phase plane, or uAversus 6, for exactly the same dis-
turbances as shown in Figure 5.20. The system “spirals” to the right, first very fast and
later very slowly, following the 10% increase in T,. Just prior to loss of synchronism a

Fig. 5.22 Phase-plane plot U A versus 6 for a 10% step increase in’T,,, followed by a 10% step increase in
EFD(see Figure 5.20). Initial conditions of Example 5. I.
184 Chapter 5

Fig. 5.23 Phase-plane plot 04 versus 6 for a 10% step increase in T, with initial conditions T, = 0.9,
EFD = 2.666.

IO?, increase in EFDcauses the system to return to about the original 6, following along
the lower trajectory.
Figure 5.23 shows a n example of a stable phase-plane trajectory. The system is
initially at 90% load but with 100% of the Example 5.1 computed value of E F D , or 2.666.
A 10% increase in T, causes the system to oscillate and to seek a new stable value of 6.
A comparison of Figures 5.22 and 5.23 shows the more rapid convergence to the target
value of 6 in the stable case.

5.10 Digital Simulation of Synchronous Machines

Early efforts in solving synchronous machine behavior by digital computer were
simply digital applications of the constant-voltage-behind-transient-reactance model,
using a step-by-step solution method similar to that of Kimbark [7]. As larger and
faster computers became available, engineers quickly realized that the digital computer
was a powerful tool for handling very large system of differential equations. This
caused an expansion in power plant modeling to include exciters, governors, and tur-
bines. I t also introduced more detailed synchronous machine models into many corn-
puter programs, usually in the form of one of the simplified models of Section 4.15.
More recent research [8,9]has been aimed at finding the best machine model for system
dynamic studies.
All digital computer simulations must solve the differential equations in a discrete
manner; Le., the time domain is broken up into discrete segments of length and
the equations solved for each segment. A simple flow chart of the process is shown
 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 185

nonlinearities

+ t= t c t

results

Fig. 5.24 Flow chart of digital integration.

in Figure 5.24. There are several proven methods for performing the actual numerical
integration, some of which are presented in Appendix E. Our concern in this book is
not with numerical methods, although this is important. Our principal concern is the
mathematical model used in the simulation. A number of models are given in Chap-
ter 4. We shall use the flux linkage model of Section 4.12 to illustrate a digital pro-
gram for calculating synchronous machine behavior in a numerical exercise.

5.10.1 Digital computation of saturation

One of the problems in digital calculation of synchronous machine behavior is the
determination of saturation. This is difficult because saturation is an implicit func-
tion; i.e., A,, = f ( A A D ) . Actually, A,, is a function ofi,, = id + iF + i,, which flows
in the magnetizing inductance L A D .But the currents id, iF, and i, depend upon AAo,
as shown clearly in the analog computer representation of Figure 5.12. Each integra-
tion step gives us new A’s by integration. From these A’s we compute .,i From
iMD we estimate saturation, which gives a new AAD, and this gives new currents,
and so on.
The first requirement in computing saturation is to devise some means of deter-
mining the amount of saturation corresponding to any given operating point on the
saturation curve. For this procedure the saturation curve is represented by a table
of data of stator EMF corresponding to given field current, by a polynomial approxi-
mation, or by an exponential estimate. The exponential estimate is often used since
exponentials are easy to compute. It is based upon computing the offset from the air
gap line in pu based on the field current required to produce rated open circuit voltage,
shown in Figure 5.25 as iFO. Usually it is assumed there is no saturation at 0.8 pu
186 Chapter 5

Field Current, IF, A 01 pu

Fig. 5.25 Estimating saturation as an exponential function.

