TUNNELS &

TUNNELLING

GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS GROUP 2

 overview
I. Learning Objectives

II. Introduction to Tunnels

TUNNELS & III. Types and Shapes of Tunnels

TUNNELLING IV. Tunnel Linings and Its Types

V. Tunnel Support and Its Types

VI. Methods of Tunneling

VII. Geological Hazards in

Tunneling

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objectives
After studying this chapter, the reader should be familiar with the following:

Different types of tunnels and terminology of tunnel parts

Geotechnical aspects of tunnel construction through rocks:
Explain the basic components of a tunnel (lining, excavation
face, floor, crown, walls, spring line).

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horizontal or slightly inclined passageway excavated through the

subsurface rock or unconsolidated materials and open to ground
surface at the two ends.

TUNNEL
are underground passages that are man-made or natural.

They can be dug through soil, earth, or rock, or laid

under water.

Constructed to serve various purposes such as transportation of road or

rail traffic, carrying irrigation water, and sewage conveyance.

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refers to the excavation of a passage

TUNNELING
underground through rock or soil.

is the process of excavating underground

passages for various purposes, including
transportation, mining, and construction.

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Transportation tunnels:
These tunnels are used for cars, trucks, trains, and subways.

PURPOSE OF Utility tunnels:

TUNNEL
These tunnels are used for pipes that carry water, sewage,
and electrical cables

Mining tunnels:
These tunnels are used to access and extract minerals from
the ground.

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components of
tunnel

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COMPONENTS OF TUNNELS

TERMINOLOGY
INVERT (FLOOR) WALLS

CROWN (ROOF) LINING

SPRING LINE EXCAVATION FACE

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COMPONENTS OF TUNNELS

TERMINOLOGY
INVERT (FLOOR) WALLS

CROWN (ROOF) LINING

SPRING LINE EXCAVATION FACE

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types of tunnels
BY PURPOSE

a. Transportation

classification
b. Mining
c. Utility

of
BY SIZE

a. Large Tunnels

tunnels
b. Small Tunnels
BY GROUND CONDITION

a. Soft Ground Tunnels

b. Hard Rock Tunnels
C. Soft Rock Tunnels
d. Subaqueous Tunnels

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types of tunnels
BY PURPOSE

Transportation tunnels:
These tunnels are used for
cars, trucks, trains, and
subways.

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types of tunnels
BY PURPOSE

Transportation tunnels: Utility tunnels: These

These tunnels are used for tunnels are used for pipes
cars, trucks, trains, and that carry water, sewage,
subways. and electrical cables.

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types of tunnels
BY PURPOSE

Transportation tunnels: Utility tunnels: These Mining tunnels: These

These tunnels are used for tunnels are used for pipes tunnels are used to access
cars, trucks, trains, and that carry water, sewage, and extract minerals from
subways. and electrical cables. the ground.

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types of tunnels
BY SIZE

Large tunnels: These tunnels Small tunnels: These

are wide enough to tunnels are just wide
accommodate multiple enough for a single person
lanes of traffic or a railroad. to walk through.

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types of tunnels

BY GROUND CONDITION
Soft Ground Tunnels: These
are commonly used in urban
areas for subways, sewers,
and other utilities. They
require continuous support as
the ground surrounding the
tunnel may not be stable.

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types of tunnels

BY GROUND CONDITION
Hard Rock Tunnels: These are
more permanent and require
less ongoing support
compared to soft ground
tunnels. Tunneling through
hard rock is achieved with
blasting or mechanical
excavation.

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types of tunnels

BY GROUND CONDITION

Subaqueous Tunnels:
These tunnels are built
underwater, often crossing
rivers or connecting
islands.

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types of tunnels

BY GROUND CONDITION
Soft Rock Tunnels:
Tunneling through materials
like shale or sandstone falls
under this category. The
excavation method
depends on the specific
type of rock.

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types of tunnels

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HYDRAULIC TUNNEL

types of tunnels
TRAFFIC TUNNEL

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types of tunnels
HYDRAULIC TUNNEL

types of hydraulic tunnel

POWER TUNNELS
IRRIGATION TUNNELS
DIVERSION TUNNELS
the works of the tunnels are
SPILLWAY TUNNELS
associated only with the passage
of water.

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types of tunnels
types of hydraulic tunnel
HYDRAULIC TUNNEL
POWER TUNNELS
carry water to hydroelectric project plants.

IRRIGATION TUNNELS
convey water from the storage behind a barrage or dam for irrigation purpose
DIVERSION TUNNELS
serve the temporary purpose of river diversion for dam construction
SPILLWAY TUNNELS
constructed for releasing water from the reservoir

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types of tunnels

TRAFFIC TUNNEL
are vital lifelines in modern
transportation, providing passage for
cars, trucks, and sometimes even
trains, beneath the ground.

