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 NAME

mylestone
Runway to the Future SECTION

SOCIAL SCIENCE
HISTORY
URSE BOOK

CLASS 6
mylestone
Runway to the Future
NAME
SECTION

SOCIAL SCIENCE
HISTORY
COURSE BOOK6

CLASS

tl

E
Contents

1. What, Where, How and When 1

2. Early Humans of the Indian Subcontinent 15

3. The Earliest Societies 25

4. The First Cities 37

5. The Rigvedic and Megalithic Periods 48

6. Early Kingdoms 59

7. New Religious ldeas 69

8. Asoka The Mauryan Emperor 79

9. Life in Towns and Villages 88

10. Contacts with Distant Lands 99

11. New Empires and Kingdoms (300-700 CE) 109

12. Culture and Science (200 BCE to 700 CE) 121

Chapter 1
What, Where, How and When

Let's Begin
1. Think and write about some important or happy occasions of your life in the table given below. Begin
with the day you were born and continue till present.
Also, write about 1-2 things you have, such as a photograph or a toy that reminds you or tells you
more about the occasion.

Date
Occasion vorThing(s) that reminds you or gives
S. No. (yy or mm/yy or
(from the earliest to the latest) details of the occasion
dd/mm/yy)
a. I was born

b.

d.

e.

2. Now, arrange these occasions in ascending order on the scale given below, according to the date
when they happened. Start with the earliest (for example, birth date) on the leftmost side and move
towards the recent on the rightmost side. Write the date in smaller boxes and the occasion in the

bigger ones.

was

born.

From the earliest to the most recent

History: What, Where, How and When 1

You have just created a timeline of some of the most
important and happy occasions of your own life. This
is a peek into your life to see what and when good
things happened. Timelines can also be created to
show the progress of organisations, such as schools
Neeta has many questions on her mind about
the past. Frame five more questions that you
have in your mind to find out more about the
past.
*******

and businesses, over a period of time; to know ***

what important events took place in a country and

when they happened; and to study how, when and
*****"****

where the development of humans took place till the

**.

present time.

You have also noticed that several things that

own, such as the photographs, toys and clothes, tell youLet's Know More
you about the important occasions of your life in
the past. These are
The Early Settlers of the Indian Sub-
the things that tell you about
continent
your past. Many such things help us to study the
past events of an organisation, country or human We can know several things about the past, such
as the places where people lived and the way of
life.
living of people the food they ate, the kinds of
houses in which they lived, the types of clothes and
Let's Find Out namentsthey wore, their beliefs, different ways
of entertainment and different works they did to
Read the given conversation and answer the earn a living. We also get to know about different
following questions. people, such as rulers, priests, farmers, traders and
craftsperson. We can know how children gained
Neeta: Hey Zeba, which book are you reading? knowledge, the games they played and the stories
Zeba: It is a book about the they heard. The study of the past events is called
people who lived
thousands of years ago. History that tells us about the origin of our society
and beliefs. It is explained by two words, individual
Neeta: Thousands
of years ago? Why are you studying and
change
-

as you have changed

have the
so
about people
who existed thousands of people around you. All past events are recorded
years ago
and what they did? and explained in chronological order by History.
The study of past is important to understand the
What can we know about the present. History is a continuous story of one event
people living
many so
years ago? Can we know how and where leading to the other; hence, it becomes essential
people lived to understand the
in the past? Or about what past, else the present cannot be
kinds of work people did
in the past? Is it understood.
possible to know what games people
played so Read the map of the Indian subcontinent
many years ago? given
in Fig. 1 to
explore the regions where the early
people settled in the Indian subcontinent and the
activities they carried out.
subcontinent a large landmass thot is a part of a
continent, yet has lts own
geographlcal, cultural or political features
2
Mylestone Social Science-6
 Kabul R Physical Map of the Indian Subcontinent
R(S.P.)
Sulaimar/Hills/
unau
henabBeas.R
R a v i B 4 8 e

Kirthar Hills atluj R

R(

Indus aputraR

(Thar Desert
chamba
R l( S p
S . P )

Ganga R a r oH i l l s

Vindhya Hills ()Narmad

son Ganga R
m .

Satpura
Tapti R
Mahanadi R
Godayari R Bay of Benga
Deccan

Krishna R
Arabian Sea
shats
Tungabhadra
Pennar RO

Kaveri R
Lakshadwèep

n d i a n OC e a n Map not to scale

A
Flg. 1 Physical Map of the Indian Subcontinent

Let's know in detail about the early settlers of the
Indian subcontinent:
1. Banks of River Narmada: People
along the banks of River Narmada are considered
among the first people to have settled in the Indian
subcontinent. They lived in this region for several
hundred thousand years. Some of them hunted
animals for food (Fig. 2). They were skilled gatherers
who collected roots, berries, fruits and other things
who lived
growing in the surrounding forests for their food
(Fig. 3). They moved from place to place in search
of food.

History: What, Where, Howand When= 3

 4. River Indus and Its Tributaries: Gradually, the
early villages developed into cities. Some of the
earliest cities of the Indian subcontinent developed
about 4,700 years ago, on the banks of River Indus
and its five tributaries Sutlej, Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi and Beas. These cities are well-known for
their town planning and drainage system.

Fig. 2 Early men hunting animals
5. River Ganga and Son: About 2,500 years ago,
the early kingdoms developed on the banks of
River Ganga and its tributaries. Powerful kingdoms
emerged in many parts of our country. One such
kingdom, Magadha, was located in the area
between River Ganga and its tributary Son. Many
powerful kings ruled this kingdom.

DIDYOU KNOWN
The Indian subcontinent includes the South
Fig. 3 Mother and child collecting fruits from forest
Asian countries India, Pakistan, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. South Asia
2. The Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills: About 8,000 often called a subcontinent because this
years ago, people who lived here started growing
crops, such as wheat and barley, and began rearing large landmass is a part of the Asian continent
but, at the same time, it is separated from the
animals, such as sheep, goat and cattle, for food
This led people to live a settled life as they formed rest of Asia by natural features, such as seas,

villages (Fig. 4) in the region. hills and mountains.

Travelling Overseas and Across the

Subcontinent
Look at the map of the Indian subcontinent
(Fig. 1)
again. You will find out that the high mountains such
as the Himalayas, hills, seas and adesert form the
vast
natural boundaries of the subcontinent. Several rivers
Fig. 4 An early village and hills run across the subcontinent, and large areas
werecovered with thick forests. These natural barriers
. Garo Hills and Vindhya Hills: People who lived in
made the journeys dangerous and difficult.
these regions practiced agriculture.
Rice was first However,
this could not entirely stop the movement of the
grown in the places to the north of the Vindhya
people. Instead of living in isolated regions, many scaled
Hills.
tributary a river or stream that joins a larger river

4 =Mylestone SocialScience-6
 rivers Naming our Country
high mountains and hills and crossed the deserts,
and and travelled across the subcontinent. Some
seas Since the ancient times, country has been
our

undertook journeys to other parts of the world as well. refered to as 'Bharat'. The country has been named

People travelled for varied reasons. so after a group of people called Bharata, who lived
been
in the northwest part of our country and have
travelled for earning a living to fulfil the
Many mentioned in the Rigveda. Rigveda is a Sanskrit book
basic necessities of life-food, water, shelter and
that was written about 3,500 years ago.
clothing.
The name India comes from the river Indus which

They moved to other regions to save themselves flows in the northwest of the country. The river was
from natural disasters such as floods and called Sindhu by the people of our country. About
droughts. 2,500 years ago, the Iranians and
the Greeks who
arrived through the northwest part of India used
The armies travelled to conquer lands. to call river Sindhu as the Hindos or the Indos. They
Merchants travelled to distant places for trading. referred the land to the east ofthe river as India.

They carried valuable goods on the back of

animals for
in groups called
selling in other places. They moved
stay safe from wild
caravans to
Lef's Try 1
animals and people who attacked to loot goods. 1. Answer the following questions in not more

It was also easier to help one another while than 80 words.

travelling through difficult landforms. With the
passage of time, people undertook journeys by
the sea in ships.
Religious preachers travelled within
subcontinent and to foreign lands to teach religion
and offer religious advice to the followers.
Explorers travelled to discover
interesting places.
Just as some people of the subcontinent travelled to
other lands, people from foreign lands also visited
the subcontinent. This led to exchange of new ideas
and intermixing of culture. People shared new ways
of making buildings, making crafts, weaving cloth,
growing crops and even cooking food. Over a period
of time, new languages and forms of music, art and
a. Write any three things you would like to know
about the life of people who had lived in the
past.
b. Write three ways in which the lifestyle of the
the the banks of the
early settlers living along
Narmada River differed from those who lived
in Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills.
C. Suppose you were a foreign traveller who
new and
wanted to come to the Indian subcontinent
thousands of years ago from the northwest
direction. Describe any two difficulties that
you would have faced during the journey.
d. Suppose that you were a merchant who
often travelled for trading goods in the Indian
subcontinent long time back. How would you
have preferredtotravel-alone or ina group?
Give any three reasons for the answer.

dances developed. How did our country begin to be referred as

India'?

explorer a person who travels in search of new and unknown places

History: What, Where, How and When 5

 than 100 words.
2. Answer the following questions in not more

a. Describe the location and one main

feature of the five early settlements of the Indian subcontinent.
travel far and wide in the past? Give five reasons to
b. Why did people of the Indian subcontinent
explain the answer.

Let's Find Out

names of the things and the person
1. Read the story Life of My Grandparents' and underline the
life.
through which Suman learnt some details of her grandparents'

Life of My Grandparents

lam Suman. Today, I saw a big, old box lying on a table in the storeroom. I was curious to know about

the box.

"Dadi, this box looks quite old. When did you buy it? And what have you kept in it?" l asked granny.

Dadi smiled and said" I bought this box when we lived at Lahore in 1940. I have kept in it some old
things we used while in Lahore"

"Dadi, where is Lahore? I have never heard of this place before." I asked.

Dadi told me that Lahore is a city in the present-day Pakistan. Before 1947, Pakistan was a part of India.
The family lived there in a big haveli (house)"

Dadi opened the box.

I saw a small cloth bag in the box, which had old coins. I looked at the coins closely. These were 'pice',
anna, 1/4 rupee, 1/2 rupee' and '1 rupee' coins. The coins also had the image of a British king. I was
surprised as these coins are no longer used in India. Dadi told me that these coins were used when the
British ruled India.

In the box, there were some brass utensils which dadi used in Lahore. Today, people mainly use steel
utensils for cooking. I also found dadaji's diary in which he had written about some important events ofi
his life. Some old newspaper cuttings having stories on the freedom fight of India were also kept in the
box. I saw a photograph of the big, joint family in which my grandparents lived. Women were wearing
salwaar-kameez with dupatta over their heads. Men were clad in kurta-pyjama and turban.

Dadi told that during those times, most Indians wore traditional dresses and lived in joint families.

6
- Mylestone Social Scie-
2. Now, write the things that you have underlined under proper headings in the table given below.

Things which gave Suman written Things which gave Suman unwritten Person who gave Suman oral
information information information

books and
Written Sources: These are the written
Let'sKnow More documents which give us information about the

Finding out About our Past past.

Inearly times, books and documents were written

You just read how Suman found some details of her
grandparents' lives in the past through coins, letters
and diary. Similarly, some persons and things help
us to find out about the past. These are called the
sources of history. A source of history might be a
by hand. In the Latin, word 'manu', means hand.
The word 'script' means 'written text'. Therefore,
these handwritten books were called manuscripts.
Our manuscripts were written mostly on the palm
leaves or the bark of the birch tree (Fig. 5) in

book, toy, coin shoe used in the past. The

or even a
Sanskrit, Tamil and Prakrit languages. During those
objects of the past are called sources because they
times, Prakrit was the language of the common
add to our knowledge of the past.
people. These books inform us about numerous
The sources of history are mainly divided into two things of our past, such as medicine, science, lives
categories literary and archaeological. These of kings, their policies, and religious beliefs and

practices followed by people. Manuscripts written

sources can help us find out about the people and
events that took place in the Indian subcontinent by foreign travellers and traders give us important
information on different subjects such as our
long, long ago.
rulers, trade, famous towns and cities and social
Literary Sources conditions of those times. Since manuscripts were
written on leaves and barks of trees, many of them
All texts, Ilong or short, written or oral, which help have been eaten away by insects or destroyed by
us to know about the past, are a part or iterary the forces of nature. However, many are kept safe

sources. in our temples and monasterles.

monastery a bullding In which monks live and worship

7
History: What, Where, How and When
 Inscriptions: These writings carved on hard
are
surfaces like rocks, stones, metals, pillars, clay tablets
t
and walls of temples (Fig. 6). Since most inscriptions
were written on orders of the kings, they inform
us
about the names of the kings; when, where
and
how they ruled; their religious beliefs;
languages
in use during that time; and so on.
Sometimes, the
orders and rules made by the kings were
inscribed
and placed throughout the
kingdom so that people
could see, read and obey them. Some
inscriptions
Fig. 5 A bundle of manuscripts written on the palm leaves that recorded victories of kings in battles.
are cut into pages and tied together
The
inscriptions have been written in old scripts
and languages. However, many of these
Oral Sources: All the information about the scripts and
past languages that are no longer used make it
difficult
that is passed on through
spoken words is known as to read and understand the
oral source of history. This includes inscription. Thee
plays, poems, process of finding the meaning of the text written
songs and stories of the past which have been in old
scripts and languages is called decipherment.
passed on orally from generation to generation.
Many of the oral sources such as the Vedas are
recorded later on.
Oral sources provide information about the
opinions and beliefs of the common people; and
theeffects of some important events on their
Such information is generally not found in
lives.
written
sources which mostly describe the lives of
the kings
and wealthy people.

