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456 Chapter 1 1

and the undamped natural frequency is

wn = 2.2 radiansls (11.33)
These values are indicated in Figure 11.26. Also note in L.2 root locus plot that the poles
are labeled to remind us of the reason for their existence. They can be moved by changing
the appropriate design parameters.

We now recognize the significance of the solutionjust obtained. Note that, corresponding
to a gain of 937, there are actually four solutions, indicated by the dots on the locus. Two of
these solutions correspond to responses that are very quickly damped out, being located at ap-
proximately -13.5 in the negative-real direction. By comparison, the least damped roots are lo-
cated at
-50, = -1.54 (1 1.34)
and we can neglect the quickly damped solutionswith very little error. Thus, our system will re-
spond approximately as a second-order response [ 141:
e-bnt
a(t) = u(t) - -sin(w,t + 4) (11.35)
k
where
k=
k
4 = tan-*-
5
w, = kwn
u(t) = unit step function

This response is a damped oscillatory response and this is, generally speaking, what we
would like. We would hope to have the damping factor 5 be fairly large for good damping and
to prevent an overshoot or too long an oscillation. Certainly, 4' 2 0.2 is desirable as this corre-
sponds to about 50% overshoot (actually 52.6%).In our case, with l=0.7 there is practically no
overshoot and the system is very well damped. If some oscillation can be tolerated, this system
could be operated at a higher gain. Figure 1 1.27 shows a typical second-order response for val-
ues of 5 of 0.2 and 0.7. Note that when 5 = 0.7 there is very little overshoot, but with 5 = 0.2 the
overshoot is about 50% (actually 52.6%)and oscillationsring down for almost four seconds. If
some oscillation can be tolerated, this system could be operated at a higher gain.

Example 11.2
If the system of Example 11.1 is a reheat system, the fractionf of power generated by the
HP turbine and the reheater time constant T R must be specified. Suppose we let
f = 0.2
TR=5s
Then the open-loop transfer function becomes
K(s + 1)
KG(s) = (11.36)
s(s + 5)(s + lO)(s + 15)(s + 0.2)
and the normal value of K is

(1 1.37)
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 457

1.6 1 I I I I I I I

- -
-
-
-

-0.2 I I I I I I

Fig. 1 1.27 Step response of a second-ordersystem.

The block diagram for this new system is shown in Figure 11.28. The root locus plot is
shown in Figure 11.29. From this plot, we observe that for a gain of about 187, the damping ra-
tio is about 0.4, corresponding to an overshoot of about 25%, and the undamped natural fre-
quency is about 0.5 radians per second. Thus the product
--&"= -0.2 (11.38)

is much less than for the straight condensing turbine. Note also, however, that the system gain
could be increased substantially with practically no change in 5 up to a frequency of about 1.5
or 2.0, which would improve the product by a factor of three or four and the oscillations would
decay much faster as we see from the exponent of (1 1.35).
The block diagram of a more detailed dynamic model of a reheat steam turbine system is
shown in Figure 11.30. This more detailed model consists of high-pressure, intermediate-pres-
sure, and low-pressure turbines on a single shaft, driving a generator and excitation system, as
shown in Figure 1 1.14. The principal dynamic components that effect the time lag of delivered
mechanical power are the speed relay, control valves, steam bowl, the drum,and the feedwater
heaters. In normal operation, the intercept valve is fully open, but the control valve may be only
partially open, depending on the scheduled generation output of the unit. These dynamic com-
ponents are connected in the system diagram of Figure 11.30 by solid lines.

Fig. 11.28 Block diagram of a reheat turbine system.

458 Chapter 1 1

\
\
c= 0.4 b0
\

\
\ \
\
\ /
/

\ /
\ /
\ /
bowl speed \ /
delay relay \
/' servo
K = 187 -
*
-1 5

/ /
/ \
\ \I
/ /
/ /
/
/ \
\ A
Y'
\
/'
/
/ \
/
/ \

Fig. 1 1.29 Root locus for a reheat steam turbine system.

The dashed lines in Figure 11.30 show the connection of an overspeed protection system.
This system will initiate fast turbine control and intercept valve closure in the event of a load re-
jection. The control logic operates by comparing the turbine power, which is determined by
measuring cold reheat pressure, and the generated power, measured by the generator current.
This protection will operate if the difference between these measured power values becomes
greater than a preset value, typically about 40% of full load, and the rate-of-change in generator
current is also greater than a set point value. This provides overspeed protection for the generat-
ing unit that might follow a loss of load.

