Unit 3
for f< fr, It is Deading & Fx fr, it is
Define and state the unit of admittance,
conductance f susceptance. Also draw the
admittance triangle for Huctive circuit.
Admittance is defined as the reciprocal of
the impedance It is denoted by Y and is
measured in unit siemens or mho.
Conductance is defined as the ratio of
resistance to the Square of the impedance.
It is denoted by G and measured in unit
siemens. Susceptance is defined as ratio of
the reactance to the square of the
impedance. It is denoted as B and measured
in unit Siemens.Admittance triangle for
Inductive circuit:GBL inductive
Defined and state the unit of active,
reactive and apparent power in case of
single phase circuit. Draw the power
triangle.→ Active Power (P) - It is defined as
product of the applied voltage and the
active component Of the circuit. It is
measured in unit watts or kilowatts. -It is
also called as True or real power t Reactive
Power (@) 2 is defined as product of the
applied voltage and the reactive Component
of the comment.. Unit volt-amp reactive
(VAR) or kilovolt-amp reactive (KVAR)
Apparent Power (5)i- It is defined as the
produ of 1. m.s Value of (V) and current (I) It
is measured in unit volt- amp. Kilo Volt-amp
(KVA). P= Q = VI sin S= VI watts d VAR VA
(VA OTNOI VJ (@s Power Triangle VIRAS
Derive the exprasion for resonant
frequency and Comment on impedance
current and power factor in case. of series
resonance circuit Let fr be the resonant
Inquency in its at which, x_{t} = x ie (f)2 fr =
1/(2pi * sqrt(LC)) benes resonance HZ -AS 7
= R+jx = R+j (XL - XO) but at f= fr, XL=Xc
&x=0 hence net impedance F=R which is
purely resistive so Impedance is minimum
and purely resistive at series resonance. -As
impedance is minimum, the current I= V/z is
maximum. at series resonance. - The power
factor cost = R/# & at f= fr as =R, the power
factor is unity & at it's max. at beries
resonance.
lagging.
Power factor of the circuit is given by:
cosϕ= ZR = R 2 +(ωL− ωC1 ) 2 R Current
flowing in the circuit is given by: I= Z V I= Z V
o sin(ωt) L Instantaneous real power
dissipated in the circuit is: P=I 2 R P= Z V o2
sin 2 (ωt) L R Average power dissipated in a
cycle is given by:<P>= ∫ 02π/ω dt∫ 02π/ω
Pdt = 2Z 2 ×2π/ωV o2 R ∫ 0 2π/ω
(1−cos(2ωt))dt<P>=V rms I rms cos(ϕ)(i)
No power is dissipated when P = 0 This
implies cosϕ=0 ϕ=π/2 That is the circuit is
purely inductive or capacitive. Maximum
power is dissipated when P is maximum.This
implies cosϕ=1 ϕ=0 Circuit is purely
resistive.
Pure inductive Circuit The circuit which
contains only inductance (L) and not any
other quantities like resistance and
capacitance in the circuit is called a Pure
inductive circuit. In this type of circuit, the
current lags behind the voltage by an angle
of 90 degrees.
Series Resonance & Expression for RCL
occurs in electric circuits due to the
presence of energy storing elements like
inductor and capacitor. It is the
fundamental concept based on which, the
radio and TV receivers are designed in such
a way that they should be able to select
only the desired station frequency. There
are two types of resonances, namely series
resonance and parallel resonance. These are
classified based on the network elements
that are connected in series or parallel. In
this chapter, let us discuss about series
resonance. Series Resonance Circuit
Diagram If the resonance occurs in series
RLC circuit, then it is called as Series
Resonance. Consider the following series
RLC circuit, which is represented in phasor
domain. Series Resonance Circuit Here, the
passive elements such as resistor, inductor
and capacitor are connected in series. This
entire combination is in series with the
input sinusoidal voltage source. Apply KVL
around the loop. V−VR−VL−VC=0
⇒V−IR−I(jXL)−I(−jXC)=0
⇒V=IR+I(jXL)+I(−jXC)
⇒V=I[R+j(XL−XC)] Equation 1 The above
equation is in the form of V = IZ. Therefore,
the impedance Z of series RLC circuit will be
Z=R+j(XL−XC)
Active Power Definition: The power which
is actually consumed or utilised in an AC
Circuit is called True power or Active power
or Real power. It is measured in kilowatt
(kW) or MW. It is the actual outcomes of
the electrical system which runs the electric
circuits or load.
