chapter 6

Linear Models of
the Synchronous Machine

6.1 Introduction
A brief review of the response of a power system to small impacts is given in Chap-
ter 3. It is shown that when the system is subjected to a small load change, it tends
to acquire a new operating state. During the transition between the initial state and
the new state the system behavior is oscillatory. I f the two states are such that all
the state variables change only slightly (i.e., the variable x i changes from xio to
xio + x i Awhere x i A is a small change in x i ) , the system is operating near the initial
state. The initial state may be considered as a quiescent operating condition for the
system.
To examine the behavior of the system when it is perturbed such that the new and
old equilibrium states are nearly equal, the system equations are linearized about the
quiescent operating condition. By this we mean that first-order approximations are
made for the system equations. The new linear equations thus derived are assumed to
be valid in a region near the quiescent condition.
The dynamic response of a linear system is determined by its characteristic equation
(or equivalent information). Both the forced response and the free response are de-
cided by the roots of this equation. From a point of view of stability the free response
gives the needed information. If it is stable, any bounded input will give a bounded
and therefore a stable output.
The synchronous machine models developed in Chapter 4 have two types of non-
linearities: product nonlinearities and trigonometric functions. The first-order approxi-
mations for these have been illustrated in previous chapters and are outlined below.
As an example of product nonlinearities, consider the product x i x i . Let the state
variables x i and x j have the initial values xio and x j o . Let the changes in these variables
be x i Aand x j A . Initially their product is given by x i o x j o . The new value becomes
(xi0 + XiA)(xjO + x j A ) = XjOXjO + XjOXjA + xjoxjA + XjAxjA

The last term is a second-order term, which is assumed to be negligibly small. Thus
for a first-order approximation, the change in the product x i x j is given by

(xi0 + xiA)(xjO + XjA) - XiOXjO = x j O x j A + XiOxjA (6.1)

We note that xjo and xio are known quantities and are treated here as coefficients, while
x i Aand x j Aare “incremental” variables.

208
 l i n e a r Models of the Synchronous Machine 209

The trigonometric nonlinearities are treated in a similar manner as

COS ( 6 0 + 6,) 6 AS
= COS~~CO - sin 6 0 sin 6 A
with COS bA E I and sin 6A % J A . Therefore,
COS(^^ + 6,) - cos60 EZ (-sin60)6,, (6.2)
The incremental change in cos 6 is then (-sin 60)6A;the incremental variable is bA and
its coefficient is -sin J0. Similarly, we can show that the incremental change in the
term sin 6 is given by
sin ( 6 0 + 6,) - sin 6 0 (COS~O)~~ (6.3)

6.2 linearization of the Generator State-Space Current Model

Let the state-space vector x have an initial state xo at time t = t o ; e.g., if the cur-
rent model is used,
XA = [boi F o io0 iqo ieo wo 601 (6.4)
At the occurrence of a small disturbance, i.e., after t = to", the states will change
slightly from their previous positions or values. Thus
x = XO + XA (6.5)
Note that xo need not be constant, but we do require that it be known.
The state-space model is in the form

x = f(x,r) (6.6)
which, by using (6.5), reduces to
i o -k XA = f(x0 + xA,f) (6.7)
In expanding (6.7) all second-order terms are neglected; i.e., terms of the form
x i A x j 4are assumed to be negligibly small. The system (6.7) becomes
Xo + *A f(X0.t) + A(xO)XA + B ( x ~ ) u (6.8)
from which we obtain the linearized state-space equation

XA = A(xO)XA + B(XO)U (6.9)

The elements of the A matrix depend upon the initial values of the state vector
xo. For a specific dynamic study it is considered constant. The dynamic properties of
the system described by (6.9) are determined from the nature of the eigenvalues of the
A matrix.
The state space may be thought of as an n-dimensional space, and the operating
conditions constrain the operation to a particular surface in this n space. Being non-
linear, the surface is not flat, although we would expect it to be continuous and rela-
tively smooth. The quiescent operating point xo and the functions A(xo) and B(x,)
are different for every new initial condition.
We may also compute the A(xo) by finding the total differential d x at xo with re-
spect to all variables; i.e., with dx % xA
210 Chapter 6

where the quantity in brackets defines A(xo).

We begin by linearizing (4.74). proceeding one row at a time. For the first equa-
tion (of the d circuit) we write

Expanding the product terms and dropping the second-order terms,

The quantity in parenthesis on the right side is exactly equal to udo. Rearranging the
remaining quantities,

(6.10)
which is equal to

(6.1 1)
Similarly, for the q axis voltage change we write
\

(6.12)
which is equal to

(6.13)
For the field winding we compute
(6.14)
The linearized damper-winding equations are given by
(6.15)
(6.16)
From (4.101) the linearized torque equation may be established as

(6.17)
 linear Models of the SynchronousMachine 21 1

which can be put in the form

7 j h ~= TmA - ( 1 / 3 ) [ ( L d i q o - XqO)idA - (Ad0 - Lqid0)iqA - kMFiqoiFA

- kh!fgi,oiDA -t -
k M ~ i d o i ~ ~D]W b (6.18)
Finally, the torque angle equation given by (4.102) may be written as
8, = (&A (6.19)
Equations (6.11)-(6.19) are the linearized system equations for a synchronous machine
(not including the load equation). If we drop the A subscript, since all variables are
now small displacements, we may write these equations in the following matrix form:

(6.20)

or in matrix form
v = - K x - MX PU (6.21)

Note that the matrix M is related to the matrix L of equation (4.74) by

Assuming that M - ' exists, the state equation for the synchronous generator, not in-
cluding the load equations, is
= - M-' - M-'v pu (6.22)
21 2 Chapter 6

which is the same form as

X = AX + BU (6.23)

Example 6.1
As a preparation for later examples involving a loaded machine, determine the
matrices M and K for the generator described in Examples 4.1-4.3. Let rj = 2HwR =
1786.94 rad.