voltage. We then compute the normalized quantities

iFI - iF0 iF3 - iF2 -
- iF3 - 1.2iFo
SGI = sG2 = (5.81)
im iF2 1.2iFO
Then any saturation may be estimated as an exponential function of the form
SG = AGf?8GvA (5.82)
where V, = V, - 0.8. Since at open circuit X A D = dV,
we,
can also compute satura-
tion in terms of X A D ,
SG = A c e x p [ ( X A ~ / d )- 0.81 (5.83)
This is appealing since X A D = (id + iF + iD)LAD and LADis the only inductance that
saturates appreciably.
If sGI and S G 2 are given, these values can be substituted into (5.82) to solve for the
saturation parameters A G and BG. From (5.81) and (5.82) we write
0.286 0.48 G
SG~
= Ace 1 . 2 s ~= ~Ace (5.84)
Rearranging, we compute
In(SGI/AG) = 0.2B~ I ~ ( ~ . ~ S G ~= /0.4BG
AG) (5.85)
Then
0.4BG = In( I . ~ S G , / A G=) In(SG, /AG)’

or
AG = sal / I .2SG2 (5.86)
This result may be substituted into (5.85) to compute
BG = 5 In (1.2sG2 /AsGI) (5.87)
Appendix D shows a plot of SGas a function of V,. The function SGis always positive
and satisfies the defined values SG, and s G 2 at r/; = 1 .O and 1.2 respectively. Although
we define saturation to be zero for V, < 0.8 pu, actually SGassumes a very small posi-
 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 187

tive value in this voltage range. The exponential function thus gives a reasonably
accurate estimate of saturation for any voltage.
From (5.81) we can write for any voltage level,
SG = (iF - kiFO)/kiFO (5.88)
where iF is the field current required to produce an open circuit voltage V,, including
the effect of saturation. If the air gap line has a slope (resistance) R we have V, =
RkiFo. Then, from (5.81)
s ~ ( 5 =) (RiF - RkiFo)/RkiFo = (Rip - K)/K
from which we may write the nonlinear equation
= Rip - K s ~ ( 4 ) (5.89)
where Rip is the voltage on the air gap line corresponding to field current i F . Be-
cause of saturation, the actual terminal voltage is not Rip but is reduced by an amount
V,SGwhere SG is a function of V,. Equation (5.89) describes only the no-load condi-
tion. However, we usually assume that saturation has a similar effect under load; Le.,
it reduces the terminal voltage by an amount V,SGfrom the unsaturated value.

Example 5.7
Determine the constants A G and B G needed to compute saturation by means of the
exponential definition, given the following data from the saturation curve.
V, = 1.0 PU S G l = 30 A

V, = 1.2 P U SGZ= 120 A

The field current corresponding to V, = 1.0 on the air gap line is iFo = 365 A.
Solution
From (5.81) we compute in pu
= 30/365 = 0.08219
SG~ S G=
~ 120/1.2(365) = 0.27397
Then from (5.86)
AG (0.08219)2/1.2(0.27397) = 0.0205
and from (5.87)
BG = 5 In [1.2(0.27397/0.08219] = 6.9315

5.10.2 Updating the integrands

After computing the new value of saturation for each new time step, we are ready
to update the integrands in preparation for numerical integration. This process is
illustrated by an example.

Example 5.8
Prepare a FORTRAN computer program to compute the integrands of the flux
linkage model for one machine against an infinite bus using the machine data of the
Chapter 4 examples. Include in the program a treatment of saturation that can be
188 Chapter 55
Chapter

* * * * C CCNCTNI T I N UGUS S
NUGUS SYYS
STTE
EMM MODEL
M O D E LIIN
N6G PPROGRAM
ROGRAM****

VERSION 1.3

Fig. 5.26 CSMP

Fig.5.26 CSMPprogram forcomputing
program for computing initial
initial conditions.
conditions.
 Machines
Simulation of Synchronous Machines 189
189

Fig. 5.26 (continued)

1 90 Chapter 5

Fig; 5.26 (continued)

 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 191

executed prior to integration at each time step. Include a local load on the generator
bus in the computation. Use the Continuous System Modeling Program (CSMP)
[IO] for solving the equations and plotting the results.

Solution
An essential part of the computer program is a routine to compute the initial condi-
tions. As noted in Examples 5.1-5.3, this computation depends upon the boundary
conditions that are specified. The boundary conditions chosen for this example are
those of Example 5.3, viz., P and at the generator terminals. The FORTRAN
coding for this section of the program is included in the portion of the program listing
in Figure 5.26 called INITIAL. Note that the statement of the problem does not give
any explicit numerical boundary condition. This is one of the advantages of a. com-
puter program: once it is written and verified, problems with different boundary condi-
tions but of the same type can be solved with ease. The boundary conditions specified
in Figure 5.26give P = 1.00 (PGEN), V, = 1.17(VT),and V , = I.OO(VINF).
I . Make a preliminary estimate of XAD (AAD is named WADS in the program; W being
used for X and S meaning “saturated”).

