Work and Energy

Parker Solar Probe

Launched 12 Aug 2018
Probe mass 685 kg
Delta IV Heavy Rocket
Rocket mass 725 tonnes
Thrust 9.34 MN
Initial speed approx.
17 km/s, increasing to 100
km/s (solar flyby),
ultimately approx. 200 km/s

https://www.nasa.gov https://www.ulalaunch.com/missions/archived-launched/delta-iv-parker-solar-probe

© University of the Witwatersrand 1

Work and Energy
Textbook Sections and Topics

18.1 Kinetic Energy

18.2 The Work of a Force
18.3 The Work of a Couple
18.4 Principle of Work and Energy
18.5 Conservation of Energy

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Kinematics
Particles Rigid Bodies
Chapter 12 Chapter 16
12.1-8 Review (self study)
12.5 Curvilinear Motion (x-y-z)
12.7 Curvilinear Motion (n-t)
12.8 Curvilinear Motion (r--z)
12.10 Relative motion,
Translating axes
16.1 Planar rigid-body motion
16.2 Translation
16.3 Rotation about a fixed axis
16.4 Absolute general plane motion
16.5 Relative motion: velocity
16.6 Instantaneous Centre of Zero Velocity
16.7 Relative motion: acceleration
Textbook: Engineering Mechanics DYNAMICS, Hibbeler, 13th or 14th edition
Overview
Kinetics
Force and Work and Impulse and
Acceleration Energy Momentum
Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19
17.1 Mass moment of inertia
17.2 Planar kinetic equations of motion
17.3 Equations of motion: translation
17.4 Equations of motion: rotation about a fixed axis
17.5 Equations of motion: general plane motion
18.1 Kinetic energy
18.2 The work of a force
18.3 The work of a couple
18.4 Principle of work and energy
18.5 Conservation of energy
15.1-7 Review impulse and momentum of a particle
19.1 Linear and angular momentum
19.2 Principle of impulse and momentum
19.3 Conservation of momentum
19.4 Eccentric impact
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 Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

Introduction
Unlike particles that were studied in previous sections on
kinematics, rigid bodies possess mass that is distributed
geometrically around the body, such that the body has a
centre of mass and a mass moment of inertia.

When such a body was at rest or was already in motion, it was shown that
external forces and moments acting on the body caused changes in the
motion of the body in accordance with Newton’s laws. These laws related the
applied forces and moments to the resulting accelerations by means of the
mass or mass moment of inertia of the body.

In the previous section, the focus was on the resulting acceleration of a body
that experienced applied forces and moments. If the focus is, instead, on the
resulting velocity of the body, then it is possible to use Work and Energy
Methods directly without first applying Newton’s laws.
In this section, it will be seen that by integrating Newton’s laws along a path, the
relationship between Work and Energy can be established, which relate forces
and moments and their resulting displacements to energy changes in the body.
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Summary
In Newton’s law, if the resultant force acting on a
body is integrated over the path s from
position 1 to position 2, then a relationship between
Work and Energy results
Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

This can be extended to the effect of a resultant moment acting on a body causing
angular displacement , which results in a change in rotational kinetic energy.

The sum of all the work contributions done on a body or system due to forces and
moments will result in a change in the total kinetic energy of the body or system,
from an initial state to a final state. This will be the underlying principle of the
Work-Energy method.

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Introduction Newton’s law

Integrate over path s Integrate over time t

Work / Energy Kinetics Impulse / Momentum

Velocity v,  Velocity v, 
Acceleration a, 
Displacement s,  Time t

Kinematics

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18.1 Kinetic Energy
For a rigid body composed of n particles the total
kinetic energy may be determined from examining
the ith particle which has mass dmi and velocity vi
and integrating over the entire mass of the body
Particle Body
KE KE

If Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

then taking the dot product of vi to yield vi2, setting P to be the mass
centre G, and summing over the entire body, it may be shown that
the kinetic energy of the body can be described by
where vG is the velocity of the mass centre of
the body, IG is the mass moment of inertia of the
body, and  is the angular velocity of the body.
Total body KE = sum of translational and rotational KEs of the rigid body

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18.1 Kinetic Energy – Pure Translation

When a rigid body is subjected to

rectilinear or curvilinear translation (where
the body’s orientation relative to some
fixed axis remains constant), the angular
velocity and therefore the rotational kinetic
energy are zero.

Therefore, the kinetic energy is

Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

Joules

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18.1 Kinetic Energy – Rotation about a Fixed Axis
When a rigid body is rotating about a fixed
axis passing through point O, the body has
both translational and rotational kinetic energy
rG associated with the mass centre. Thus,

Joules

However, due to circular motion of G around O, vG = rG

Joules

since (Parallel Axis Theorem)

only applies for pure rotation about fixed point O.