Solution
The matrix M is related to the matrix L of Example 4.2 as follows

Then we write

b.700 1.550 1.550 I

I
I
I
I
1
1.550 1.651 1.550 ; 0 I
I
0
I I
1.550 1.550 1.506 I I

I
M =
lI - - _ _ - _ _ _o _ _ - _ _ - - I
I
I
I
I
I-
1.640
1.490 1.526 I
1.490

I
I

- - - - - - - - - - r--------- I
0

The matrix K is defined by (6.20)

0.0011 0 0 1I I .64 1.49 I X,o

I
0.0007 0 I 0
I I

K =

L o 0 0
I
I 0 0 I
I
-1 01

When the machine is loaded, certain terms in these matrices change from the
numeric values given to reflect the impedance of the connecting system. For example,
when loaded through a transmission line to a large system, r , Ld, and L, change
 linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 213

to 8 , L,,, iqas noted in Section 4.13. Other terms are load dependent (such as
L d , and i,
the currents and flux linkages) and must be determined from the initial conditions.

6.3 linearization of the load Equation for the One-Machine Problem

Equation (4.149) is repeated here for convenience:

(6.24)
where K = V , and LY is the angle of V,.
The same procedure followed previously is used to linearize this equation, with
the result

(6.25)
Substituting (6.25) into (6.11) and (6.12),

(6.26)
Rearranging (6.26) and making the substitution

(6.27)
we get, after dropping the subscript A,

(6.28)
Combining (6.28) with (6.14)--(6.16),(6. I8), and (6.19), we get for the linearized sys-
tem equations
214 Chapter 6

0 0
I
I
I I
A- -L-
I

I
I I
I
(6.29)
I I
I I
1. -L_
I I
I

1
I 0 I

Equation (6.29) is a linearized set of seven first-order differential equations with

constant coefficients. In matrix form (6.29) becomes v = -Kx - M i , and assuming
that M-' exists,
X = - M-I K X - M-Iv = AX + BU (6.30)
where A = -M-'K. Note that the new matrices M and K are now expanded to in-
clude the transmission line constants and the infinite bus voltage.
I t is convenient to compute A as follows. Let

Then

(6.31)

Note that the only driving functions in the system (6.29) are the field voltage uFA
and the mechanical torque T m A . Initially, the machine is spinning at synchronous
speed and is delivering some known power to the infinite bus. A change in either
uF or T,,, will cause the system to seek a new operating point, and this change is
usually accompanied by damped oscillations of the variables.

Example 6.2
Complete Example 6.1 for the operating conditions described in Example 5.2,
taking into account the load equation. Find the new expanded A matrix. Assume
D = 0.
 Linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 215

Solution
From Example 5.2 we compute
ff = 0.001 1 + 0.020 = 0.021 I
i d = 1.700 + 0.400 = 2.100
Lq = 1.640 + 0.400 = 2.040
The matrix M is given by
I
2.100 1.550 1.550 I
I I
1.550 1.651 1.550 I 0 I 0
I
I I
1.550 1.550 1.605 I I
I I
I I
M = 1
I
2.040 1.490 j
0 I I 0
I 1.490 1.526 I

I I
I I -1786.9 0
I I
0 II 0 I o 1
We also compute, in pu,
id0 = 1.676 + (-1.591)(0.4) = 1.039
X40 = 1.150 + (0.701)(0.4) = 1.430
KCOS(&- CU) = ~ T ( ~ 0 ~ 5 3 . 7 3=5 "1.025
)
K sin (6, - a) = v'T(sin 53.735") = 1.397
1 1.150 - 1.70 x 0.701 = -0.014
-3 (XqO - LdiqO) =
3
1 -1.55 X 0.701
- (-kMDi@) = = -0.362
3 3
1 -(1.676 + 1.64 X 1.591)
- (-Ado
3
+ L&o) =
3
= -1.428

The matrix K is given by

K =

The new A matrix is given by A = -M-'K, or with D = 0,

216 Chapter 6

-
- 36.062 0.439 14.142 I
I
-3487.18 -2547.01 I
I
- 2444.63 1751.33-
I I
12.472 -4.950 76.857 I 1206.0I 880.86 I 845.46 - 605.68
I I
22.776 4.356 -96.017 I
I 2202.43 1608.63 I
I 1543.98 - 1106.10
- .- - - - - - - - - - - -. - - - - - - - ._ I_ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - J- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I I
A = 3589.95 2649.72 2649.72 I
I
- 36.064 90.072 I
I
1776.7I 2387.40 10-3
-3505.70 -2581.54 -2587.54 I
I 35.218 - 123.320 I
I - 1735.01 - 2331.37
- - - - - - - . - - - - - ..- - - - - - - - - -I _- - - - _ - -. - - - - - - - . _ -I_ .- ---- - -------
I I
-0.0078 -0.2027 -0.2027 II -0.7993 - 0.4422 II 0.0 0.0
I I
- 0.0 0.0 0.0 I 0.0 0.0 I 1000 0.0

