chapter 13

Combustion Turbine and

Combined-Cycle Power Plants

13.1 Introduction
Two additional types of generating unit prime movers that are growing in importance are
the combustion turbine and combined-cycle units. Combustion turbine units were once consid-
ered as generating additions that could be constructed quickly and were reliable units for rapid
start duty. The early units were not large, limited to about 10 MVA, but later units have become
available in larger sizes and, in some cases, may be considered a reasonable alternative to steam
turbine generating units.
A more recent addition to the available types of generating units is the combined-cycle
power plant, in which the prime mover duty is divided between a gas or combustion turbine and
a heat recovery steam turbine, with each turbine powering its own generator. The dynamic re-
sponse of combined-cycle power plants is different from that of conventional steam turbine
units and they must be studied carefully in order to understand the dynamic performance of
these generatingunits.

13.2 The Combustion Turbine Prime Mover

Combustion turbines, often called gas turbines, are used in a wide variety of applications,
perhaps most notably in powering jet aircraft. They are also widely used in industrial plants for
driving pumps, compressors, and electric generators. In utility applications, the combustion tur-
bine is widely used as fast-startuppeaking units.
Combustion turbines have many advantages as a part of the generation mix of an electric
utility. They are relatively small in size, compared to steam turbines, and have a low cost per
unit of output. They can be delivered new in a relatively short time and are quickly installed
compared to the complex installations for large steam turbine units. Combustion turbines are
quickly started, even by remote control, and can come up to synchronous speed, ready to accept
load, in a short time. This makes these units desirable as peaking generating units. Moreover,
they can operate on a rather wide range of liquid or gaseous fuels. They are also subjected to
fewer environmental controls than other types of prime movers [I].
The major disadvantage of combustion turbines is their relatively low cycle efficiency, be-
ing dependent on the Brayton cycle, which makes combustion turbines undesirable as base-load
generating units. Another disadvantage is their incompatibilitywith solid fuels. The combina-
tion of low capital cost and low efficiency dictates that combustion turbines are used primarily
as peaking units.

513
514 Chapter 13

Combustion turbines can be provided in either one- or two-shaft designs. In the two-shaft
design, the second shaft drives a low-pressure turbine that requires a lower speed. However, in
practice the single-shaft design is the most common [ 11.
The combustion turbine model presented here represents the power response of a single-
shaft combustion turbine generating unit [2]. The model is intended for the study of power
system disturbances lasting up to a few minutes. The generator may be on a separate shaft, in
some cases connected to the turbine shaft through a gear train. The model is intended to be
valid over a frequency range of about 57 to 63 Hz and for voltage deviations from 50 to 120%
of rated voltage. These ranges are considered to be typical of frequency and voltage deviations
likely to occur during a major system disturbance. It is assumed that the model is to be used
in a computer simulation in which, to obtain economical computer execution times, the time-
step of the model might be one second or longer. The model is a rather simple one, but it
should be adequate for most studies since the combustion turbine responds rapidly for most
disturbances.
Figure 13.1 shows a simple schematic diagram of a single-shaft combustion turbine-gener-
ator system with its controls and significant auxiliaries [2]. The axial-flow compressor (C) and
the generator are driven by a turbine (T). Air enters the compressor at point 1 and the combus-
tion system at point 2. Hot gases enter the turbine at point 3 and are exhausted to the atmosphere
at point 4.The control system develops and sends a fuel demand signal to the main turbine fuel
system, which in turn,regulates fuel flow to the burner, based on the unit set point, the speed,
load, and exhaust temperature inputs. Auxiliaries that could reduce unit power capability are the

AUXILIARY AUXILIARY
ATOMIZING AIR FUEL HANDLING
SYSTEM SYSTEM

FUEL \
#
> MAIN FUEL
#
DEMAND
-
CONTROL .
( \ I\
SYSTEM
EXHAUST
#
SYSTEM TEMPERATURE
A AIR
3
SPEED 2 BURNER -
REFERENCE

Fig. 13.1 Combustion turbine schematic diagram [2]

 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 515

atomizing air and fuel handling systems shown in the figure. The atomizing air system provides
compressed air through supplementary orifices in the fuel nozzles where the fuel is dispersed
into a fine mist. The auxiliary fuel handling system transfers fuel oil from a storage tank to the
gas turbine at the required pressure, temperature, and flow rate.