1 1.8 Steam Generator Control

The expansion of power system interconnections has necessitated more precise control in
order to hold the fiequency stable and to control disturbances. It has also introduced a new class
of stability problems that are not so much concerned with system recovery following major im-
pacts, such as faults, as with the control and damping of sustained oscillations over periods of
several minutes duration. Thus, system components that are usually thought of as quite slow in
response must be investigated for possible behavior that might be detrimental to system damp-
ing. The steam generator is such a component. Steam generators can be either fossil or nuclear
fuel systems, but here we shall concentrate on fossil-fueled boilers. The recovery time of boiler
pressure following a sudden change in turbine control valve setting is measured in minutes for
systems of conventional design. During this period, the boiler-turbine system is operating with
Fig. 11.30 Typical turbine control dynamic for a reheat steam turbine system.
460 Chapter 1 1

Table 11.6 Normal Boiler Single Variable Controls

IndependentVariable Controlled Variable
Desuperheatingspray Main steam temperature
Firing rate Output (drum) pressure
Burner tilt Reheat temperature
Feedwater flow Drum level

its open-loop gain changing and possibly oscillating slowly. How these low-frequency oscilla-
tions will affect the overall system behavior is not always clear, but they can hardly be consid-
ered to be beneficial.
The introduction of the once-through boiler in the late 1950s also focused attention on boil-
er control. This type of boiler, because of its thermal design, requires a more sophisticated con-
trol. This increased interest in boiler control has affected later designs for drum-type boilers too,
with the result that faster response and more precise control are being realized.
Traditionally, the control system for a boiler has been accomplished by using analog devices,
which respond to an error in a single variable. Any response to such an error will, in most cases,
cause errors to appear in other variables. For example, in most boilers, the usual single-variable
controls are those shown in Table 11.6 [151. With this type of system, a step change in any of the
independent variable references or in load will cause a readjustment of all variables, each re-
sponding in its own way. Thus, a chain reaction of controlled responses follows the change in one
error and may unbalance the system for several minutes while all systems readjust themselves.
One alternative to this situation is the use of one multivariate controller [15, 161, so that
several input variables can actuate a number of actuators simultaneously, as indicated in Figure
11.31. In this kind of control, the outputs x are related to all inputs m by a matrix G(s) in the
equation
x(s) = G(s)m(s) (11.39)
Each element of G(s) may be found by setting all inputs m to zero except one. The output x
corresponding to this component of m determines one column of the transfer function G. Re-
peating for other components of m determines G completely. This kind of system model causes
cross coupling between variables, as shown in Figure 11.3 1. The size of the off-diagonal terms,
G&), i Zj,is an indication of the cross coupling that exists in the system. Such controllers
should force the system toward the new steady-state position in a much more optimal manner.
However, the design of a multivariable controller requires the use of an accurate model of the

Fig. 11.3 1 Block diagram of a coupled two-variable process.

 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 46 1

Throttle Pressure VJ
0
* I 4

Boiler Main Steam Temperature ~ 3

5 Tilt Reheat Steam Temperature >
li
Turbine' > u
8
P
Drum Level > 8
Feedwater - System Steam Flow Rate '53
8 Turbine Valve; Excess Air
A

Fig. 11.32 A multivariable process.

controlled plant and this is not available for many problems. Applying this concept to a steam
generator system, we can construct the system model as shown in Figures 1 1.32 and 11.33.

1 1.9 Fossil-Fuel Boilers

As the technology has evolved, two distinct types of fossil-fueled steam generators have
been designed and are widely used; drum-type boilers and once-through boilers. A simple com-
parison of these two types of boilers is illustrated in Figure 1 1.34.
As suggested by its name, the drum boiler employs a large drum as a reservoir for fluid that
is at an evaporation temperature. The once-through (or once-thru, as it is often called) design
has no drum and the fluid passing through the system changes state into steam and then into su-

I 1 Pressure
Fuel
' Process Trottle Temp
SP!
Air 'r.
SP
Tilts
Including
spray
>.
Actuators
reedwater

-1 I
Controller
Matrix
k%'
Fig. 11.33 Multivariable control.
462 Chapter 11

6 I

:o
I
0: It
--)- I

I
I
I
I
I
E I
I
FP

P
Drum-Type Boiler Once-Thru Boiler
Legend
Line Types
T Tube Waterwall Sections
S Superheater Section
--- Water E Evaporator Section
Steam --+-
_ _ _ a _
D Drum
-Flue Gas + FF Feedhmp
WC Water Circulating Pump
0 Steam Output to Turbine

Fig. 11.34 Drum and once-through boiler configurations. Figures adapted from similar items in Power Station Engi-
neering andEconomy, G . Bemhardt, A. Skrotski, and W. A. Vopat, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.

perheated steam. The once-through design contains less fluid than the drum-type design and
generally has faster transient response.