Example 6.3
Find the eigenvalues of the A matrix of the linearized system of Example 6.2.
Examine the stability of the system. Generator loading is that of Example 5.2.
Solution
To perform the computation of the eigenvalues for the A matrix obtained in Ex-
ample 6.2, a digital computer program is used. The results are given below.
-0.0359 + j0.9983
A, = A s = -0.0016 + j0.0289
= -0.0359 - j0.9983
A2 A6 = -0.0016 - j0.0289

= -0.0991
A, A 7 = -0.0007

A4 = -0.1217

All the eigenvalues are given in rad/rad. Note that there are two pairs of complex
eigenvalues. The pair A s and A6 correspond to frequencies of approximately I .73 Hz;
they are damped with a time constant of 1/(0.0016 x 377) or 1.66 s. This complex
pair and the real pole due to A, dominate the transient response of the system. The
other complex pair corresponds to a very fast transient of about 60 Hz. which is
damped at a much faster rate. This is the 60-Hz component injected into the rotor
circuits to balance the M M F caused by the stator dc currents. Note also that the
real parts of all the eigenvalues are negative, which means that the system is stable
under the conditions assumed in the development of this model, namely small perturba-
tion about a quiescent operating condition.

Example 6.4
Repeat the above example for the system conditions stated in Example 5. I .
Solution
A procedure similar to that followed in Examples 6.2 and 6.3 gives the following
results:
-
- 36.062 0.439 14.142 1-3487.18 -2547.01 f -2327.01 958.54
12.472 -4.950 76.857 11I 1206.01 880.86 fI 804.78 -331.50
22.776 4.356 -96.017 I 2202.43 1608.63 1469.69 -605.39
--- -------------------L_--_--_---_-_-L__-__- -- - -- - - -
I
A = 3589.95 2649.72 2649.72 I -36.064 90.071 I 982.66 2257.70 IO-’
- 3505.70 -2587.54 -2587.54 35.218 -123.320 I-959.60 - 2204.72
------- ---------------L--------------l------- - - - - -- --
-0.0075 -0.1929 -0.1929 f -0.8399 -0.5351 I 0.0 0.0
L 0.0 0.0 0.0 ; 0.0 0.0 I 1000 0.0 -
 Linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 217

and the eigenvalues are given by

A, = -0.0359 + j0.9983 A, = -0.0009 + j0.0248
A, = -0.0359 - j0.9983 A, = -0.0009 - j0.0248
A, = -0.0991 A, = -0.0005
A, = -0.1230
Note that this new operating condition has a slightly reduced natural frequency ( I .49
Hz) and a greatly increased time constant (2.95 s) compared to the previous example.
Thus damping is substantially reduced by the change in operating point.

6.4 Linearization of the Flux Linkage Model

We now linearize the flux linkage model of a synchronous machine, following a pro-
cedure similar to that used above for the current model. From (4.135) we can compute
the linear equations

(6.32)

(6.33)

,A, = rD -
L M D Ad,
4 D t d
+ rDAL h
4, 4 F
F A- -
rD ( I -
&D
2) ADA (6.34)

Similarly the q axis equation (4.136) can be linearized to give

(6.35)

(6.36)

The torque equation (4.137) becomes

(6.37)

Similarly, the swing equation becomes

218 Chapter 6

(6.38)
For a system of one machine connected to an infinite bus through a transmission
line, the load equations are given by (4.157) and (4.158). These are then linearized to
give

[I + 2 I)"
(I -
44
A,,

where

and d = r + Re and K = 2/? V , . The linearized equations of the system are (6.33),
(6.34), (6.36), and (6.37)-(6.40) and 8, = uA.In matrix form we write
TA = CX +D (6.41)
where the matrices T, C, and D are similar to those defined in Section 4.13.3 for the
nonlinear model.
If the state equations are written out in the form of (6.41) and compared with the
nonlinear equations (4. I59)-(4. I62), several interesting observations can be made.
First, we can show that the matrix T is exactly the same as (4.160). The matrix C is
similar, but not exactly the same as (4.161). If we write C as
dFD qQ wb

(6.42)
 l i n e a r Models of the Synchronous Machine 219

with partitioning as in (4.161), we can observe that C,, C,, and C, are exactly the
same as in the nonlinear equation. Submatrices C, and C, are exactly as in (4.161) if w
is replaced by w,. Submatrices C,, C,, C,, and C, are considerably changed, however,
and C, and C,, which were formerly zero matrices, now become

1
[-f '
&V,COS(6, - a)

c, = 0
0

(6.43)
L

where a is the angle of vmand 6, is the initial angle of the q axis, each measured from
the arbitrary reference.
We may write matrices C, and C, as

'[
I I

C, = 3.j(,d (""-
I _-_----___-----
i-
LMDAqO

7)
I

'
LMDAqO

1-- - - - - -
I

- r------- I
L 0 I 0 : O J
(6.44)

where X A D o and A A Q o are the initial values of AAD and A,, respectively. Finally, we note
the new D matrix to be
D = [0 UFA O O O Tm,/7j 01' (6.45)

Assuming that the inverse of T exists, we can premultiply both sides of (6.42) by
T - ' to obtain
= T-'CX + T-ID (6.46)
which is of the form
k = AX + BU (6.47)
The matrices A and B will have constant coefficients, which are dependent upon the
quiescent operating conditions.
Note that the matrices A and B will not be the same here as in the current model.
Since the choice of the state variables is arbitrary, there are many other equations that
could be written. The order of the system does not change, however, and there are still
seven degrees of freedom in the solution.