2. Compute the new currents. From the equations

id = ( A d - XAD>/‘?!d i~ = (XF - X A D ) / ~ F
iD = (AD - X A D ) / { D iMD = id + +
iF iD (5.91)

we compute an estimate of the new currents. This estimate is not exact because the
value of X A D used in (5.91) is the value computed at the start of the last A t ,
whereas the flux linkages Ad, X F , and AD are the integrated new values. Thus iMD
computed by (5.91) does not correspond to point A of Figure 5.27, but to some new
point B. Since X A D is a function of the currents and of saturation, we must find the
correct new X A D iteratively. We do this by changing our estimated XAD slightly
until iMDagrees with X A D on the saturation curve, or until points A and B of Figure
5.27 coincide.
3. To estimate the new XAD, we compute the saturation function SGD= f ( X A D ) in the

Fig. 5.27 Saturation curve for the magnetizing inductance L A D .

192 Chapter 5

Fig. 5.28 CSMP program for updating integrands.

 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 193

usual way, using (5.83). Then we compute A. and A N , defined in Figure 5.27,
A0 = AAD(1 + SGD) AN = L A D i M D

Then the error measured on the air gap line is X E = AN - A,, and the error mea-
sured on the saturation curve is approximately
AA = + SGD)

Now define a new A,, to be GAD, defined as G A D = XAD + AA. Then we compute
GAD = AAD + ( A N - Ao)/(I + S G D )= L A D ~ M D / (+
~ SGD)
4. Now we test GAD to see if it is significantly different from A A D ; Le., we compute
?
I GAD - AAD I < f

where E is any convenient precision index, such as If the test fails, we esti-
mate a new A A D from
neWA,D A
= FAD = AAD - h ( G A D - AAD)
where h is chosen to be a number small enough to prevent overshoot; typically,
h = 0.01. Now the entire procedure is repeated, returning to step 1 with the XAD =
F A D , finding new currents, etc. As the process converges, we will know both the new
current and the new saturated value of A A D .
The second part of the program computes the integrands of all equations in prepa-
ration for integration (integration is indicated in the program by the macro INTGTL).
The computer program for updating the integrands is shown in Figure 5.28.
The computed output of several variables to a step change in T,,, and E F D is
shown in Figures 5.29-5.40. Computer mnemonics are given in Table 5.3. In both
cases, the step input is applied at t = TSTART = 0.2 s.
 I .ma- Response to a 10% step increase in T,,, 1 1 .
I l l
I l l
I l l

-- I - - - II
---
l l

il I
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l l
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l l

A
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--...
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0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Time, s

1.6629 -. . .
I l l 1 1
I I I I l .
I I I I I I
Response to a 57; step increase in EFD
I I I I I I
I I I I I I

1.6406

1.6182
2
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.-- I I
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I 1 I
I l l
!

A I 1 I
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I l l
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I l l
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0 0.5 1.o 18 2.0 2.5

Time, a

Fig. 5.29 d axis flux linkages Ad.

 2.2548

a
iL
d

2.2287'

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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
6 0:s 1.o 1.5 2.15
The, s
Fig. 30 Field flux linkages XI;.
 * * . I
1 1 1 . 1 . .
+ + i i i i i i i
. *.. *. ..
. ? f f ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
. I . I , r I . I

i i i i i
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
1 1 I l I
I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1
c c c c c
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
!!!:!
i i i i i
I I I I I
I I I I I
...-3--
1 1 1 1 l
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
1 1 1 1 I
I I I I I

-----
I
I
I
I
I I I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I

1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I
I I I I I
1 1 1 1 I
1 1 1 1 I
I I I I I
1 l 1 1 1
I----

1 1 1 1 1
I l i l l
I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I
I I I I I
1 l 1 1 1
1 . 8 0 0 .-!.,
I I I I I I
0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 2.5
lime, s

1.89827 ;;;; Response to a 5':d step increase in EFD

I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I I .
I I I I I
1
I
1
I
e-.-+-...
1
I
1
I
1
I

I
1
1
I

I
1
1
I

I
I
--
I +
ccccc..