Admittance Triangle It is formed with
conductance 'G' at the X-axis, Susceptance
'B' at the Y-axis, and Admittance 'Y' forming
an angle Φ with Conductance at X-axis. The
figure below shows the Admittance triangle.
Admittance Triangle. From the triangle, tan
Φ = B/G.
Reactive Power Definition: The power
which flows back and forth that means it
moves in both the directions in the circuit or
reacts upon itself, is called Reactive Power.
The reactive power is measured in kilo volt-
ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.
Apparent Power Definition: The product of
root mean square (RMS) value of voltage
and current is known as Apparent Power.
This power is measured in kVA or MVA. It
has been seen that power is consumed only
in resistance. A pure inductor and a pure
capacitor do not consume any power since
in a half cycle whatever power is received
from the source by these components, the
same power is returned to the source. This
power which returns and flows in both
Obtain the expression for corrent and
power, when voltage WsVmSinwt is applied
across purely resistive circuit Also draw the
waveform for voltage, corrent & power on
Common X-axib. Consider a simple circuit
consisting of a pure resistance 'R' ohms
connected across a voltage U=Vmsin @t-R
U-Vmsinwt According to ohm's law R K
VIRAR Dok //20 i= (Nm) sinnt. Comparing
this with standard egn (= I'm sin (w++p) Ri=
Imsinut Amp The instantaneous power in
a.c circuits can be obtained by taking
product of instantaneous values of current
of voltage P= oxi P= Vinsinuot Imsinat H Vm
Im. sin²wt. p = Vm Im (1-(oszet) 2 VmI P =
Vin In 2 The aug value of the fructuating
cosine component of double frequency is
zero, over one complete cycle. Vm Zm 2 P =
Vrms. Troms P=VI Vm Im Watts Dates OR
Unit 4
Derive the relation between line and phase
values of currents and voltages for
balanced three phase star connected
Consider the balanced star-connected load.
Fig. Circuit diagram Line voltages, VL = VRY =
VYB = VBR Line currents, IL= IR = IY = IB
Phase voltages, Vph=VRN = VYN = VBN
Phase currents, I ph= IR = IY = IB As path for
line current, IL and phase current, Iph is
same, IL = Iph To derive relation between VL
and Vph, let us consider line voltage VL =
VRY. —— V RY = —— V RN + —— V NY as —
— V NY = − —— V YN Hence, —— V RY = —
— V RN − —— V YN  (i) Similarly, —— V
YB = —— V YN − —— V BN  (ii) —— V BR
= —— V BN − —— V RN  (iii) The phasor
diagram will give relation between line
voltage and phase voltage. Fig. Phasor
diagram for resistive load As shown in Fig.
take phase voltage VRN as reference. The
three-phase voltages are displaced by 120
from each other. The phasor VRY line
voltage is addition of —— V RN and − ——
V YN, to get − —— V YN, —— V YN is
reversed. Other Subjects:
https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes SCOE-
BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade 17
The perpendicular is drawn from point A on
phasor OC representing VL . OB = BC = VL 2
Angle between VRN and – VYN is 60 . So 
AOB = 30 (OC bisects VRN ^ −VYN) From 
AOB, cos 30 = OB OA = VRY 2 VRN 3 2 = VL 2
Vph VL = 3 Vph Thus, line voltage is 3 times
the phase voltage and line current and
phase currents are same. Phasor diagram
for Inductive load Phasor diagram for
Capacitive load
Define and state the unit of admittance,
conductance 4 susceptance. Also draw the
admittance triangle for inductive
circuit.Admittance is defined as the
reciprocal of the impedance It is denoted by
Y and is measured in unit siemens or mho
Conductance is defined no the ratio of
resistance to the Square of the impedance.
