buildings
Article
Use of Eco-Friendly Materials in the Stabilization of
Expansive Soils
Souhila Rehab Bekkouche 1 , Mohammed Benzerara 2 , Umar Zada 3, * , Ghulam Muhammad 4, *
and Zulfiqar Ali 5
Citation: Bekkouche, S.R.; Benzerara,
M.; Zada, U.; Muhammad, G.; Ali, Z.
Use of Eco-Friendly Materials in the
Stabilization of Expansive Soils.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770. https://
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101770
Academic Editor: Antonio Caggiano
Received: 8 October 2022
Accepted: 20 October 2022
Published: 21 October 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101770
1 Materials Geotechnics Housing and Urbanism Laboratory (LMGHU), Department of Civil Engineering,
University 20 Août 1955 Skikda, P.O. Box 26, Skikda 21000, Algeria
2 Materials Geomaterials and Environment Laboratory (LMGE), Department of Civil Engineering,
University Badji Mokhtar Annaba, P.O. Box 12, Annaba 23000, Algeria
3 Department of Civil Engineering, National Central University, No. 300, Zhongda Rd, Zhongli District,
Taoyuan City 32056, Taiwan
4 Department of Computer Engineering, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University,
Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
5 School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
* Correspondence: engrumar821@gmail.com (U.Z.); ghulam@ksu.edu.sa (G.M.)
Abstract: Volume change of expansive soils is a challenging issue, which affects various engineering
structures all over the world. Consequently, we need environmentally-friendly and cost-effective soil
stabilizers to address the challenges related to expansive soils. The utilization of natural fibers allows
for the reduction in environmental impact since they are renewable and biodegradable raw materials.
Moreover, the current article presents an experimental approach to study the effect of natural fibers
on the mechanical behavior of expansive soils. Various experimental tests—such as Atterberg limits,
standard compaction, direct shear, swelling potential, and swelling pressure—were conducted on
control and treated soil samples using different percentages of fibers. The results of measurements of
the physico-mechanical properties after reinforcement of the soil with 1%, 5%, and 10% of natural
fibers indicate that the mechanical behavior of expansive soils is greatly influenced by the addition of
natural fibers. To conclude, 86% reduction was observed in the swelling coefficient of treated soil.
Future research can be done to check the durability of the current practice in detail.
Keywords: expansive soil; eco-friendly material; reinforcement; mechanical properties; diss fibers
1. Introduction
The performance, economy, and safety of any building are significantly influenced by
the behavior of the soils and rocks at the construction site and by the interactions of the
earth materials both during and after construction. The main issue with expansive soils is
the significant deformations of the soil in and around buildings brought on by the soil’s
swelling and shrinking during wetting and drying. These excessive movements can also
damage public structures and services. The problems can be large or small and have a
significant negative impact on the structure’s performance in terms of time and cost [1].
Knowledge and understanding of the geology of earth materials are needed while dealing
with expansive soils [2]. Much research has been conducted to investigate the influence of
cyclic wetting and drying on the swelling behavior of expansive natural soils [3].
Thanks to innovative studies and techniques, it is now possible to build on all types of
soils [4,5]. Current technological developments in soil reinforcement are moving towards
more economical and more environmentally-friendly technical solutions [6,7].
Moreover, the possibility of using waste and ecological materials was studied. The
use of bottom ash produced by municipal solid waste incineration in the construction field
has been proposed. Improvements in the strengths and modulus of elasticity of the final
product with the addition of this waste material has been found [8].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 2 of 16