1 1.9.1 Drum-type boilers

A simplified sketch of the working fluid path in a drum-type boiler is given in Figure
11.35. In such a system, the drum serves as a reservoir of thermal energy that can supply limit-
ed amounts of steam to satisfy sudden increases in demand. It also serves as a storage reservoir
to receive energy following a sudden load rejection. Since the fuel firing and pumping systems
lag behind the drum demand by several seconds, the drum serves as a buffer between the tur-
bine-generator system and the boiler-firing system. It is, however, a very elastic connection as
the drum is not an “infinite bus” of thermal energy.
Some of the major control systems for the drum-type boiler are the following [16]:

(a) Combustion control-he1 and air control

(b) Burner and safety control
(c) Boiler temperature control-burner tilt, gas recirculation
(d) Feedwater control
(e) Superheater temperature control-desuperheating
(f) Reheat temperature control-gas recirculation
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 463

Fig. 1 1.35 A drum-type boiler arrangement.

Some other control systems are:

(a) Feedwater heating system control

(b) Air heater temperature control
(c) Fuel oil temperature control (in an oil fired boiler)
(d) Turbine lubricating oil temperature control
(e) Bearing cooling water temperature control
(f) Mill temperature control (in a coal burning boiler)
464 Chapter 11

These controls are usually single-variable control loops.

In order to apply advanced control concepts, it is necessary to have an adequate mathemat-
ical model of the process. Some valuable work [17-191 has added to our knowledge of boiler
behavior as an element in a dynamic system. One boiler representation [20] considers the drum
as a lumped storage element as shown in Figure 11.36 (a) and is easily studied by means of an
electric analog as shown in Figure 11.36 (b). This simplified model assumes that feedwater ef-
fects can be neglected and that the feedwater control satisfies the drum requirements. It also ig-
nores the geometry of the boiler, which is actually a huge distributed parameter system. Still, it
should provide at least a rough idea of the system behavior and permit us to study various con-
trol arrangements without becoming burdened by system complexity. Such is the approach pre-
sented in [20].
A certain mass of steam is stored in the boiler and any change in this mass affects the boiler
pressure. Such changes result from transient effects wherein the steam generated and the steam
demanded by the turbine are unbalanced. Thus,boiler pressure depends on steam flow. We also
recognize that the pressure at the drum is not the same as pressure at the control valves because
of the pressure drop across the superheater, which vanes as the square of steam flow rate. If we
linearize about a quiescent operating point, however, the change in pressure drop is proportional
to the change in flow rate and we are justified in using the linearized model of Figure 11.36 (b)
Referring to the linear circuit of Figure 11.36 (b), we define the following analogous quan-
tities:
VRT= throttle pressure
V, = drum pressure
Z,= steam generated
Z2= steam flow to turbine
R = friction resistance of the superheater
RT = resistance of the turbine at a given valve opening (1 1.40)

Drum
Pressure Throttle
Pressure
I
Superheaters Turbine

Steam How
v
(a) Schematic of Boiler-Turbine System

(b) Electric Analog of Boiler Pressure Phenomenon

Fig. 1 I .36 A simplified boiler-turbine representation [20].

 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 465

In this model, a change in control valve opening is represented by a change in RT. We may
then write
v c = H2 + R T I ~
VCO + VCA = R(I20 + ZZA) + (RTO + RTA)(z20 + z2A) (11.41)
and solving for I z A we get

(1 1.42)

and the throttle pressure VTRwill experience a drop proportional to RTA, the change in valve
opening.
The value of R is a function of the quiescent point of operation (the load level). In terms of
system quantities, we write the pressure drop from drum to throttle as PD(in lb-mass) or, at con-
stant firing rate:
Po = KQz (1 1.43)
where K is the friction coefficient and Q is the steam flow rate in l b d s . Then, for small pertur-
bations, we can write
PDA= ( ~ K Q o ) Q A (11.44)
where Qo is the steady-state flow rate and QA is the change in flow rate. In the analog,
R = 2KQo (1 1.45)
and is a function of Qo as noted.
The steam flow to the turbine, Q , is a function of the throttle pressure, PT,and a coefficient
Kv proportional to the valve opening, i.e.,

Q = KVPT (1 1.46)

Linearizing, we write

(1 1.47)

where K , is a function of load level.

The steam generated by the boiler is proportional to the heat released in the furnace, but
lags behind this heat release by 5 to 7 seconds, as an estimate [20].If we let Qw be the flow of
steam from the boiler, then we can think of the generated steam as being delayed by a time con-
stant Tw,the waterwall time constant.
The boiler storage effect is an integration with capacitance (or thermal inertia or time con-
stant) C. This gives the needed relationship between the net unbalance in boiler steam flow to
the drum pressure.
Finally, the fuel system dynamics can be represented by a delay and dead time. The delay
time constant TFis typically about 20 seconds and the dead time Td depends on the type of fuel
system, and may be anything from zero to about 30 seconds [20].
All of the above relationships, linearized about a quiescent operating point, may be repre-
sented by the lumped parameter model shown in Figure 11.37. To study the control of the boil-
er dynamics, the system can be arranged as shown in Figure 11.38. With this configuration, it is
possible to investigate the nature of the control system and also to optimize the effect of both
466 Chapter 1 1