Example 6.5
Obtain the matrices T, C, and A of the flux linkage model for the operating condi-
tions discussed in the previous examples.
Solution
Machine and line data are taken from previous examples in pu as:
220 Chapter 6

-
3.1622 -0.7478 - 1.3656 I 0 0 I O 0
I I
0 1 .o 0 I O 0 I O 0
I I
0 0 1.0 0 0 I o 0
------_-----_---__I------------l------
I I
T = 0 0 0 I 3.1625 -2.1118 I 0 0
I I

0 0 0 I o 1.0 I 0 0
I I
I I
0 0 0 I O 0 ; 1.0 0
- 0 0 0 I o 0 I 0 1.0
-

r0.3 162 0.2364 0.43 I8 I I

I
1 .o O I
I
0 Io
I
I
0 1.0 I

I
I
j I 0
0 I 0 I
L
I I O 1-

To calculate the matrix C, the following data is obtained from the initial operating
conditions as given in Example 5.2:
A,, = 1.150 d T V , COS($ - a) = 1.025
AQo = 1.045 sin(6, - a) = 1.397
Ado = 1.676
AFO = 2.200
A,, = 1.914
The matrix C corresponding to Example 5.2 loading is then calculated to be
 Linear Models of the Synchronous Machine

-114.035 39.438 72.022 -3162.53 2 I I I .78 - 1430.1 1 1024.53-

1.388 -5.278 3.756 0 0 1 0 0
I I
44.720 66.282 -115.330 I 0 0 1 0 0
------______________-L__----- ____-__I____________-
I I
C = 3162.16 -747.76 - 1365.58 I
I
- 114.055 I 1 I .378 )I 1039.32 1396.55
0 0 0 1 284.854 -313.530 I 0 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I. . . . . . . - - - - - _ _ - _ - I_ - - _ _ _ _ _ - - _
I I
- 1.0285 -0.4009 -0.7322 - 1.9867 1.6503 I 0 0
I
0 0 0 1 0 0 I 1000 0 -

Note that some of the elements of the matrices C, and C, in this example are somewhat
different from those in Example 4.4 since the resistance is not the same in both ex-
amples.
The A matrix is given by

1.388 -5.278 3.756

I
0 0 I
I
o 0
44.120 66.282 - 115.330 I 0 0 ; o 0
-----_--.--__________L______________1----_-____--~--_--..____--

A = 999.88 -236.44 -431.80 j 154.147 -174.142 1

I
328.63 441.59 10-3
0 0 0 I
-________________-__l______________l____---_----
284.854 -313.530 ) 0 0
I I
1.0285 -0.4009 -0.7322 - 1.9867 1.6503 0 0
- 0 0 0 1 0 0 I 1000 0 -

The eigenvalues of this matrix are the same as those obtained in Example 6.3 and cor-
respond to the loading condition of Example 5.2.
For the operating condition of Example 5.1 we obtain the same matrix T. For this
operating condition the initial conditions in pu are given by A, = 1.345, A, = 1.935,
ADO = 1.634, A,, = 1.094, A,, = 0.994, Kcos(6, - a) = 0.5607, and K sin ( 6 , - a) =
1.3207.
The matrix C for the operating conditions of Example 5.1 is given by
-
- 114.035 39.437 72.022 I -3162.53 2111.78 -1361.30 560.75-
1.388 -5.278 3.756 I 0 0 I o 0
I
44.720 66.282 - 115.330 I 0 0 I O 0

C = 3162.16 -747.76 -1365.58 I

I
-114.055 111.378 I
I
574.48 1320.68 10-3
0 0 0 I 284.854 -313.530 I 0 0

-0.9790 -0.3816 -0.6969 I

I
-1.7155 1.3246 j 0 0

- 0 0 0
I
I 0 0 ; 1000 0

and the matrix A is given by

222 Chapter 6

-
- 16.422 39.848 -26.141 -1000.12 667.83 I -430.50 177.33
I .388 - 5.278 3.756 0 o l o 0
I I
44.720 66.282 -115.330 I 0 0 ; o 0
- ._
- - - _ . _._ - - -_
- - .. .
~ -. --- --
A = 999.88 -236.44 -431.80 154.15 -174.14 181.76 417.60 10-3
I I
0 0 0 I 284.85 -313.53 0 0
- - - .- - - - ... . .- . . _ _ - - - - - - - .. - .. -1- - - . .- _ - -
.. - . - _- - .. ..L ~ . -__ __
0.9790 -0.3816 -0.6969 II
-1.7155 1.3246 j 0 0
I
- 0 0 0 I 0 0 lo00 0 -

The eigenvalues obtained are the same as those given in Example 6.4 and correspon to
the loading condition of Example 5.1.

6.5 Simplified linear Model

A simplified linear model for a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus
through a transmission line having resistance R , and inductance Le (or a reactance X,)
can be developed (see references [ I ] and (21). Let the following assumptions be made:
1 . Amortisseur effects are neglected.
2. Stator winding resistance is neglected.
3. The i d and A, terms in the stator and load voltage equations are neglected compared
to the speed voltage terms wX, and ox,.
4. The terms w X in the stator and load voltage equations are assumed to. be approxi-
mately equal to w R X .
5. Balanced conditions are assumed and saturation effects are neglected.
Under the assumptions stated above the equations describing the system are given
below in pu.