It is denoted by fr and measured in unit
siemens Susceptance is defined as ratio of
the wastong to the square of the
impedance. It is denoted as B and measured
in unit Siemens. * Admittance triangle for
Inductive circuit:
Derive the expression for power, when
vollage = Vertical is applied across R-L
sestes circuit. Als draw the wave five for
voltage, current & power on common x-axis
The Vortage & current ajuation for series R-
1 cirwit is- 6= Vinsiniot i- Tm sin (wet-p).as
current lage voltage. The power is product
of Instantaneous values of Voltage &
current p = 10x1 .:: p = Umsinot. I'm sin(t-6)
= Vm Im Sinet, sin (wt-6)] Vm Im cost-cos
(2wt-p) Vin I'm cosp 2 1- Vin Im cas (2 wt-4)
2 Second form is cosine term whose
average value over a Cycle is zero.p av = V m
I m 2 cos phi= V m sqrt 2 , T m sqrt 2 cos phi
| P= VI .cos phi Watts.
Defined and state the unit of active,
reactive and apparent power in case of
single phase circuit. Draw the power
triangle.nbears hit it Active power (P): :- It
is defined as product of the applied voltage
and the active component Of the circuit. It
is measured in unit watts or kilowatts. -It is
also called as True of real power a Reactive
Power (Q) - It is defined as product of the
applied voltage and the reactive Component
the current.. Unit volt-amp reactive (VAR) or
kilovolt ampreactive (KVAR Apparent Power
(s) :- It is defined as the produ of 1. m.s
Value of (V) and current (I) It is measured in
unit volt-amp (VA) or Kilo Volt- amp (KVA).
P= VI Cos watts G = VI sin VAR S= VI VA
Derive the exprasion for resonant
frequency and comment on impedance,
current and power factor in case of series
resonance circuit Let f_{gamma} be the
resonant frequency in Hz at which, X_{L} =
X_{c} ie 2pi*rfrL = 1/(2pi*frC) benes
resonance (fx) ^ 2 = 1/(4pi ^ 2 * Lc) fr =
1/(2pi * sqrt(LC)) -AS = R+jx = R+j (XL - Xc)
but at f=fr, X_{L} = Xc & x = 0 hence net
impedance 7 = R which is purely resistive so
Impedance is minimum and purely resistive
at series resonance. - As impedance is
minimum the current I = v / t is maximum at
series resonance. The power factor coso =
R/z & at f= fr as Z=e, the power factor is
unity & at it's max. at berie's resonance. for
f < fr , it is leading & f > fr , it is lagging.
Derive the EMF equation of single phase
transformer When transformer primary
winding is connected across the alternating
current supply, the current starts flowing
through it. This alternating current produces
alternating flux which links with primary and
secondary winding and induces an emf of E1
and E2 in it respectively. Magnitude of E1
and E2 can be derived using following
method Let us consider the flux waveform,
as shown According to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction the average emf
get induced in each turn. Average emf
induced in each turn = d dt where, d : be
the change in flux and dt : be the time
required for change in flux Now, considering
quarter cycle of the flux waveform. d : m
- 0 and dt : T/4  Substituting this in above
equation, average emf induced in each turn,
d dt = m – 0 T/4 = 4 m T But,Time
period, T= 1 f  d dt = 4 m 1/f = 4 m f
But the flux considered very sinusoidally
with time, the emf induced is also sinusoidal
in nature. For pure sine wave: Hence, Form
Factor = RMS value Average value = 1.11 
RMS value of emf induced in each turn, =
Average value  1.11 = 4 m f  1.11 = 4.44
m f volt Total emf induced in primary
winding with N1 number of turns E1 = 4.44
m f N1 volt. Similarly, emf in induced in the
secondary winding with N2 turns due to
mutual induction. E2 = 4.44 m f N2 volt
Symmetrical System: A three-phase system
is said to be symmetrical when voltages of
same frequency in different phases are
equal in magnitude and displaced from one
another by equal phase angles. (ii) Phase
sequence: A sequence in which three
voltages will achieve their positive
maximum values is called phase sequence.
(iii) Balanced load: The load is said to be
balanced when loads in each phase are
equal in magnitude and identical in nature.
(iii) UnBalanced load: The load is said to be
balanced when loads in each phase are not
equal in magnitude and identical in nature
. State the advantages of three phase ac
system over single phase ac system. Ans:
There are several reasons why three-phase
system is superior to single-phase system.