THINK AND DISCUSS

Which source is more
reliable a manuscript
or a story being told over many generations?
Why?
Fig.6 An inscription in Sinhalese language on a rock
Archaeological or Material Sources Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu
People who lived in the past have left behind many
things or materials they made or used. These
UHINKAND DISCUSS
We have lost many
material remains are called manuscripts, but most
archaeological or inscriptions are still intact. Give reasons.
material sources. These are
especially useful to According to you, what was easier to write
study about the time when humans did not know
manuscripts
how to write.
or
inscriptions? Give reasons for
your answer.
script written letters or signs

Mylestone Social Science-6

Monuments: These are the buildings, sites, huge
built in the
statues and any other structures
the Ajanta and
past. Monuments, such as caves
Khajuraho temples tell us about the king(s) who
built or repaired the monument. They also tell us
about skills and knowledge of the people who built
these structures.
THINKANDDISCUSS monuments
Why don't weget to see wooden
made by the early kings?
Artefacts: These are the objects made or shaped
by humans in the past, such as pots, jewellery,
tools, weapons, small statues and toys. They tell
us about the things and skills known to the people
in the past. For example, a clay pot of the past tells
us that pots made out of clay were being used at
that time. It also tells us that people knew how to
make clay pots.
Coins: They inform us about the materials known
to the people of the past, such as gold, silver and
copper. Materials used in coins tell us how wealthy
the country was. Images of rulers, dates and text
on the coins help us to know the names of different
rulers, the year in which they ruled and languages
in use at that time. Some coins also tell us about
the religious beliefs and likings of the king (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 The two sides of a gold coin issued in the
4th century CE. The left side of the coin shows King
Samudragupta playing a musical instrument called
Veena'. The left side shows Goddess Lakshmi.
History: What, Where, How and When
DIDYOU KNOW?
been
T h e first coins are believed to have
made about 9,000 years ago (7th century
BCE) in the kingdom of Lydia (a part of
A collection of these
modern day Turkey).
coins was found during the British Museum
excavations of the Temple of Artemis at
Ephesus in Turkey in the year 1904-1905.
These are made from a naturally occurring
mixture of gold and silver called electrum.
Electrum was found in a large quantity in the
Paktolos River that Lydians controlled. The
coins had a design on one side and there was
a simple stamp on the other. Some of the
earliest Lydian electrum coins have names in
ancient Lydian script. It is not clear if these
are names of kings or rich men who got the
coins made. Many early Lydian coins were
believed to have been minted by merchants
to be used in trade.
Both literary and archaeological sources are equally
important to help us understand how people lived
their lives in the past.
Persons who study about the human life in the past
through artefacts and other material remains left
behind by people in the past, such as their houses,
clothes, coins and toys are called archaeologists.
Over time, the artefacts and material remains of
the past get covered by layers of soil. Archaeologists
excavate or dig the soil layers to find these buried
objects and places, and then study them to find
answer to the questions such as who might have
made the artefacts, what were they used for, how
old they are. Some scientists study the animal
bones and plant remains such as burnt wood or
grains to know what people ate in the past and
what kinds of animals they reared. They
use the
literary and archaeological sources as clues to
reconstruct the past.
9
Let's Try 2
Answer these questions in not more than 80 words.
1. Write the meaning of these terms in your 4. Which literary source of history would help
own words: to know about the lives of the common
a. sources of historyy people written or oral? Give a reason for
b. manuscripts the answer.
C. artefacts
5. Write about three things that you would
d. decipherment
look for in an old coin to know about the
2. Write the main difference between literary
time when it was used.
and archaeological sources of history. Give
two examples of each. 6. How is the nature of the work of an
3. Write any two differences between archaeologist different from that of a
manuscripts and inscriptions. historian?

Let'sFind Out
The two images glven below show the life in an Indian village and a city. Compare the two images
and answer the following questions.

a. Write two differences between thelifestyle of people in the village and the city.
***

*****

b. Do you think that the village and the city people also lived different lives in the past?
****

**.

******" ****

c. Do all the people living in a village or a city live the same kind of life? Give an example to explain your
answer.
********

***
t******

d. Is it appropriate to tell the past of a place/a region by studying about the lifestyle of just one section
of the society? Why/Why not?

10
-Mylestone Social Science-6
Let's Know More the rulers but know very less about the common
people. This is because the rulers kept a record
Different Pasts of their battles, victories and policies in written
texts and inscriptions. However,
Did you notice that the life of the
common people
village people such as hunters, farmers and fishermen did not
isdifferent from the city people? People within maintain
any such record of their activities.
the same village, town or city also lead
differentleitare
lifestyles according to the work they do and money Writers who wanted to please the rulers have also
ritten songs and poems in their praise. For this
they earn. People live differently in different parts
of our country. reason, archaeological sources can throw light on
what remains missing about the other sections of
People living in tribes get their own food by society.
collecting forest produce, hunting, fishing and
growing crops they need on a small piece of land. Understanding Dates and Timelines in
Most village people practice agriculture to earn a History
living, while people in the cities depend entirely Look at the date written on the
board of your class. It
on the villages for food and milk
supply. This holds mentions the day, the month and yearaccordingto the
true for the people who lived long
ago. calendar that we follow. Do you know that we follow
People belonging to different groups lived the Gregorian Calendar which is the most widely
differently. The lives of hunter-gatherers were used calendar in the world today? In this calendar,
different from those of a farmer or a merchant. the years are counted from the year in which Jesus
There was hardly any similarity between the lives of Christ was born. Al the events that took place before
soldiers, craftspersons, and kings and queens. The the birth of Christ are counted backwards, while
traditions and customs of different social groups the ones that happened after the birth of Jesus are
varied. Therefore, the past of a region or a country counted forward. India got independence in the year
cannot be understood correctly by focussing just 1947. It means that India became an independent
the lives of the rulers country one thousand nine hundred and forty-seven
on or the common people.
years after the birth of Christ. In history, letters 'AD
Historians make an effort to study the pasts and 'BC' are written with the years. 'AD' is used to
of different
sections of society to know how label the years after the birth of Christ, while 'BC' is
people lived in the past. However, we have a lot used to label the years before the birth of Christ.
of information on the lives and achievements of

The year in
BC years which Jesus AD years
was born.

'BC' stands for 'Before Christ' indicating the years 'AD' stands for Anno Domini', which means 'in
before the birth of Christ.
-

the year of the Lord' or Christ, and indicate the

These days many countries have started writing years after the birth of Christ.
-

'BCE' instead of 'BC'. 'BCE' stands for 'Before 'CE' is often used instead of
'AD'. 'CE' stands for
Common Era'. 'Before Present' is also used in Common Era'.
place of 'BC or 'BCE'.

History: What, Where, How and When

11
The understanding of labelling years as 'BCE' and 'CE' can help us in creating timelines. A timeline is a line on
which events are placed in the order they took place. Let us place on a timeline some important events from
the space history of India that occurred in the CE years.

Event d Year in which it occurred o

The first Indian satellite, Aryabhata, launched. 1975

The first Indian citizen went into space. 1984

Chandrayaan-1 was launched. 2008

Mangalyaan was launched. 2013

Aryabhata launched Chandrayaan-1 launched

1975 2008
BCE CE
BCE CE 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

1984 2013
1st Indian to go to space Mangalyaan launched

Note from the timeline that the larger CE years are the recent ones.

Now, let us understand how to calculate BCE years and place them on a timeline. Presently, we are living in
2019 CE. We will consider 2000 CE as the present time and will calculate dates going back from this time.
Example-The use of iron began in the lIndian subcontinent around 3,000 years ago. Taking 2,000 years as the
present time, we will go back into the time. It means that the use of iron began in the Indian subcontinent
around 1000 BCE.
Similarly, the use of bronze began in the Indian subcontinent around 5,000 years ago, that is in the 3,000 BCE
(2000 5000 -3000).

Use of bronze began Use of iron began Present time

BCE CE

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 2020

BCE BCE BCE BCE BCE BCE

Note from the timeline that the smaller BCE years are the recent ones.

Le's Try 3
Answer the following questions in not more than 80 words.
a. Why is it necessary to study the past of all the sections of a society?
b. What is the full form of BCE, BP and CE?
C. How are the CE and BCE years labelled?

12 Mylestone Social Science-6

et's Remember
The Early Settlements and Their Main Features Reasons for Travelling
Banks of Narmada: Hunter-gatherers lived here. To secure livelihood.
Kirtharand Sulaiman Hills: People practiced agriculture and livedin To save from themselves from
villages. natural disasters.
Vindhyas and Garo Hills: Agriculture was practised; evidence of first
rice cultivation in the subcontinent from the north of the Vindhyas.
To trade.
To teach religion and offer religious
Indus Valley: Some of the earliest cities developed here. advice to followers.
Ganga Valley: Early cities; Magadha grew into a powerful kingdom. To explore newlands

Their Sources of History

1. Literary Sources:
a. Written Sources
Naming the Country
Manuscripts: The hand-written books
The early 'Bharat' after a group of people
on palm leaves or bark of birch tree.
settlers of the Indian called Bharata living in the
b. Oral Sources: Plays, poems, songs
Subcontinent northwest part of the subcontinent.
and stories passed on orally from
generation to generation India after River Indus
2. Archaeological or Material Sources:
Inscriptions: Writings carved on hard What, Where, How
surfaces. and When
Monuments: Buildings, sites, huge
statues and structures of the past
Artefacts: Objects made or shaped by
Understanding Dates
humans in the past
in History
Coins

Years are counted from the year in which Jesus Christ was born.
BC' Years
"BC' means "Before Christ'. It indicated the years after the birth
of Christ.
BCE or 'BP are also instead of 'BC'. 'BCE' stands for Before Common Era' and 'BP stands for "Before Present.
AD' Years
AD stands for 'Anno Domini', which means 'in the year of the Lord' or Christ.
I t indicates the years
after the
birth of Christ.
CE' is often used instead of 'AD', 'CE'
stands for 'Common Era'.

History: What, Where, How and When

13
 Am a Historian!
Read the text given below with your partner. Think and discuss the questions that follow.
4,000-year-old leather Egyptian manuscript lying in an old storage box for 70 years found at the Egyptian
Museum in Cairo. It includes religious spells, religious drawings, and drawings of supernatural and divine
beings.
1. Who do you think used this manuscript-the kings, merchants, common people or priests? How
can you say that?
2. Why was leather used as the writing material?
3. What does this manuscript teli you about the Egyptians who lived about 4,000 years ago?
Beyond our Borders
Now, read what Wael Sherbiny, who made the finding of the manuscript, said about it.
year-old leather Egyptian manuscript is the oldest known manuscript from ancient Egypt.
This is a religious manuscript in the form of a leather roll that could be easily carried. There are many
religious spells in the manuscript that were likely recited by a priest. In ancient Egypt, priests used to carry
manuscripts on leather rolls to refer to them while reciting holy texts during religious rituals. In ancient
Egypt, leather was considered a valuable writing material. It was used to record holy texts and important
events as it was more flexible and was believed to last longer than other available writing materials.
However, like leather objects, this roll too fell apart in the dry climate of Egypt. Its tiny pieces had to be put
together as in a jigsaw puzle. Texts and drawings on both sides of the roll make this the longest leather
roll from ancient Egypt.

We Care
What will happen if we lose our monuments, old buildings, coins and artefacts? Discuss with your classmates.

14
-Mylestone Social Science-6
 Chapter 2
Early Humans of
the Indian Subcontinent
Let's Begin
The image given below (Fig. 1) shows how the early people lived their life a long time ago. Observe the
image and discuss what it tells you about the activities and lifestyle of these people.

humans
Fig. 1 A glimpse of the life of early

C. What care must be taken while collecting food

Let's Find Out from plants and trees growing in the forests?

Within pairs, discuss and answer the following ****'************************'********°"**°*********************

questions briefly. ******'***********'***'***** ******************"****"**********

a. How the skills and knowledge of the early

are
d. Suppose you were one
of the early humans
people different from yours? animals
whose only source of food was hunting
in the
*******
and collecting fruits growing naturally
for you to stay at a
forest. Would it be possible
long? Why/
******************

forest for very

**** ****
particular area of the
************

Why not?
needed to hunt animals *********************

b. What special qualities are

*************'***

******'**

and catch fish? ************************************'**********'************* *******

* * * *

**** ************************************* *********

*****
****************************************************
. . . . .

**'************

15
the Indian Subcontinent
History: Early Humans of
Let's Know More The animals they hunted continuously moved in
earch of prey or pasture. So, the hunter-gatherers
Hunting-Gathering Socielies also followed these animals.
The plants and trees bear seeds, vegetables and
This is the story of the earliest people who lived
fruits in certain seasons only. Therefore, the hunter-
about 2 million years ago in the Indian subcontinent.
It was a time when there were no cities, towns or
gatherers may have shifted places at the change of
season to collect seasonal food.
villages. People did not know how to build houses
and, therefore, lived in caves in the wilderness. They Seasonal rivers and lakes do not have water all year
had noidea how to grow vegetables, fruits and crops round and dry up in winters and summers when it
such as wheat and rice. They were entirely dependent does not rain enough. So, hunter-gatherers living
on nature for food. Transport did not exist at that near the seasonal sources of water would have to
time, and people travelled by foot. These were the move and look for new sources of water in the dry
earliest people. They are called hunter-gatherers seasons.
because of the way they obtained their food. The Sometimes, the earliest people might have travelled
hunter-gatherers lived in small groups and moved to meet their friends and relatives.
from one area to another, hunting wild animals and
catching fish and birds for food. They also collected THINK AND DISCUSS
edible fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks and The hunter-gatherers travelled on the uneven
eggs to consume as food. land covered with thick vegetation by foot.
However, hunting wild animals was not easy. What difficulties do you think they must have
Animals are stronger and faster than humans. Their faced while travelling?
sharp senses help them know about the threat What are the different reasons for the modern-
and get away quickly. Therefore, hunting needs day people to shift to other places?
special skills and abilities, such as agility, alertness, Discuss why some social groups still move in
quick responses, presence of mind and perfect search of food and water.
coordination with the other hunters to kill the
prey
while protecting oneself from its attack.
Gathering
food wassan equally difficult task as many wild
plants
are poisonous. The gatherers should have the Let's Try 1
ability
to clearly identify the plants or parts or plants that 1. Answer the
are edible. The gatherers should also know about
following questionsi in not more
than 60 words.
the season in which plentiful of ripened food will be
available. a. Who were hunter-gatherers?
b. What skills, abilities and knowledge did the
Hunter-gatherers on the Move earliest humans have to obtain food?
The hunter-gatherers could not stay at one place for C. Write about any two skills that one should
a long time. They moved from one place to another acquire to obtain food in the present times.
mainly in search of food and water. There was a 2.
limited supply of plant and animal food in an area.
Split thepage in your notebook into half
and draw illustrations to show three
Once they had eaten the available food resources in ways in
which the lifestyle of the
an area, they had to move in search of fresh supplies. hunter-gatherers
was different from yours.
agility ability to move quickly and easily

16 =Mylestone Social Science-6

Let'sFind Out
A tool is a hand-held object that helps specific task. The comb we use for our hair and
to do a
the toothbrush that we use for our teeth are all tools. List two tools that each of these people
commonly use. Also, write the task that each tool helps to perform.