I I I I I I 1
I I I I I 1 1 .

iiii
I l l 1 1 I 1 I
I 1 I
1.8679--j I .

I I I I I
M - 1 - 1 -.-
II 1I

.
1 1 1 1 I I 1
a I
I
I
l
l
I
l
l
I
1
1
I I
1
1
I I
I 1
I I I I I + I
P 1
I
1
l l
1
1
1 I
1
I
I
1
1 + I 1
* I l l
d I 1
I I I I I I
I 1I + * l l l I
I I I I I 1 1 1 l I I
c . - c - - I- 3-----

1.8375-;
I
:;;;
I I I I I

I I I 1
l l
I 1
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I. I
I 1 1 1 1 I l
1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I 1
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I
I 1 1 1 1 I
I I
1 I I I I I I
..--e- e
.. - - c 1 - I
1 1 1 1 * 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I 1
1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I
I I I I I I l l 1 1 1
I I I I I 1 1 1 1 8 1 I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1.@tJ&.!.
I
.!, .! .!,.!. I
-I
t
-...----
I I I I I I
I 1 1 1 1 1

0 1 :o 1.5 210 2 .-5

lime, s

Fig. 5.31 daxis amortisseur flux linkages AD.

196
 Response to a 10% step increase in T,,,
1.9404 --

b
b 1.9193
<
--

I
I

I
r
I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
-.
I

I
I
I

1 . 8 ~ ~
0 0;s 1 Io 2;o 2.-5
Time, s

1.8982-; ;;;
I I I I I t
I I I I
I I I I I Il .l
I I I I
1 1 1 1 I l l .
I l l 1 I I I I
I l l 1 I l l 1
c c c c -e-..-
I I I I 1 1 1 1 *
I l l 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I

.
b
n
1.8679--:
I
1
l
1
I
I
I I I I I
I l l 1 I
l
1
-: : I
I
1
1
1 1 1 1 l
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
1 .
I
I
I
I
1
I II .I
I
I I I
4 - - I C
k

..
I l l 1 I I I I I
I l l 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I + I I .
I I I I I I I I I . , a , .
I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 r i i i i i r
I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 I I I I I
1-11 *I---
I l l 1 I I I I I
1.8374-: I
I ; I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 I I I I I
I I I I I l l 1 1
I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
I I I I 1 1 1 1 1
w e - - -I---
I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 , I I I I I
I I I I I I
l l 1
I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I 1 1 1 I I
I l l 1 I I I I I
I I I I 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I I I
1.8ooo-L L L L I I
---I-
I I I

1
0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 2.5
lime, I
Fig. 5.32 Saturated d axis mutual flux linkages A A ~ s .

197
 0.21119 Response to a lax step increase in T,,,

3 0.19283 -
v)
-.--.--e-

r ,

0.17446 - + + + + + i i
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
----..---
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I

-------
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
11---1-
I I I I I I I
1 1 1 , 1 1 1
1 l 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I
1 1 1 l 1 1 1
I I I I I I I
1 1 1 l 1 1 1

:A A ,!. L:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 . 1 m :-I
I
0 015 1 io 2:o 215
Time, s

*..
I
I
l
I
l
I
.
I
Response to a 5'2, step increase in EFD
I I I I .
I I I I I
L - C C e - C e -
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I l l l .
I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 l
1 1 1 1 1 1 .
I I I I I I
I I I I I l .
I I I I I I I
L.-------L.
I
0.15546-!
I
I
I
I

I
0.13245--f
I
I

0.12OOo-:
I I I I I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Time, t

Fig. 5.33 d axis saturation function SGD.