(i) The rating of three-phase motor and
three-phase transformer are about 150%
greater than single-phase motor or
transformer with a similar frame size. (ii)
The power delivered by a single-phase
system pulsates. The power falls to zero,
three times during each cycle. The power
delivered by a three-phase circuit pulsates
also, but it never falls to zero. So in three-
phase system, power delivered to the load
is same at any instant. This produces
superior operating characteristics for three-
phase system. (iii) To transmit certain
amount of power at a given voltage over a
given distance, threephase transmission line
requires less amount of copper than single-
phase line. This reduces the cost of material
required, hence, becomes economical. (iv)
Power factor of three-phase motor is
greater than single-phase motor for same
rating. (v) Three-phase motors are self-
starting, as the magnetic field produced by
three-phase supply is rotating. But the
magnetic field produced by single-phase
system is pulsating, so most of the single-
phase motors are not self-starting.
What are the different types of losses
taking place in the transformer? How these
losses are minimized. State the parts in
which it takes place. Since, the transformer
is a static device and not a rotating
machine, therefore friction and windage
losses are not present. The losses which
takes place in a transformer are of two
types (i) Iron losses or core losses (constant
losses), [takes place in transformer
magnetic core] (ii) Copper losses (variable
losses). [Takes place in transformer copper
windings] (i) Iron Losses These losses occurs
due to the alternating flux in the
transformer core. These losses consist of :
(a) Hysteresis loss, (b) Eddy current loss.
These losses remains constant at any load
condition. (a) Hysteresis Loss : When
transformer core is subjected to a magnetic
field, the molecules in the material are
forced to get aligned in the direction of
applied magnetic field. If the applied
magnetic field is alternating in nature then,
the molecules are forced to change the
directions with the same frequency of
applied magnetic field. But the molecules
are very much reluctant to change their
direction. Hence, some energy is required in
order to change their direction as per the
applied alternating magnetic field. This loss
of energy is called as hysteresis loss. It is
dissipated in the form of heat. It is given by
empirical formula asHysteresis loss, Ph =  B
1.6 max f v watt where,  : stenmitz
constant, Bmax: maximum flux density in
the core. f : frequency of alternating flux v :
be the volume of core material. (b) Eddy
Current Losses: Due to the linking of
alternating flux to transformer core, emf get
induced in the transformer core. It gives rise
to circulating, current in the core. These
circulating currents are called as eddy
currents. Now the every path of circulating
current in the core has some resistance
which causes the loss of energy. The total
loss of energy due to the total eddy current
is called as eddy current loss. It is also
dissipated in the from of heat. It is also
given by an empirical formula. Eddy current
loss Pe=Ke B 2 max f 2 t 2 v watt Where, Ke :
constant depends on the resistivity of core
material Bmax: maximum flux density, f :
frequency of alternating flux t : thickness of
the lamination of the core, v : volume of
core material The flux density in the core
remains practically constant from no load to
full load as well as supply frequency also
remains constant therefore iron losses are
also called as constant losses. (i) Copper
Losses These losses occurs in the primary
and secondary windings due to resistance of
primary and secondary winding. Let I1 and
I2 : the primary and secondary current. R1
and R2 : the primary and secondary winding
resistance. Hence, Total copper loss = I 2 1
R1 + I 2 2 R2
Unit 5
Explain following types of Electrical
Networks. 1) Linear and Non Linear
network (2Unilateral and Bilateral
network) (3) Active and Passive network
(4) Lumped and Distributed Network Ans:
(1) Linear Network: A network in which
values of the circuit elements (resistance,
inductance and capacitance) remain
constant, irrespective of change in voltage
or current, is known as 'linear network'.
Ohm's law is applicable to such network.
Non Linear Network:On the other hand, if
values of the circuit elements change with
change in voltage or current, such a
network is called 'Non-linear network'.
Ohm's law is not applicable to such a
network. (2) Bilateral Network: If
characteristics or behavior of the circuit is
independent of direction of current through
various elements, such a network is called
'bilateral'. Network comprised of pure
resistance is bilateral one. Unilateral
Network: If characteristic or behavior of the
circuit depends on direction of current
through one or more elements it is called
'Unilateral Network'. A diode allows flow of
current only in one direction when it is
forward biased, circuit consisting of diode is
unilateral one. (3) Active Network: If
electric circuit contains at least single
energy source, it is called 'Active network'.