6.5.1 The E' equation

From (4.74) and (4.104) the field equations are given by
VF = rFif + AF = LFiF + kMFid (6.48)
Eliminating i,, we get
UF = (rF/LF)XF + AF - (rF/LF)kMFid (6.49)
Now let e; = &E; be the stator EMF proportional to the main winding flux link-
ing the stator; Le., f i E 6 = U R k M F X F / L F . Also let E F D be the stator EMF that is
produced by the field current and corresponds to the field voltage v,; i s . ,
~ E F = DO R k M F v F / r F
Using the above definitions and .io defined by (4.189), we get from (6.49) in the s do-
main
EFD = (1 Ti0S)E; - (Xd - xi)ld (6.50)
where I d = i d / G and s is the Laplace transform variable. Also using the above
definition for E;, we can arrange the second equation in (6.48) to give
E; = @RkkfFiF/d + (xd - xj)ld = E + (xd - xi)ld (6.51)
 linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 223

where E is as defined in Section 4.7.4. Note that (6.50) and (6.51) are linear.
From (4.149) and (4.74) and from the assumptions made in the simplified model,
we compute vd and uq for infinite bus loading to be
ud = - wRL,~, = - 4 v, Sin (6 - + R e i d + wRL,~,
CY)

u, = WRLdid +
W R kMFiF = d v , cos ( 6 - a ) + Reiq - W R L , i d (6.52)
Linearizing (6.52),
0 = -RciqA + (xd + x e ) i d A + URkkfFiFA + [Ksin(6, - a)]6A

0 = -Reid& - (xq + x e ) i q+~(Kcos(60 - ( Y ) ] 6 A (6.53)

where K = f i V , and V, is the infinite bus voltage to neutral.
Rearranging (6.5 1) and (6.53),
-(xi + x e ) I d A + R,IqA = E;& + [ v, sin(& - ( . ) ] S A
+ (xq + xc>rqA = [ vm cos - (6.54)
Solving (6.54) for I d A and IqA, we compute

[t;] [
where
= K'
-(xq + X,)
R,
R,cos(6, - a) - ( x q + X,)sin(6, -
(xi + X,)cos(6, - a) + R,sin(6,
a)

- a)
(6.55)

K/ = 1/[Rf + (xq + Xe)(xi+Xe)I (6.56)

We now substitute I d into an incremental version of (6.50) to compute
EFDA +
= ('l/K3 r& s ) E b A + K4 6 , (6.57)
where we define (in agreement with [2])
I/K, = 1 +
K/(X,j - X;)(X, X,) +
K4 = V-K/(Xd - X ; ) [ ( X , + Xe)sin(6, - a) - R , C O S ( 6 0 - a)] (6.58)
Then from (6.58) and (6.57) we get the followings domain relation

(6.59)

[Note that (6.59) differs from (3.10) because of the introduction here of E,, rather than
uF.) From (6.59) we can identify that Kl is an impedance factor that takes into account
the loading effect of the external impedance, and K4 is related to the demagnetizing ef-
fect of a change in the rotor angle; Le.,
K4 = --]
1 EbA
K3 SA = constant
(6.60)

6.5.2 Electrical torque equation

The pu electrical torque T, is numerically equal to the three-phase power. There-
fore,
T, = (I/j)(UJd + Uqiq) = (&Id + PU (6.61)
where under the assumptions used in this model,
224 Chapter 6

Using (6.51) in the second equation of (6.62),

b = -x919 v9 = xd' ld + E i (6.63)
From (6.63) and (6.61)
T, = [ E : - (x, - x;)Id]f9 (6.64)
Linearizing (6.64). we compute
T ~ A= IqOE6A + - (xq - xi)IdOIIqA - (xq - xi)lqO1dA

= 19JiA + EqaO'qA - (xq - x;)'qO'dA (6.65)

where we have used the q axis voltage E,. defined in Figure 5.2 as Eqa = E + (xd - xq)Id
with E taken from (6.51) t o write the initial condition
= EO (xd - xq)IdO = E~-
o (xd - xi)IdO + (xd - xq)IdO

= - (x, - x;)IdO (6.66)

Substituting (6.55) and (6.56) into (6.65), we compute the incremental torque to be
T,, = K / V , IEqa0[R,sin(6, - a) (xi Xe)cos(6, - a)] + +
+ Iq0(x, - x;)[(x, + X,)sin(6, - a) - R , c o s ( ~-~ a ) l ) a A
+ K/irqOIR: + ( x q + X~)zl + EqaORe)E6A

K,6, + K,E;, (6.67)

Where K , is the change in electrical torque for a small change in rotor angle at constant
d axis flux linkage; i.e., the synchronizing torque coefficient

= K,V,{Eqa,[R,sin(6,
- a) + ( x i + X , ) C O S ( -~ ~a)]
+ Iq0(x, - x ; ) [ ( X , + xq) sin (6, - a) - R, cos(6, - .)]I
K, is the change in electrical torque for small change in the d axis flux linkage at con-
stant rotor angle

We should point out the similarity between the constant K , in (6.67) and the synchroniz-
ing power coefficient discussed in Chapter 2 and given by (2.36). If the field flux linkage
is constant, E6 will also be constant and K , = 0. The model is reduced to the classi-
cal model of Chapter 2.