13.2.1 Combustion turbine control

Figure 13.2 shows a block diagram of a single-shaft combustion turbine-generator control
system. The output of this model is the mechanical power output of the turbine. The input sig-
nal, AGCPS, is the power signal from the automatic generation control (AGC) system, in per-
unit power per second, The power is expressed in the system MVA base [2].
The governor speed changer position variable, noted in Figure 13.2 as GSCP, is the integral
of the AGC input. An alternative input KM represents a manual input that is used if the generator
is not under automatic generation control. The load demand signal shown in the diagram is the
difference between the governor speed changer position and the frequency governing character-
istic.
The frequency governing characteristic is often characterized as a normal linear governor
“droop” characteristic. Then the frequency error is divided by the per-unit regulation to deter-
mine the input demand. A nonlinear droop characteristic may be used in some cases.
Typical data for the parameters shown in Figure 13.2 are provided in Table 13.1 [2].
The load demand upper power limit varies with ambient temperature according to the rela-
tion

Pr. = 1 +A( 1 - 6) = );
1 + 0.1 1( 1 - (13.1)

where
A = (the per-unit change in power output per per-unit change in ambient temperature)
T = ambient temperature in “C
T, = reference temperature in “C

Linear or Nonlinear
Frequency Governing
Characteristics
~

Off-Nominal Power
‘1’“ Voltage and
out >
S 1+&s 0 Effects on
AGCPS Limit Power Output
Nonwindup Load Nonwindup
Magnitude Demand Magnitude
Limit Limit
Governor
Speed Changer
Position
(GSCP)

Fig. 13.2 Combustion turbine model block diagram [2].

516 Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Typical Combustion Turbine Model Parameters [2]

Constant Description Value

KM Manual rate, per-unit MW/s on given base 0.00278
4 Conversion,unit basekystem base -
UL GSCP upper position temperature 0.11
Tc Combustion turbine time constant, s 0.25
R1 Normal regulation, per-unit fi-eq/puMVA 0.04
R2 Alternate regulation, see Figure 13.4 0.01

According to (13. l), the turbine will provide 1.O per-unit power at a reference ambient tem-
perature of 15 "C. The power limit is increased for temperatures below the reference and is de-
creased for ambient temperatures above the reference.
The lower power limit corresponds approximately to the minimum fuel flow limit. This
limit is necessary to prevent the blowing out of the flame and corresponds to zero electric pow-
er generated. There are three different off-nominal voltage and frequency effects. These are de-
fined in the next section.
Figure 13.3 shows the approximate computed response of a General Electric FS-5,Model
N, single-shaft combustion turbine in response to a step change in setpoint from no load to full
load, using liquid fuel [3]. The analytical model used to compute this response included the ef-
fects of the controls, the transport times, heat soak effect of turbine components in the hot gas
path, and the thermocouple time constants. The turbine response will vary by several tenths of a
second for other models or when using other fuels. Notice the fast response characteristicof the
unit to its new power level.

0 ' I I I I I >
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time in seconds

Fig. 13.3 CT response to a step change in setpoint from no load to rated load [3].
 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 517

13.2.2 Off-nominal frequency and voltage effects

The power supply for the governor system is usually provided by the station battery that
can provide power for at least 20 minutes and is, therefore, unaffected by the voltage and fre-
quency of the ac power system [3]. The shaft-driven main fuel and lubrication oil systems can
be considered as unaffected by ac system voltage deviations.
If the power demand exceeds the power limit, the combustion turbine power output capa-
bility decreases as the frequency drops. A basic characteristic of the combustion turbine is that
the air flow decreases with shaft speed and the fuel flow must also be decreased to maintain the
firing temperature limit. The amount of the air flow decrease is on the order of 2% in output ca-
pability for each 1% drop in frequency. This is shown in equation (13.2), which represents the
limiting multiplier on power demand when the unit is running on an exhaust temperature limita-
tion.
RPFE = 1 - B 1(DPF)(0 B p - o~,,~)
= Reduced power frequency effect multiplier (13.2)
where