It may be either voltage or current source.
Passive Network: A circuit in absence of an
energy source containing only passive
elements is called 'Passive network'.
(4)Lumped Network: If all the network
elements are physically separable, such a
network is called 'lumpednetwork'. Most of
the electrical networks are lumped in
nature. Distributed Network: A network in
which elements are not physically separable
is known as 'distributednetwork'. As
resistance inductance and capacitance of a
transmission line are uniformly distributed
over its length, it is a 'distributed network'.
Derive the EMF equation of single phase
Transform fig. Sinusoidal flux. Let, fux pm=
Max. value of flux N₁ = No. of pri. wodg
turns N₂ = No. of see. wdg turns f =
frequency of the supply Voltage E = RMS
Value of the pai. induced emf E2= RMS
Value of see. induced emf. from Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction the avg.
emp induced in each turn is proportional to
the aug. rate" of change of Aux .: Aug. emf
perturn = Aug·rate of change of flox = do . at
Now L db change in-flox Time required for
change in flux consider , to cycle of flex
4fthm wh/seo. Aeg. amf per turn = 4fhm
volts. e As form factor Rigs Valve Aug. Value
RMS = 1-11 X Avg. Value RMS Value of
induced emf per-turn = 1-11 x 4fom for pri
& sea wdg, No. of turns are N, & N2 .. Rige
value of Induced emf for primary &
secondary E₁ = 4.44.fom N, Volts £2 = 4+44-
from N₂ Volts
F K, and K₂ are the RTC of a conducting
material at tic 4 to°c respectively. prove
that, ∞₂ = 4. 1+2, (t2-ti) R2= R, [i+α, (t₂-ti)]
Where Rif2, are resistance and RTC at tic &
R₂ is resistance at tec If the same resistance
is cooled from ±2 to tic & if d2 is RTC at t2°c
then R₁ = R₂ [1+ de (+, -+1)] Divide eg by R2
R2 @ As (+α₁ (+2-+1) Divide em by Ry to
VIRA 120 R2 1+x9 (+1-+1) equating eqh4@
1+α₁ (tanti) s K₁ (t₁-ti) = 1+ 42(4-2) 1 1+22(t₁-
tz) = 1 - 1 - alpha_{2}(t_{1} - t_{2}) 1+xa (+1-
+2) (alpha_{2}(t_{1} - t_{2}))/(1 +
alpha_{2}(t_{1} - t_{2})) alpha_{2}(t_{2} -
t_{1}) 1+da (+1-42) <₁ (t₂-t₁) = L2 , 1+de (t₁-
kz) alpha_{2} = alpha_{1}/(1 +
alpha_{1}(t_{2} - t_{1})) =25/27 proved
What is phase sequence & state it's any
two applicatios ans) The sequence in which
the voltages in three phases reach their
maximum positive values is called phase
sequence. Generally the phase sequence is
R - Y - B Application- 1.To determine
direction of rotathon of ae motors 2.To
study parallel operation of alternators.
state the relation between- 1 phase
Voltage & line voltage. 11) phase current &
line current is case of balanced kel delta
connected 3-ph load. Using above relations,
Tabtain the expressions for 3p active power
and 3-ph reactive power. For Delta
connected balanced load, phase voltage |
V_{1} = V*rho*b And Line current and phase
current relation is, I_{1} = sqrt(3) * Iph
power consumed in each phase in single
phase power given by P ph =VphIph cos phi
Total power, p= Line Voltage P = SP*rho*h
P= 9 Vph Iph costP = 3V_{L} * I_{L}/V_{3} *
cos phi = sqrt(5) * sqrt(3) * V_{1} *
T_{L}/(sqrt(3)) * cos phi P = sqrt(3) *
V_{1}*I_{L} * cos phi Workw Reactive Power
is, Q = sqrt(3) * sqrt(L) * I * sin phi VAR or
KVAR
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) Statement:
Algebraic sum of currents meeting at any
junction point in an electric circuit is always
zero. i.e. ∑I=0 In other words, at any
junction or node in an electric circuit, sum
of incoming currents is equal to sum of
outgoing currents. i.e. at any node, ∑
Incoming Currents= ∑ Outgoing Currents
Explanation : Consider a node as shown in
Fig. Fig. Four branches meet at junction or
node A. By KCL, I 2 + I4 = I 1 + I3 where I2
and I4 are incoming currents while I1 and I3
are outgoing currents. Kirchhoff's Voltage
Law (KVL) Statement : In any electrical
network, algebraic sum of voltage drops
across various elements around any closed
loop or mesh is equal to algebraic sum of
e.m.f.s in that loop. ∑IR=∑E In other words,
if we trace any closed path or loop in an
electrical network an algebraic sum of
branch voltages is always zero. ∑V=0 Sign
Convention: Direction of current through a
circuit element decides polarity of voltage.