6.5.3 Terminal voltage equation

From (4.41) the synchronous machine terminal voltage is given by
v: = (l/3)(u; + u:)
or in rms equivalent variables
v; = v; + vi (6.68)
 linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 225

This equation is linearized to obtain

(6.69)
(6.69)
Substituting (6.63) in (6.69),
(6.70)
(6.70)
Substituting for lqAand I,, from (6.55),

(6.7 I )
where K, is the change in the terminal voltage V, for a small change in rotor angle at
constant d axis flux linkage, or

and K6 is the change in the terminal voltage for a small change in the d axis flux
linkage at constant rotor angle, or

6.5.4 Summary of equations

Equations (6.59), (6.67), and (6.7 1) are the basic equations for the simplified linear
model, Le.,

(6.72)
We note that the constants K,, K,, K,, K4, K,, and K6 depend upon the network pa-
rameters, the quiescent operating conditions, and the infinite bus voltage.
To complete the model, the linearized swing equation from (4.90) is used.
7jLjA = T,A - TeA (6.73)
The angle 6, in radians is obtained by integrating on cbA twice.
I n the above equations the time is in pu to a base quantity of 1/377 s, T is the total
torque to a base quantity of the three-phase machine power, and 7j = 2Hw,.

Example 6.6
Find the constants K , through K6 of the simplified model for the system and condi-
tions stated in Example 5.1, but with the. armature resistance set to zero.
Solution
We can tabulate the data from Example 5.1 as follows.
226 Chapter 6

Transmission line data:

Re = 0.02 X, = 0.40 PU
Infinite bus voltage:
V, = 0.828
Synchronous machine data:
xd = 1.700 pu x, = 1.640 pu
X; = 1.700 - [(1.55)2/1.651] = 0.245 PU
Also, from Example 5.1
iFo = 2.979 f,, = 0.385
Id0 = -1.112 %o = 0.776
V, = -0.631
v, = 1.000
We can calculate the angle between the infinite bus and the q axis to be 6, - a = 66.995".
Then sin (6, - a) = 0.9205, cos(6, - a) = 0.3908. From (6.66) we compute
E,,,, = 1.55 x 2.979/dT - 1.1 12(1.70 - 1.64) = 2.5995
Also,
I/K, = Rt + (x,, + X,)(X; + X,) = 1.3162
K, = 0.7598
Then we compute from (6.58)
K, = [ l + (1/1.3162)(1.455)(2.04))-1 = 0.3072
K4 = 0.828 x 0.7598 x 1.455(2.04 x 0.9205 - 0.02 x 0.3908) = 1.7124
We then calculate K , and K2 from (6.67).
K, = K,V, &,,[Re sin (6, - a) + (x: + X,)cos (6, - a)]
+ I@(xq - X;) [(x, + X e ) sin (6, - a) - R, cos(d, - a)])
= 0.7598 x 0.828[2.5995(0.02 x 0.9205 + 0.645 x 0.3908)
+ 0.3853 x 1.395(2.04 x 0.9205 - 0.02 x 0.3908)]
= 1.0755
K2 = K/{Iqo[R,Z + (xq + Xe121 + EqaoRe1
= 0.7598{0.385[(0.02)2 + (2.04)2] + 2.5995 x 0.02)
= 1.2578
K5 and K6 are calculated from (6.71):

K, = (K,Vmx;%,/ qo)[R, cos (6, - a) - (x, + X,) sin (6, - a)]

- (K,V,X,VdO/C/rO)[(X~+ Xe)cOs(60 - a) + ReSin(60 - a)]
= [(0.7598)(0.828)(0.245)(0.776/ 1.0)][(0.02)(0.3908) - (2.04)(0.9205)]
- (0.7598)(0.828)(1.64)(-0.631/1.0)[(0.645)(0.3908) + (0.02)(0.9205)]
= -0.0409
 Linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 227

K6 = ( %o/Yo)[1 - K1xXx9 + Xt)l - ( Go/ Yo)K,xqRe

= 0.77611 - (0.7598)(0.245)(2.04)]
+ (0.63 1)(0.7598)( 1.64)(0.02) = 0.497 1
Therefore at this operating condition the linearized model of the system is given by
EiA = [0.3072/(1 + I.~I~S)]EF,A- [0.5261/(1 + 1.813~)]6,
T,, = 1.0755 6, + 1.2578 E d A
y b = -0.0409 6, + 0.497 1 E;A

Example 6 . 7
Repeat Example 6.6 for the operating conditions given in Example 5.2.
Solution
From Example 5.2
,i = 2.8259 Z9, = 0.4047 PU
Id0 = -0.9185 KO= 0.9670 PU
5 0 = -0.6628 v, = 1.000 pu
Yo = 1.172 60 - LY = 53.736"
and sin(6, - a) = 0.8063, cos(6, - a) = 0.5915.
From this data we calculate E;, and Eqno
E60 1.55 x 2 .8 2 6 /d % - 1.455 x 0.9185
= = 1.1925
Eqno= 1.1925 - 1.395(-0.9185) = 2.4738
l / K l = R f + ( x , + A',)(x; + A',) = 1.3162
Kl = 0.7598

Then
K3=
(I + 2.04 x 1.455)-'
1.316
= o.3072

K4 = (2.04 x 0.8063 - 0.02 x 0.5915) = 1.805

1.3162
T;, = 5.90 s
The effective field-winding time constant under this loading is given by
K37i0 = 0.3072 x 5.9 1.8125 s
=