Various methods and equipment have been used to study the influence of the effective-
ness of a solution or a product on the stabilization of clay soil. The use of building materials
had been commonly applied to soil stabilization [9–11]. However, the use of polymeric
materials as soil stabilizers has been among the best materials for these applications [12–14].
Reinforcing soils with plant fibers is a major step forward in the transition to the
use of eco-materials in sustainable construction [15,16]. Previously, Diss fibers were used
to cover the roofs of houses and in particular as reinforcements in mixtures during the
manufacture of the walls of old earthen dwellings because of their good mechanical,
hydrous, and hygrothermal qualities [17–19]. Recently, this material has been involved in
the development of soil reinforcement materials in geotechnics [20]. The use of natural
fibers, either to manufacture eco-geotextiles or mixed with the soil to form a composite
material, has recently met with some success in the field of construction (stability of
soils and embankments, control of erosion, infiltration, etc.) as a substitute for synthetic
reinforcing fibers used in particular in geotextiles. Moreover, studies have been carried out
to investigate the effect of plant fibers on the compaction properties, and found a reduction
in the maximum dry density and an increase in the optimum moisture content with the
addition of fibers for percentages of 0.5 and 2% in the soil matrix [21].
Moreover, the mechanical behavior of a very plastic clay can be reinforced with
sisal fibers by varying their length (1.5–3 cm in length) and their percentage (0.25–1%).
The results showed that optimum water content increases relative to untreated soil, and
maximum dry density decreases with increasing length and fiber content [22]. Similarly,
the effect of plant fibers on mechanical shear properties has been studied by [23]. They
reinforced sandy soils with synthetic and plant fibers (reeds and palm leaves), varying
several parameters such as the percentage and the orientation of the fibers. The results of
their tests showed that there is improved strength and increased axial strain at break.
The physical and mechanical properties of plant fibers have been addressed by many
researchers [24–26]. In their study on plant fibers, these researchers found that the tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity of plant fibers are proportional to their cellulose content.
Thus, they noticed that the resistance depends on the shape of the filament spirals. They
find that the spiral wide-angle fibers have high deformability but a low resistance, while
the low-angle spiral fibers have low deformability and a high resistance.
Prajisha et al. [25] Studied the strength and durability of Kuttanad soil stabilized with
lime and reinforced with banana fibers. This study was conducted on fibers immersed in
two different media, namely, (i) in clean and soft water (pH = 7.0) and (ii) a lime solution
[Ca(OH)2]. The study intended to determine the changes in the chemical composition
of the fiber after a specified period. They have found that the untreated fibers are more
severely attacked by the alkaline medium and water when they are subjected to alternating
exposure of the wetting and drying type. Khelifi et al. [26] studied the biodegradation
in soil of Stipa tenacissima (Alfa) leaves. Nonlinear mechanical tests were performed at
various stages of biodegradation. The results showed that tensile strength, loading and
unloading, Young’s moduli, and dissipation energy decreased with burial time, while
plasticity increased. This loss of strength was correlated with rapid cellulose degradation.
According to a review oof the literature on the stabilization of expansive soils by
natural materials, this study is carried out by mixing different ratios of natural fibers (1%,
5%, and 10% of the total weight of the sample) with expansive soil. The basis for selecting
the dosages of various modifiers is based on previous studies, which added lower doses of
additives directly to the base soil.
The current study has been conducted to utilize the additives with higher amounts
as compared to the previous studies related to the current practice. Additionally, the
experimental work examines the effect of natural fibers on the geotechnical properties of
expansive soils. Finally, environmental and economic aspects, which are more important
for every engineering project, were also considered during the current practice.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 3 of 16

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Bentonite
Bentonite’s swelling and adhesive properties are what make it an attractive material
for a wide range of applications. It is made by extraction and, even with a moisture content
of 30%, it remains solid. Once extracted, it is usually crushed and processed before being
used [27,28].
The bentonite used in this study is from a quarry in the Maghnia region (Western
Algeria). It is extracted from the Hammam Boughrara deposit (Tlemcen, Western Algeria).
The properties of bentonite are shown in Table 1 [14].

Table 1. Physic-Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Bentonite used [14].

Property Value
Humidity (%) <12
Granulometry of fine elements (%) 95
Water content (%) 9
Swelling rate (mL/2 g) 25–27
Liquid limit (%) 181
Plastic limit (%) 30
Plasticity Index (%) 151
Impact Resistance (kg cm/cm3 ) 40
MgO3 (%) 1
Na2 O (%) 4
CaO (%) 2
Fe2 O3 (%) 3
Al2 O3 (%) 19
SiO2 (%) 58
Other minerals (%) 13
pH 5

2.1.2. Natural Soil

The soil used in this research was collected from the municipality of Elhadeik, in
Skikda region (North-Eastern Algeria). Ten samples were obtained at a depth of 2.5–3 m,
and transported to the laboratory in plastic bags to maintain the moisture content.
The soil was initially characterized by the various geotechnical tests at the LHC
(SKIKDA unit) housing and construction laboratory. In order to activate and increase
the swelling of the study soil, we reconstituted a new material with a higher swelling
potential, by mixing 80% natural soil with 20% bentonite, which is commercially available
and supplied by the Algerian company BENTAL. According to standard ASTM D4318-17e1,
initial water content was measured and valued between 10% and 20%. The liquid limit
(LL) of the mixture (SB) was 68%, and the plasticity index (PI) was 34%. The various index
properties of the (SB) considered in this study are shown in Table 2.
According to the GTR, 2000 (Guide to Road Groundwork, Embankment and Layering,
LCPC, SETRA, Boxborough, MA, USA, 2000) [14], and from the results found, it can be
said that the studied mixture is a very plastic clay (class A3).
 Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Table 2. Engineering properties of the soil–bentonite mixture.

Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 4 of 16
Property Value Standard
Liquid limit (%) 68
Table 2. Engineering
Plastic properties
limit (%) of the soil–bentonite34mixture.
(ASTM D4318-17e1) [29]
Plasticity index (%) 34
Property Value Standard
Consistency index 1
Liquid limit (%) 68
Methylene
Plastic limit (%)
Blue value 34
7.33 (ASTM C837-09) [30]
Maximum dry (%) density (t/m3) (ASTM D4318-17e1) [29]
Plasticity index 34 1.6
(ASTM D1557-12e1) [31]
Consistency
Optimal water index content (%) 119.95
Swelling
Methylene index (%)
Blue value 12.11
7.33 (ASTM C837-09) [30]
Compressibility
Maximum dry density (t/m ) index
3 (%) 24.65
1.6 (ASTM-D2435) [32]
(ASTM D1557-12e1) [31]
Compressibility
Optimal water content (%)pressure (bars) 19.951.02
Immediate
Swelling indexBearing
(%) Index (%) 12.11 3.3 (ASTM D1883-16) [33]
Friction
Compressibility angle
index (%)(°) 10.61
24.65 (ASTM-D2435) [32]
Compressibility pressure (ASTM D3080-98) [34]
Cohesion (bars) 1.020.99
(bars)
Grain size distribution
Immediate BearingClayIndex(%) (%) 3.3 70 (ASTM D1883-16) [33]
◦ (ASTM D7928-16e1) [35]
Friction angle
Silt ((%) ) 10.6123
(ASTM D3080-98) [34]
CohesionSand(bars)(%) 0.99 7
Grain size distribution
Clay (%)
According to the GTR, 2000 (Guide to70
Road Groundwork,(ASTM Embankment and[35]
Layer-
D7928-16e1)
Silt (%) 23
ing, LCPC, SETRA, Boxborough, MA, USA, 2000) [14], and from the results found, it can
Sand (%) 7
be said that the studied mixture is a very plastic clay (class A3).

2.1.3.
2.1.3.Natural
NaturalFibers
Fibers
The
The Diss (Ampelodesmosmauritanicus,
Diss (Ampelodesmos mauritanicus,Poaceae)
Poaceae) ofof
thethe
Gramineae
Gramineae family is an
family herba-
is an her-
ceous plant with a height not exceeding one meter (Figure 1). These fibers are extremely
baceous plant with a height not exceeding one meter (Figure 1). These fibers are extremely
robust
robustandandrough.
rough. ItIt isiswidespread
widespreadininthe
thewild
wildininthe
theMediterranean
Mediterraneanbasin.basin. The
The Diss
Dissisis
abundantly available throughout the year, which makes it an important biomass
abundantly available throughout the year, which makes it an important biomass [17–19]. [17–19].

Figure 1. Plant of Diss in Skikda (North-East Algeria).

Figure 1. Plant of Diss in Skikda (North-East Algeria).

Plantfibers
Plant fibershave
havecellulose
cellulosefibrils
fibrilsdispersed
dispersedin inaamatrix
matrixofoflignin
ligninand
andhemicelluloses.
hemicelluloses.
They also contain small amounts of free carbohydrates, proteins,
They also contain small amounts of free carbohydrates, proteins, extracts, andextracts, andinorganic
inorganic
substances. For plant fibers, cellulose is the basic structural component and the abun-
substances. For plant fibers, cellulose is the basic structural component and the most most
dant natural
abundant polymer
natural on earth.
polymer Hemicelluloses
on earth. Hemicellulosesare polysaccharide polymers
are polysaccharide mademade
polymers up of
up of polymer chains shorter than cellulose. Lignin is an amorphous polymer of phenol-
propane units. It can be a trusted agent that gives rigidity to plant cell walls.
In this study, the Diss fibers used were picked from the Skikda region, whose charac-
teristics are detailed in Table 3.
 polymer chains shorter than cellulose. Lignin is an amorphous polymer of phenol-pro-
pane units. It can be a trusted agent that gives rigidity to plant cell walls.
In this study, the Diss fibers used were picked from the Skikda region, whose char-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 5 of 16
acteristics are detailed in Table 3.