Current always flows from higher potential
to lower potentialWhile tracing a closed
path, from positively marked terminal of
resistor to negatively marked terminal then
it indicates potential drop. This is shown in
Fig. (a). (a) Potential drop If circuit path is
traced from negatively marked terminal to
positively marked terminal, then it indicates
potential rise. This is shown in Fig. (b) (b)
Potential rise Consider a network shown
below. Using KVL, ∑V=0 -I R1- I R2 + V=0,
V=I(R1+R2) I= (V/(R1+R2))
State & explain Superposition theorem.
Statement: In any linear, bilateral network
containing atleast two energy sources, the
current flowing through a particular branch
is the algebraic sum of the currents flowing
through that branch when each source is
considered separately and remaining
sources are replaced by their respective
internal resistances. Explanation: Consider a
network shown in Fig. (a). The current (I)
through R2 is to be estimated using
Superposition theorem Consider voltage
source V1 acting alone. Make other voltage
source inactive i.e. replace it by it's internal
resistance. As internal resistance of an ideal
voltage source is zero, it is replaced by short
circuit. Circuit will be as shown in Fig.
(b).The current through R2 is I’. Fig. (b) Now
consider second voltage source V2 is acting
alone. Replace first voltage source V1 by
short circuit. Circuit will be as shown in Fig.
(c).The current through R2 is I’’ Fig. (c) I’ and
I’’ can be calculated by using KVL or branch
current method. Hence the current flowing
through R2 when both the sources are
acting is… I=I’+I”
State & explain Thevenin's Theorem.
Statement: Any linear, bilateral network
containing energy sources and circuit
elements can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit containing a voltage source VThand a
series resistance RTh or Req across the
terminals under consideration. Value of
voltage source VThis equal to the open-
circuit voltage across the terminals under
consideration while RTh or Req is the
equivalent resistance measured between
the same terminals replacing all the energy
sources by their internal resistances.
Explanation:By using this theorem current
flowing through any particular circuit
element can be calculated. Consider linear
bilateral network as shown in figure. The
current (IL) through branch AB carrying
resistance RL is to be determined using
Thevenin’s Theorem. How to apply
Thevenin's theorem to calculate IL? (i)
Remove the circuit element (RL) under
consideration from the network. (ii) Find the
value of open-circuit voltage across those
terminals. This is nothing but Thevenin's
voltage source (VTH). (iii) Find the
equivalent resistance between the same
terminals replacing all energy sources by
their internal resistances. Ideal voltage
sources are replaced by short circuit, while
ideal current sources are replaced by open
circuit. This resistance is RThor Req. (iv)
Replace the given network across terminals
under consideration by Thevenin's
equivalent circuit, which is Thevenin's
voltage source in series with an equivalent
resistance. (v) Reconnect original element
across Thevenin's equivalent circuit and find
current through it.