B, =( 01 when power demand < power limit

when power demand > power limit
DPF = per-unit change in unit output per-unit change in frequency
= 0 if data not available, bypasses the multiplier effect
= system frequency
osYs
wBP= system frequency when unit exceeds its power limit
The RPFE is one of the possible limiting effects noted by the limitation block on the right-
hand side of Figure 13.2 The invocation of this limitation depends on the initial power level of
the generating unit and the change in frequency during the transient. For example, if the fre-
quency declines 3 Hz or 5% on a 60 Hz system, then the power capability of the unit will be re-
duced by 2% for each 1% reduction in speed after the power limit is exceeded. A unit operating
initially at full load would reach the power limit immediately and the output of the unit would
be decreased by 10%.
Off-nominal voltage and frequency both have an effect on the system auxiliaries, such as
the fuel system, heaters, and air handling equipment. These effects vary depending on the unit
design, the particular installation limitations, the utility practice, and the site variables. This rep-
resents another limiting function that is referred to in the literature as the auxiliary equipment
voltage effect, or AEVE [2]:
AEVE = 1 - max[DPV( VBp - VT), 01 (13.3)
where
DPV = per-unit change in unit output per unit change in voltage
VBp= voltage level above which there is no reduction in unit output
VT= generator terminal voltage
Another unit limitation is based on a reduction in system frequency. This limit in defined as
121
AEFE = Auxiliary equipment frequency effect
= 1 - max[DPA(oBp- osYs), 01 (13.4)
where DPA is the per-unit change in unit output due to a per-unit change in frequency from the
base point frequency oBP
51 8 Chapter 13

f f

I
R1
I

---c
\

I I
I I
I I *
I 0 AP
JC-AlJ-

Fig. 13.4 Nonlinear governor droop characteristic [l].

All of the foregoing limiting functions apply to the limiter block on the right-hand side of
Figure 13.2.

13.2.3 Nonlinear governor droop characteristic

In some cases, it is desirable to include in simulations a nonlinear governor droop charac-
teristic rather than the simple 4% or 5% linear droop characteristic often assumed. This might
be necessary, for example, in providing an accurate model of the speed governor characteristic,
which is not linear over a wide range, but tends to saturate for large excursions in speed or pow-
er. An example of a nonlinear droop characteristicis shown in Figure 13.4 [ 1,3].
This is only one type of droop characteristicthat might be examined. For example, it is not
entirely clear that the slopes labeled R2 need to be equal in the high- and low-frequency ranges,
nor is it clear that the center frequency in the R1 range should be exactly at the center between
o,and %. Given adequate data, one might devise a continuous nonlinear curve to represent a
range of frequencies and power responses. However, lacking better data, the droop characteris-
tic of Figure 13.4 probably represents an improvement over the single droop characteristic so
often used. Finally, it should be noted that the nonlinear droop characteristic was suggested as
one device for improving the system response to very large disturbances,which create large up-
sets in power plants as well as loads. Some studies are not intended to accurately represent the
power system under such extreme conditions, in which case the single droop Characteristic may
be adequate.

13.3 The Combined-Cycle Prime Mover

There are a number of ways in which a combination of power cycles can be used in the
generation of electricity, and power plants that use a combination of power cycles can have
higher efficiencies that those dependent on a single power cycle. One typical combined-cycle
turbine model is shown in Figure 13.5. This system utilizes a combination of a gas turbine
Brayton cycle and a steam turbine using a Rankine cycle. The gas exhausted from the gas tur-
 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 519

Fig. 13.5 A typical combined-cycle power plant arrangement [3].