I I
I I I
I Fuel I I
pBr Air - y C - - - - - - - - - - - - - - B o i l e i -I
System

Fig. 1 1.37 Block diagram of a lumped parameter drum-type boiler.

pressure and flow changes. The configuration of Figure 11.38 is recognized to be a “boiler-
following’’ control arrangement.
Multivariable controllers have an additional problem not usually present in single variable
controllers-the consistency of results [ 191. Thus, in a boiler, an increase in firing rate will al-
ways produce an increase in pressure; an increase in air flow will always decrease boiler pres-
sure; an increase in desuperheat spray will always decrease throttle temperature, and so on.
These are primary or dominant effects and their sign is always the same. Some effects, on the
other hand, are opposing. Thus, an increase in fuel increases steam pressure and this tends to in-
crease steam flow. Increased steam flow tends to decrease temperature, whereas the increase in
fuel input would ordinarily increase temperature. Thus, the exact operating point plus condi-
tions of soot, slag, etc. will effect the response and its direction.

Generation - Generation
\

Combustion - Control
output
Control

Desired
steam 0

output
* Boiler -Generator - +
Fig. 1 I .38 Typical control system configuration for a drum-type boiler.
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 467

One of the problems in designing an appropriate controller is that of starting with a good
mathematical model of the system. This is especially difficult in boiler systems because of the
difficulty in modeling a distributed parameter system and also because of the nonlinear charac-
ter of steam properties. The equations of the system are those of mass flow and heat transfer in
superheater and reheater tubes, and these equations -are nonlinear partial differential equations
in space and time. The usual approach to the solution of these equations is to break the space
continuum into a series of discrete elements and convert the partial differential equations into
ordinary differential equations in the time domain [18,19]. These equations may be solved by
digital computer. Models of this kind have been studied but are beyond the scope of this book.
The references cited will be helpful to one who wishes to pursue the subject further.
Finally, before leaving the subject of drum-type boiler control we note one type of multi-
variable control that has been used on both drum-type and once-through boilers. This system,
shown in Figure 1 1.39, is called a “Direct Energy Balance Control System’’ [21] by its manu-
facturer. This kind of control is designed to perform the following operations:

1. Adjust both boiler and turbine-generator together, as required by automatic or manual

controls.
2. Observe load limit capabilities of boiler, turbine, and generator.
3. Reduce operating level (runback) to safe operating level upon loss of auxiliaries.

Figure 1 1.39 displays the major components of this type of system. Referring to the figure,
the desired unit demand signal (from the automatic load control device), actual unit generation,
main steam pressure, and desired steam pressure are all input quantities to the controller.
Computer outputs are generated to the combustion and governor controllers. Thus, the system
does not simultaneously adjust all possible variables, but it does deal with the primary variables.
Compare Figure 11.39 with Figure 11.38 to see the difference between the two types of controls.
The controller of Figure 11.39 is shown in block diagram form in Figure 11.40. It consists
of two components: the “boiler-turbine governor” and the “unit coordinating assembly.” The
boiler-turbine governor produces a “required output” set point that takes into account the capa-

Desired Unit Actual Unit

Generation Generation

V
Direct Energy
Balance Control
System

Y A
1 Y
Combustion Governor
Control Control

Main

-
* Boiler
f Steam
Pressure

Fig. 1 1.39 A multivariable control system [2 11.

Generator
468 Chapter 1 1

Generation Generation
- - _ - _ * * - - - * - - - - -
I
I I
I
I Boiler Turbine I
I
I Governor I
I I
I I
I Frequency Bias I
I
I (Rates of Change) I
I
I
I (Limits) I
I
I (Runbacks) I
I I

To
Combustion
Control
;:sid
Pressure
61 Miin
Steam
Pressure
To
Governor
Control

Fig. 11.40 Block diagram ofa controller [21].

bilities of all components-boiler, turbine, and auxiliaries. It also fixes the rates of change ac-
cording to a preselected setting and provides for emergency runbacks and limits. The unit coor-
dinating assembly coordinates the combustion control with the turbine-governor control. Both
of these blocks are described in greater detail below.
The “boiler-turbine governor” is shown in greater detail in Figure 11.41. When operating
under automatic load control, a signal is received from the load control unit. This fixes the de-
sired generation for this unit. When not on automatic control, a selector switch provides an in-
put signal from a manual setting, properly biased when system frequency is other than normal.
For any size step change in the manual output setter, the unit automatically achieves the new
setting at a preset maximum rate of change, taking limits into account as noted.
The “unit coordinating assembly” is shown in greater detail in Figure 11.42. This unit com-
pares the required output for the unit against the actual unit generation and computes an error
signal from which the governor and fuel-air systems are controlled. At the same time, the mea-
sured pressure is compared against a desired pressure set point and this produces a pressure er-
ror that is used to bias both the governor and fuel-air action, but in opposite directions. This is
because the governor (control)valves and fuel-air systems have opposite effects on pressure; an
increase in governor setting tends to reduce the pressure but an increase in fuel-air setting tends
to increase it. The overall effect of the control is to take appropriate action for changes in both
load and pressure as noted in Table 11.7.
In practice, the control just described may be operated in any one of the following four
modes. The operator selects the operating mode he wishes to use.

