CHAPTER 4

Bending

Pure Bending
Some cases of beams under pure bending are illustrated in the figures. In the first two cases the
bending moment is uniform over all the span of the beam. In the third case the bending moment is
uniform between the two equal forces P.
M P P
M

M
L L a b a
L
Let us consider a portion of length lof a prismatic member subjected
to equal and opposite positive moments M. The internal forces acting M M
on this portion must be equivalent to the moment M. To find the l
distribution of these internal forces over the cross section, the
deformation of the member must be considered. O
Assume small deformations and the cross-section has a
plane of symmetry through axis y and the bending moments

act in this plane. It is also assumed that the plane cross- 
section remains plane after bending. According to these
assumptions, during bending the end cross-sections will A’ B’
y
rotate by an angle  with respect to each other forming an J K
D E
arc of circle of radius . Due to this rotation the longitudinal y
A x B
fibers in the lower part will elongate, and the longitudinal
fibers in the upper part will contract. Therefore, there will y

be fibers located somewhere between the lower and upper Neutral axis
y
parts that do not undergo any deformation during bending.
These fibers are located on surface DE, which is called
neutral surface and its intersection with any cross-section of
the member is called neutral axis.
Let’s take the origin of the coordinate system xyz on the neutral surface so that the distance from
any point to the neutral surface will be measured by its coordinate y.
Denote with  the radius of curvature of the neutral surface DE, the undeformed length l of the
fibers located on the neutral surface is given by:
l   (4-1)
The length of any fiber on surface JK located a distance y above the neutral surface is given by:
l '    y  (4-2)
Since the original length of JK before deformation was equal to l, the deformation of JK is

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 41

  l '  l    y      y (4-3)
The longitudinal strain  x of the fibers on JK is given by:
  y y
x    (4-4)
l  
From the above equation we can conclude that “the longitudinal normal strain  x varies linearly
with the distance y from the neutral surface.” Above the neutral axis, where y is positive, we have
negative strain (contraction), while below the neutral axis, where y is negative, we have positive
strain (elongation).

 x top   x 
y
 x bott   x 
y
(4-5)
 
The longitudinal strain attains its maximum values at the top and bottom edges of the beam. Above
the neutral axis the maximum compressive strain is given by
cc y 
 x,max     x    x ,max (4-6)
 cc
 x,max
Below the neutral axis the maximum tensile strain is given by x
ct y  cc
 x,max    x   x ,max (4-7) Neutral surface
 cc
ct

 x,max
Stresses and deformations in the elastic range
In the elastic range the Hook’s law applies
Ey
 x  E x   x   (4-8)

From this equation we conclude that “in the elastic range, the normal stress due to pure bending
varies linearly with the distance y from the neutral surface.” Above the neutral axis we have
negative stress (compression), while below the neutral axis we have positive stress (tension)

 

x top 
Ey

  
x bott 
Ey

(4-9)

The normal stress attains its maximum values at the top and bottom edges of the beam. Above the
neutral axis the maximum compressive stress is given by:  x,max
Ecc y  x
 x,max     x    x ,max (4-10)
 cc cc
Neutral surface
Ect y 
 x,max    x    x ,max (4-11)
ct
 ct
 x,max
Determination of the location of the neutral axis
Denote with N.A. the neutral axis of the cross-section. Consider an infinitesimal area dA distant y
from the neutral axis. The force acting on this area is xdA. Because all these forces distributed over
the entire cross-section represent a system equivalent to couple, the resultant of these forces must be
equal to zero.

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 42

 Ey E

A
x dA   
A 
dA  
 A
ydA  0 (4-12)

Because E   0  
A
ydA  0
This equation shows that the first moment of area about the neutral axis must be zero. The above
condition is verified only if the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section. Thus we
conclude that “for members subjected to pure bending, and as long as the stresses remain in the
elastic range, the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the section.”

Relation between stresses and bending moment

The relation between stresses and bending moment can be determined by requiring that the moment
produced by all the stresses about the neutral axis shall be equal to the bending moment M.
Ey 2 E
M    y x dA   dA   y 2 dA (4-13)
A A   A

EI 1 M
M    (4-14)
 
dA
EI x dA N. A.