K, = (0.7598)( 1 .O) ((2.474)[(0.02)(0.8063) + (0.645)(0.59 15)]

+ (0.4047)( 1.395)[(2.04)(0.8063) - (0.02)(0.5915)]) = 1.4479
We note that for this example the constant K , is greater in magnitude than in Ex-
ample 6.6. The constant K , corresponds to the synchronizing power coefficient dis-
cussed in Chapter 2. The greater value in this example is indicative of a lower loading
condition or a greater ability in this case to transmit synchronizing power.
K2 = 0.7598 (0.4047[(0.02)2 + (2.04)2] + (2.474)(0.02)) = 1.3174
228 Chapter 6

K, = -[(0.02)(0.5915) - (2.04)(0.8063)]
(0.7598)( 1.0)(0.245) 0’9670
(1.172)

- (0.7598)(I .O)( 1.64) (-t;:i8)[(0.645)(0.5915) + (0.02)(0.8063)] = 0.0294

K6 = (Xb
0.9670
-
(0.7598)(0.245)(2.04 1 )]

- ( 1.172 )
-o‘6628 (0.7598)(1.64)(0.02) = 0.5257

The linearized model of the system at the given operating point is given in pu by
E;,, = [0.3072/(1 + 1.813 s)]EFnA - [0.5546/(1 + 1.813~)]6A
TeA = 1.4479 6 , + I .3174 E:,
K A = 0,02946, + 0.5257 E;A

6.5.5 Effect of loading

Examining the values of the constants K , through Kb for the loading conditions of
Examples 6.6 and 6.7, we note the following:
I . The constant K 3 is the same in both cases. From (6.57) and (6.58) we note that K3
is an impedance factor and hence is independent of the machine loading.
2. The constants K , , K,, K4,and K6 are comparable in magnitude in both cases,
while K, has reversed sign. From (6.58). (6.67), and (6.71) we note that these con-
stants depend on the initial machine loading.
The cases studied in the above examples represent heavy load conditions. Certain
effects are clearly demonstrated. In the heavier loading condition of Example 6.6, K,
has a value of -0.0409, and in the less severe loading condition of Example 6.7 its
value is 0.0294. This is rather significant, and in Chapter 8 it will be pointed out that
in machines with voltage regulators, the system damping is affected by the constant K,.
If this constant is negative, the voltage regulator decreases the natural damping of the
system (at that operating condition). This is usually compensated for by the use of sup-
plementary signals to produce artificial damping.
From Examples 6.6 and 6.7 we note that the demagnetizing effect of the armature
reaction as manifested by the E;A dependence is quite significant. This effect is more
pronounced in relation to the change in the terminal voltage.
To illustrate the demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction, let EFDA= 0; then
E6A = [K3K4/(1 + K37iOs)18A (6.74)
and substituting in the expression for TeAwe get,
TeA = iK, - K2K3K4/(1 + K37hls)16A (6.75)
The bracketed term is the synchronizing torque coefficient taking into account the
effect of the armature reaction. Initially, the coefficient K , is reduced by a factor
K2K4/ TiO.
Similarly, substituting in the expression for KA,
K A = IK, - K3K4K6/(I + K37A0s)16A (6.76)
The second term is usually much larger in magnitude than K,, and inifially the
change in the terminal voltage is given by
‘,A],,o = -(K4K6/7h)6A (6.77)
 linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 229

1.2- re-0.0 Q = 0.0 r e = 0.0

xe = 0.4
1.1-

1.0-
y"
0.9-

0.8- 0.8

0.7- 0.6

0.6, 0.4
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o
R e a l Power, P
0.21 I 1 1 1 1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o
Real Paver, P

-0.151 I 1 1 1 1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o
Rml Power, P

Real Power, P

xe = 0.4 0.0

0m21
0.1

- -o . o
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 .o
R e a l Power. P

Fig. 6.1 Variation of parameters K , ,. . . ,K6 with loading: (a) K I versus P (real power) and Q (reactive
power) as parameter, (b) K2 versus P and Q , (c) K4 versus P and Q , (d) K5 versus P and Q , (e) K 6
versus P and Q . (o IEEE. Reprinted from IEEE Trans., vol. PAS-92, Sept./Oct. 1973.)

The effects of the machine loading on the constants K , , K2,K4, K,, and K6 are
studied in reference [3] for a one machine-infinite bus system very similar to the system
in the above examples except for zero external resistance. The results are shown in Fig-
ure 6.1.

6.5.6 Comparison with classical model

The machine model discussed in this section is almost as simple as the classical
model discussed in Chapter 2, except for the variation in the main field-winding flux.
I t is interesting to compare the two models.
The classical model does not account for the demagnetizing effect of the armature
reaction, manifested as a change in E:. Thus (6.67) in the classical model would have
K2 = 0. Also in (6.59) the effective time constant is assumed to be very large so that
E; ZZ constant. I n (6.72) the classical model will have K6 = 0.
230 Chapter 6

To illustrate the difference between the two models, the same system in Example 6.7
is solved by the classical model.

Example 6.8
Using the classical model discussed in Chapter 2, solve the system of Example 6.7.

X’d e‘ Re

Fig. 6.2 Network of Example 6.7.