1. Base input control. In this mode, the operator adjusts the boiler inputs and the turbine
governor manually.
2. Base input-turbine follow. In this mode, the governor adjusts the pressure automatically,
as shown in Figure 11.3, and the turbine follows the boiler. The operator runs only the
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 469

Other
Generation
Setter I

Runback
Actions
I I I

of Change
Setter
Max. Fuel
Min. Fuel Max. Air
Min. Air Limit
Max. Feedwater
Governor Open Limit
High Deviation
Required Output
To Unit Coordinating Assembly

Fig. 11.41 Boiler-turbine governor control unit [19].

boiler inputs, either automatically or manually. This mode is often used during startup
and certain unusual operating conditions. It frees the operator from having to watch both
the boiler and the turbine.
3. Direct energy balance automatic control. This mode is the normal operating mode for
this type of control and is the mode for which the system was designed.
4. Automatic control-boiler follow. This mode is like the “conventional” mode as illustrated
in Figure 11.4, except that use is made of the “required output” signal, which provides
several advantages over conventional boiler-follow control, such as providing frequency
bias, limiting and runback actions, and fixed rates of change. It also couples the governor
and the fuel-air controls to provide an anticipatory boiler signal to accompany governor
changes due to a load change. This “automatic boiler-follow mode” is shown in Figure
1 1.43.

1 1.9.2 Once-through boilers

Since the late 1950s, an increasing number of large boilers installed have been of the
“once-through” design. The striking difference between this type of boiler and the conventional
drum-type boiler of Figure 11.35 is the absence of the drum, down comers, and waterwall risers.
Instead of these features, water from the boiler feed pump passes through the economizer, fur-
nace walls, and superheater to reach the turbine, passing from liquid to vapor along the way.
See Figure 11.34 for a simple description of the two types of boilers. In the once-through boiler,
470 Chapter 1 1

Required Unit

Pressure

Control System

To Turbine Governor

Fig. 11.42 The unit coordinating assembly [21].

the pumping rate has a direct bearing on steam output as well as the firing rate and turbine gov-
erning. A simplified flow diagram of a typical once-through boiler is shown in Figure 11.44
[221.
The once-through boiler has a significantly smaller heat storage capacity than a drum-type
boiler of similar rating, since it contains much less fluid. It also costs less, because of the ab-
sence of the drum, and has lower operating costs. It does, however, require a more intelligent
control system.
In operation, the once-through boiler is much like a single long tube with feedwater flow-
ing in one end and superheated steam leaving at the outlet end. A valve at the discharge end can
be used to control the pressure. If the pressure is constant, heat is absorbed by the fluid at a con-
stant rate and the steam temperature is a function of the boiler throughput (pumping rate). The
heat absorbed (Btu/hr) divided by throughput (lbm/hr) gives the enthalpy (Btu/lbm). Thus, for
steady-stateoperation,the control must equate flow into and out of the tube, holding steam tem-

Table 11.7 Net Control Action by the Unit Coordinating Assembly [I91
Steam Generator Action Applied Action Applied To
Pressure output To Governor Fuel and Air Inputs
High High Difference = Zero Sum = Decrease
Low High Difference = Decrease Sum = Zero
Low Low Difference = Zero Sum = Increase
High Low Difference = Increase Sum = Zero
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 471

Desired Unit Boiler Turbine Actual Unit

tieneration * Governor tieneration

Pressure
Error
Generation
Error
-
A A
v v 4
Combustion Governor
Control

Main
Steam Turbine
output
Pressure
Generator -

perature at the desired value by maintaining the correct ratio of heat input (fuel and air) to
throughput (flow rate). Transient conditions are difficult to control because of the limited heat
storage in the fluid. Thus, when load is increased, the pumping rate must be increased to satisfy
the increased load and provide greater energy storage, and heat input must simultaneously be
increased to match load and the increased storage level [23].