Unit 6
Resistivity of the material: Ri depends on
type and nature (resistivity) of the material
Derive an expression for insulation
resistance of a single core cable. To find the
resistance offered by insulating material (Ri)
of a single core cable having length ‘l’
meters to flow of leakage current, cross
section of the cable is considered as shown
in figure. Due to finite insulation resistance
of the insulating material used, some
leakage current flows from the conductor in
radialy outward direction. Therefore, to
obtain the expression for Ri , a small section
with thickness as "dr" at a distance of “r"
meters from the centre of the cable is
considered. Where, R1 = Radius of
conductor, R2 = Radius of cable including
conductor and insulator Length offered by
insulation layer = dr, Cross-sectional area =
2πrl The resistance offered by small section
is dRi =  dr 2πrl The total insulation
resistance Ri can be obtained by integrating
"dRi " over the entire radius of insulating
material i.e. from R1 and R2 . Ri =   R1 R2
dRi =   R1 R2  dr 2πrl =  2πl   R1 R2
dr r =  2πl [loge r] R2 R1 Ri =  2πl [loge R2
– loge R1] =  2πl ln      R2 R1 Ω Ri = 
2πl loge      R2 R1 Ω
Explain the construction of Lead acid
battery with neat diagram The lead-acid
cell essentially contains following elements:
1. Plates The plates, which are actually
electrodes are a) Anode: Lead Peroxide
(PbO2) of Chocolate brown colour b)
Cathode: Spongy Lead (Pb) with slate grey
colour 2. Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4). 3. Separators: The
separators are used to separate positive and
negative plates, preventing them to come in
contact with each other. These are made of
either specially treated wood or perforated
rubber. The common separator is wood,
since it is the cheapest of all separators. 4.
Container The container is made of
vulcanized rubber, or glass. Glass containers
are normally used for light duty work and
rubber container for portable work. Entire
assembly of plates along with the solution is
placed in the container. 5. Bottom Blocks
These are fitted at the bottom of the
container to prevent short circuiting of cell
due to the active material fallen from the
plates. 6. Plate connector Separate
connectors are used to connect all positive
plates to one bar and negative plates to
another common bar 7. Cover with vent
Plug The covers are generally of vulcanized
rubber. A hole is provided for pouring the
electrolyte and this can be closed by a
screwed cap. The cap is provided with
minute holes for gases to escape. This is
also known as ‘Vent Cap’. The function of
the vent cap is to allow the escape of the
gases. Applications 1. Used in automobiles
for starting and lighting 2. Used in
generating stations and Substations to
operate protective devices and emergency
lighting 3. Used Un-interrupted Power 4.
Used in Emergency Lighting 5. Used in
telephone exchange
Explain construction working of Lithium
Ion battery. The lithium ion battery was
introduced in the early 1990s. This batteries
consist of largely four main components:
cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator.
a) Cathode: A Positive electrode is made
with Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2) has a
current collector made of thin aluminum
foil. b) Anode: A negative electrode made
with specialty carbon has current collector
of thin copper foil. c) Separator: It is a fine
porous polymer film. d) Electrolyte: Lithium
salt in an organic solvent. Electrolyte is
selected in such a way that there should be
an effective transport of Li-ion to the
cathode during discharge. Type of
conductivity is ionic in nature rather than
electronic. Explain working of Lithium Ion
battery along with charging and discharging
equations. As their name suggests, lithium-
ion batteries are all about the movement of
lithium ions: the ions move one way when
the battery charges (when it's absorbing
power); they move the opposite way when
the battery discharges (when it's supplying
power): Charging During charging, lithium
ions flow from the positive electrode to the
negative electrode through the electrolyte.
Electrons also flow from the positive
electrode to the negative electrode, but
take the longer path around the outer
circuit. The electrons and ions Applications
1. Used in automobiles for starting and
lighting 2. Used in generating stations and
Substations to operate protective devices
and emergency lighting 3. Used Un-
interrupted Power Supply
Fully charged battery The various
indications of fully charged battery are a)
Voltage b) Specific Gravity of Electrolyte c)
Colour of the electrodes d) Gassing Voltage:
When the cell is fully charged its terminal
potential will be approximately 2.6
voltsSpecific Gravity: When the cell is fully
charged, the specific gravity of the
electrolyte will be approximately 1.21.
When the cell is fully discharged its value
falls to 1.17. Colour of Electrodes: When the
cell is fully charged, the lead sulphate anode
gets converted into lead per oxide (PbO2)
dark chocolate brown in colour and lead
sulphate cathode gets converted into lead
(Pb), grey in colour. It is considered one of
the best tests for ascertaining the condition
of a battery Gassing: When the cell is fully
charged, the hydrogen and oxygen gases
are liberated at the cathode and anode
respectively, so liberation of gases
(hydrogen and oxygen), known as gassing,
on the electrodes indicates that the cells are
fully charged.
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