People Tool Task the tool performs

a. A student

b. A teacher

c. Your mother

d.Adoctor

12,000 years ago as the Palaeolithic Period. This

Let's Know More
period can be subdivided into the Lower, Middle and
Tools of the Earliest People Upper Palaeolithic periods and covers 99% of human
history. The stone tools used during the Palaeolithic
We use different tools such as knives, pencils and Period were huge, heavy and rough. Sharpened
rulers in our everyday lives. Tools help us do a specific stones (Fig. 2) that were about the size of an adult's
task easily. The earliest people also developed and fist were used to cut meat and bone, scrape animnal
used different tools made of stone, bone and wood skin and the bark from trees, and chop fruit and
to meet their daily needs such as hunting animals,
roots. One side of these tools was left unsharpened
gathering food and protecting themselves from the
to use as handle.
dangerous wild animals. The period during which
they made and used stone tools on a large scale is
known as the Stone Age. The Stone Age began about
2 million years ago and lasted till about 5,000 years
ago when humans learnt to make copper tools. Based
on the type and quality of the stone tools used, the
Stone Age is further divided into three periods,
namely the Palaeolithic Period, the Mesolithic Period
and the Neolithic Period.
Archaeologists refer to the earliest part of the Stone
Age as the Palaeolithic Period. The word Palaeolithic
is derived from two Greek words, 'palaeo', meaning
old, and lithos, meaning stone. This period began
about 2 million years ago and continued till about Fig. 2 A sharpened stone tool from the Palaeolithic Period

History: Early Humans of the Indian Subcontinent -

17
Then arrived the Mesolithic Period, which lasted
from about 12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years
ago. The word 'Mesolithic' is derived from the
Greek words, 'mesos', meaning middle and lithos,
meaning stone. As the name suggests, this period
falls between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic
periods. During this time period, people started
using sharper, harder and smaller stone tools called
microliths (Fig. 3). The tools were improved by adding
Fig. 4 Neolithic tools
bone or wooden handles to make axes and spears.
These tools could be thrown at the animals from a
distance. This allowed people to hunt larger animals NK AND DISGUS
such as deer, elephants and bison without going too What do the change in the type and quality of
stone tools reveal about the changing lifestyle
close to them.
and improving skills of the early humans?

Techniques of Making the Stone Toos

It is believed that the stone tools were created

using two different techniques, stone-on-stone and
pressure flaking.
Fig. 3 Microliths
The Mesolithic Period was followed by the Neolithic
Period, which is the last part of the Stone Age. This
period lasted from about 10,000 years ago till about
5,000 years ago. There was a great improvement in
the quality of tools. Now, the tools were sharper,
lighter, polished, and of more variety and use than
the tools of the previous periods. New tools such as
sickles, mortar and pestles emerged that may have
been used to grind grains and other plant produce
(Fig. 4). They indicate the changing food habits of the
early people.
Stone-on-stone: It is the earliest technique to
make stone tools. This technique involved the
use of two stones-the core stone that was to
be shaped into a tool and the hammer stone
that helped in shaping the tool. The stones were
held in each hand. The core was then hit by the
hammer stone and was flaked until it acquired
the desired shape.
Pressure flaking: In this technique, the stone or
the bone to be shaped into tool was placed on a
firm surface such as a rock. It was then hit with
the hammer stone to remove the flakes and give
it the required shape.

polished something that hos smooth surface

flakes very thin pieces that have been broken awoy from a lorger piece;, fragments; chips

18 Mylestone SocialScience-6
 Let's Know More
Let'sTry 2
Answer the following questions in not more Stone Age: Sources of Information
than 60 words. The distant past, when the earliest humans lived in
the Indian subcontinent, there was no language, n0
1. Make a Venn diagram as shown below and write written words and no paper. Therefore, we have noo
difference and one similarity among the
one books or written records available for that period.
any
stone tools of the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Then, how is it possible for us to know what happened
Neolithic Periods. during those times? How can we know where and
how people lived, what they made or do, and why
they made these things or take up specific activities?
Palaeolithic period
Archaeologists have found some of the things that
Differences the earliest people made and used. Scholars, after

Neolithic period Mesolithic period examining these objects, have put together the
Differences
Similarity Differences pieces of information they obtained to get accurate
knowledge about those times. These objects act as
the sources of information of that time. Some of
the important sources of information are: bones of
both humans and animals; the cave shelters; cave
paintings; traces of ash; and burnt grains.
Tools: Most of our knowledge about the earliest
humans comes from the wood, bone and stone
tools they made and used. Most wood and bone
2. Describe the following techniques of making
tools have got destroyed with time. However,
stone tools: the stone tools, being stronger, have survived
a. Stone-on-stone and give us the best evidence of the life of early
b. Pressure flaking humans. They tell us where and when the early
toolmakers lived; what they ate; what kind of
tools they used for survival and food processing
Let'sFind Out how gradual development in the tool-making
technology took place; and what their mental
Within pairs, discuss the answer to the situation
skills were.
given below and write the answer in the space
provided.
Archaeological Sites: Archaeological sites are
the places where archaeologists have found the
If you find a buried place where the earliest people remains of things made, used and left behind by
lived, what things would you look for to know the people of the past. The sites may be found on the
details of their lives. surface of the earth buried under the earth or
submerged under water.
********

Hunsgi and Bhimbetka, Kurnool Caves (Fig. 5) are

some of the prominent sites of the Palaeolithic
Period that have been uncovered by archaeologists
in the Indian subcontinent. Did you notice that
Hunsgi and Kurnool Caves were located in the
*** **** Krishna River Valley, while Bhimbetka was located

food processing ways to change raw food for cooking, like chopping, mincing, slicing, grating raw food

History: Early Humans of the Indian Subcontine 19

 in the Narmada River Valley? This suggests that the
early humans chose to live in places near a
of water, such as rivers and lakes. This way, they
could easily get fresh water, plenty of fish, animals
and edible plants for food. They also chose to live
in places where good quality stone was easily
available so that they could make stone tools.
The sites also tell us about the purpose for
which they were used by the earliest humans
for the purpose of making tools, for living, as
well as making tools. Palaeolithic sites canbe
categorised as the habitation sites, factory sites
and habitation-cum-factory sites.
Bhimbetka
Arabian Sea Hunsgi
Kurnpol Caves
n dian
Fig.S Important Palaeolithic sites of
habitation the act of living at a place
20
Habitation Sites: These sites were used only
for the living purposes. Habitation sites had
source
natural caves and rock shelters that provided
the earliest human shelters from the rain, heat
and wind. Some natural caves and rock shelters
have been found in the Vindhyas close to the
Narmada Valley and the Deccan Plateau.
Factory Sites: These were the places where
the earliest people made tools using ample
stone reserves and are known as factory sites.
Habitation-cum-Factory Sites: Here, the
earliest people made stone tools and lived
over a long period of time.
Some Important Palaeolithic Sites
Bay of Bengal
Index
APalaeolithic Sites
N
Oc e a n
the Indian subcontinent
Map not to scale
A
-Mylestone Social Science-6
 Cave Paintings: The earliest humans have used
the walls of many caves as canvas on which they
mainly drew wild animals. Moods of the wild
animals have been beautifully brought
these paintings. Stick human figures interacting
with wild animals can be seen in many of the
cave paintings. These paintings are an important
source of information about the earliest people.
could have used fire to light up their ark caves,
provide warmth when it was cold, cook meat,
and drive the wild animals away.
out in
Division of Work
You must have noticed that your family members
do a lot of work at home and outside. They divide
the work among themselves as it is quite tiresome

These tell us about the drawing skills of the early
humans and their knowledge of making paints
with coloured stones, resins, water and animal
fats. These paintings tell us about the human
activities and different animals found during those
times. The paintings suggest how people might
have interacted with their natural environment,
especially wild animals. Bhimbetka and Jogimara
Caves in Madhya Pradesh, Lakhudiyar Caves in both men and women may have done
Uttarakhand, Kupgallu Caves in Telangana, and tasks
together. It is also likely that some work was
Piklihal and Tekkalkotta Caves in Karnataka are
some examples of the Stone Age cave paintings.
Traces of Ash: Traces of ash found at the Kurnool
Caves (presently in the state of Andhra Pradesh)
suggest that the earliest people used fire. People
for one person to do all kinds of work. The earliest
humans too performed many activities such as
hunting animals, gathering food, processing food,
making tools and paintings on cave walls, and taking
care of the young children. However, we do not have
evidence to know how they divided work among
themselves. There are two possibilities on how the
division of work was done. The first possibility is that
many of these
done only by women and the other only by men.
There arehigh chances that people in different parts
of the subcontinent followed different practices on
the division of work.

Case Study: Palaeolithic Sites of Hunsgi

Hunsgi is a vilage located in the present-day state of Karnataka between the Bhima and the Krishna rivers.
The place has archaeological significance as a number of early Palaeolithic sites were found here. A large
number oftools, which could be used for all kinds of activities, have been found at some sites. These sites are
believed to be habitation-cum-factory sites.

Evidences found at some smaller sites

suggest that only tools were made there. These may have been factory
sites. Some sites were located close to springs. Most tools found at Hunsgi were made from a locally available
rock called limestone.
At late, a Palaeolithic site has also been excavated at Hunsgi. Stone tools made froma reddish-brown rock
called chert' have been found here. Many of these tools have long blades with sharp edges.

interacting act in such a way as to have an effect on each other

resins a thick, sticky substance that oozes out
of some trees

History: Early Humans of the Indian Subcontinent

21
Let's Try 3
1. Answer the following questions in not more The Changing Environment
than 60 words.
a. Why do the stone tools give a clearer
evidence of the lives of the earliest humans
as compared with the tools made from wood
and bone?
b. What do the traces of ash found at the
Kurnool Caves suggest about the earliest
Let's Know More
During the Palaeolithic Period, the temperatures
dropped over much of the world and the climate
became dry. Many parts of the world were repeatedly
covered with ice sheets and glaciers. Around 12,000
years ago, at the beginning of the Mesolithic Period,
the climate became warmer than it was earlier. This
caused the development of grasslands and increase

humans? in the number of grass-eating animals such as deer,

C. What are the two possibilities of the division 8oat, sheep and cattle. The hunters began following
these animals and learnt about their food habits and
of work by the earliest men and women?
breeding seasons. This may have led them to start
2. Answer the following questions in not more thinking about herding and rearing these animals.
than 100 words.
During this time, various grasses that bore grains,
a. Describe any two things that can be seen in such as wheat, barley and rice, grew on their own
the Stone Age cave paintings. in different parts of the subcontinent. The gatherers
who collected these grains for food observed where
b. Suppose you are Roney, who is an

these grasses grew, and when they were ready for

archaeologist. Your team has just excavated
This may have made them think about
a Palaeolithic site. Write a diary entry harvesting.
describing any two sources you found from growing plants.
the site. Also, describe what each source
informs you about the Palaeolithic people Let's Try 4
who once lived at the site.
Answer the following questions in not more
than 60 words.
Let's Find Out a. How did the environment change about 12,000
Thinkabout an area that has cold climate. Within years ago?

pairs, discuss how the vegetation, animals and b. How would have the hunters started thinking
about herding and rearing these animals?
human activities of the area would change if its
climate becomes warm. C. What would have led the food gatherers to think
about growing plants?

22 Mylestone Social Science-6

Let's Remember
Features Features Features
The earliest and the longest period of the The shortest period of the Stone The latest period ofthe
Stone Age. Age. Stone Age.
People: The earliest people lived during People: Other than hunting and Stone tools:Varied,
this time. gathering food, they started sharper, lighter, polished
They hunted animals and gathered eggs fishing and began to think about and more useful than
and plant produce for food. rearing animals and farming. earlier tools.

They moved from place to place in search Stone tools: Used sharp, hard New tools made to grind
of food and water. and small tools called microliths; grains and other plant

Stone tools: Huge, heavy and rough added bone or wooden handle produce.

sharpened stones with one side left to many tools.

unsharpened to use as handle. Climate: Warmer than before,
Used to cut meat and bone, scrape the suitable for grasslands, grain-

animal skin and bark from trees, and chop bearing grasses and caused

fruit and roots. increase in grass-eating animals.

Climate: Cooler and drier climate in most

parts of the world.

Mesolithic
Palaeolithic Period Neolithic Period Present Time
Period

BCE CE

2 million years ago 12,000 10,000 5,000 2000 CE

years ago years ago years ago

Stone Age

Techniques to make stone tools: Stone-on-stone; pressure flaking

Sources of Information
Archaeological sites: Inform where, when and how earliest humans lived, and what kind of tools and artefacts they
made.
Tools: Tell where and when the early toolmakers lived; what
they ate; how they used tools; what skills they had; how
the tool-making technology developed.
Cave paintings:
Tell about the drawing skills of the earliest people, their knowledge of making natural paints, their
activities, animals that lived during those times and human interaction with natural environment.
Traces of ash: Suggest about the use of fire by the earliest people.

History: Early Humans of the Indian Subcontinent

23
 IAm a Historian!
Read the lines written below. Then,
gather information about art and food of early humans from the
given lines and associate it with the modern behaviour of humans.
In 1879, a young girl named Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola (Maria) wandered into a cave on
her grandfather
farm near Altamira, Spain. She was startled
by what she discovered on the walls of that cave:
"Maria entered the cave... and suddenly reappeared all excited, shouting 'Papa, mira, toros pintados!
[Papa, look, painted bulls!l' Maria had discovered one of the most famous animal-art
world"
galleries in the

-from Hands: Prehistoric Visiting Cards? by August Gansser

In a cave at Pinnacle Point in South
Africa, a team led by Arizona State University paleoanthropologist
Curtis Marean found evidence that humans 164,000
years ago ate shelifish, made complex tools and
used red ochre pigment. The shellfish remains of
mussels, periwinkles, barnacles and other mollusks
-

(invertebrate animals like snails).