&Finishing urbine
Enclosures
Throttle
I Valve I
I I
Air I

0?--
Lower
Furnace

F 'd th
Superheater aid
Reheater Dampers

Economizer
r----
Reheat

Feedwater 1
Heating System I

Boiler
,,,,L
,, Feedpump I
Fig. 1 1.44 Fluid path for a once-through boiler [22].
472 Chapter 1 1

Partly because of the lower storage of the once-through design, the response to sudden load
changes is much faster than that of the drum-type boiler. The time required for water to pass
through the boiler and be converted to superheated steam is only two or three minutes compared
to six to 10 minutes for the dnun-type designs [24]. Also, since the pumping rate is directly
coupled to the steam produced, there is little of the “cushioning effect” that exists in drum-type
boiler designs.
Rigorous analysis of the once-through boiler, like the drum-type boiler, is a difficult prob-
lem, but such analysis is necessary if a control system is to be designed accurately. A common
approach is to lump the spatial variation and waste heat transfer equations for each lump. This
method has been used on a supercritical unit for a 191 M W unit in which the analysts divided
the boiler into 14 sections or lumps [25]. Another report describes the use of 36 lumps to de-
scribe a large boiler used to supply a 900 MW generating unit [26].
Having eliminated the spatial parameter by lumping, the resulting ordinary differential
equations are nonlinear. Assuming operation in the neighborhood of a quiescent point results in
a linearized system of equations that may be numerically integrated by known digital tech-
niques. Comparison of such results with field tests have generally been quite good [25,26].
Another approach to this problem has been pursued [22] in which the boiler is lumped into
30 or so sections and the nonlinear equations for each lump are solved iteratively by digital
computer. This method is more time consuming than the linearized model, but it is also more
accurate for larger excursions from the quiescent point. A flow diagram of the iterative process
is shown in Figure 11.45. The solutions obtained by this process, give the boiler open-loop re-

Iterated
Pump Speed
Presssure, flow rate, and density profile -
continuity, pressure-temperature-density
steam table relations, turbine pressure,
-
from iterative solution of pressure drop, Turbine Valve Position

Spray Valve Position

temperature and flow relations as well as
pump characteristics

Density and Transport Delays

Specific Heat Metal Heat Storage

Flow Rate Profile
Heat Transfer
Metal
T----...-d..--
I
Gas to Firing Rate
Metal Gas Path Energy Balance
4Air Flow
Heat Flux
Profile Radiation, Convection, Heat Transfer <
By-Pass Damper Position
i
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 473

sponses to step changes in turbine valve position, pump speed, spray flow, and heat flux. These
results have been used in the synthesis of a control philosophy and control hardware, a portion
of which is described below.
The control system of Figure 11.46 is basically the direct energy balance system of Figure
11.39, but shown in block diagram form. This scheme has been used for many once-through
boiler installations. Considering this control scheme, we investigate various innovations that
may improve response.
Referring to Figure 11.46, we examine the significance of combining MW error into the
control scheme. If we let Po be the pressure set point, PA the pressure error, MW the megawatt
level, and KY a constant proportional to the valve opening, then, from [l 13
MW = KvP = Kp(f'0 i-PA)

or
MW - KVPA = KvPo (1 1.48)
This difference is proportional to the load level and is interpreted as the turbine valve open-
ing. The authors of [22] present variations to the basic control scheme of Figure 11.46. Basical-
ly, the problem is to design an adaptive control system that has the ability to alter its control pa-
rameters to satisfy the changing, nonlinear needs of the system at various load levels and to do
this in the shortest possible time.

1 1.9.3 Computer models of fossil-fueled boilers

From the foregoing discussion, it is clear that large fossil-fuel boilers are large complex
systems. Detailed mathematical models of these systems have been constructed and are used
by system designers and control experts. However, these large detailed models are not appro-
priate for use in power system stability analysis. Our interest is simply in the ability of the
boiler to maintain steam pressure and flow for a few seconds or, at most, a few minutes.

Frequency
Speed
MW

Position Control

I
I Demand For:
Feedwater
Firing Rate

Pressure Etc
I Anticipatory Feed Forward
Action From Desired MW
I IBoif ariay besy d
Fig. I I .46 Coupling of turbine load controls with boiler controls [22].
474 Chapter 1 1