1 x
But  y
 Ey
x M
  
Ey EI
My
x   (4-15)
I
Equation (4-15) is called Navier’s formula for flexure.
The maximum stresses at the top and bottom edges of the beam are given by:
M cc
Top edge y = cc   max

 (4-16)
I
M ct
Bottom edge y = ct   max

 (4-17)
I
From the above formulae of maximum stress we note that the ratio I ct and I cc depend only upon
the geometry of the cross-section. These ratios are called elastic section moduli S c and S t
M M
 max

  max

 (4-18)
Sc St
From these formulae we note that the maximum stress is inversely proportional to the elastic section
modulus, thus it is more convenient to design beams with as large a value of S as practicable. This
means that the section must have large moment of inertia and the top and bottom edges must be
situated at a large distance from the centroid (deep beam). For materials that have the same strength
in tension and in compression, it is logical to choose shapes that have cross section in which the
centroid is at the middle of the depth.

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 43

 bh 3 bh 2 b
For rectangular section: I  St  Sc  S 
12 6 R
 R4  R3 h
For circular section: I  St  Sc  S 
4 4
Now consider the two rectangular sections 1 and 2 in figure. Section 1 has depth equal to b and
width equal to 2b, while section 2 has width equal to band depth equal to 2b. The two sections have
the same area A = 2b2. 2b b
The elastic section modulus of section 1 is

S1 
2b b 
2
 
 0.167 2b 2 b  0.167 Ab
b
6 2b
Section 1
The elastic section modulus of section 2 is
b2b   2b 2 b 
2
4b 2 b
S2    2    20.167 Ab  2S1
6 6  6  Section 2

From the previous equations we see that the two sections have the same area
but section 2 has an elastic section modulus double that of section 1.
Now consider a circular section of radius R and a square section with width and depth equal to b.
Both sections have the same area A.
b
For the circular section, the elastic section modulus is
R
 R3  R2R b
S   0.25 AR
4 4
 R2  b2  b  R 
The elastic section modulus for the square section is:

S
bb 2  b 2   A
 
 1.77 A 
   b    R     R  0.295 AR
6  
6  6   6 
We can see that the elastic section modulus for the square section is greater than that of the circular
section. Therefore, if the two sections have the same area the square section is more efficient for
bending than the circular section.
Theoretically the most efficient section for bending is a section composed of
two areas A/2 each, located at a distance h from each other
h
2
 A  h 
2
Ah
I  2      S  0.5 Ah
 2  2  4
In practice this section cannot be realized because the two areas are
disconnected. The section of which the elastic section modulus approaches the
h
above limit is the I-shaped section ( S  0.30 Ah ). Comparing this elastic
modulus of elasticity with the elastic section modulus of a rectangular section
of depth h and same area ( S  0.167 Ah ) we note that the I-shaped section is
more efficient than the rectangular section.

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 44

Example
The rectangular steel section in figure is subjected to a positive bending moment M = 13 kN.m.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
Solution: 50 - 156 MPa

I
501003  4.167  10 6 mm 4
12 M
13  10 50  156 MPa
6
100 mm
 
 

4.167  10 6
max max

+ 156 MPa
Example
The rectangular steel section in figure is subjected to a positive bending moment M =13 kN.m.
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
Solution:
100 mm - 312 MPa
I
100503  1.042  10 mm6 4
M
12 50 mm

 max

  max


13  10 25  312 MPa
6

+ 312 MPa
1.042  10 6
Note that although the two sections in the previous two examples, have the same area the stresses in
the first example are 50% less than the stresses in the section in the second example.