Table 3. Characteristics of Diss fibers.

Table 3. Characteristics of Diss fibers.
Characteristics Details Diss Fiber
Characteristics Absolute density (kg/m ) (ASTM D5444-15)Diss
Details 3 [36] Fiber 950
Physical Diameter (mm)
Absolute density (kg/m ) 3 0.85
950
(ASTM D5444-15) [36]
Cross-sectional area (mm )
2 0.57
Physical
DiameterCellulose
(mm) 0.85 45.2
Cross-sectional area (mm2 ) 0.57
Chemicals Lignin 15.6
Cellulose 45.2
(% by mass) [37] Hemicelluloses/pectin 26
Chemicals Lignin 15.6
(% by mass) [37] Extraction & others
Hemicelluloses/pectin 26 13.2
Elastic &
Extraction modulus
others (MPa) 13.2 5477.42
Elastic Standard deviation
modulus (MPa) 5477.42 1734.87
Standard
Tensile deviation
strength (MPa) 1734.87 78
Tensile strength (MPa) 78
Mechanical Standard deviation 8
Mechanicalˆ2(ASTM Standard deviation 8
(ASTMD3822-07)
D3822-07)
[38][38] Fracture strain
Fracture strain (%) (%) 2 2
Standard
Standard deviation
deviation 0.22 0.22
Fracture elongation
Fracture (mm) (mm)
elongation 1.12 1.12
Standard deviation 0.11
Standard deviation 0.11
5 min 5 min 72 72
Water absorption (%)
Water absorption (%) 24 h 155
24 h 155

The
Thecross-section
cross-sectionofofthethefiber
fiberwas
wasmeasured
measuredusing usingaaCCD
CCDcamera
cameramounted
mountedon onaa
LEICA MZ16 trinocular loupe. This device makes it possible to take enlarged
LEICA MZ16 trinocular loupe. This device makes it possible to take enlarged photos and photos and
allows
allowslength
lengthmeasurement
measurementwith withananaccuracy
accuracyofof11µmµ m(Figure
(Figure2).
2).Microscopic
Microscopicobservations
observations
were
were carried out using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) typeJEOL
carried out using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) type JEOLJSM-6460LV
JSM-6460LVtoto
characterize
characterizethetheconstitution
constitutionand
andthetheshape
shapeofofthe
thecell
cellwalls
wallswithin
withinthethefibers
fibersofofthe
theDiss
Diss
(Figure
(Figure 3). A confocal observation of the roughness of Diss fiber surfaces was carriedout.
3). A confocal observation of the roughness of Diss fiber surfaces was carried out.
The confocal images were obtained with a Leica DCM 3D device, in order
The confocal images were obtained with a Leica DCM 3D device, in order to determine to determine the
roughness of theofsurface
the roughness of theofplant
the surface fibersfibers
the plant used used
(Figure 4). 4).
(Figure

Figure2.2.Observation
Figure Observationby
byoptical
opticalmicroscope:
microscope:diameter
diametermeasurement
measurementofofthe
theDiss
Dissfibers.
fibers.

As shown in Figures 2 and 3, the sections of the fibers do not have a regular geometric
shape. Diss leaves come in a coiled form and take on a shape that approximates an ellipse
with a spiked surface. The outer surface of the Diss fiber is spiny. In addition, the inner
surface is covered with spines, which are evenly distributed and have visible ridges covered
with fine tangled needles. Figure 5 demonstrates that the Diss fibers have rough surfaces
showing the different reliefs observed to clearly appear in the spins, which allows them to
have a better anchoring in a soil matrix.
 Buildings2022,
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2022,12, FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of
6 of 2116

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Observation by scanning electron microscope: longitudinal section, (a) exterior and (b)
Figure 3. Observation by scanning electron microscope: longitudinal section, (a) exterior and (b) inte-
interior of the Diss fiber.
rior of the Diss fiber.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure4.4.Confocal
Confocalobservation:
observation:longitudinal section,
longitudinal section,(a)(a)exterior
exteriorand
and(b)
(b)interior
interiorofofthe
theDiss
Dissfiber.
fiber.