Boiler control, on the other hand, involves the analysis of system performance over many
minutes and analysis of various subsystems within the control hierarchy. These large detailed
models are too detailed and too cumbersome for power system stability analysis; not that they
are incorrect, but they simply are far too detailed. Their inclusion would greatly retard the so-
lution time and the added complexity is unwarranted. However, it is also not correct to as-
sume that the boiler is an “infinite bus” of steam supply under all conditions. Clearly, what is
needed for stability analysis is a low-order model that will correctly represent the steam-sup-
ply system for up to 10 to 20 seconds. The stability analyst is not concerned with the many
control loops within the boiler, but only the essential steam supply and pressure at the throt-
tle valve.
This problem has been investigated for many years and is well documented in the literature
[26-371. The IEEE Power Engineering Society has been particularly active in documenting ap-
propriate model structures and data for proper representation and two excellent reports have
been issued as a result of these efforts [29,37]. These reports focus especially on the dynamics
of prime movers and energy supply systems in response to power system disturbances such as
faults, loss of generation or loads, and system separations. Figure 11.47 shows the elements of
the prime mover control model that was developed by the IEEE working group.
The mechanical shaft power is the primary variable of interest as it drives the generator.
This variable is directly affected by the turbine control valve (CV) and intercept valve (ZV),both
of which admit steam to the turbine sections. Steam flow through these valves is, in turn, affect-
ed by throttle pressure, labeled PT in the figure. This pressure is directly affected by the boiler
performance. Models of these system components are needed in order to provide an adequate
dynamic model of the mechanical system.
The relationship between the prime mover system and the complete power system are
shown in Figure 11.48, where the boiler-turbine system is shown within the dashed lines. This
diagram is instructive as it links the boiler-turbine systems to the controlled turbine-generator
system and the external power system. It is a complex nonlinear system.
There are several types of turbine systems of interest in a power system study. These
generic models are described in [37]. Later, improved models of a steam turbine system, in-
cluding the effects of the intercept valve, have been developed and are shown in a general
way in Figure 11.48 [38], which shows how the boiler and turbine models are linked to other
power system variables and controllers. The prime mover energy supply system is shown in-
side the dashed box in Figure 11.48. We can see that the prime mover responds to commands

Load
Load
Reference
L A -
L4-LSpeed
Load
IV
cv
~

>
Turbine
Including
Reheater
Demand
LD- Turbine

Fig. 1 1.47 Elements of a prime mover system [37].

 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 475

v-
Automatic I
InterchangePower
Electric System
i

Generation Frequency Generators 1

Control Network Loads
Unit
Electric
Desired Unit Angle Power
Generation
1 Turbine/ k
--- I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I
I I
I I
I i
I i
I
Main I
I Steam I
I i
I
Pressure I
I i
I I
I i
I

Fig. 1 I .48 Functional block diagram of prime mover controls [38].

for generation changes from the automatic generation control system, or from manual com-
mands issued by the control center. The turbine-boiler control also responds to changes in
speed. The resulting mechanical power responds to changes in main steam pressure and tur-
bine valve positions. The output variable of primary interest is the unit mechanical power that
acts on the turbine inertia to accelerate or decelerate the inertia in accordance with Newton’s
law.
A more detailed model of a generic turbine model is shown in Figure 11.49. The effect of
intercept valve operation is that portion of the figure within the dashed box, where the intercept
valve opening or area is represented by the “IV” notation. The control valve position is shown
as “CV” in this figure. In many cases, these effects are modeled linearly as a first-order lag.
This model is believed to be more accurate as it accounts for the valve limits.
The steam turbine speed and load controls are of two types. The older units operated under
a mechanical-hydraulic control system. A generic model of this type of control system is shown
in Figure 11.50. The manufacturers of speed-governing equipment have their own special mod-
els for speed governors of their design, and these manufacturers should be consulted to deter-
mine the best way to model their equipment. These experts can also provide appropriate numer-
ical data for the model parameters.
In some studies it is also desirable to provide a model of the boiler. This is true of studies
that extend the simulation time for long periods where boiler pressure may not be considered
constant. An appropriate low-order boiler model has also been recommended by the IEEE com-
mittee responsible for the above speed-governing system model. This boiler model is shown in
476 Chapter 1 1

Fig. 11.49 Generic turbine model including intercept valve effects [38].

Figure 11.5 1 and features a lumped volume storage of steam at an internal pressure labeled here
as drum pressure, in series with a superheater, and with steam leads and their associated friction
pressure drops. The energy input to the boiler represents heat released by the furnace. This heat
generates steam in the boiler waterwalls at a mass flow rate of rh, (note carefully the dot over
the m,representing a derivative with respect to time, or a rate of mass flow). The steam genera-
tion process is a distributed one and this is approximated in the model by two lumped storage
volumes for the drum, C, and the superheater, C,, connected through an orifice representing
the friction pressure drop through the superheater and piping.
The major reservoir for energy storage is in the waterwalls and the drum,both of which
contain saturated steam and water. In once-thru boilers, the major storage is in the transition re-
gion. The output of the model is the steam flow rate to the high pressure turbine.

1 1.10 Nuclear Steam Supply Systems

Nuclear power plants generate steam by utilizing the heat released in the process of nuclear
fission, rather than by a chemical reaction as in a fossil-fuel boiler. The nuclear reactor controls
the initiation and maintenance of a controlled rate of fission, or the splitting of the heavy urani-
um atom by the absorption of a neutron, in a chain reaction. In the so-called "thermal" reactors
a moderator, principally water, heavy water, or graphite, is required to slow down the neutrons
and thereby enhance the probability of fission.