198
 Response to a 10% step increase in T,,,
1 .W14

a.
M i
0.5945

0.9800

0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 2.5

Time, s

Response to a 5% step increase in EFD

1.1 I76 -
.
I-

i i
.I I I
I l l . .I I1
1 1 1 1 l l +
c c
I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 i i i i i i
I I I I I I1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 I l l 1 I l l 1
+ I I I I I I 1
I I I I I I I I .
1 1 1 1 1 1 * I l l 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I
I! !!!!!: !!!:!
a 1
I
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
- - I c . . . c - - - - - - I - I I I c
1 1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1.0766- I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
I 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 .
I C C C - ” C L C - - L C c . - . C C . .
1 l 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 I
I I I I I I I
l I I I I I 1
I I I I I I I
1.1 I ! I I I

I-

1.0355-

0.5945

0.9800
0 015 1 2;o
Time, s
Fig. 5.34 Line current i,.

199
 3.1W3- Response to a 10% step increase in T,,,

3.0322 -

3.00757 ; ;
3.oooo-!. .! L
I
0 0 I 1 :o 1.5 2:o
llme, s

Response to a 5% step increase in EFD

II

3.0616-

I
0 0 1 :o 2.0 2:s
lime, E

Fig. 5.35 Field current if.

200
 Response to a 10% step increase in T,,,
..- -
. . . . .
I I I
I.

I
- - - - ......................
I
c e c ......... ..... .*
8 4.00343. -i I ii I 1

...... ...
I l l 1 1 I 1
* * . * I I I I I I I 1
I I I I I * * . * * . * I I I I I 1 1 I I I I 1
n
m
I I I
I I I
I l .
I I l + .
I l l
I I I I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l
I I
l
I
l l
I
I
1
I
1
-0.00687 -1
- ... ...- ..
I I
I I I
I I
r
I
I I I I I
1 I I l l
1 1 1
c w
1 I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I
-I c- c
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
e.
.. c I
I I
..........
1 1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
I
I
I
-1-1..
I I
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
--
I

II 1
I
I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l l l l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l l l I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I

-------...
I 1
0 l
1 1 1
I
I
I

l
1
I

I
I
I

I
l
I

I
l
I
I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I I I I I 1
*----------
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.........
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
l
1
1
1
1
1
l 1
l
1
1
1
1
1
I

1
I I I I I
I I I I I
1-11-
I I l I 1
I
-c
I I
I

I l I * I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II 1
I
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I 1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I
-0*02000 -L!..LL.!.!.!.L !,""'A'.!.!.! I 1 1
F...-......----
1 1 1 1 I 1
---..-
I I I I I I I

I 0.5
I
1 .o
I t t
2.c 2.5
t
0 1.5
Time, I

Response to a 5% step increase in .EFD

0.03075 - 1 I
1

................................................... i i
I

I I
t

I ,

0.01866-
c

i ; + i i + I
I I I I I I .l I l +
I l l 1

I l l
...............................
II

I I
I1
I
1

1
l
1

1
l
1

1
1
1

1
I l l

I I I I
* I l l I 1 1 1 1 1
a.0.00657- I I I I
I
I I I I
l l 1
I 1
II I1

I I
*
I
1
I
l
1
I
l
1
I
1
1
I
I I I I 1 1 1 1 I
n I 1
CI

I
I
- c b - C C -
I
I
I
l
I
I
I
l
I
I
I
I
I
1
.............
I I

l l *
1
I
1
I
I I I I I
I I
1
I

I
1
I

I
1
I

I
......
1 1 1 1 I l l I I I I I
I l l

..
I l l 1 I l l 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I l l I I I I I
I l l 1 I l l I I I I I
. * * I I I I I l l I I I l l
I I I I
I 1 I I I I I I I I l l 1 1 1 1 1
I I I
_ I I I I I I I I

i i
I I
II 1I

I I
I I
I I
I I
I I

-0.01762-!
-0.02000 -- I I

I
I I
0 0.5 1 ;o 1.5 2.5
The, s

Fig. 5.36 d axis amortisseur current iD.