Beyond our Borders
Lascaux (France) was inducted into the UNESCO World
Heritage Site list in 1979, as the element of
the Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère
Valley.
"On 12 September 1940, the entrance to Lascaux Cave was discovered
by 18-year-old Marcel Ravidat.
Ravidat returned to the scene with three friends,
Jacques Marsal, Georges Agnel and Simon Coencas, and
entered the cave via a long shaft. The four
teenagers discovered that the cave walls were covered with
depictions of animals. The cave complex was opened to the public in 1948.
By 1955, the carbon dioxide
produced by 1,200 visitors per day had visibly damaged the
1963 to preserve the art. After the cave
paintings. The cave was closed to the
public in
was closed, the
were monitored on a
paintings were restored to their original state and
daily basis"

We Care
People visit caves for many reasons, but for
animals,
have found the caves as an important
caves provide food and shelter. The
archaeologists
primary source to collect information about the early humans. Caves
also a path into the water table, so cave
pollution can poison a vital resource for our own
visit them. Think and share when we take new people tocommunity.
is up to us to protect caves when we
It
a cave, what
should we tell them and how we can protect our caves?

24 =
Mylestone Social Science-6
 Chapter3
The Earliest Societies

Let'sBegin
Observe the image given below (Fig. 1) and discuss how the activities of the earliest people changed
across the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods.

Palaeolithic Period Mesolithic Present Time

BCE Period Neolithic Period
CE

2 million years ago

10,000 2000CE
years ago

12,000 5,000
years ago years ago

Fig. 1 The changing lifestyle of the earliest humans across the three periods of the Stone Age
Did you notice the transition in the food habits and other activities of the hunter-gatherers
Stone Age Periods? In the
across the three
Mesolithic Period, the hunter-gatherers gradually included fish and
growing grains in their diet. In the Neolithic Period, they naturally
gradually started obtaining food from the plants
they grew and the animals they reared. What were the reasons for this
also take place in the lives of the earliest humans in the change? Did some other changes
Neolithic Period? Let's know about these changes.

History: The Earliest Societies

25
Let's Find Out
Within pairs, discuss and answer the following
questions briefly.
a. How would you grow plants in a garden?
***
b. How did you learn to grow plants?
***
C. According to you, how would have the earliest
humans learnt to grow plants?
***********
d. If you had to keep a domestic animal, which one
ould you keep? What special qualities would
you look for in that animal?
*************
e. According to you, which kind of animals were first
domesticated by early humans and why?
***
******************************
Let'sKnow More
Beginning of Farming and Herding
You might have learnt to grow plants by observing
your elders; or it might be that you have read or
heard about it. However, have you ever wondered
how the earliest hunter-gatherers learnt to grow
plants for food? You already know that about 12,000
years ago, the climate became warmer and thus
changed the vegetation. The forests changed into
grasslands. While gathering grains from the grasses
growing in the wild, the hunter-gatherers must
have found out that these grew in specific places.
They must have observed that the seeds which
26
break off from the stalk of the grasses and fall on
the ground sprout into new plants and bear grains
in certain seasons. These grasslands also provided
fodder for grazing animals like cattle, sheep and
goats. The humans must have wanted to save the
grain-bearing plants from birds and animals for
their own food. While coming in contact with the
grain-bearing grasslands and animals, the humans
started controlling animals as well. The increase in
grain-bearing grasses and grass-eating animals had
set the humans thinking about growing plants and
rearing animals to get food.
This is how farming started. The earliest humans
gradually gave up hunting-gathering and took to
rming. The other transition that came in the life
of the hunter-gatherers was the taming of animals
at eventually led them to become herders. They
must have found some animals to be friendlier than
others. They would leave food near their shelter to
attract these animals and would slowly tame them.
The first animal to be tamed was a wild dog that
would protect the hunter-gatherers and help them
to hunt. Later, they observed that animals such as
sheep, goat, cattle and pigs were not dangerous to
live with. These animals lived in herds and most of
nem ate grass. People tamed and protected them
from wild animals. This is how the hunter-gatherers
became herders.
Domestication
The food gatherers selected the animals based on
some special qualities, and the early farmers and
herders also chose to grow plants and keep animals
that had certain special features. They selected
those plants and animals that did not catch diseases
easily and also those plants that bore large-size
8rains and had strong stalks. Seeds from these
selected plants were grown so that the new plants
would be of the same qualities as that of the parent
plant. In animals, the less dangerous ones were
Selected for breeding.
After years of growing plants and rearing animals of
selected varieties, these plants and animals became
Mylestone SocialScience-6
different from their wild varieties. For example, wild
animals usually have much larger teeth and horns
Let's Find Out
than those kept at homes. Within pairs, answer the following questions
The process of growing plants and keeping animals briefly.
is called domestication. It began about 12,000 years a. What are some activities that you know or have
ago and gradually spread in many parts of the world. seen a farmer do to grow crops?
Most plants and animals used as food today are
the ones that have been domesticated over a long
period
perioc of time. Wheat and barley were some of the
earliest plants to be domesticated, while sheep and b. Why do you think farmers stay near their fields?
goat were the earliest domesticated animals. The
Neolithic people later on used oxen and donkeys for
carrying loads and ploughing fields.

THINK AND DISCUSS Let'sKnow More

How are the farming practices of the first
farmers different from those taken up by the
modern farmers?
List some animals that are kept by shepherds
these days. How are these animals useful to
them?
Why do shepherds keep dogs?
Beginning of Settled Life
Farming is a time-consuming activity and keeps a
farmer occupied right from the time he begins to
prepare field for growing crops. When humans began
to grow plants, they had to stay in the same place for
a long time to grow and harvest the grain. They had
to level and till the farmland, sow seeds, water the
plants regularly, remove wild plants and grass, and

Let'sTry 1 save plants by keeping animals and birds out of the

field, till the grain is ripened and could be collected.
1. Answer the following questions in not more Then, the grain had to be stored carefully to be used
than 60 words. as food, to be given away as gift, and for using as
a. Make
seeds to be planted in the next season. For this, the
a Venn diagram and write three
differences and one similarity among the early farmers sharpened their tools for digging the
lives of farmers and herders, and land, made large clay pots, wove baskets, or dug pits
hunter in the ground. Grain
gatherers. was also used to barter things
b. How did early farmers and herders select with others.
plants and animals? Give an example of each People noticed that animals multiplied naturally by
to explain. giving birth to their young ones. They realised that
2. Answer the domesticated animals can give them a regular supply
following questions in not more of meat and milk. Therefore, they started
than 80 words. rearing
animals and took good care of them.
Farming and
a. How did the hunter-gatherers begin farming? rearing animals slowly became a part of life and
b. How did the
hunter-gatherers become gradually people stopped wandering from place
herders? to place in search of food. This was the
towards a settled life.
beginning
domestication the process of growing plants and keeping animals

History: The Earliest Societies =

27
THINK AND DISCUSS Lef's Try 2
How is grain stored these days? Which
Answer the following questions in not more
government agency buys grain from farmers
than 60 words.
and stores it for future use?
Discuss some incidents when grain lying in the a. Why did early farmers stay at a place for a long
open was destroyed due to bad weather. Can time?
we afford to lose large quantities of grain each b. Write one usefulness of rearing animals to the
year because of inadequate storage facilities? early farmers and herders.

Let's Find Out

Within pairs, find out the Neolithic sites shown in the map. Read the description against each site
and answer the questions given below.
1. Grains of wheat, daal; bones of dog, cattle, sheep, goat,
buffalo; hand-made earthen pots; houses dug into the
ground, hearths; eyed-needles of bones
3. Grains of wheat, barley; bones
of sheep, goat, cattle, earthen 2. Grains of wheat, daol; bones of goat, sheep; hand-made
pots with geometric and animal 1. Burzahom
earthen pots; houses dug into the ground, hearths; stone
designs; square/rectangular 2. Gufkral pounders, querns; bone needles
houses with many rooms,
hearths; grinding stone querns
6. Grains of wheat, green
3. Mehrgarh gram, barley; bones of
buffalo, ox;, well-made
earthen pots; circular
4. Rice; broken animal
6. Chirand huts; eyed-needles of
bones; circular huts
4. Koldihwa a 7. Doajoli Hading bones; spinning discs of
5. Mahagara dnga Rive clay
5. Rice; hoof marks of cattle on
clay surface; hand-made pots; a r i n a d aR i v e r

querns; circular huts

Tapti River
7. Stone mortar &
Godavati River Bay of Bengal
pestle; tools made of
old wood hardened
into stone; earthen
Krishna River pots
Arabian Sea

8. Grains of millet; bones of cattle, sheep, 8. Halur 9. Grains of millet, black

goat, pig; hand-made dull grey earthen
pots; circular huts; querns
9.Paiyampalli gram; bones of cattle,
sheep, pigB
Andaman& Nicobar

Lakshadwep Index
Neolithic Sites N
Indian Ocean Map not to scale
A
Fig. 2 Archaeological evidences obtained from some important Neolithic sites of the Indian subcontinent

quern a hand tool for grinding grain, which comprises two partly circular stones, the upper which is rotated or rubbed to and fro
on the lower one

28 =Mylestone Social Science-6

1. Underline the text that describes the map given 6. What does the presence of quern, poundin8
in Fig. 2. stones, mortar-pestle and hearths suggest?
2. Underline the Neolithic sites shown in the map.
3 Name the Neolithic site(s) located in:
a. the northwest of the subcontinent
7. Which evidence suggests the use of vessels for
cooking and storing food?
b. the northeast of the subcontinent
* * * * * *

8. Which evidences suggest that people in some

C. the present-day Jammu and Kashmir Neolithic sites knew how to sew cloth and make
yarn?
. .

d. the Ganga Plains

Let's Know More

******

e. South India
Neolithic Age: Archaeological
Sources of Information
Several Neolithic sites have been found all over
4. Name the Neolithic site(s) where these evidences the Indian subcontinent. The
have been found: important ones are
Mehrgarh, now in Pakistan, in the northwest of the
a. Tools made from old wood hardened into Indian subcontinent; Daojali Hading, now in
stone Assam,
in the east of the Indian
subcontinent; Burzahom
and Gufkral in the
present-day Jammu and Kashmir
b. Grains of rice Koldihwa and Mahagara in the present-day Uttar
Pradesh; Chirand in the present-day Bihar; Hallur in
the present-day
C. Grains of millets Karnataka; and Paiyampalli in the
present-day Tamil Nadu. Archaeologists have found
several evidences on the
lifestyle of the Neolithic
people from these sites. Let us study about these
d. Houses dug into the evidences.
ground
Burnt Grains and Animal Bone:
When an ancient sitee
is excavated, scientists
. study the remains of plants
and animal bones found there. This
e.
Square/rectangular house with many rooms the inhabitants of that site.
tells them about

f. Spinning discs of clay Map in Fig. 2 shows that various kinds of

burnt
grain and animal bones have been found at
sites of the Stone many
5. Which
evidences suggest that people in Age. Scientists, after identifying
Neolithic sites were farmers and these the remains of burnt grains and animal
herders who come to know about different
bones, have
ved a settled life? crops that were grown
as food, and various animals that were
reared in the
ubcontinent during those times.
This tells us that
early farmers and herders might have
sites.
lived at these

History: The Earliest Societies

29
Remains of Huts and Houses: Archaeologists have
found the remains of some cluster of houses or huts
at many Neolithic sites. This proves that the Neolithic
people had started building houses in small groups,
thus marking the beginning of a settled life. The type
of huts or houses differed depending on the climatic
conditions and locally available raw material. Traces
of pit houses (Fig. 3) were found in Burzahom and
Gufkral, where pit houses were built by digging holes
into the ground and covering them with a roof. These
houses had steps going down the house. These may
have saved people from the cold weather. Cooking
hearths were also found both inside and outside the
pits. This suggests that people could cook food inside
or outside, depending on the weather.
Smokeho
adder in
roof hatch
Pookupportpost Fie hearth
Fig.3 A pit house
Circular huts were found in some Neolithic sites,
such as Mahagara, Koldihwa, Chirand and Hallur.
These huts had thatched roofs of grass and walls
made of reeds and bamboo sticks woven into each
other. The walls were then plastered with mud. The
roofs and walls were supported with wooden
poles.
The building material used in these huts was easily
available in the local area.
Tools: Stone tools have been found from many
sites. Many of these tools were polished to give a
sharp edge for cutting. The early farmers needed
to clear forests by cutting trees and branches. They
developed a new kind of stone tool which is called
neolith by archeologists. The early farmers grounded
the stones on rocks to give them axe-like edges. The
axe head obtained from each stone was
spinning discs a part of spinning wheel terracotta baked clay
30
to a wooden handle and used to cut trees. It is after
this new kind of stone tool that this period of early
agriculture is called Neolithic Period. By growing
stone sickles to
crops with the new tools, such as
harvest crops, the early human began a process which
changed almost all aspects of their lives in a very
fundamental manner. The grinding stones, pounding
stones, mortar and pestle, and querns were used to
process food for cooking. Some tools made of bones
such as eyed needles and clay tools such as spinning
discs have also been found from sites like Burzahom,
Gufkral and Chirand. These tell us that the Neolithic
people stitched cloth and had started making yarn
for weaving cloth. Weaving existed as early as 2300
BC and can be seen on terracotta seals and potteries,
especially in the Neolithic sites.
Wheel with an Axle: One of the greatest inventions
of the Neolithic people was the wheel with an axle.
It improved transport and increased the pace of
development. Perhaps the wheel was also used in
spinning thread, which led to weaving.
Earthen Pots: Neolithic people had learnt to make
pottery on potter's wheel. Different kinds of earthen
pots were found at some Neolithic sites. Some of
these were painted or decorated with geometrical
and animal designs. They used the pots to cook food
and store things.
of cloth
Impressions on earthen pots of Neolithic
Period have been found. This proves the knowledge
and use of woven cloth made of different materials,
like cotton, by the Neolithic people.
The Neolithic peoplewere closely associated with
nature. Nature was worshipped in different forms
and the prevalence of the
goddess worship was
authenticated by the presence of figurines of Mother
Goddess at Mehrgarh.
These evidences point towards
many changes that
in the lite of Neolithic people. However, it is
dme
mportant to note that the onset of the Neolithic
Period did not immediately bring about all these
changes everywhere.
then fixed
= Mylestone Social Science-6
 Things changed gradualy atdifferent places and at
different times. In many areas, people continued to
hunt and gather food fora long time, while they started
farming and herding animals in some other regions.
There were places, where people had permanent
settlements but at other places, they practised shift
agriculture (land was used for agriculture for one
season and then they left that place and shifted to
another piece of land). Slowly, the inventions and
discoveries gave rise to division of labour.
THINK AND DISCUSS
There have been many instances when some
people took away things from the archaeologicalcake as being described. Then, answer the
sites. There are many who deface structures at
these sites.
Why do they do so?
Why should we conserve archaeological sites?
3. Life of early humans changed in many ways
in the Neolithic Period. People began to
grow crops; rear animals; build huts/houses;
make earthen pots; cut, grind, pound food
grain and plant produce; cook food on
hearths; and weave cloth.
Draw an illustration in your notebook showing
the lifestyle of the Neolithic people.
Let's Find Out
Listen to your teacher and draw the layers of
following questions by underlining the correct
option.
a. Which was the first layer to be poured in the cake
tin -

