Introduction

2 models of inequality
>class-control over resources division
>caste- social status division
>gender inequalities

All 3 are overlapping. Long slow process of evolution of caste system. Early
Buddhist texts- attempts by brahmanas to gain high position based on purity of
birth. Eg. In suttapitaka- only brahmanas are pure, best caste, sons of brahma.
Varna in Sanskrit means colour. 4 level. 5th level later panchama. Caste- system of
grading inequality in ascending scale of reverence and descending scale of
contempt. Access to production sector is closed to lower caste. Between the groups
eating, physical contact and marriage are kept very ritualistic. Earliest reference
for varna, purushasukta- this describes primeval sacrifice of purusha and through
this all elements were generated. Mouth Brahmin, arms- kshatriya or rajanya,
thighs- vaishya, feet- shudra. The males of the 3 upper castes were dvija- twice
born. Vedic initiation – upanayana. 4 varnas and ashramas are the 4 pillars of
brahmanicaL ideology (dharmashastra texts). Outside groups wer absorbed into
the varna system and they were put in the category of varnasamkaras. Eg. Yavans=
kshatruya man + shudra women. Manusmriti refers to them as vratyakshatriyas
(khatruyas who were degraded due to their non performance of their sacrificial
rituals.) Jati, lineage and occupation continued to be important basis of social
identity. The texts mostly talk about the caste hierarchies (Brahmans at the top
and the chandalas at the bottom)

Brahmanical patriarchy
Brahmanical patriarchy is a complex formation of social status, economic, social
reproduction. It is a structure unique to brahmanic Hinduism. Women are crucial
in maintaining boundaries between caste. Brahmanical chords are different
depending upon the status of caste group and most stringent control was for
higher caste women. In Manusmriti we read that women are redisposed in
violating rules. 8 forms of marriage
>brahma, daiva, arsha, prajavatya, asura, gandharva, rakshasa, paisaja. Brahma
was the preferred form of marriage .
The 4 fold order of varnas was central to the discourse of the brahmanical
tradition. The varnas were ideally supposed to be endogamous (marriage within
the group). Hypogamous marriage(anuloma)- marriage between man of higher
caste and women of lower caste. Pratiloma- marriage between man of lower caste
and women of higher. Worst sort of pratiloma union was between Brahmin
women and shudra man. The ideal activities of a brahmana was studying and
teaching Veda, performing sacrifices for himself and others, giving and receiving
gifts. Those of Kshatriya are studying, bestowing gifts, conducting sacrifices for
himself and more specially protecting people. Vaishyas shares the 1st 3 activities
but his ideal occupations are agrigulture, cattle-rearing, trade and money lending.
The shudra was supposed to obtain his livelihood by serving the higher varnas.
The emergence of jatis may have been the result of a combination of factors, the
hereditary nature of craft and occupation, assimilation of tribal groups into
brahmanical fold and a social system that privileged birth and hierarchy through
marriage roots and endogamy. Pali texts refer to high jatis(ukkatta jatis) and low
jatis (hina). Brahmans and kshatriyas included among the former. The latter
included hunters. Chariotters and sweepers. In early dharmashashthra texts
chandalas were sometimes categorized as shudras. If a higher jati man touches,
sees or talks to a chandala then he has to immediately engage in certain
purification activities.

women
diff texts have contradictory statements about women. Manusmriti praises and
reviles women. Men have to guard their wives and women as described as lustful,
fickle, hard-hearted, untrustworthy. On the other hand where the discussion is
about how men should respect women the latter are described as bearers of many
blessings. Manusmriti emphasizes the husbands control over wife and property
but she can’t be sold and treated as chattel. Dharmashstra- women withdraw from
public life, diminished access to knowledge and they are dependent on males.
preference for sons. Vijayanath examined the changing relationship between
women and property in brahmanical texts where by the time of the rig Veda to
5th,6th centuries they were treated as items of property or equal to shudras.
Women’s right to inherit property with regard to stridana from 2nd century.
Manusmriti- 6 types of gifts in stridana.

Vijayanath expands her argument that women’s right to inherit immovable

property acknowledged and expanded in the later centuries and this was to keep
maintain the families control over property and to prevent it from being taken
over by the state. Manusmriti- a dvija male must marry a woman from his own
varna. Earlier dharmasutras tell that women should be married on attaining
puberty, later texts advocate pre-puberty marriages. Manusmriti prefers
marriages within the varna but acknowledges inter Varna and anuloma unions.
Pratiloma marriages were considered to lead to chaos and ruin. Manusmriti- the
husbands can abandon their wives if the wife is notorious, affected with disease,
treacherous etc. on the other hand a sick but virtuous wife shouldn’t be
abandoned. For women lifelong monogamy is presented as the ideal. Manusmriti
disapproves widow remarriage. On her husband’s death if a virtuous women
abides by the rule of celibacy she goes to heaven even if she is sonless. Manusmriti-
“niyoga”, if a husband dies without a son his younger brother should marry the
wife and unite with her till a son is produced and the son born out of niyoga union
is called as kshetraja. Different texts such as palijatakas deal with different
occupations of women. Inscriptions mention about royal as well as non royal
women.

UMA CHAKRAVARTI

The purity of women has a centrality in brahmanical patriarchy as we shall

see coz caste purity is dependent upon it. The honor and respectability of men are
protected and preserved through their women. The ideologies of caste system had
a particular horror- hypogamy- pratiloma(against the grain). The gita outlines the
collapse of social and moral order when there are leakages in the closed structure
of marriages( when women are corrupted all is lost.) . Women’s cooperation in the
system was secured by various means-ideologies, economic dependency on the
male head of the family, class privileges and also force was used when required.
The existence of numerous mother goddess icons and the bronze statue of a
dancing girl could be interpreted as the continuous importance of women’s special
relationship with reproduction and may also be seen as acceptance of their
sexuality.

The 1st large group to be enslaved in the early Indian history were women(dasis
and dasas). References to dasis as objects of dana( recipients are always men).
Degree of tension between men and women may be discerned even in rig vedic
literature. Shatapata brahmana states that ‘Raja’ varuna seizes the woman who
has adulterous intercourse with men other than her husband. Apstamba
dharmasutra- wives in particular required to be under male control, husbands
should ensure that no other man should go near her lest his seed get into her.

Innate nature of women was represented as sinful at a general level. Women are
the edge of a razor. Shatapata brahmana states that- a women, a shudra, a dog and
a crow are the embosiments of untruth, sin and darkness. Women are a sex
composed of wickedness and guile, womenkind hold truth for falsehood and vice
versa(jatakas). Ramayana, kaushalya says that women do not care for a good
family, good deeds or wisdom and their hearts are inconsistent. Mahabharata
states that the cunning tricks of demons are known to be unique to women.

Duties of women according to manu- the production of children, nurturing, daily

life of men, faithful service and heavenly bliss for ancestors and oneself.

Widowhood

Widow is socially dead. She remains an element in society. A woman is recognized

as a person when she is incorporated into her husband, only then does she become
a social entity(sumangaly). The goal of the life of a woman is to get married and
procreate sons. Like the married menstruating girl, the wife whose husband is
absent is an object of panic. The face of the wife whose husband is away should
look pale and distressed. Widowhood is solely attributed to the purvakarma for a
sinful existence in the past. More important the loss of a wife’s virtue causes her
husband to fall down from heaven to hell. Unbound hair appears frequently in the
Mahabharata.