bine contains a significant amount of sensible heat and a portion of this heat is recovered in a
steam generator, which in turn provides the working fluid for the steam turbine.
Many combined-cycle power plants are more complex than that shown in Figure 13.5,
which shows only the basic components. More practical systems are described below, but all
systems can be conceptually reduced to the configuration of Figure 13.5.
Figure 13.6 shows the schematic diagram for a combined-cycle power plant with a heat re-
covery boiler (HRG) [ 11. In some designs, the steam turbine may have a lower rating than the
gas turbine. In some large-system designs, supplementary firing is used, which may cause the
steam turbine to achieve a rating greater than that of the gas turbine. Moreover, there may be
more than one HRG, which could significantly increase the steam supply and therefore the
power production of the steam subsystem.
A descriptive technical paper on combined-cycle power plants has been prepared by the
IEEE Working Group on Prime Mover and Energy Supply Models for System Dynamic Perfor-
mance Studies [6]. Their detailed model of the combined-cycle unit is shown in Figure 13.7.
Figure 13.8 shows the interactions among the subsystems of the combined-cycle system
[6], and identifies the input and output variables of each subsystem and the coupling among
these submodels. This structure is convenient for mathematical modeling of the combined-cycle
power plant, which is described in greater detail below.
The speed and load controls are described in block diagram form in Figure 13.9. The inputs
are the load = \demand, V,, and the speed deviation, hN. The output is the fuel demand signal, FD.
520 Chapter 13

Combustion
Chamber

Air
Compressor
Gas
Turbine = Generator 1

Air
Optional
Fuel * Supplementary
Firing System

SU = Superheater
Steam
I
--
--
i

B = Boiler
EC = Economizer

Steam

Turbine Generator 2

\/ \/ Condenser

Deaerating I

Boiler Heater
Feed
Feedwater
Heater
Fig. 13.6 Schematic flow diagram of a combined-cycle heat-recovery boiler [l].
 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 52 1

Stack

Steam Turbine
Generation

Cooling
Water

J Condensate
Pump

Gas Turbine
Generation
ITreatmentl

Fig. 13.7 Two-pressure nonreheat recovery feedwater heating steam cycle generating unit (HRSGwith internal deaer-
ator evaporator) [ 6 ] .

- +
SpeedLoad Gas

+
Control Controls . FueL Turbine ~ ~ z ~
Power
Deviation
Exhaust Gas Turbine
Temperature Flow Rate
Steam
Turbine
b

Steam Turbine Mechanical

Power
Fig. 13.8 Subsystems of the combined-cycle power plant [ 6 ] .
522 Chapter 13

MAX
f-

AN MIN
Fig. 13.9 Combined-cycle speed and control [ 6 ] .

13.3.1 Fuel and Air Controls

The gas turbine fuel and air controls are show in block diagram form in Figure 13.10 [6].In
this control scheme, the inlet guide vanes are modulated to vary the air flow, and are active over
a limited range. This allows maintaining high turbine exhaust temperatures, improving the
steam cycle efficiency at reduced load. The fuel and guide vanes are controlled over the load
range to maintain constant gas turbine inlet temperature. This is accomplished by scheduling air
flow with the load demand FD and setting the turbine exhaust temperature reference TRto a val-
ue that is calculated to result in the desired load with the scheduled air flow at constant turbine
inlet temperature. The exhaust temperature reference is calculated from the following basic gas
turbine thermodynamic relations (taken from reference [6]).

(13.5)

TR

FD

Fig. 13.10 Gas turbine fuel and air flow controls [6].
 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 523

where
TR = reference exhaust temperature per unit of the absolute firing temperature at rated condi-
tions
Also
x=(pR)(rWY= ( p R o j q p l Y Y (13.6)
where
PRO= design cycle pressure ratio
PR= PROW= isentropic cycle pressure ratio
y = ratio of specific heats = cJcv
We also define the following
W = design air flow per unit
q3 = turbine efficiency
Tf = turbine inlet temperature per unit of design absolute firing temperature
Then the per-unit flow required to produce a specified power generation at the given gas
turbine inlet temperature Tf is given by the turbine power balance equation