layer with yellow gems, pink gems or purple

gems?
b. Which was the last layer to be poured in the cake

Let'sTry 3 tin-layer with yellow gems, pink gems or purple

gems?
1. Answer the following questions in not more
C. In which layer of the cake would you find yellow
than 60 words.
gems-in the bottommost layer, middle layer or
a. Explain how a Neolithic pit house found in
uppermost layer?
Burzahom and Gufkral was built.
d. In which layer of the cake would you find the
b. How were the circular huts of the Neolithic
gems that were added in the end- bottommost
Period built using the locally available raw
layer, middle layer or uppermost layer?
material?
e. In which layer of the cake would you find the
C. What evidences suggest that the Neolithic
gems that were the first to be added in the
people used to process food for cooking?
bottommost layer, middle layer or uppermost
d. Explain the two evidences that inform us that
the Neolithic people knew how to weave layer?
cloth.
2. Answer the following questions in not more Let's Know More
than 80 words.
Archaeological Sites of Mehrgarh
a. What material evidences lead archaeologists
to conclude that certain sites might have and Daojali Hading
been the settlements of the early farmers It will surely be fun for children to find gems of
and herders? Explain with examples.
different colours in three different layers of the
b. Howcan we say that pit houses ofthe Neolithic
cake? Will they ever make out that pink gems,
Period found in Burzahom and Gufkral were
which Shefali added right in the beginning, lay in
built to suit the climatic conditions of the
area?
the lowermost layer of the cake; followed by the

History: The Earliest Societies 31

next layer with yellow gems, which were added at Mehrgarh. In one of such pits, a dead person
after the pink ones; and purple gems, which were was found buried with goats (Fig. 4), perhaps with
the last to be added, were in the uppermost layer belief that the goat will provide food to the dead
of the cake? person in the next world.

Similarly, the material remains of the past times also

lay hidden in different layers of soil. Archaeologists
dig through the layers of soil to find evidences of
the past. The bottommost layer of undisturbed soil
is the oldest layer, while the topmost layer is the
most recent. Therefore, the past remains found
in the bottommost layer of the soil will belong to
the oldest period, whereas the ones located in the
topmost layer will be of the most recent time.
Keeping this rule of archaeology in mind, let us Fig. 4 Skeletons of a human and goats buried together at a
study about the material remains found at the site burial site at Mehrgarh
of Mehrgarh.
Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading
Mehrgarh Archaeological Site: This site is situated
afertile plain near the Bolan Pass in the present- Daojali Hading is an important Neolithic site of
day Pakistan. The settlement of Merhgarh, which is Assam. Located on the hills near the Brahmaputra
believed to have started about 8,000 years, is one Valley, the site lies close to the routes leading to
of the earliest villages that have been excavated so China and Myanmar. A large number of hand-
far. Archaeologists believe that people of Mehrgarh made earthen pots found here suggest that
were probably the first ones in this area to
groW. these were used to store harvested grain in large
barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats. number and to cook food. The finding of polished
Archaeologists, who dug this site, found different stone tools, including
kinds of animal bones from the different layers of
axes, grinders, mortars
and pestles, indicate that the people of this site
soil. The earliest levels had bones of wild animals
such as the deer and pig; the later levels had bones probably prepared food using the grains they
of sheep and goats; and the even later levels had 8rew. 1ools made of fossil wood or the old wood
cattle bones as most common bone remains. This nardened into stone have also been recovered
suggests that earliest people of Mehrgarh hunted here. Other main finding is the Jadeite stone which
animals. Later, they started rearing sheep and goat was perhaps brought from China. This suggests
and with time, cattle became the most common frequent travel between the people of the eastern
animal to be kept by people. part of the Indian subcontinent and China on a
trade route.
Archaeologists have also found remains of squarewell-established
or rectangular houses at Mehrgarh. Each house
was found to have four or more rooms, out of
THINK AND DISCUSS
which some may have been used for storage. Make a list of some things that you or
your
friends have that were not made in India.
In Mehrgarh, the dead persons were buried in
Discuss how you or
your friend
burial pits with respect. The evidence for this got these
comes from the burial sites that have been found
things.

burial the ritual of placing a dead person into the ground

32 Mylestone SocialScience-6
 Let'sTry 4
following questions in not more than 60 words.
Answer the
hunters and
suggest that the earlier people of Mehrgarh
were
a. What evidences helped archaeologists to

became herders later?

b. How do we come to know that people of Mehrgarh believed in life after death?
eastern part of the Indian
C. What evidence suggests that people had explored a land route between the
subcontinent and China, on which they travelled frequently?

Let's Find Out

who live in small settlements in Assam
Within pairs, observe the images of Tiwa people (Figs. 5-8)
their lifestyle
on their way of life. Then, write a short paragraph describing
and write four sentences
in the space provided.
costumes, work that men and women do, any other special thing you observe)
(Hint: their settlement, festival,

Fig.5 Hut of Tiwa people Fig. 6 Tiwa people performing a dance during a festival

Fig.7 Tiwa women carrying agricultural products Fig. 8 Tiwa people celebrating a festival

********

****.

History: The Earliest Societies

33
|Let's Know More
Customs and Practices of the Earliest
Farmers and Herders
In the above activity, you found that Tiwa are
group of people who live and work together near
forests of Assam. They grow crops using simple
methods of farming. Everyone in the grouP,
whether men or women, share work and live a
simple life. They wear traditional costumes and
rituals during festivals.
perform special dances and
Such a group of people who live together and have
a distinct but similar language, customs and past is
called a tribe.
Many tribal people all over the world are engaged
in farming and herding. They follow old methods
of farming and herding; and observe ancient
Customs and practices handed over to them by
their ancestors. Therefore, scholars study their
lives to get an insight of how the first farmers
and herders lived. Scholars believe that certain
customs and practices of the modern tribes
could be similar to those o the earliest farmers
and herders. Archaeological evidences do not
give direct information about the customs and
practices of the Neolithic people. Here are some
observations made by the scholars on the way
people live in tribes these days.
Tribes or Adivasis
Groups of families, which are mostly related to
one another, live together
tribe in small
as a
settlements villages. Two or three generations
or
eat them. Men herd animals in search of grazing
land and plants. Children help in looking after
mall herds of animals. Certain tasks, such as the
cleaning of animals, milking them, making pots,
baskets, tools and huts are done by both men and
women. They also sing, dance and decorate their
a
huts together.
The old and experienced men, or young and brave
warriors, or priests are often considered as leaders
of the tribe. Old women are respected for being
wise and experienced.
Each tribe has its own cultural traditions- distinct
language, music, dances, festivals, stories and
paintings. They have their own gods and goddesses,
whom they worship by performing special rituals.
The natural resources available to a tribe, such as
the land, forests, grasslands and water, are shared
and used together by everyone in the tribe. The
social division between the rich and the poor are
not big. The archeologists could not find much
about the social setup of the early humans; hence,
they draw their conclusions from the lifestyle ofthe
tribals as they nave somewhat similar settlements
in forests and
grasslands.
THINKAND DISCUSS
List some of your family customs or
practices
that according to you were also observed
by
your ancestors.
What do these customs or
practices tell you
about the life/beliefs of your ancestors?

live together in most families of the tribe.

People
of tribes follow old ways of hunting, gathering,
farming, herding and fishing. Let's Try 5
Everyone in the tribe shares the routine work. It Answer the following questions.
has been often noticed that women do
most of a. What is a tribe?
the farm work, such as preparing the ground for
farming, sowing seeds, looking after the crops b. Why do the scholars believe that studying the
and harvesting grain. They also thresh, husk and lives of the modern tribals
grind grain. Children help in looking after crops
engaged in farming
and herding can give them an
and chasing away animals and birds that might
insight into the
lives of the first farmers and herders.

34 =
Mylestone Social Science-6
Let's Remember
.I am Toba, a Neolithic man. My forefathers were
hunter-gatherers who moved from
search of food and water place to place in

In the Mesolithic Period, my forefathers

began to gather grain growing naturally and started thinking|
about growing plants themselves. They also noticed the
growing number of grass-eating animals and
began to think about rearing them.
In the Neolithic period, they began farming
initially by taking care of wild grain and harvesting them, and
later by growing them on their own.
They also started rearing and herding some wild but gentle animals such as goats, sheep, cattle and pigs.
These animals gave them milk and meat.
Since farming and herding animals are time-consuming activities, my family has settled in a small village
near our fields. A stream also flows nearby from where we get water for plants and our daily needs.
The process of growing plants and keeping animals is called domestication. We
carefully select and grow
only those varieties of plants that are not disease-prone, bear large grain and have strong stalks. The
animals we keep should be gentle and should not fall ill easily.
Domesticated plants and animals give us a regular supply of
food.
With time, new settlements came up and ours got damaged. Many got buried under the ground. Some
archaeologists have excavated settlements, which are called Neolithic sites.
Archaeologists have found information related to our lives by studying the remains of things we once
used, such as burnt grain we grew and ate, bones of animals we kept or which existed during thattime
broken pieces of pots and tools we used, and the houses in which we lived.
Many scholars, who are interested in knowing about ourcustoms and practices, study the lives oftribals
who use old methods of farming and herding. They believe that our customs and practices could be
similar to those of tribals.

I Am a Historian!
Changes are continuous factors in a society though it is not felt as to when changes take place. When
changes are viewed from a historical approach, the differences in the present and past become clear.
There can be varied reasons for changes. The Indian society has also changed over times due to many
reasons such as industrialisation, modernisation, migrations, climatic conditions and many more factors.
Think and discuss:
How have the changes affected the Indian farmers?
Why do you think this change is happening?
To what extent do you think this is beneficial to the farmers?
What problems has it created for small farmers?
Beyond our Borders
Sahara Desert was once a place of farming with large stretches of grasslands. The archeologists had
discovered some rock paintings in Sahara that show animals like humped cattle with herders. However,
with the change in the climate of the region that became hot and dry, the grasslands changed into a desert.
This completely changed the history of earlier inhabitants of Sahara who were herders and farmers.

History: The Earliest Societies 35

We Care
The Industrial revolution and rising population is leading to the climatic changes; for example, global
the threat to save our planet.
warming. Think and discuss about your contributions to fight

36 - Mylestone Social Science-6

Chapter 4
The First Cities

Let's Begin
Read the situation and answer the questions that follow.
Neeru is a 16-year-old girl, who has been living in a small village since her childhood. Her father makes tools
and household articles from iron, while her mother stiches clothes for villagers. Neeru and other children
of the village study in a nearby school. They walk on the dusty tracks along the fields to reach school. Neeru
has got admission in a big city school. She has just stepped out of the city railway station and is looking at

the city with great amazement

a. According to you, why is Neeru amazed to see the city?

b. What things in the city might have amazed Neeru?

C. Do you think that the inhabitants ofthe first Neolithic villages would have been amazed to see the first
cities of the Indian subcontinent? How do you think the first cities of the Indian subcontinent would
have looked different from the first villages of the Neolithic Period?

After the development of agriculture in the Neolithic period, the mostsignificant change that happened in
the human societies was the emergence of cities. These cities developed in the fertile plains of river valleys
that could produce plentiful of crops. The Harappan civilisation is known among the world's first cities in
the Indian subcontinent. The found by the
sources archaeologists provide a glimpse into the new lives of
the people in these first cities.

Let find out where and when the first cities of the Indian subcontinent
us
came up, who found these
ancient cities and what was special about them.

History: The First Cities

37
 c. Name the cities that are situated in the coastal
Let's Find Out areas.
Look at the map of the first cities of the Indian *********

subcontinent (Fig. 1) and answer the following

questions.