As shown in Figures 2 and 3, the sections of the fibers do not have a regular geometric
shape. Diss leaves come in a coiled form and take on a shape that approximates an ellipse
with a spiked surface. The outer surface of the Diss fiber is spiny. In addition, the inner
surface is covered with spines, which are evenly distributed and have visible ridges cov-
ered with fine tangled needles. Figure 5 demonstrates that the Diss fibers have rough sur-
faces showing the different reliefs observed to clearly appear in the spins, which allows
them to have a better anchoring in a soil matrix.

2.2. Methods
The following method was adopted for the mixing and sample preparation. Soil was
dried in an oven at 105 °C for 24 h, followed by manual grinding of the soil to eliminate
large grains. Sieving was done with a sieve to get a mesh diameter equal to 1 mm. More-
over, to obtain a fine, dry, and homogeneous soil, soil was mixed with 20% bentonite as
shown in Figure 5 (dosage was in grams of dry soil mass). After that, the Diss sheets were
washed with plenty (a) of tap water to remove dust and dried in open (b)air simultaneously. A
Retsch-type
Figure parallel-cut
Figure5.5.Preparation
Preparation knife mill was
ofofsoil–bentonite
soil–bentonite used(a)
mixture:
mixture: for grinding purposes
(a)soil–bentonite,
soil–bentonite,(b) as shown in Figures 6
(b)bentonite.
bentonite.
and 7. Subsequently, the dry soil was mix with the different rates of natural fibers with
various percentages of 1%, 5%, and 10%.
In order to determine the mechanical behavior of the soil in interaction with the Diss
fibers, various physical and mechanical tests are carried out (Table 4).
 Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 7 of 16

2.2. Methods
The following method was adopted for the mixing and sample preparation. Soil was
dried in an oven at 105 ◦ C for 24 h, followed by manual grinding of the soil to eliminate
large grains. Sieving was done with a sieve to get a mesh diameter equal to 1 mm. Moreover,
to obtain a fine, dry, and homogeneous soil, soil was mixed with 20% bentonite as shown
in Figure 5 (dosage was in grams of dry soil mass). After that, the Diss sheets were washed
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW plenty of tap water to remove dust and dried in open air simultaneously. A Retsch-
with 9 of 21
type parallel-cut knife mill was used for grinding purposes as shown in Figures 6 and 7.
Subsequently, the dry soil was mix with the different rates of natural fibers with various
percentages of 1%, 5%, and 10%.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Figure 6. Diss fibers before grinding.

Figure 6. Diss fibers before grinding.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure7.7.Preparation andand
Preparation visualization of Diss
visualization fibers
of Diss used:
fibers (a) Diss
used: fibersfibers
(a) Diss after after
grinding and (b)
grinding and
grinder.
(b) grinder.

In order to determine the mechanical behavior of the soil in interaction with the Diss
fibers, various physical and mechanical tests are carried out (Table 4).
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 8 of 16

Table 4. Geotechnical Tests and Standards.

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21
Test Standard Purpose of the Test
Determine Atterberg limits of
Table 4. Geotechnical Tests and Standards. ASTM D4318 [29] soil: liquid limit, plastic limit,
Atterberg limits
plasticity index and
Test Standard Purpose ofindex.
consistency the Test
DetermineDetermine thelimits
Atterberg of soil:dry
maximum liq-
ProctorAtterberg
standard limits
compaction test ASTM D4318 [29]
ASTM D1557 [31]uid limit, plastic limit, plasticity
density and the optimum index
and consistency
moistureindex.
content.
Determine the maximum dry density
Determine the resistance
Proctor standard compaction test ASTM D1557 [31]
Direct shear strength ASTM D 3080 [34]and the optimum moisture
parameters using the content.
Determine the resistance
Casagrande box. parameters
Direct shear strength ASTM D 3080 [34]
using the Casagrande box.
Determines the
Compressibility test ASTM D 3080 Determines the compressibility param-
Compressibility test ASTM D 3080 [32] [32] compressibility parameters of
eters of fine soils.
fine soils.