(13.7)

where kW is the design output in per unit. Also

3413 kWo
+
KO= (13.8)
WgOTf QCP
and where we define
kWo = base net output per unit
WgO=base net flow per unit
Tfo = turbine inlet temperature per unit of design absolute firing temperature
Cp= average specific heat
= compressor inlet temperature per unit of design absolute firing temperature
qc = compressor efficiency
The combustor pressure drop, specific heat changes, and the detailed treatment of cooling
flows have been deleted for purposes of illustration of the general unit behavior. These perfor-
mance effects have been incorporated into equivalent compressor and turbine efficiency values
[61.
Equations (13.7) and (13.8) determine the air flow Wand pressure ratio parameter Xfor a
given per-unit generated power in kW, and at a specified per-unit ambient temperature Tp The
reference exhaust temperature TR is given by (13.6) by setting T,= 1.0. The air flow must be
subject to the control range limits.
The block identified as A in Figure 13.10 represents the computation of the desired air flow
WD and the reference exhaust temperature over the design range of air flow variation by means
of vane control. Desired values of WD and TR are functions of FD (the desired values of turbine
output from speed/load controls) and ambient temperature T,. These are determined by the solu-
tion of (13.7) and (13.8) with appropriate limits on WD and TR. The vane control response is
modeled with a time constant TR and with nonwindup limits corresponding to the vane control
range. The actual air flow W, is shown as a product of desired air flow and shaft speed. The ref-
erence exhaust temperature TR is given by (13.6) with T,set equal to unity.
524 Chapter 13

The measured exhaust temperature TE is compared with the limiting value TR and the error
acts on the temperature controller. Normally, TE is less than TR,which causes the temperature
controller to be at the maximum limit of about 1.1 per unit. If TE should exceed TR, the con-
troller will come off limit and integrate to the point where the its output takes over as the de-
mand signal for fuel V,, through the low-select (LS) block. The fuel valve positioner and the
fuel control are represented as given in [7], giving a fuel flow signal W,as another input to the
gas turbine model.

13.3.2 The gas turbine power generation

A block diagram of the computation of gas turbine mechanical power PMGand the exhaust
temperature TE is shown in Figure 13.1 1.
The equations used in the development of the gas turbine mechanical power PMGare shown
in Figure 13.1 1. The gas turbine output is a function of the computed turbine inlet temperature
Tf,which is a function of the turbine air flow Wj.

(13.9)
where
AT
K2= - = per-unit combustor temperature rise
Tfo
TcD = compressor discharge temperature per unit of absolute firing temperature
W,-= design air flow per unit
The gas turbine exhaust temperature TE is determined by equation (13.6),substituting TE
for TR and using (1 3.7)for the computation of X. The mechanical power PMGis a function of the
turbine inlet temperature and the flow rate of combustion products W, + Wr.

Fig. 13.1 1 Gas turbine mechanical power and exhaust temperature model [6].
 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 525

13.3.3 The steam tvrbine power generation

The heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) system responds to changes in the exhaust flow
from the gas turbine Wand its exhaust temperature TE.This heat is delivered to the high- and
low-pressure steam generators, which can be approximated. The exhaust gas and steam absorp-
tion temperatures through the HRSG are indicated in Figure 13.12.
The transient heat flux to the high- and low-pressure steam generation sections can be ap-
proximated using the relations for constant gas side effectiveness,and are computed as follows [6].
Tex- T'
rlgl = (13.10)
Tex - Tml
T' - TI'
rlg2 =- (13.11)
T -Tm2
where T' and T" are the gas pinch points shown in Figure 13.12. Temperatures Tmland Tm2are
the average metal temperatures in the HP and IP evaporators, respectively.
The gas heat absorption by the HRSG section can be computed as follows [ 6 ] .
QgHp = Wqgl(Tex - Tml) + (Qeconl + Q'econl) (1 3.12)

QgLp = w ~ g 2 ( T '- T m 2 ) + (Qecon2 + Qeconl) (13.13)

where
&icon I = ~ e c ~ ( 7 "-
' TW~HP (13.14)

tecon2 = 9~ + 77ec2(Tt' - T / n ) (13.15)

and where Qeconl, Qecon2, and Q'econlare the HP and IP economizer heat fluxes.