Ref Hibbeler Dynamics © University of the Witwatersrand 9

18.1 Kinetic Energy – General Plane Motion
When a rigid body is subjected to general
plane motion it has an angular velocity  and
its mass centre has a velocity vG. The kinetic
energy is therefore

Joules
In general plane motion, if motion can be related
to the Instantaneous Centre of Zero Velocity, the
kinetic energy is
Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

Joules

where IIC is the mass moment of inertia of the

body about the IC and requires the Parallel Axis
Theorem to transfer I from G to the IC.
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18.2 The Work of a Force
Work of a Variable Force
If an external force F acts on a body, where
this force varies in direction and magnitude,
the work done by the force is

where  is measured between the tails of the

force and displacement vectors.
Alternately, the work done is related to the component of the force acting in
the same direction as the resulting displacement.
Work done is positive if F and s are in the same direction.
Work of a Constant Force
If the external force is constant in magnitude (denoted Fc) and direction , while the
body undergoes a translation s, then the work of the force is J
where is the component of F in the direction of s.

© University of the Witwatersrand Ref Hibbeler Dynamics 11

18.2 The Work of a Force
Datum (2)
Work of a Weight
If a body is raised or lowered within a
gravitational field, then work is done when +
2
the centre of mass undergoes a vertical
displacement y. If the displacement is in Datum (1)
the direction of the weight (downward),
the work done is positive, while if the 1 Ref Hibbeler Dynamics
displacement is upward, the work is
negative. From 1 to 2, y+, UW negative
Joules From 2 to 1, y-, UW positive

where y is measured upwards positive. Similarly, if y is negative it

implies downwards motion, and UW is positive.

A general rule is that work that is done in the same direction as a force
acts is positive, while that in the opposite direction of a force is negative.
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18.2 The Work of a Force
Work of a Spring Force
If a linear spring is attached to a body,
work is done when either the spring
stretches or compresses from s1 to a
further position s2. The spring force is
given by Fs=ks and is not constant. If the
displacement is in the opposite direction
Datum
to the action of the force, the work done
on the spring will be negative. Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

The work done on the spring to change its length from s1 to s2 is

J, where

Note that the datum for measuring displacement is the spring’s

unstretched length, where s = 0.
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Work of a Spring Force

Three lengths of interest:

• Unstretched length l0
(also known as “free length”)
• Initial stretched length s1
• Final stretched length s2

Notes:
• Sometimes the free length is
given in the problem statement,
from which s1 and s2 are
determined from geometry.
• Sometimes the problem
statement indicates that a certain
amount of stretch is already
accounted for at position s1.
• Sometimes s1 = 0.
© University of the Witwatersrand 14
 Ref Hibbeler Dynamics

18.2 The Work of a Force

Forces that do No Work
In some cases, forces act on rigid bodies but do s
no work. These forces either act at points on
the body that experience zero displacement or
are situated perpendicular to the applied
displacement (in which case Fcos = 0).
If a disc rolls without slipping then the contact point of the disc and the surface
has zero velocity (and also zero displacement). The friction force therefore
does no work! This is not the case if the disc is slipping, though, when friction
does negative work as it always opposes the slipping.
Other examples:
• the weight of the disc and the reaction N in the figure above do no work as
they are perpendicular to the disc’s displacement*,
• reaction forces at a pin joint about which a body rotates do no work,
• internal forces within a body, or between inter-connected bodies, do no
work as they cancel each other in relation to direction (and therefore sign).
* Note that on an inclined plane the weight does work when the body changes height
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 18.3 The Work of a Couple
A rigid body may be subjected to couple forces of
magnitude F acting in opposite directions and separated
by a distance r. This results in a moment M = Fr. The two
opposite forces F will produce differential translational
displacements that will cancel, but the angular differential
displacements will not cancel. The result is that the
applied couple will do work on the body in causing the
angular displacement. The work is positive when the
couple M results in an angular displacement d in the
same direction as M.

For motion from  to  (radians) the work done is

J “couple” and
“moment” terms
are used Ref Hibbeler Dynamics
If M is constant, then J interchangeably.

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Summary of Work Terms
• Work of a Force  Work done by Force or
Moment is positive if the
displacement is in the same
• Work of a Moment direction as F or M.