3.
3. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
3.1.
3.1. Effect of Diss Fibers
Effect of Diss Fibers on
on Atterberg
Atterberg limits
Limits
Atterberg
Atterberg limits,
limits, plasticity
plasticity limits,
limits, or
or consistency
consistency limits
limits are
are used
used to characterize the
to characterize the
behavior of fine soils, although their behavior varies over time. The Atterberg limits
behavior of fine soils, although their behavior varies over time. The Atterberg limits and and
the plasticity index
index of soil vary not only with the importance
importance of its clay fraction but also
with the nature of the clay minerals and the adsorbed cations. The results of the Diss fiber
effect on the Atterberg limits are shown in Figure Figure 8.
8.

Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Plasticity Index (%)

70

60

50
Atterberg Limits

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 5 10
Fibers content (%)

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Variation of the
Variation of the Atterberg
Atterberg limits
limits according
according to
to the
the Diss
Diss fibers’
fibers’ content.
content.

The study of the effect of Diss fibers on the plasticity properties of clay soils shows
that the
the quantity
quantityofofthe
theadditions
additions plays
playsanan
important
important rolerole
in the characterization
in the characterizationof theoffinal
the
product—in
final our case,
product—in our where the fibers
case, where are crushed
the fibers and cut
are crushed andin acut
crusher whose whose
in a crusher fiber length
fiber
is between
length 0.5–2 cm.
is between The
0.5–2 results
cm. show that
The results show with
thatthe
withincrease in the percentage
the increase of fibers,
in the percentage of
the plasticity characteristics are reduced. A drop in the plasticity index
fibers, the plasticity characteristics are reduced. A drop in the plasticity index of 34% of 34% for the soil
for
without
the fibers is observed
soil without at the value
fibers is observed at of
the29% at 10%
value Dissat
of 29% fibers.
10% This
Diss may be This
fibers. explained
may be by
the effect of
explained byabsorption,
the effect offiber surfacefiber
absorption, effect, and particle
surface rearrangements
effect, and with fiberswith
particle rearrangements [39].
These [39].
fibers results haveresults
These been confirmed
have beeninconfirmed
the specialized
in theliterature
specialized [7,13,14]; in these
literature studies,
[7,13,14]; in
these studies, the authors used several types of polymers with several concentrations, in-
dicating that there is a reduction in the properties of plasticity. This is explained by the
fact that with the addition of polymer to the soil, the particles agglomerate and become
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 9 of 16

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21

the authors used several types of polymers with several concentrations, indicating that
there is a reduction in the properties of plasticity. This is explained by the fact that with
the addition
larger, of polymer
and they thereforetooffer
the soil,
less the particles
surface agglomerate
and take up weakerandlayers
become larger, resulting
of water, and they
therefore
in offer less
the reduction in surface
the soiland take up weaker layers of water, resulting in the reduction in
plasticity.
the soil plasticity.
3.2. Effect of Diss Fibers on Compaction Properties
3.2. Effect of Diss Fibers on Compaction Properties
In order to see the influence of the different percentages of Diss fibers’ additions on
In order
the soil to see the
compaction influenceaof
parameters, the different
series of normalpercentages of Diss fibers’
Proctor compaction tests additions
were carriedon
the soil compaction parameters, a series
out. The results obtained are shown in Figure 9.of normal Proctor compaction tests were carried
out. The results obtained are shown in Figure 9.

1.7

1.6
Dry density (t/mᶾ)

1.5

1.4

0%
1.3
1%

5%
1.2
10%

1.1
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Moisture content (%)

Figure 9. Effect of different Diss fibers’ content on compaction characteristics.

Adding Diss
Adding Diss fibers
fibers to
to the
the soil
soil decreases
decreases the the maximum
maximum dry dry density value. It
density value. It is
is noted
noted
that these values go from 1.60 g/cm 3 for the soil alone to the value of 1.28 g/cm 3 for the
that these values go from 1.60 g/cm for the soil alone to the value of 1.28 g/cm for the soil
3 3