*********

d. In which present-day countries are these cities

situated?
ThelumR
Chenab B

R a v i

Harappa
e. According to you, how did the location of these
Rakhi Garhi
IndusK Kalibangan cities near rivers and the sea would have been
Ganweriwala helpful in their growth and existence?
Mohenjo-daro
Sotkakoh Chanhudaro

Dholavira
Sukotada
Gulf of Kutch

Arabian Sea
othal Let's Know More
The Discovery of Harappa
Gulf of Khambat In the late 1820s, while wandering in the lands near
N
Indus River, a British traveller in India called Charles
Index
A Masson came across some brick mounds. These
The firstcities of
the Sketch Map appeared to him like old castles. Hardly did he know
Indian subcontinent Notto Scale that these were the ruins of an unknown, ancient
Fig.1 The first cities ofIndian subcontinent city. However, he wrote about their existence in his
book Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan,
a. Underline the names of the first cities of Indian Afghanistan and The Panjab.
In 1856, engineers
subcontinent. building railway lines in the Punjab
of undivided India, saw buried walls of
b. Name the biggest river that flows through the high-quality
bricks. Without thinking that these
area in which these cities were situated. may belong to a
lost city, they removed thousands of bricks from the
walls and took them away to build railway lines.

mound a heaped pile of earth

38 Mylestone Social Science-6

Then, in the 1920s, some archaeologists excavated Let's Find Out
the site. Lo and behold, they had uncovered the
remains of a lost city, named Harappa. This was one Within, pairs discuss and write about the
of the first cities in the subcontinent. The findings following.
didn't stop here. Some more lost cities were found
during the excavations carried out in Rajasthan, a. Two good things about the way in which the
Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab in India, and the Punjab town/city you live in or visited has been built or
and Sind in Pakistan. These cities were similar to designed.
Harappa in many respects. Buildings and other
material remains found here were similar to those
found in Harappa. Therefore, all these were called
Harappan cities. These cities grew and developed
D. wo improvements you would like to make in the
about 4,700 years ago. These are the first cities of
the Indian subcontinent. way it has been built or designed.
Other than Harappa, which is now in Pakistan, .

some other important sites are Mohenjo-daro,

Ganweriwala, Chanhundaro Sotkakoh n
and
Pakistan; Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira in Gujarat;
Rakhigarhi in Haryana; and Kalibangan in Rajastha.
Let's Know More
THINKAND DISCUSS Important Features of Harappan Citiees
Why is it not correct to remove things from
old
buildings or pull them down completely All towns and cities have their own interesting
for carrying out new construction?
features and shortcomings. Some grow and
How would we have been benefitted if bricks develop haphazardly without any prior planning,
were not removed from the walls to build while some others are poorly planned, and there
railways in 1856? are some outstanding ones built
according to plans
and designs made by architects. In which of these
categories did the Harappan cities lie? Did these

Let's Try 1 cities have distinct features? Let

some

what historians have to say about it.

us study
Answer the following questions. After analysing the archaeological evidences found
a. Howoldare the first cities of Indian subcontinent?at the Harappan sites, historians have come to
know about many interesting things of Harappan
b. Why are the first cities of Indian subcontinent
cities.
known as the Harappan cities?
Division of Harappan Cities: Most cities,
C. Give including
examples of two Harappan sites located in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan, were
Pakistan and two in India.
divided into two parts. The smaller part of the city,

haphazardly in an unorganised way

History: The First Cities

39
 which usually lay to the west, was located on an
artificially raised mound. It is called the citadel by
archaeologists.
The larger but lower part of the city was usually
built to the east and is called the lower town. It
into a drain. Smaller rooms, which might be the
changing rooms, have been found on one side of
the tank. What is amazing is that none of their
doors faced each other exactly. Important people
may have used the tank to take a dip on special

is believed that the rich and ocCasions.

powerful people may
have lived on the citadel, while common people
like farmers, workers and potters may have resided
in the lower town.

The City Walls: High walls of baked bricks were

often built around each part. This would have
provided protection from floods and helped to
control trade. The bricks used to make walls were
hardened by heating them in the kilns at a high
temperature. The bricks were then laid in rows
in such a way that each row interlocked with its
adjoining rows. This interlocking pattern made the
walls strong. Fig. 2 The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro

Constructions on the Citadel: The remains of many

important buildings have been found on the citadel
of the Harappan cities. For example, the remains
of fire altars have been found on the citadels of
Kalibangan and Lothal, where religious sacrifices
may have been performed. Many big store houses
have been found in cities like Lothal, Harappa and
THINKAND DISCUSS
According to you, how else would have the
Great Bath been used?
How is the water tank in your area different
from the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro?

Mohenjo-daro.
The remains of a special tank, which is famous Lower Town: Streets, Houses and Drains
as the Great Bath (Fig. 2), is another important The ruins of the Harappan cities show that the
structure to be found the citadel of Mohenjo-
on
cities were well-planned. In major cities, like
daro. This rectangular structure that looks like a
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, the main streets ran
swimming pool was made of baked bricks. A thick
from north to south and east to west and, hence,
coat of tar and filling of gypsum mortar between
cut each other at right angles. In this way, the
the bricks made sure no water leaked out. Two
streets divided the city into neat rectangular or
sets of steps led down into the tank. A well found
Square blocks.
in one of the rooms built around the tank probably
supplied fresh water to the tank. Dirty water from The streets cutting each other at right angles could
the tank might have drained out through an outlet be cleaned on their own by winds. The streets

interlocked fitted together firmly kilns a furnace used for making bricks and clay objects hard after they have been shaped.
mineral that is used in making Plaster of Paris mortar paste used to bind building blocks such as
gypsum a soft white grey
or
stones and bricks.

= Mylestone Social Sclence-6

40
were also rounded off at corners to enable the THINK AND DISCUSS
different
heavy carts turn easily. the Harappan houses
How were
from a Neolithic pit house?
The houses were located in the squares formed
the drawbacks of having
an
on both What are

bythe intersecting roads and were built the

entrance door that opens directly onto
baked mud bricks
sides of the street. Sun-dried or
main road?
of uniform size were used to build houses. Mud the street drains
According to you, why
were

in constructions mud
widely used of the Harappan cities covered?
as
bricks were

have been
was easily available in this area.
What skills of Harappan people
above?
houses were one- or highlighted in the passage given
It has been found that most can be
rooms built around an open
What features of Harappan cities
two-storey high, with modern
used to improve the conditions of
The entrance doors of the
space in the middle. cities and towns of India?
were fixed on the side walls
and not in the
houses
front to prevent overcrowding in the main
street.

Most houses had bathrooms and kitchens,

whileLer's Try 2
some had their own wells to get clean water. Many 1. Give reasons for the following points.
out for the city dwellers.
public wells were dug a. The citadel and the lower town had high
Houses were plain with no decorations, but were walls around them.
comfortable to live in. b. The bricks used in making the city walls have
survived for thousands of years.
The cities hadefficient drainage system too. The
an
C. The city walls were strong.
bathrooms and kitchens had sloping floors that d. The tank of the Great Bath was water-tight.
allowed the waste water to flow into the narrow
e. Each house-drain was connected to a soak
drains built along them. The drain of each house pit.
This made sure that any f. The streets of the Harappan cities were also
emptied into a soak pit.
rounded off at corners.
dirt or refuse from the house, which might have got
The bathrooms and kitchens of the Harappan
carried along with the waste water, got collected houses had sloping floors.
in the soak pit, and only water flowed ahead into
2. Make a Venn diagram and write any three
the street drains. The street-drains, built along the
differences and one similarity between the
Sides of the roads, carried the waste water into citadel and the lower town.
large pits built outside the city. 3. Write 5-6 sentences on the following topics.

The street drains were covered with brick or stone a. The Great Bath

slabs and had inspection holes in them to clean b. Harappan drainage system
them regularly. This shows that Harappan people C. Harappan houses
were aware of the importance of healthy living 4. What three evidences suggest that the
and sanitation.
Harappan people had advanced knowledge
of town planning?

S0ak pits piits that collect all the sediments and ollow only the water to flow into the street drain

History: The First Cities 41

 Let's Find Out
Complete the table given below with your partner.

a. Name any five different works i. ************°

**************
***************************************

that city people do.

i. ******************************************************* *************

ii. **** **** **** ******************************************* ***

iv. s *******e********************************
****************
************

v. m ....*uasersssnsnn*saaaaaaeeeee**** *********************

b. Name any two hand-made/ c. Name the main material d. According to you, from where
craft items that are made in needed to make each craft do the craftspersons buy
cities. item. materials needed to make
these items?

i. **** *********************
* ************************************** | *** ***s*nmene*********sa

II. * * **** ************** ii. *** **** **************** I. ann************************************

Let's Know More Archaeologists have found a large number of seals

(Fig. 3) from the Harappan sites. These seals were
The Major Occupations and Crafts in usually rectangular in shape. Most of them had
Harappan Cities animal figures carved on them. They also have a

Just
script having picture-like signs on them. Scholars
as the modern-day city people engage
have
different vocations and craft works, the people or
not been able to decipher the script as yet.

the Harappan cities were also involved in different

People who worked as scribes, wrote on the seals.

works and crafts. They would have also written on materials that got
destroyed with time.
You have read that some important buildings were
constructed in the Harappan cities. It means that
some people in the cities were involved in the
development and construction of these special
building. These people would have been the rulers.
People who make buildings such as brickmakers,
masons and carpenters would have also lived in
the cities.

The rulers must have required precious things for

making buildings or for their own use. They would
have assigned some traders, the task of purchasing8 Fig.3 A Harappan seal. The figure of a bull is carved on the seal.
The script with picture-like signs is carved on the top of the seal.
these things from far-off lands.
Scholars have not been able to understand this
script yet.
scrlbe aperson who wrltes books or documents by hand decipher interpret the codes into a normal language
script written letters or signs

42 Mylestone Social Science-6

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
meet Kana; Kana then reached Hakalanileo, a pela i pau ai ke
down and broke off the flippers. kaua ana o Kana me ka puu o
As soon as the flippers were Haupu.
broken, the power of Haupu
ceased. Kana then stepped
down on the hill and it fell to
pieces, and as the pieces fell
into the sea, they were left there
in the form of small hills, 24 which
can be seen to this day, at the
mouth of the Waikolu Valley,
overgrown with loulou palms. [450]

By the death of Haupu, 25 the

chief Kapepeekauila was
conquered and Hina was
recovered; and she was brought
back to live with her first
husband Hakalanileo. This
ended the war between Kana
and the Haupu hill.

[437]