• Work of a Spring
 Work done on a spring to stretch it is negative, and work done by a spring
is positive if it reduces its stretch while acting on the body
• Weight
 Work done in raising and objective is negative, and work done by a
weight in the direction of the weight vector is positive.
• Friction
 Work done against sliding friction is always negative

© University of the Witwatersrand 17

Test your knowledge (Sections 18.1-18.3)
True or False:
1. Energy methods may be applied in situations where velocities of bodies
are the focus.
2. Only forces and moments do work on bodies.
3. In pure translation, all points on a rigid body experience the same
velocity, which is equal to vG, the velocity of the mass centre.
4. The total kinetic energy of a rigid body is equal to
5. The kinetic energy of a body rotating about a fixed point is
6. Negative work is conducted on a spring when it is stretched.
7. Work done to raise a weight relative to a datum is positive.
8. All external forces acting on a rigid body do work.
9. A moment acting on a body always results in work being done.
10. A spring does positive work on a body when the body moves in the
direction of the spring force.
© University of the Witwatersrand Answers: T, F, T, T, F, T, F, F, F, T
 18.4 Principle of Work and Energy
A rigid body may have initial translational and rotational kinetic energy. If
work is now done on the body by external forces and moments, then its
energy will change to its final kinetic energy state.

If useful energy is not lost from the system, the principle of work and energy
may be represented as follows:
Joules

where T1 is the initial kinetic energy of the body (rotational + translational),

U1-2 is the work done by external forces and moments, and T2 is the final
kinetic energy of the body. 1 and 2 represent initial and final states.

This equation is a scalar equation. It can be applied to a system of rigid

bodies by summing contributions from all bodies in the system. The
connections via pins or inextensible cables or meshing of gears generate
internal forces whose work contributions cancel each other and are ignored.
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18.4 Principle of Work and Energy
Procedure:
Use principle of work and energy to solve problems involving velocity,
force and displacement (and their angular counterparts).
Kinetic energy:
• Two types: translational and rotational kinetic energy.
• Use of kinematics to establish relationship(s) between vG and (discs
rolling without slipping, etc.)
Work:
• Draw free-body diagram(s) at an intermediate point/points along the
path and identify relevant datums. Account for all forces and moments
which do work on the body/bodies, including friction.
• Integrate forces and moments that are functions of displacements.
• Account for vertical changes in centre of mass (positive work when
body moves in direction of weight vector).
• Account for work of springs by noting direction s relative to force.
• Solve scalar equation for one unknown
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18.5 Conservation of Energy
If conservative forces act on a system, then the conservation of energy theorem
may be used to solve rigid body problems. Conservative forces are independent
of the path followed and depend only on the initial and final positions of the
body. The Conservation of Energy approach looks at the energies at two end
states, rather than the work required to get from one state to another.

Gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy of springs are

examples of cases where the initial and final states of energy relative to some
arbitrary datum matter and are independent of the path.

Datum:
unstretched
length of
spring

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18.5 Conservation of Energy
When a rigid body is acted upon by a system of conservative forces, the
work done by these forces is conserved. Thus, the sum of kinetic energy
and potential energy remains constant.
This principle is called conservation of energy and is expressed as:

where T represents kinetic energies and V represents potential energies

at the initial state (subscript 1) and final state (subscript 2).

In other words, as a rigid body moves from one position to another when
acted upon by only conservative forces, kinetic energy is converted to
potential energy and vice versa. Note that Work/Energy and Conservation
of Energy methods are equivalent for conservative systems, but only the
Work-Energy method can account for non-conservative forces such as
friction, where useful energy is lost.

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18.5 Conservation of Energy
Procedure:
Use conservation of energy to solve problems involving velocity, force
and displacement (and their angular counterparts).

Potential energy:
• Draw diagrams showing the body in initial and final positions.
• If the mass centre experiences a vertical displacement establish a
horizontal datum from which to measure Vg (with positive upwards).
• Determine potential energy V = Vg + Ve where Vg may be positive or
negative relative to the datum and Ve is always positive.

Kinetic energy:
• Two types: translational and rotational kinetic energy.
• Use of kinematic diagrams to establish relationship between vG and 

Account for Work/energy associated with springs/weights only once!

© University of the Witwatersrand 23
Common errors
1 1
T  mv G2  I O  2 for a body rotating about O .
2 2

1 1
m v G 2  v G 1   I G  2   1 
2 2
T 
2 2

1 1
mv 12  mgh 1  mg (  y )  mv 22  mgh 2
2 2

© University of the Witwatersrand 24

Test your knowledge (Sections 18.4-18.5)
True or False:
1. Work done on, or by, a system will result in changes in the kinetic energy
of the bodies in the system.
2. Conservative forces depend on the path followed between two end
states.
3. Problems involving velocities of bodies may be solved using either work-
energy or conservation of energy approaches.
4. Real systems that lose energy to heat cannot be modelled using energy
methods.
5. Friction does no work in a disc that rolls without slipping.
6. A block that is sliding at a constant velocity does not experience work
associated with friction.
7. An arbitrary datum may be used when determining gravitational potential
energy, while the datum for a spring is its unstretched length.
© University of the Witwatersrand Answers: T, F, T, F, T, F, T