Example
Determine the depth h of a rectangular steel section of width b = 100 mm to support a positive
bending moment M = 30 kN.m if the allowable bending stress  all  160 MPa .
Solution:
100
M M 30  10 6
 max   S    187.5  10 3 mm 3
S  all 160
 
M
187.5  10 3

100h 2
h 
6 187.5  10 3
2
 11250 mm 2
h
6 100
h  11250  106 mm

200 mm
Example
For the steel T-section in figure subjected to a positive bending 30 mm
M
moment M = 80 kN.m, determine the maximum tensile and
compressive stresses. 300 mm
Solution:

y
300  20150  200  30315  233 mm
300  20  200  30 20 mm

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 45

 20300
3
I  300  2083  200  30 82  126.7  10 6 mm 4
2 2

12 - 61.3 MPa

 max


80  10 233  147 MPa
6 97 mm
126.7  10 6

 max


80 10 97  61.3 MPa
6
233 mm
126.7 10 6

+ 147 MPa
Example
The semicircular aluminum rod in figure is bent into a shape of circular arc of mean radius
  2.5 m . The flat face is turned toward the center of curvature of the arc. Determine the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the rod. E  70  10 3 MPa .
Solution:
4 12
y  5.1 mm  cc  y  5.1 mm and ct  12  5.1  6.9 mm
3 3.14

 

Ect

70 10 6.9  193.2 MPa
3

 2.5  10 3
max

 max


Ecc

70  10 5.1  142.8 MPa
3 24 mm

 2.5  10 3

Bending of members made of different materials

A1
Consider the beam cross-section in figure, made of two materials bonded
together. The upper material has a modulus of elasticity E1 and area A1,
A2
while the lower material has a modulus of elasticity E1 and area A2.
Thissection can be treated in the same manner as the homogeneous section
made ofone material provided that one of the materials is transformed into A1
cc
the other material with area proportional to the ratio of the moduli of
N. A.
elasticity. Suppose that we want to transform the lower material into the
A2’ ct
upper material and suppose that E2>E1.Thus
n2
 1.0 (4-19)
n1
A'2  nA2  A2 (4-20)
The transformed area A’2 is made of the same material as A1. Then the location of the neutral axis is
performed as for homogeneous sections made of one material, and the stresses in A1 and A2 are
determined as follows:
Mcc nMct
 1, max    2, max  (4-21)
I I

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 46

Example 100 mm

The section in figure is composed of two parts made of two materials. The
upper part is made of aluminum and the lower part is made of steel. The
section is subjected to a positive bending moment M = 200 kN.m.
Aa 300 mm
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
E a  70  10 3 MPa, E s  200  10 3 MPa 
Solution:
As 100 mm
As  100100  1  10 4 mm 2 Aa  100300  3  10 4 mm 2
100 mm
Transform steel into aluminum
200  10 3
n  2.86
70  10 3
Transformed steel area Aa 300 mm
s 
A  2.86 1  10  2.86  10 mm
' 4
 4 2

The depth of the transformed steel area shall remain the

same 100 mm 152 mm
A’s 100 mm
2.86  10 4
 Expanded width   286 mm 286 mm
100
The final shape of the section is shown in figure. Thus, the location of the neutral axis from the
bottom edge is given by

y
2.86  10 50  3  10 250  152 mm
4 4

5.86  10 4
The moment of inertia of the transformed section about the neutral axis is

I
1003003  
 3  10 4 98 
2 2861003  
 2.86  10 4 102  835  10 6 mm 4
2

12 12

 max


200  10 248  59.4 MPa
6

835  10 6

 max

 2.86
200  10 152  104 MPa
6

835  10 6

Example
The rectangular concrete section in figure is subjected to a positive 200 mm
bending moment M = 10 kN.m, Determine the maximum compressive
stress in concrete and the maximum tensile stress in steel bars.
E c  25  10 3 MPa, E s  200  10 3 MPa  400
mm
Solution:
3  20
As  3314  942 mm 2
50 mm
200  10 3
n 8
25  10 3
Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 47
Transform area of steel into concrete
As'  nAs  8942  7536 mm 2
Location of the neutral axis
Because the neutral axis is centroidal, the sum of the first moments of area about this axis shall be
zero.