1 An easy-going king, undeserving of

the untiring efforts of his sons to
rescue their mother and avenge her
abduction. ↑
2 Hina in this story has been said to
be Hawaii’s Helen of Troy. She has
been a prolific inspiration of freaks and
foibles in the folk-lore not only of these
islands, but throughout Polynesia. ↑
3 This is a popular myth of great
antiquity (judged by the references
thereto in one way and another in
Hawaiian legendary lore), of which
there are several versions of various
titles. ↑
4 Niheu, said to have special power or
qualifications—Sampson like—
through his long hair. ↑
5 Kana could thank his stars for
grandmother Uli, not only for her
supernatural powers in seeing his
possibilities in a piece of rope, but
directing his efforts to avenge the loss
of his mother. This name, Uli, figures as
the famed and powerful goddess of the
anaana or sorcerer priests. ↑
6 The name Halauoloolo indicates a
long shed kind of structure rather
than a house. ↑
7 Kana apparently developed on the
Jack and the Beanstalk principle. ↑
8 Haupu, also known in tradition as
the “Rocks of Kana”, is a bold bluff
on the north coast in the Pelekunu
district of Molokai. ↑
9 Moi was one of the renowned priests
of a period preceding the arrival of
Paao in the twelfth century, from
Samoa. ↑
10 Mokuola, or Coconut Island, forming
the eastern portion of Hilo Bay. ↑
11 Paliuli, famed as the Hawaiian
Paradise, appears by this and other
legends to have been a favored spot in
Puna, Hawaii. ↑
12Laa, now known as Olaa, in Puna,
Hawaii, identifies the location of Uli’s
work. ↑
13 It will be noticed with all these kapas
that ula (red) terminates the several
names. There may have been designed
significance in these as signals in
distinction from other named kapas
which are described such. ↑
14Kanaloa (referred to again later),
one of the major gods of ancient
Hawaiian belief. ↑
15Hulahula was a prayer of great
solemnity in a dedicatory service,
and is not to be confused with the
Hawaiian dance of same name. ↑
16 On the Hilo side of the Wailuku
stream. ↑
17 The temple of this priest was that of
Maniniaiake, at Honokaupu, Pekunu.
Moi is said to have preserved the
ancient form of temple structure of
Wakea’s time, which held until Paao’s
system prevailed. ↑
18 The night of Kane was the twenty-
seventh of the lunar month. ↑
19 Kupukupu, a vegetable plant of
small moment. ↑
20 Prophetic utterances; one of Moi’s
famed qualities. ↑
21 Kolea (golden plover) and Ulili
(wandering tattler) were not a
formidable pair of winged
messengers. ↑
22 Name given to his swordfish. ↑
23 Ka-honu-nunui-ma-eleka, literally,
the very large turtle at Eleka. ↑
24 Known as the “Rocks of Kana”. ↑
25 Meaning the overthrow of Haupu. ↑
[Contents]
Story of
Pikoiakaalala.
CHAPTER I.
Alala was the father and Koukou
was the mother of Pikoiakaalala;
Iole and Opeapea were the
sisters of Pikoiakaalala, born
before him. The parents as well
as the children were rats who
sometimes changed into human
beings, as this story will clearly
show. Wailua in Kauai was the
birthplace of Pikoiakaalala. 1 The
first child of Koukou was Iole, a
daughter; then followed
Opeapea, another daughter.
These two were brought up by
Kaao No Pikoiakaalala.
MOKUNA I.
O Alala ka makuakane, o
Koukou ka makuahine, o Iole, o
Opeapea na kaikuahine o
Pikoiakaalala, he mau mua laua
ma ka hanau ana no
Pikoiakaalala. Olelo hoakaka.
He mau makua iole keia a me na
keiki, a he kanaka kekahi ano o
lakou, maloko o keia kaao e
maopopo ai. O Wailua i Kauai ka
aina hanau o Pikoiakaalala,
hapai o Koukou a hanau, oia o
Iole he kaikamahine, hapai hou
a hanau o Opeapea, he
their parents until they were of
age, when they moved to Oahu
and married husbands who were
connected to certain high chiefs
and who were large land owners,
during the reign of
Kaulamawaho 2 and
Kekakapuomaluihi. As Iole and
Opeapea had left Kauai for Oahu
before the birth of Pikoiakaalala,
therefore, they were not present 3
at the birth of their young
brother. After they had left,
Koukou, their mother, conceived
and gave birth to Pikoiakaalala,
a son, to whom great care was
exercised in his bringing up. In
the course of time the child grew
to be fine looking but with hair
that resembled rat’s hair.
At about this time it was
customary for the people to
gather at Wailua to join in and to
witness the different athletic
sports. One day while the
different games were going on,
the shouts and yells to
encourage the different
contestants were heard by
Pikoiakaalala. He therefore
asked his father Alala: “Say,
Alala, what is the cause of that
kaikamahine, hanai ia laua a nui,
holo i Oahu nei. Hoao laua me
na kane kaukau alii koikoi ai
ahupuaa o Oahu nei. Ia wa e alii
ana o Kaulamawaho me kana
wahine o Kekakapuomaluihi no
Oahu nei. No ko laua haalele
ana ia Kauai a holo i Oahu nei,
ike ole laua i ka hanau ana o
Pikoiakaalala, ko laua pokii
kane. A hala mai laua, hapai o
Koukou ko lakou makuahine ia
Pikoiakaalala, a hanau he keiki
kane, hanai ia a nui, ua pii kona
kino me ka makai o ka
helehelena, o ka lauoho nae he
ano hulu iole.
I loko o ia wa he mea mau i na
kanaka a me na keiki ka
akoakoa ma kahi hookahi o
Wailua e lealea, e makaikai no
na mea e hana ia ana. Ia lakou e
uwa ana me ka hookanikani pihe
no ka olioli, komo aku la keia leo
ma na pepeiao o Pikoiakaalala,
alaila, ninau oia i ko lakou
makuakaue ia Alala: “E, Alala,
heaha keia leo e uwa nei o kai o
Wailua nei?” “He olohu,” wahi a
shouting down at Wailua?” “They
are playing olohu,” 4 answered
Alala. “What is that?” asked
Pikoiakaalala. “It is played in this
way: there are two contestants
playing; when one has rolled his
stone disk farther than the
other’s, the multitude would
shout. That is the noise you
hear.” Pikoiakaalala then asked:
“Let me go and witness the
games?” “You cannot go and see
them until after today,” said
Alala. After this the multitude
shouted again. When
Pikoiakaalala heard the
commotion, he again asked
Alala, this being the second time:
“What is that renewed shouting
down there?” “They are playing
at a game called pahee. 5 When
the stick thrown by one
contestant slides farther than the
one thrown by the other the
people would yell.” “I must go
down,” said Pikoiakaalala. Alala
refused, saying: “You cannot go.”
Again there was yelling at the
place, this being the third time.
Pikoiakaalala again asked:
“What is that fresh shouting that
is going on?” Alala replied: “They
Alala. “Pehea ia mea?” wahi a
Pikoiakaalala. “Penei: olohu iho
la na mea elua a oi ka olohu a
kekahi, uwa aela, kani ka pihe,
oia kela leo au e lohe la.” I aku o
Pikoiakaalala: “E iho au e nana
ia mea?” “Aole oe e iho e nana,”
wahi a Alala, a hala keia la. Uwa
hou ka pihe, kokolo hou ka leo a
lohe o Pikoiakaalala. Ninau hou
ia ia Alala, o ka lua ia: “Heaha
keia uwa hou o kai?” “He pahee;
pahee iho la a holo loa aku la ka
pahee a kekahi uwa ae la.” “E
iho au,” pela aku o
Pikoiakaalala. Hoole mai o Alala:
“Aole oe e iho.”
Uwa hou ka pihe o kai, o ke kolu
ia, ninau hou ia Alala: “Heaha
keia leo hou e uwa nei?” Hai mai
o Alala: “He koieie i ka haki wai
ana, penei ke ano: he wahi papa
are playing koieie, 6 at a place in
the river near the rapids. The
game is played in this [452]way: it
is a short piece of smoothed
board which is thrown in the river
at a place just near the rapids in
such a way that it would float
steadily in one place without
being carried down the rapids.
The one whose piece of board
floats the steadiest and is not
carried down the rapids wins.
The shouting which you have
just heard is for the winner.”
“May I go down?” asked
Pikoiakaalala. “You may,” said
Alala.
Alala then proceeded to make a
koieie for Pikoiakaalala, and
after it was finished, the boy
started down for Wailua where
the people were gathered at the
games. On the arrival of
Pikoiakaalala with his koieie the
people all looked at him in
surprise. Not very long
afterwards the people began
throwing their koieie boards into
the Wailua River; so
Pikoiakaalala threw his into the
river also. When the people saw
how his koieie floated the
pokole i hana ia a maikai, lawe a
kahi o ka wai-kahe e ili ana
mehe ale la o ka [453]moana ke
opu ae a haki aku, ilaila e lana
malie ai me ke kauaheahe. A o
ka mea e lana ana peia me ka
lilo ole i ka wai, oia kela pihe e
uwa maila.” “E iho au?” pela aku
o Pikoiakaalala ia Alala. “Ae.”
Hana iho la o Alala i koieie na
Pikoiakaalala a hookuu aku la e
iho i kai o Wailua, i kahi o na
kanaka e piha ana. A hiki o
Pikoiakaalala me kana koieie,
nana mai la na mea a pau ia ia
nei me ka haohao. Mahope
olaila, kiola na mea a pau i ka
lakou koieie i ka wai (oia ka
muliwai o Wailua), o
Pikoiakaalala kekahi i kiola i
kana koieie, oi loa aku la ka
maikai o ke kau aheahe o kana
koieie mamua o ka na keiki a
pau. Nolaila, huahua lakou ia ia
steadiest, some of the boys got
jealous of him and one of them
reached down for Pikoiakaalala’s
koieie and threw it into the rapids
which carried it into the sea. As
soon as his koieie was thrown
into the rapids, Pikoiakaalala
jumped in after it and he too was
carried into the sea by the force
of the current for two days and
two nights when he landed on
Oahu at the harbor of Kou
(Honolulu), where he sat on the
sand like a castaway, weak from
want of food.
relating to his sisters.
The two [sisters] were at this
time living with their husbands
who were men of note, being
large land owners, and who had
under them a man by the name
of Kauakahi as their chief
steward. When Kauakahi saw
Pikoiakaalala lying there he
came up to him and asked:
“Where are you from?” “From the
sea,” answered Pikoiakaalala.
nei me ka opu kekeue. Lalau
kekahi keiki i ka Pikoiakaalala
koieie a kiola i kahi kahe ikaika o
ka wai, a kahe aku la ka wai me
ka ikaika loa, lilo aku la ke koieie
a hui me ke kai.
Mahope o ke kiola ana i ke
koieie, lele aku la o
Pikoiakaalala ma kahi a ke
koieie i haule ai, a lilo aku la keia
i ka moana ma ka ikaika o ka
wai; po a ao, ao a po i ka moana
pae i Oahu nei. Me ke awa o
Kou nei kona pae ana a noho
iho la ma ka ae one, he olulo ke
ano, no ka mea ua pololi i ka
make a ka ai a me ka ia.
no na kaikuahine.
E noho ana laua me ka laua
mau kane koikoi ai ahupuaa, aia
malalo o laua, he kanaka
malama waiwai, o Kauakahi ka
inoa. Hele aku la o Kauakahi ma
kahi a Pikoiakaalala e moe ana,
ninau iho la: “Mahea mai oe?”
“Ma ke kai mai nei,” pela aku o
Pikoiakaalala. “E hoi kaua i ka
hale,” pela aku o Kauakahi.
“Come to the house with me,”
said Kauakahi.
Upon their arrival at the house,
Kauakahi spoke to Iole and
Opeapea, the sisters of
Pikoiakaalala: “I have a boy,
here he is. I found him asleep 7
on the sand and brought him to
the house to live with me.” Iole
and Opeapea then asked
Pikoiakaalala: “Where are you
from? Where were you born and
who are your parents?”
Pikoiakaalala answered: “Wailua
in Kauai is my birthplace. Alala is
my father and Koukou is my
mother.” When Iole and
Opeapea heard these answers
given by Pikoiakaalala they knew
that he must be their brother, as
the names of their parents were
correctly given; they therefore
sprang on him crying, and at the
same time informed
Pikoiakaalala of their
relationship.
The husbands of the sisters of
Pikoiakaalala were out in the
fields working with the men, so
Kauakahi was sent to bring them
home and to tell them that their
A hiki laua i ka hale, olelo aku la
o Kauakahi ia Iole a me
Opeapea, na kaikuahine o
Pikoiakaalala: “He keiki ka’u eia
la, loaa aku nei ia’u e moe ana
ma ka ae one; nolaila lawe mai
nei au i ka hale nei e noho ai me
a’u.” Ninau aku la o Iole me
Opeapea ia Pikoiakaalala:
“Mahea mai oe? Owai kou aina
hanau a me na makua?” I aku o
Pikoiakaalala: “O Wailua i Kauai
ko’u aina hanau, o Alala ko’u
makuakane, o Koukou ko’u
makuahine.” A lohe o Iole a me
Opeapea i keia olelo a
Pikoiakaalala, maopopo ia laua
he kaikunane pokii keia no laua,
ma ka loaa ana o ka inoa o na
makua. Lele aku la laua uwe, a
hai aku la i ka pili ana ia
Pikoiakaalala.
O ka laua mau kane aia i ka
mahiai me na kanaka, hoouna
aku la laua ia Kauakahi e kii, me
ka olelo aku ua hiki mai ko laua
kaikoeke. A hiki o Kauakahi,
brother-in-law had arrived. When
Kauakahi came up to them he
said: “You have been sent for by
your two wives to return home
because your brother-in-law has
arrived from Kauai, and to kill a
pig and prepare some food.” The
food and pig were gotten ready
and as soon as they arrived at
home they were cooked in the
ground.
While the pig and food were
being cooked, Pikoiakaalala left
the house and walked over to
where the king and queen of
Oahu were residing. When he
arrived he found them betting on
rat shooting. 8 Kaulamawaho the
king and Kekakapuomaluihi
[454]the queen were betting their
possessions. Mainele was the
king’s rat shooter, but the queen
had no one to do the shooting for
her; so when Pikoiakaalala saw
this he boasted in the presence
of Mainele in the following
manner: “That is simple enough,
anybody can do that.” When the
queen heard this she called for
Pikoiakaalala to come near to
her. As he stood in the presence
olelo aku la: “I kauoha mai nei
na ’lii wahine ia olua e hoi olua i
ka hale, ua puka mai ko olua
kaikoeke mai Kauai mai, e kalua
puaa a me ka ai.” Ia wa,
makaukau na mea a pau a hiki i
ka hale, kalua ka puaa me ka ai.
Kaha hele aku la o
Pikoiakaalala, a puka aku la i
kahi o na ’lii o Oahu nei e noho
ana, a hiki ia, e pili ana na ’lii i ka
pana iole.
Na ’lii. O Kaulamawaho ke kane,
o Kekakapuomaluihi ka wahine,
e pili ana laua i na waiwai. O
Mainele ka ke kane pana iole, a
o ka wahine alii aole ana pana
[455]iole; nolaila, olelo hooioi o
Pikoiakaalala imua o Mainele,
penei: “He mea liilii wale no ia
mea, aole ia he mea nalowale.”
Lohe ke ’lii wahine i keia olelo a
Pikoiakaalala, kahea mai e hele
aku a kokoke, a hiki ia, ninau
mai ke ’lii wahine: “He ike no
oe?” “Ae,” pela aku o
Pikoiakaalala. Wahi a ke ’lii
wahine: “Ina he ike oe i ka pana
iole, alaila, o oe ka’u pana iole, a
e pili ko’u waiwai mahope ou, a
e pana olua o Mainele, a holo ko
laua olelo ana, pili na waiwai.”
of the queen she asked him: “Do
you know how?” Pikoiakaalala
answered: “Yes.” “If you know
how to shoot rats,” said the
queen, “then I will stake my
property on your skill and you
can compete with Mainele.” As
soon as they agreed on the
conditions the bet was made.
Mainele was a high chief 9 and
was an expert in the art of rat
shooting; he was known to win
all the contests in which he took
part. He could hit ten rats with