I
Heat Absorption, % 100

Fig. 13.12 Steam energy exhaust gas temperature versus heat absorption [6].
526 Chapter 13

The economizer heat absorption is approximated using the constant effectiveness expres-
sions, as follows [6]:

(1 3.16)
Then equations (13.1 1) through (13.17) are solved to find the temperature and heat flux
profiles.
The steam flows, mHpand mLpare computed by the pressurehlow relationship at the throt-
tle and admission points as follows:
~ H =PKTPHP
mHP+ mIp= K'PIp (13.17)
where
K T = throttle valve flow coefficient
K' = admission point flow coefficient
Steam pressures PHpand PLpare found by integrating the transient energy equations, which
are given as
DIIPPHP = QgHP - h h p m H P + hJWmHP + hJWmHPJW

DLPPLP =Qgw - h L p m L P + h/wmLpJw (1 3.1 8)

The HP and LP metal temperatures T,, and Tm2are determined by integration of the gas
and steam side heat flux as shown in Figure 13.13.
The steam turbine power in kilowatts is computed as

kW, = M H P * AEHP 'mLP ' AELP

(13.19)
3413

Fig. 13.13 Steam system model.

 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 527

Fig. 13.14 A simplified steam power response model [6].

where AErip and AE,, are the steam actual available energies [6]. The dynamic relations for the
HRSG and steam turbine are shown in Figure 13.13. Note that the heat transferred from the high
pressure boiler QG,is a function of the exhaust gas temperature TE,the HP evaporator metal
temperature T,, ,and the IP evaporator metal temperature Tm.
It is noted in reference [6] that the total contribution to mechanical power from the two
pressure boilers can be approximated with a simple two-time constant model. The gain between
the gas turbine exhaust energy and the steam turbine output will, in general, be a nonlinear func-
tion that can be derived from steady-state measurements through the load range, or from design
heat balance calculations for rated and partial load conditions. These simplificationswill result
in a low-order model as shown in Figure 13.14 [6]. Such a low-order model would be very sim-
ple to implement in a computer simulation, and may be quite satisfactory for may types of stud-
ies, especially studies in which the major disturbance of interest is far removed from the com-
bined cycle power plant. Moreover, this simple model could be “tuned” by comparing it against
the more detailed model of Figure 13.13. The detailed model should be considered for studies of
disturbances in the vicinity of the combined-cycle plant.
From [6] the values of the time constants for this simplified model are given as
TM= 5s
T5-=20~

Problems
13.1 The combustion turbine presented in Figure 13.1 is a single-shaft design. Other combus-
tion turbines are designed to employ two different shafts. Sketch how such a two-shaft
unit might be configured and compare with the single-shaft design. What are the advan-
tages of a two-shaft design? Hint: Consult the references at the end of the chapter, if
needed.
13.2 The single-shaft combustion turbine shown in Figure 13.1 is called a “direct open cycle”
design since it exhausts its hot exhaust to the atmosphere. A different design is called a
“closed-cycle” system, which recycles the exhaust back to the air input port. Make a
sketch of how such a closed-cycle system might be configured.
13.3 It has been noted that the ideal cycle for the gas turbine is the Brayton cycle. Explore this
cycle using appropriate references on thermodynamic cycles and sketch both the P-V and
the T-S diagrams for this cycle.

References
1. El-Wakil, M. M., Powerplant Technology,McGraw-Hill, New York, New York, 1984.
2. Turner, A. E. and R. P. Schulz, Long Term Power System Dynamics, Research Project 764-2, User’s
Guide to the LOTDYS Program, Final Report, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, April
1978.
 Chapter 13

3. Bailie, R. C., Energy Conversion Engineering, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1978.

4. Pier, J. B. and S. Bednarski, “A simplified single shaft gas turbine model for use in transient system
analysis,” General ElectricCompany Report, 72-EU-2099, 1972.
5. Schulz, R. P., A. E. Turner, and D. N. Ewart, Long Term Power System Dynamics, volume 1, Summary
and Technical Report, EPRI Report 90-7-0 Final Report, June 1974.
6. IEEE Working Group on Prime Mover and Energy Supply Models for System Dynamic Performance,
F. P. deMello, Chairman,“Dynamic models for combined cycle plants in power system studies,” ZEEE
Transactions Power Systems, 9, 3 , August 1994, p. 1698.
7. Rowen, W. I., “Simplified mathematical representations of heavy-duty gas turbines,” Trans. ASME,
105 (l), 1983, Journal of Engineeringfor Power, Series A, October 1983, pp. 865-869.