20 1
 Response to a 10% step increase in T,,,
1. I826 --..
. . I
I I
I I
I I
I
-_
I I
I 1

a. 1.1763-
I
I
I
I
I
>- * . I
I
I

-i -i -i
1 . . I

r
I l l I
I l l 1I
I l l
I l l
I l l I
I l l I

....
I l l I
I l l

1700-; I I I I
- e - L

I I I I I I l l I
I l l I
I l l 1 I l l I
I I l l 1 I l l I
I I I I I I l l
I I I I I I l l
I I I I I I l l I

-
I I
I

I I
I 1
I
I I I I
- e - -
I I I
1
I

1
I

1
I l l
-c
I l l
I -
I
I
I l l I
I l l , I l l I
I I I I I I l l I
I I I I I , , I
I I I I I l , I I
I I I I I l l I

-
I I l l 1
I I I I
-.-.--
I 1I 1I 1I 1
I
I lI lI
--..
I l l
-
I

I
I I l l
I I I I
I I I l l I
I I I I I I I
I l l 1 I l l I
I II Il Il I1 I l l
I I l l I

- ----
I I I I I
I

I I
I
I I
l l 1
I
I
-.-.-
I
l
I

l
l
I

l
-
I
I
1 I l l
I 1 I l l I
I I I I I l l I
I I I I I l l
I I I I I I l l I
I I I I I l l
I 1 1 1 1 I I I I
I I I I I

I 1
I I I I
I- - I -
1 ' 1
I
--..
l

I l l
l
-
I
I
I
I IiiI
I I I I
I l l
I l l
I l l
1
I I l l 1 I l l I
I I I I I l l
I I I I I I I I I

1500-A ----
1 1 1 1
I I I I
I ll ll
...--
I

I I
0 1 .o 1 .5 2.0
Time, s

Response to a 57, step increase in EFD

I . 1708- . .
I
I
t
I I I
I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
** .
* -.. -.- -. . .
& .I

I
I
I
I
I
I
,----_ . I - - -, 1 - - -------- - - I - - - _

I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I
I
I
I I
I I
L eo-
I I I
I I I
I
r
I
I
I I I I I I I
I
e
I
I
I I
- - .
I I
I I
I I
- -
I I
I I
-
I
I
I
--.. . - e - C e C - r

I I I I I I I I I I
1.1642-1I J
I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I
O
I
I
I I I I I I I I I I
.1 1-.
-*. - ---- ...
I I I I I I I I I I a .
I
I
I
I
I
I
c
I
I
I I I I I I I I I I
I
I
II
I
I
- --
I
I
I I
I I
I
I
I I I I I
I I I
.

I
-I-

l l I

..
3 I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I I I
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I l l I lI lI 1I l1 .
I
n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I l l
) I t 1 I I I I I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I
>-
-..--
I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 I l l I I I I I I I I

1.1n6-:
I I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I

:::::::; :
--------e-
I
I
I
I
.-.-.-.-
I l l 1 I
I I I I I
I
I I
---
I I l l

I
l
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I I I I
l I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I I I
.*
I I I O I I I I I I I I I I l I I l I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I l l 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l 1 1 l 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I l I I
I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I
-I.--.----...- -4.- -...--I..-- 4-1-1
I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I
l I l . I I I I I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I l l
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I l l I I $ I l I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 l l I I I I I I I I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I

I
I I I I
1.1500-L !..!, .!,!! .!, A L A !.
I I I I I

I
I I I I I l l I I I I I I I I
I l
- - - I
l 1

-"-I
- ...
1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1
he -I -c

I
I
I
I
I
---MI
I
I
I
I
I
I

I
0 05
: 1 :o 1.5 2.0 2.5
rime, I

Fig. 5.37 Terminal voltage V,.

 Response to a 10% step increase in T,

0 1 ;o 1.5 2;o
Time, s

0 0.5 1 .o 1.5 2.0 2.5

Time, s
Fig. 5.38 Torque angle 6 in degrees.
 Response to a 10% step increase in T,,,

-----..-
. . . . .
. .

t
0 1l o
Time, s

0.00185 - I
I
Response to a Sg step increase in EFD
1
8

0.00102

!
I .

3
n.
P 0.00019

-0.00064

-0.00147
4.00160
,O 1 ;5 2.0
Time, I

Fig. 5.39 Speed deviation ub in pu.