one arrow at one shot. In regard
to the wager: the king staked his
property on Mainele, while the
queen staked her property on
Pikoiakaalala. The condition was
that whoever could shoot and hit
ten rats with one arrow would
win, the one failing to do this
would lose.
Mainele took the first shot, and
when the people looked they
saw that the arrow had entered
into ten rats, so they shouted,
“Mainele has won! Mainele has
won!” Pikoiakaalala then
sarcastically remarked to
Mainele: “How awkward! It is
No Mainele. He kanaka kaukau
alii o Mainele, a he kanaka
akamai loa ma ka pana iole,
nana wale no ke eo ke pili, he
umi iole e ku i ka pua hookahi, i
ka pana hookahi ana.
No ka pili ana. Pili ke ’lii kane i
kona waiwai mahope o Mainele,
pili hoi ke ’lii wahine i kona
waiwai mahope o Pikoiakaalala,
a mau na pili. Na Iole. Ina e ku
na iole he umi i ka pua i ka pana
hookahi ana, alaila, eo ka
waiwai, ina emi i ka eiwa iole o
ka pana hookahi ana, aole eo,
pela na aoao elua. Ia wa pana o
Mainele, ku he umi iole i ka pana
hookahi ana, kanikani pihe ka
aha e nana ana, “Eo ia Mainele!
Eo ia Mainele!” Olelo aku o
Pikoiakaalala, me ka
hoonaukiuki ia Mainele:
easy enough to hit the rat in the
body because the object is large.
I thought you were going to
shoot at the whiskers in order to
prove your great skill, but I see I
am mistaken.” Mainele
answered: “You are a deceitful
boy. From the day I first began
shooting rats until this day, I
have never seen a man who
could shoot at the rats’
whiskers.” Because the two were
arguing over the matter so long,
bets were again made about
hitting the rats’ whiskers. After
the new bets were made,
Pikoiakaalala took his shot. At
this time there were no rats to be
seen, the brush in the near
neighborhood was without rats;
so Pikoiakaalala prayed his
Kalokalo 10 prayer. By this we can
see that his parents and sisters
must have had the forms of rats.
Here is Pikoiakaalala,
I am the offspring of Alala,
Brought forth by Koukou.
Alala [was] the father,
Koukou [was] the mother,
The bent bow of the night.
I am about to shoot at you,
At Uluku; at Ululono.
“Hawawa! A e pono no paha ke
ku ma ke kino o ka iole he aka
nui; kai no paha i ka umiumi o ka
iole e pana ai, akaka la hoi ke
akamai, aole ka!” Olelo mai o
Mainele: “Keiki hoopunipuni oe.
Mai ko’u la i pana iole a hiki i
keia la, aole au i ike i kekahi
kanaka e pana ana ma ka
umiumi o ka iole.” No ko laua
hoopaapaa loihi, pili hou no ke
ku i ka umiumi o ka iole. Mahope
o keia pili hou ana, pana o
Pikoiakaalala. Aole iole,
mehameha ka nahele; pule o
Pikoiakaalala, oia ka Kalokalo.
Ma keia wahi e ike ia ai, he ano
kino iole na makua a me na
kaikuahine.
Aia la o Pikoiakaalala,
O Kama a’u a Alala,
I hanau ia e Koukou,
O Alala ka makuakane
O Koukou ka makuahine,
O Kikoo o ka po,
E kikoo aku ana au ia oe,
Ia uluku, ia ululono,
Kaulamawaho the king,
Kekakapuomaluihi [the queen],
It is you to drive them along
There they are! There they are!!
There are the rats at the
outskirts of the aweoweo, 11
At the trunk of the aweoweo,
At the leaf of the aweoweo,
Aweoweo [that is] made red by
the sun
[The rats are] lying in the pili
grass, let them be driven this
way
They sleep, the rats are asleep
They have returned.
Pikoiakaalala then let fly his
arrow, which hit ten rats, and at
the point of the arrow was held a
bat, making eleven; all the rats
were made fast by their
whiskers. Mainele,
Pikoiakaalala’s opponent, then
said, together with the people
who were present: “It is a draw!
It is a draw, because you have
hit ten rats and one bat with your
[456]arrow, and Mainele has hit
ten rats with his arrow. The bat
should not be counted as it is not
a rat.” Pikoiakaalala replied:
“That bat should be counted as a
rat, as I have hit it with my arrow,
O Kaulamawaho he alii,
O Kekakapuomaluihi
O Kau la hooholo ia mai
Aia la! Aia la!
Aia ka iole i ka hua o ka
aweoweo,
I ke kumu o ka aweoweo
I ka lau o ka aweoweo
Aweoweo ula i ka la,
I moe i ke pili o kuahuia nei la,
Moe, moe maila ka iole,
A hoi maila i ka iki.
Pana aku la o Pikoiakaalala, ku
na iole he umi, a ma ka pau loa
ana o ka pua he opeapea, hui ia
umikumakahi, ma ka umiumi o
ka iole ka paa ana. Olelo o
Mainele, kona hoa pana iole, a
me na kanaka a pau: “Ua pai!
Ua pai, no ka mea, he umi
[457]iole o kau pana hookahi ana
e Mainele, a he a Pikoiakaalala,
a o ke opeapea aole heia iole.” I
aku o Pikoiakaalala: “He iole ia,
ua ku i ka pua; penei ka olelo
ana:
and according to the old saying,
which is as follows:
The bat in the stormless season
Is your younger brother, O rat,
Make a squeak.
There you are, it is a rat,” said
Pikoiakaalala to Mainele, the
chiefs and all the people. So
Mainele and the king,
Kaulamawaho, were beaten.
Therefore we can see plainly
that the sisters of Pikoiakaalala,
Iole and Opeapea, were rats.
As Pikoiakaalala was very
hungry he disappeared from the
people who had gathered at this
place and returned to his sisters,
where he found the pig and food
cooked. Before he sat down to
eat Pikoiakaalala addressed the
people, saying: “I want you all to
understand that I have certain
rules in connection with my
meals. There must be no talking,
no whispering, no nodding, no
pinching and no noise of any
kind should be heard until I finish
my meal.” He then reached for a
piece of pork and a dish of
Opeapea i ke kau malie,
Kou pokii e iole
E wi mai.
Aia la he iole,” pela aku o
Pikoiakaalala ia Mainele a me na
kanaka a pau loa, na ’lii. Nolaila,
eo o Mainele a me kona alii o
Kaulamawaho. Nolaila, ua
maopopo he mau iole na
kaikuahine o Pikoiakaalala, oia o
Iole a me Opeapea i olelo i ma
ka hoomaka ana o ke ia kaao.
No ka pololi loa o Pikoiakaalala
nalo aku la ia mai ke anaina
kanaka aku, hoi aku la ia a hiki i
kona mau kaikuahine, ua moa
ka puaa a me ka ai. Mamua o ka
paina ana, pane aku o
Pikoiakaalala: “E hoolohe mai
oukou a pau loa, he wahi
kanawai ko’u no ka ai ana,
penei: “Aohe walaau, aohe
hawanawana, aohe kunou, aohe
iniki, aohe hamumu, a pau kuu
paina ana.” Lalau aku la ia i ka
puaa, hookahi kaka, o ke poi
uala, hookahi nau ana, a moni,
lalau hou, kokoke e pau ka puaa
potato, taking one bite of each
which he swallowed; he then
reached for another piece of
pork, almost finishing the pig,
and all the food of the oven. At
this one of the men remarked:
“He eats like a god.” On hearing
this Pikoiakaalala stopped
eating. His brothers-in-law then
said: “Why don’t you go on
eating?” “No, I have had
enough.” “Yes, we already heard
your rule,” said his brother-in-
law. In this one meal partaken by
Pikoiakaalala, he grew into a
large and fine looking man, but
his hair was [like] rat’s hair.
When Pikoiakaalala disappeared
from the queen and the people
after the contest, the queen was
greatly worried; so a
proclamation was issued calling
the chiefs and common people
together, the aged, those whose
eyes had become dim; those
who were bent with age,
excepting those whose skin had
become yellow [with age], those
who were sick and those who
staggered and fell. This call for a
universal gathering was made in
order to find Pikoiakaalala. When
okoa, a me ka ai a pau o ka
umu. Pane mai kekahi kanaka:
“He ai na ke Akua.” Oki iho la
keia. Pane mai na kaikoeke: “E
oki ana ka hoi i ke aha ka ai
ana?” “Aole, ua maona ae la no.”
“Ae, ua lohe la hoi makou i kou
kanawai,” pela na kaikoeke. Ma
keia ai ana a Pikoiakaalala, ua
pii kona kino a lilo i kanaka nui a
me ka maikai, o ka lauoho nae
he lauoho iole.
A nalowale mai o Pikoiakaalala
mai ke ’lii wahine mai, a me ke
anaina kanaka a pau loa o kahi
ana i pana iole ai, he mea pilikia
loa ia i ka manao o ke ’lii wahine
o Kekakapuomaluihi. Nolaila,
kuahaua ia mai na mea a pau e
hui i kahi hookahi, mai na ’lii a
na makaainanana, ke kanikoo,
ka haumakaiole, ke kolopupu,
koe ka palalauhala, ka mai iluna
ke alo, ka mea ku a hina iho. O
keia huliamahi ana o na mea a
pau loa, i loaa o Pikoiakaalala,
eia nae, aole i loaa i loko o keia
the people were gathered
Pikoiakaalala was not
recognized as he stood among
them as he had grown larger
after partaking of that one meal;
for at the time he had his contest
with Mainele he was but a mere
boy. He was, however, later on
recognized by means of his
great skill at shooting rats.
Among the people gathered was
an aged woman whose eyes
were dim and had grown small
till they looked like those of a rat.
When Pikoiakaalala saw her, he
shouted out: “See that big rat!
What a large rat!! It is not afraid
of the people. My arrow will hit
you! My arrow will hit you!”
CHAPTER II.
As Pikoiakaalala was shouting,
Mainele and the chiefs heard it,
so Mainele spoke up: “You are a
deceiving man. Where is the rat
akoakoa ana, no ka mea, ua pii
ae ke kino o Pikoiakaalala i ka
nui no kela ai hookahi ana. I ka
wa i pana iole ai me Mainele, he
kino keiki no ko Pikoiakaalala.
Iloko o keia akoakoa ana i ike ia
ai o Pikoiakaalala, maloko o
kana hana he pana iole.
Iloko o ke anaina kanaka e noho
ana he luahine haumakaiole ua
hele a liilii na maka a like me ko
ka iole. Kahea o Pikoiakaalala:
“Ka iole nui e! Ka iole nui e!
Makau ole i ke kanaka keia iole.
Ku oe i ka’u pua! Ku oe i ka’u
pua.”
MOKUNA II.
I keia kahea ana a Pikoiakaalala,
lohe o Mainele a me na ’lii; i aku
o Mainele: “Kanaka hoopunipuni
oe; aia i hea ia iole holo mai i
that will come into this great
assembly of people? You are the
greatest of liars.”
“A rat! A rat!” continued
Pikoiakaalala. Mainele replied:
“Let us make a wager.” In this
new wager the king and queen
again took part; the king backed
up Mainele while the queen
supported Pikoiakaalala. As
soon as the wager was decided
on, Pikoiakaalala made ready to
shoot. Before his arrow left the
bow, however, Mainele
remarked: “If the actual rat is hit
then the wager is won and
Pikoiakaalala can [458]have the
stakes.” He said this because
they all felt sure that no rat would
be seen in the crowd of people.
When Pikoiakaalala let fly his
arrow, it hit the old woman
whose eyes were dim and had
grown small because of her
great age. 12 At seeing this
Mainele and the people refused
to give up the stakes as the old
woman was not a rat, but a
human being. Pikoiakaalala
answered that the object hit by
his arrow was a rat, saying:
loko o keia anaina kanaka nui?
He keu oe o ke kanaka
wahahee.”
“He iole! He iole!” pela o
Pikoiakaalala. Olelo mai o
Mainele: “E pili kaua.” Ma keia
pili hou ana komo hou na ’lii, o
ke ’lii kane mahope o Mainele, o
ke ’lii wahine mahope o
Pikoiakaalala; a pau ka pili ana o
na waiwai, pana o Pikoiakaalala.
Wahi a [459]Mainele: “Aia a ku i
ka iole ponoi, eo, lilo ka waiwai
ia Pikoiakaalala, no ka mea, ua
ike na mea a pau aohe iole holo
mai i kawa paapu o na kanaka.”
Pana o Pikoiakaalala i ka pua,
ku ka luahine haumakaiole.
Hoole o Mainele a me na kanaka
a pau aohe ia he iole, he kanaka
ia. I aku o Pikoiakaalala, he iole
ia, penei: “Hanau ke keiki; he
kino uuku ia; a nui ae, he kino
kamalii; a pau ka pii ana o ke
kino, he kanaka makua; a lalau i
ke kookoo, he elemakule; a liilii
na maka, he ‘haumaka-iole,’ iole.
“When a baby is born it is called
a child; when it grows bigger it is
called a youth; when it stops
growing it is called a full-grown
man; when he walks with a cane
he is called an old man; and
when his eyes grow small he is
likened to a rat ‘haumaka-iole,’ 13
a rat. Is not that a rat? It is a rat.”
Mainele was therefore beaten.
After the bet was settled they
went into the house and sat
down; Pikoiakaalala then looked
up at the rafters and said: “Look
at that big rat sitting there! Look
at that big rat sitting there!!” At
this Mainele remarked: “You are
a deceiving man. Where is the
rat to come from that you could
see there? You are the greatest
liar I have ever seen. You have
no equal.” Pikoiakaalala said:
“There is a rat. If I should shoot
and hit a rat, what would you
do?” “All right, we will make a
bet, if you shoot and hit a rat I
lose and if you don’t hit one you
lose,” said Mainele. The bets
were then made, the king and
queen doing the betting,
consisting of articles of value
and land. After the bets were
Aole ia he iole? He iole ia.” Eo o
Mainele.
A pau keia pili ana, hoi lakou a
loko o ka hale, noho. O
Pikoiakaalala nana ae la ia i
kaupoku o ka hale a olelo ae la:
“Ka iole nui e kau mai la! Ka iole
nui e kau mai la!!” I aku o
Mainele: “Wahahee oe e na
kanaka; na wai ia iole holo mai o
laila? He oi oe o ke kanaka
wahahee, aohe ou lua.” Olelo
aku o Pikoiakaalala: “He iole; ina
i pana au i kuu pua a i ku, pehea
oe e Mainele?” “Ae, i pana oe a i
ku ka iole, eo au ia oe, a i ku ole,
eo oe ia’u,” pela aku o Mainele.
Nolaila, pili hou laua, na na haku
alii o laua i pili na waiwai, ka
aina. A pau ka pili ana, pana o
Pikoiakaalala. Lele aku la ka pua
a ku i ka “aho kuaiole” i ke
kaupoku maluna iho, ku ka pua.
Nana ae la o Mainele a hoole:
made, Pikoiakaalala let fly his
arrow which flew and hit the top-
most batten Kuaiole. 14 At this
Mainele looked on and said:
“That is not a rat, that is a batten,
you have not beaten me.”
Pikoiakaalala replied: “That is a
rat, for the common expression
is this: ‘Put on and bind down the
rat-backed batten.’ Is not that
expression connection with the
word rat? I say it is; therefore, I
have won.” At this everybody
present decided that Mainele
was beaten. When Mainele was
beaten this time, his skill and
fame began to wane, while the
skill and fame of Pikoiakaalala
as a shooter of rats was
established.
We will now introduce our
readers to Keawenuiaumi the
king of Hawaii. While
Keawenuiaumi was on his way
with his canoe makers to the
forest of Hilo one day, for the
purpose of cutting down a large
koa tree for a canoe, two birds
flew on to the very top of the tree
and called out in a loud voice:
“Say, Keawenuiaumi, you cannot
make a canoe [out of this tree], it
“Aole ia he iole, he aho ia, aole i
eo.” Olelo aku o Pikoiakaalala:
“He iole ia, penei ka olelo ana:
‘Kau hilo ia iho ka aho kuaiole.’
Aole ia i pili i ka olelo na ka iole,
ua pili, nolaila, ua eo oe ia’u.” Ia
wa, hooholo na mea a pau loa,
ua eo o Mainele. Ma keia eo ana
o Mainele, ua haule loa kona
akamai i lalo a me kona kaulana.
Ua lilo ke akamai a me ke
kaulana no Pikoiakaalala, i ka
pana iole.
Maanei, e nana kakou no ke ’lii
nui o Hawaii no Keawenuiaumi. I
kona pii ana me kona mau
kalaiwaa ma ke kuahiwi o Hilo, a
oki i ke koa i mea waa, kau ana
elua manu iluna o ka wekiu,
kahea iho la me ka leo nui: “E,
Keawenuiaumi, aohe waa, he
puha, he waa ino, he waa puha,
he waa hiki ole i ka moana.”