Speed Relay Position

Rate Limits
- Limits
-
1
TSM&
-
4 -
1
S

Servo Motor

Fig. 1 1.50 Approximate representation of control valve position control in a mechanical-hydraulic speed governing
system [38].
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 477

Turbine
Equivalent
Orifice n Control VllVPc
HP
Turbine

Drum and vuyu. ..VULur

Water Walls and Steam Leads

(a) The Physical System

Turbine
Valve

Water
Wall Lag
(b) The System Model

Fig. 11.51 A computer model of boiler pressure effects 1381.

There are several distinct types of nuclear steam supply systems that have been designed
and put into service in power systems. The major systems in use are the following:

1. Boiling water reactor (BWR)

2. Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
3. CANDU reactor
4. Gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors

In the PWR, the reactor is cooled by water under high pressure. The high-pressure water is
piped to heat exchangers where steam is produced. In the BWR,the water coolant is permitted
to boil and the resulting steam is sent directly to the turbine.
In Europe, gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors have been developed. In these reactors,
the heat generated in fuel assemblies is removed by carbon dioxide, which is used to produce
steam that is carried to steam generators.
The CANDU reactors have been developed in Canada. These reactors use heavy water un-
der pressure and utilize natural uranium as a fuel.
Our treatment will focus on the BWR and PWR types, since they are so common in the
United States.
47% Chapter 1 1

Fig. 1 1 .S2 Major components of a BWR nuclear plant 1391.

1 1.10.1 Boiling water reactors

The major components in a BWR nuclear reactor are shown in Figure 11.52 [39] and these
components should be included in a dynamic model. Note that the steam produced by the reac-
tor is boiled off the water surface and fed directly to the turbines.
A block diagram for the boiling water reactor is shown in Figure 11.53 [40]. The variables
noted in the figure are defined in Table 11.8. This is a low-order model for such a complex sys-

Fig. 11.53 Block diagram of a reduced-order BWR reactor model.

 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 479

1nput Signal
Control Rod

Fig. 11.54 Major components of a PWR nuclear reactor model [39].

tern, and was constructed for use in power system stability analysis, where it is important to
keep models reasonably simple.

1 1.10.2 Pressurized water reactors

The major components in the pressurized water reactor are identified in Figure 11.54 and
the major subsystem interactions are shown in Figure 11.55.
The model of the P W R nuclear reactor and turbine are rather complex. One model for the
PWR is that shown in Figures 11.55 and 11.56, where the high- and low-pressure valve posi-
tions are unspecified or are unchanging. These positions are functions of the speed governor
model, which is not specified here, but is similar to other speed governor models. One can also

LLl-I
Bypass

-
Rod Position
Regulator -
~ Pw
Rod position
PRW
Reactor

Fig. 11.55 Interaction of P W R subsystem models 1411.

480 Chapter 1 1

Total

PWR Reactor Model

I 1

. I
I
9
+

Turbine Model

Fig. 11.56 PWR reactor and turbine model [41].

model the turbine bypass system [41], but that option is not pursued here and the total bypass
flow is assumed to be a zero input in the reactor model. Several other PWR models have been
presented and these are recommended for study [42-46].

Problems
11.1. Verify the results of Example 11.1 by working through each step of the problem and plot-
ting the root locus diagram. Locate the points for which the gain is approximately 937.
Repeat for a longer bowl delay using T3 = 0.25.
1 1.2. Examine the stability of the open-loop transfer h c t i o n of Example 11.1 by performing a
Bode plot. What is the gain margin? The phase margin?

Table 11.8 Variable Identification, per Unit

LD = Load demand LR = Turbine load reference
PT = Throttle pressure PR = Reactor Pressure
Ks = Steam flow pressure drop factor MT = Turbine Steam flow
T = Oscillation period, s MB = Bypass steam flow
5 = Oscillation damping factor Ms= Total steam flow
T, = Oscillation rate TC, s R, = Speed regulation
Tp = Power response TC, s Ao = Speed error
 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 48 1

1 1.3. Prepare a Nyquist diagram for the system of Example 1 1.1 and find the gain margin and
phase margin. Compare these results with those of the previous problem.
11.4. Verify the results of Example 11.2 by working through each step of the problem and plot-
ting the root locus diagram. Locate the points for which the gain is about 187.
11.5. Examine a turbine control system similar to that of Example 11.1 except that, instead of
the short bowl delay used in the example, use a long bowl delay of T3= 0.25 s. Sketch the
root locus and find the normal operating point for K3and Cgas given in Example 11.1.
11.6. Find the state-space model for the governor and boiler system shown in the following
figure.

Initial
Power
I m
‘a

..
- ’r
Auxiliary
I
Governor
I
Pmin steam System
‘ IPower

Signal Dynamics

A governor, boiler, and reheat steam turbine system

11.7. Examine the pressure control systems of Figures B.7, B.8, B.9, and B.10 of Appendix B
by root locus, using the values given for the various parameters.

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