These include tunnels used as

highways, subways, and railways for
transportation.

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1. CIRCULAR SECTION

shapes of
2. D-SECTION

tunnels
3. HORSE-SHOE SECTION

4. EGG-SHAPED SECTION

5. ELLIPTICAL SECTION

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shapes of 1. CIRCULAR SECTION

tunnels 2. D-SECTION

3. HORSE-SHOE SECTION

4. EGG-SHAPED SECTION

Circular tunnels are one of the 5. ELLIPTICAL SECTION

most common types of tunnels.

They are often used in
underground transportation
systems, mining, and
infrastructure projects. The
circular shape provides
structural stability and efficient
distribution of forces.

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shapes of
tunnels 2. D-SECTION
1. CIRCULAR SECTION

They are also called the 3. HORSE-SHOE SECTION

4. EGG-SHAPED SECTION

segmental roof section. They 5. ELLIPTICAL SECTION

are suitable for sub-ways or

navigation tunnels. These
shapes may provide additional
floor space and a flat floor for
moving equipment.

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shapes of
tunnels 3. HORSE-SHOE SECTION
1. CIRCULAR SECTION

These sections are a compromise between

2. D-SECTION

4. EGG-SHAPED SECTION

circular and D shaped sections. These 5. ELLIPTICAL SECTION

sections are structurally strong to withstand

external rock & water pressure.

The sections are found to be mostly suitable,

where a moderately good rock is available,
advantage of a flatter rock invert are
required for construction purposes and the
tunnel has to resist internal pressure.

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shapes of 4. EGG-SHAPED SECTION

tunnels
1. CIRCULAR SECTION

2. D-SECTION

An egg-shaped tunnel is a tunnel 3. HORSE-SHOE SECTION

with a cross-section that resembles 5. ELLIPTICAL SECTION

the shape of an egg, featuring a

curved top and an elongated, oval-
shaped bottom. This design is
commonly used in water
conveyance systems, such as sewer
tunnels and stormwater tunnels, due
to its hydraulic efficiency, capacity,
structural strength, space utilization,
and ventilation benefits.

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shapes of
5. ELLIPTICAL SECTION
tunnels
1. CIRCULAR SECTION

2. D-SECTION

For carrying water, elliptical-

3. HORSE-SHOE SECTION

4. EGG-SHAPED SECTION

shaped tunnels are appropriate.

These are suitable for softer
materials. For better resistance
to external pressure, the major
axis of these tunnels is
maintained vertically.

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tunnel linings

GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS GROUP 2

 TUNNELS &
TUNNELLING INTRODUCTION

TUNNEL
Tunnel lining is a critical component of
tunnel construction, serving to provide

LININGS
structural support, prevent ground/water
ingress, and ensure the long-term
stability and safety of the tunnel.

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CONCRETE LINING

STEEL LINING

types of MASONRY LINING

tunnel linings SHOTCRETE LINING

ROCK BOLTS AND

MESH LININGS

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types of tunnel lining

CONCRETE LINING

Concrete is the most common

material used for tunnel linings
due to its durability and
strength. Concrete linings can
be cast in place or precast and
are often reinforced with steel
bars to enhance structural
integrity

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types of tunnel lining

STEEL LINING

Steel linings are used in tunnels

where high levels of corrosion
resistance are required. Steel
plates or segments are bolted or
welded together to form the
tunnel lining.

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types of tunnel lining

MASONRY LINING

Brick or block masonry linings involve

the construction of tunnels using
bricks or concrete blocks. This
traditional method provides good
structural support and can be
aesthetically pleasing.

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types of tunnel lining

SHOTCRETE LINING

Shotcrete is a spray-on concrete

material that is applied to the tunnel
walls using a pneumatic applicator.

Shotcrete linings are commonly used

for tunnel repairs, temporary support,
and in situations where traditional
concrete pouring is not feasible.

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types of tunnel lining

ROCK BOLTS AND
MESH LININGS

In rock tunnels, rock bolts and mesh

linings are often used to provide
additional support and prevent
rockfalls. Rock bolts are anchored into
the rock mass, while mesh linings help
stabilize loose rocks.

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tunnel
support system

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tunnel support
system

Tunnel lining is a critical component of

tunnel construction, serving to provide
structural support, prevent ground/water
ingress, and ensure the long-term
stability and safety of the tunnel.

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tunnel support
system
ROCK BOLTS
Rock bolts are an integral part of
tunnel support systems. They are
long, threaded rods typically made
of steel and are anchored into the
surrounding rock to reinforce it.
Rock bolts are essential in
stabilizing rock masses and
preventing collapses.

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tunnel support
system
SHOTCRETE
Shotcrete, a spray-on concrete
material, is often used to
provide immediate support to
tunnel walls. It helps to stabilize
the ground, prevent rock
movement, and protect the
tunnel lining..