 Response to a loo/, step increase in T,,,
3JoOo--’ I
I
+
I
I
..
I
I
I
I
f

I
I
I
I
* * .
I I I t +
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
. * * * *
I l
I l l 1
l 1
+.*+**.**.*..
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I I I I I I I 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
I 1 I l l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I l l 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I
..-_-...^-I-- I - - -

I I I l l l l l l l l l I l l 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I
I I I l I l l l l l l 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I
1
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I l l 1 I I I I
a I
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206 Chapter 5

Table 5.3. Computer Mnenomics of Output Variables

Figure Variable Computer mnemonic
5.29 Ad WD
5.30 AF WF
5.3 I AD WKD
5.32 XADS WADS
5.33 SCD SG D
5.34 ia IA
5.35 iF IFF
5.36 iD IKD
5.37 v, VT
5.38 6 (in degrees) DLD
5.39 W A (in pu) DOMU
5.40 Tt, TE

Problems
5. I The synchronous machine discussed in Examples 5.1 and 5.2 is operating at rated terminal
voltage, and its output power is 0.80 pu. The angle between the q axis and the terminal
voltage is 45". Find the steady-state operating condition: the d and q axis voltages,
currents, flux linkages, and the angle 4.
5.2 The same synchronous machine connected to the same transmission line, as i n Examples
5.1 and 5.2, has a local load of unity power factor, which is represented by a resistance
R = 10 pu. The infinite bus voltage is 1.0 pu. The power at the infinite bus is 0.9 pu
at 0.9 PF lagging. Find the operating condition ofthe machine.
5.3 Repeat Problem 5.2 with the machine output power being 0.9 pu at 0.9 PF lagging.
5.4 I n the system of one synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus through a trans-
mission line (discussed in Examples 5.1, 5.2, and 5.6) the synchronous machine is to be
represented by the simplified model known as the one-axis model given in Section 4.15.
Prepare a complete analog computer simulation of this system. Indicate the signal levels
for the operating conditions of Example 5.1, the amplitude and time scaling, the po-
tentiometer settings, and the amplifier gains. Note: In the load equations, assume that
~,i= , lei, = 0..
5.5 Repeat Problem 5.4 using the two-axis model of Section 4.15.
5.6 Repeat Problem 5.4 using the voltage-behind-subtransient-reactance model of Section 4. 15.
5.7 In the analog computer simulation shown in Figure 5.13 and Table 5.1. the time scaling
is (20). If the time scaling is changed to (lo), identify the amplifiers and potentiometers
in Table 5. I that will be affected.
5.8 I n Figure 5.13 the signal to the resolver represents the infinite bus voltage. I f the level
of this signal is reduced by a factor of 2 while the level of all the other signals are
maintained, identify the potentiometer and amplifier settings that need adjustment.

References
I . IEEE Committee Report. Recommended phasor diagram for synchronous machines. IEEE Trans.
PAS-88:1593-1610, 1969.
2. Krause, P. C . Simulation of a single machine--infinite bus system. Mimeo notes, Electr. Eng. Dept.,
Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, Ind.. 1967.
3. Buckley, D . F. Analog computer representation of a synchronous machine. Unpubl. M.S. thesis,
Iowa State Univ., Ames, 1968.
4. Riaz, M. Analogue computer representations of synchronous generators in voltage regulator studies.
AI&& Trans. PAS-75: I I78--84, 1956.
5. Schroder, D. C., and Anderson, P. M . Compensation of synchronous machines for stability. Paper
C 73 313-4, presented at the IEEE Summer Power Meeting, Vancouver, B.C., Canada. 1973.
6. Electronic Associates, Inc. Handbook of Analog Compurarion. 2nd ed. Publ. 00800.0001-3. Princeton,
N.J.,1967.
 Simulation of Synchronous Machines 207

7. Kimbark. E. W. Power System Stahiliry. Vol. I . Wiley. New York, 1948.

8. Dandeno, P. L., Hauth, R . L.. and Schulz, R . P. ElTects of synchronous machine modeling in large-sale
system studies. IEEE Trans. PAS-92:574-.82, 1973.
9. Schulz. R . P., Jones, W. D., and Ewart. D. N. Dynamic models of turbine generators derived from
solid rotor equivalent circuits. lEEE Trans. PAS-92:926-33. 1973.
IO. International Business Machines. System/360 Continuous System Modeling Program Users Manual,
GH2O-0367-4. IBM Corp.. 1967.