200 y  y  7536350  y   0 200 mm

2
100 y 2  2637600  7536 y  0
y
y 2  75.36 y  26376  0 350
N. A.
mm
 75.36  75.362  41 26376 350 - y
y  y  129 mm 7536 mm2
2

I
2001293  7536350  1292  145  10 6 mm 4
3

 

10 10 129  8.9 MPa
6

145  10 6
c

 s  8
10  10 221  121.9 MPa
6

145  10 6

Eccentric loading
Consider the member in figure subjected to eccentric
load P with eccentricity e. We can transport the force
e e
P in the centroid and add its moment M = P.e. Each
cross-section of the member will be subjected to axial P P
tensile force and pure bending moment. The resultant M M

stresses can be determined by summing the stress due P P

to P and the stresses due to M. In this case the
bending moment is positive, thus we obtain + -- --
M
P My + =
x   (4-22) P
A I
+ + +

Example
An open-link steel chain of diameter d = 10 mm is subjected to a load P P

= 800 N. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses, and

e = 12 mm
determine the distance between the centroid and neutral axis of the cross-
section. C

Solution:
For equilibrium in the vertical direction we can see that the internal force
at critical section C is equal to P = 800 N. P

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 48

M  80012  9600 N.mm
P
M
Cross-sectional area of the chain A 
3.1410 2
 79 mm 2 C
4
800
Due to P:  max

  10.13 MPa (Uniform tensile stress over the entire
79 P
cross-section)
Due to M:

I
3.1454  491 mm 4
4
At the inner edge we have tensile bending stress

 max


96005  97.76 MPa
491
At the outer edge we have compressive bending stress

 max


96005  97.76 MPa
491
Resultant stress at the inner edge  max

 10.13  97.76  108 MPa (tension)
Resultant stress at the outer edge  max  10.13  97.76  88 MPa (compression)
At the points of the neutral axis the stress is zero
P My  P  I   800  491 
0   y          0.518 mm
A I  A  M   79  9600 

Unsymmetrical bending
Each section has infinite axes but two of these axes are principal axes of inertia. The principal axes
of inertia are always orthogonal to each other. One of them is called “strong axis” because the
moment of inertia of the section about it is the greatest, and the other is called “weak axis” because
the moment of inertia is the smallest.
Consider the cross-section in figure and suppose that axes y and z are principal axes of
inertia.Suppose that the section is subjected to unsymmetrical bending moment M, i.e. the axis of
the moment does not coincide with either the principal axes. y
Let the axis of the moment form an angle  with z-axis. We can resolve M

the moment M in direction of y and z as follows z 

M z  M cos M y  M sin  C

Mz y M yz
x    (4-23)
Iz Iy y
N.A. My
The neutral axis forms an angle  with z-axis which can be determined by
Iz z 
tan   tan  (4-24) C
Iy Mz

If I z  I y    

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 49

If I z  I y    

Example
100
For the rectangular steel section in figure, subjected to unsymmetrical A B
bending moment M = 20 kN.m, determine the maximum stresses. Also M

determine the angle which the neutral axis forms with axis z. 200 30o
Solution: mm

M z  20 cos 30 o  17.3 kN.m

C D
M y  20 sin 30 o  10 kN.m

Iz 
100 200 
3
 66.7  10 mm
6 4
N.A.
A B
12 My

Iy 
2001003  16.7  10 6 mm 4
66.6o
12 Mz
Due to Mz the points along edge AB will be subjected to the maximum
tensile stress, and points CD will be subjected to the maximum C D
compressive stress.

Along AB:  max



17.3  10 100  25.94 MPa
6

66.7  10 6

Along CD:  max



17.3  10 100  25.94 MPa
6

66.7  10 6
Due to My the maximum tensile stress will occur at the points along edge AC and the maximum
compressive stress will occur at the points along edge BD.

Along AC:  

10 10 50  29.94 MPa
6

16.7  10 6
max

Along BD:  max



10  10 50  29.94 MPa
6

16.7  10 6
The maximum tensile stress occurs at point A
 max

 25.94  29.94  55.88 MPa
The maximum compressive stress occurs at point D
 max

 25.94  29.94  55.88 MPa
Inclination of the neutral axis
Since Iz is greater than Iy,  shall be greater than .
66.7  10 6
tan   tan 30 o  2.306
16.7  10 6

  tan 1 2.306  66.6 o

Dr Walid M. Hasan, Isra University, Jordan 50