Solution
The network used in the classical model is shown in Figure 6.2. The phasor
E = E Lis the constant voltage behind transient reactance. Note that the angle 6 here
is not the same as the rotor angle 6 discussed previously; it is the angle of the fictitious
voltage E. The phasors 7 and 7- are the machine terminal voltage and the in-
finite bus voltage respectively.
For convenience we will use the pu system used (or implied) in Chapter 2, Le.,
based on the three-phase power. Therefore,
E = E & = 1 + jO.0 + (0.020 + j0.645)(0.980 - j0.217)
= I .3 I86 /28.43”
The synchronizing power coefficient is given by

P, =
“I
-

- 1.3186
6-60
=

X
EV,(B,,cos6, - G,,sin6,)

1.0
(0.645 X 0.8794
=

+ 0.02 x
( E V , / Z 2 ) [ ( x ;+ X , ) C O S +

0.4761) = 1.826
~ ~R,sin6,)]

0.4164
To compare with the value of K, in Example 6.7 we note the difference in the pu sys-
tem, K, = 1.448. Thus the classical model gives a larger value of the synchronizing
power coefficient than that obtained when the demagnetizing effect of the armature re-
action is taken into account.
To obtain the linearized equation for VI,neglecting R , we get
-
fa = [(1.3186cos6 - 1.00) + j1.3186sin6]/j0.645
-
VI = 1 .OOO + jO.0 + j0.40
Substituting, we get for the magnitude of V,

Vf = (0.3798 + 0.8177 cos 6)’ + (0.8177)’ sin’ 6

2 VI,V I , = - (0.62 sin 6,) 6 ,

or

V I A= - 0.1261 6,
 Linear Models of the Synchronous Machine 231

The corresponding initial value in Example 6.7 is given by

K A ] , - ~ += - ( K , K 6 / ~ ; 0 ) 6 , = -0.12526,

6.6 Block Diagrams

The block diagram representation of (6.73) and the equation for 6, is shown in
Figure 6.3. This block diagram “generates” the rotor angle 6,. When combined with
(6.59), (6.67), and (6.72) the resulting block diagram is shown in Figure 6.4. In both
diagrams the subscript A is omitted for convenience. Note that Figure 6.4 is similar to
Figure 3. I .
Figure 6.4 has two inputs or forcing functions, namely, E,, and T,,,. The output is
the terminal voltage change V , . Other significant quantities are identified in the dia-
gram, such as E:, T,, w , and 6. The diagram and its equations show that the sim-
plified model of the synchronous machine is a third-order system.

6 elec rod
7 s - ~

Fig. 6.3 Block diagram of (6.73).

6.7 State-Space Representation of Simplified Model

From Section 6.5 the system equations are given by
K3Thktj6~+ E:, = K,EFDA - K3K4 6,
T,, = K , 6, +
K,EiA
v,, = K,aA K~E:A
= T,,,, - T,,
6, = @A (“
5 (6.78)
Eliminating V,, and T,, from the above equations,

By designating the state variables as and and the input signals as E,, and

Fig 6.4 Block diagram of the simplified linear model of a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus.
232 Chapter 6

T,,, the above equation is in the desired state-space form

k! = AX + BU
where

(6.80)

(6.81)

In the above equations the driving functions E,,, and T,, are determined from the
detailed description of the voltage regulator-excitation systems and the mechanical
turbine-speed governor systems respectively. The former will be discussed in Chapter 7
while the latter is discussed in Part 111.

Problems
6. I The generator of Example 5.2 is loaded to 75% of nameplate rating at,rated terminal volt-
age and with constant turbine output. The excitation is then varied from 90% PF lagging to
unity and finally to 90% leading. Compute the current model A matrix for these three
power factors. How many elements of the A matrix vary as the power factor is changed?
How sensitive are these elements to change in power factor?
6.2 Use a digital computer to compute the eigenvalues of the three A matrices determined in
Problem 6.1. What conclusions, if any, can you draw from the results? Let D = 0.
6.3 Using the data of Problem 6.1 at 90%PF lagging, compute the eigenvalues of the A matrix
with the damping D = I , 2, and 3. Find the sensitivity of the eigenvalues to this parameter.
6.4 Repeat Problem 6. I using the flux linkage model
6.5 Repeat Problem 6.2 using the flux linkage model.
6.6 Repeat Problem 6.3 using the flux linkage model.
6.7 Make an analog computer study using the linearized model summarized in Section 6.5.4.
Note in particular the system damping as compared to the analog computer results of
Chapter 5 . Determine a value of D that will make the linear model respond with damping
similar to the nonlinear model.
6.8 Examine the linear system (6.79) and write the equation for the eigenvalues of this system.
Find the characteristic equation and see if you can identify any system constraints for
stability using Routh’s criterion.
6.9 For the generator and loading conditions of Problem 6.1. calculate the constants K,
through K6 for the simplified linear model.
6.10 Repeat Example 6.8 for the system of Example 6.6. Find the synchronizing power co-
efficient and V,, as a function of 6 , for the classical model and compare with the
corresponding values obtained by the simplified linear model.

References
I . Heffron, W.G.,and Phillips, R. A. Effect of a modern voltage regulator on underexcited operation of large
turbine generators. N E E Trans. 71:692-97, 1952.
2. de Mello, F. P., and Concordia, C. Concepts of synchronous machine stability as affected by excitation
control. IEEE Trans. PAS-88:316-29, 1969.
3. El-Sherbiny, M. K., and Mehta, D . M. Dynamic system stability. Pt. I . IEEE Trans. PAS-92:1538-46,
1973.