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tunnel support
system
METAL MESH

Metal mesh support systems

consist of interwoven wire mesh
panels that are installed along
the tunnel walls to stabilize loose
rock or soil, prevent rockfalls,
and enhance the overall stability
of the tunnel structure.

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tunnel support
system
STEEL ARCH
Steel arch supports, such as steel ribs
or arches like I-beam and grille
arches, are crucial for tunnel
reinforcement. These supports
distribute loads and enhance stability,
especially in large-span tunnels and
challenging geological conditions,
ensuring tunnel integrity.

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methods
of tunneling

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methods
of tunneling
DRILL & BLAST (D&B)

a traditional method is often used for

hard rock.

Holes are drilled into the rock face,

explosives are strategically placed and
detonated to break the rock.

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methods
of tunneling

TUNNEL BORING MACHINE (TBM)

is circular in cross section and can be

used in boring both hard and soft rocks in
tunnels of varying dimensions, even as
large as 15 m diameter.

can cut smooth tunnel walls with limited

disturbances to the surrounding rocks .

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methods
of tunneling

ROADHEADERS METHOD
can cut variable-shaped tunnels and not
only circular tunnel section.

an advantageous and convenient to

operate in tunneling through moderately
hard rocks of compression strength less
than 140 MPs to soft rocks for a limited
length of less than 2 km.

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methods
of tunneling
SEQUENTIAL EXCAVATION
METHOD (SEM)

also known as NEW AUSTRIAN

TUNNELING METHOD (NATM)

a flexible method that involves

excavating the tunnel in sequential
stages.

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methods
of tunneling
SHIELD TUNNELING METHOD

is used for tunneling in unconsolidated

material, is also suitable to operate in
very soft rock.

this method commonly used in urban

areas with softground conditions.

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methods
of tunneling
CUT AND COVER METHOD

this method involves excavating a

trench, constructing the tunnel within
it, then covering it back up.

it is commonly used for shallow

tunnels in urban areas.

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geological hazards
in tunneling

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OVERBREAK

geological
SPALLING

FALLING GROUND

hazards SQUEEZING AND HEAVING

in tunneling THERMAL SPRINGS

GAS FLOW

SEISMIC EFFECT

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geological hazards
in tunneling
OVERBREAK

Overbreak is the major type of hazard in tunnel construction, resulting when the
tunnel pierces through soft rock or extensively jointed rocks
Chances of overbreak are more in fractured rock affected by tectonic movement,
and in sedimentary rocks with alternating hard and soft bands
Folding and faulting can also result in deformation and shattering of rocks,
causing serious overbreak deep inside the crown like a chimney
Wall collapse is a common feature caused by unfavorable structure of tunneling
media, especially when the tunnel is aligned parallel to the strike of beds or
foliation planes

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geological hazards
in tunneling
SPALLING

Spalling is the process of splitting of layers of rock from the

tunnel wall and roof under saturation with water for a
prolonged period and undergoing chemical reaction
Sedimentary tuff with high shale content is prone to spalling
and squeezing after tunnel excavation
Heavy supporting is required to arrest tunnel rocks affected
by spalling

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geological hazards
in tunneling
FLOWING GROUND

Flowing ground condition arises when entrapped water under

hydraulic head gushes out immediately after tunneling
This problem is aggravated by large quantities of silt and clay
flowing out with the water, choking the tunnel
Removal of muck becomes difficult as natural arching cannot
be formed in loose material under flowing condition
Forepoling method is adopted to tackle flowing ground
conditions

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geological hazards
in tunneling
SQUEEZING AND HEAVING GROUND

Squeezing and heaving ground condition is encountered

when tunneling in unconsolidated rock or claystone
containing swelling clay minerals like montmorillonite

The swelling pressure can make a portion of the tunnel wall or

roof squeeze or heave away, making tunneling difficult

Immediate shotcreting and steel rib supports are used to

prevent squeezing ground condition

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geological hazards
in tunneling
THERMAL SPRINGS

Thermal springs encountered during deep rock

tunneling can cause rushing of hot water inside the
tunnel, leading to problems

High temperatures at great depths can also cause

popping action, requiring air-conditioning for
excavation

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geological hazards
in tunneling
GAS FLOW

Gas flow, especially of suffocating or inflammable

gases, can hamper tunnel operations and pose
dangers to workers

Proper ventilation arrangements are required to

divert the gases to the surface

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geological hazards
in tunneling
SEISMIC EFFECT

Seismic activity can cause serious damage to tunnels,

especially in the Himalayan region with active faults and
thrusts

Tunnels constructed at depths greater than 30 m are

generally less affected by earthquakes

Seismic zoning maps are used to assess the intensity of

probable earthquakes and design suitable support systems

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thankyou!!!
GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS GROUP 2