soil mixed
mixed withwith
10% 10% of Diss
of Diss fibers.
fibers. Thus,Thus,
for theforoptimum
the optimum
waterwater content,
content, initially
initially at 1% at 1%
fiber,
fiber, a decrease is observed, and then it increases according to the percentage
a decrease is observed, and then it increases according to the percentage of fiber added of fiber
added (Figure
(Figure 10). Authors
10). Authors in [20,21]
in [20,21] noticed noticed
the same the same
result,result,
whichwhich
is mostis most
likelylikely
due due to
to the
the higher
higher water
water absorption
absorption capacity
capacity of fibers
of fibers (fiber
(fiber hydrophilicity)
hydrophilicity) compared
compared to soil.
to soil. In
In ad-
addition, the decrease in the dry density noticed is explained by the low specific
dition, the decrease in the dry density noticed is explained by the low specific weight of weight of
the fibers compared to the grains of the soil, as the fibers prevent the particles
the fibers compared to the grains of the soil, as the fibers prevent the particles of soil from of soil from
approaching each
approaching each other.
other.
3.3. Effect of Diss Fibers on Mechanical Shear Characteristics
The study of the shear strength of soil is necessary to know the mechanical behavior of
soils. The shear strength depends on the type of soil encountered, whether it is cohesive or
not, and whether the material is coarse or fine. In solving stability problems in geotechnics,
it is necessary to know the shear strength parameters of the soil. Thus, the angle of internal
friction and cohesion are involved in the stability calculations of dams, embankments, and
dykes. Indeed, small variations in the shear characteristics can induce significantly different
sizing of geotechnical structures. The most widely used experimental apparatus in soil
mechanics to assess shear strength properties is the rectilinear shear test. Additionally, in
geotechnical studies and designs, two of the most important and fundamental factors are
cohesion (C) and internal friction angle. These parameters are usually determined using the
direct shear test. The variation of shear strength with the Diss fibers is shown in Figure 11.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 10 of 16

1.8 19.6

1.6 19.4

Maximum Dry density (g/cm3)

Optimum moisture content (%)

1.4
19.2

1.2
19
1
18.8
0.8
18.6
0.6

18.4
0.4
Maximum Dry
0.2 Density 18.2
Optimum moisture
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW content 14 of 21
0 18
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fibers content (%)

Figure 10.
Figure Variation of
10. Variation of compaction
compaction characteristics
characteristics as
as aa function
function of
of the
the Diss
Diss fibers
fibers percentage.
percentage.
50 kPa 100 kPa 150 kPa
3.3. Effect
180
of Diss Fibers on Mechanical Shear Characteristics
The study of the shear strength of soil is necessary to know the mechanical behavior
160
of soils. The shear strength depends on the type of soil encountered, whether it is cohesive
or not,140
and whether the material is coarse or fine. In solving stability problems in geotech-
Shear strength (kPa)

nics, it120
is necessary to know the shear strength parameters of the soil. Thus, the angle of
internal friction and cohesion are involved in the stability calculations of dams, embank-
100
ments, and dykes. Indeed, small variations in the shear characteristics can induce signifi-
cantly 80different sizing of geotechnical structures. The most widely used experimental ap-
paratus60in soil mechanics to assess shear strength properties is the rectilinear shear test.
Additionally, in geotechnical studies and designs, two of the most important and funda-
40
mental factors are cohesion (C) and internal friction angle. These parameters are usually
20
determined using the direct shear test. The variation of shear strength with the Diss fibers
is shown 0 in Figure 11.
0 1 5 10

Fibers content (%)

Figure
Figure11.
11.Stress-strain
Stress-strainplot
plotofofsoil
soiltreated
treatedatatdifferent
differentDiss
Dissfiber
fiberrates.
rates.

Figure11
Figure 11presents
presentsthe theeffect
effectof ofDiss
Dissfibers
fiberson onthe
thestrength
strengthcharacteristics
characteristicsofofthe thesoil
soil
studied. Shear stresses are improved depending on the addition
studied. Shear stresses are improved depending on the addition of Diss fibers and de- of Diss fibers and depend-
ing on the
pending onnormal stress;
the normal this is
stress; justified
this by the
is justified byfavorable effecteffect
the favorable of theofintroduction of fibers
the introduction of
into the soil, which plays the role of reinforcement.
fibers into the soil, which plays the role of reinforcement.
FromFigure
From Figure12,12, itit can
can be
be seen
seen that
that there
there is
is aanet
netchange
changeininthe
thecohesion
cohesionand andthe
theangle
angleof
offriction
frictionofof
thethereinforced
reinforced soil asas
soil a function
a function ofofthe
thepercentage
percentage of of
fibers. WeWe
fibers. note a remarkable
note a remark-
reduction in the cohesion which drops by more than 60%
able reduction in the cohesion which drops by more than 60% compared to the soil compared to the soil without
with-
additions, and we can also note that the angle of
out additions, and ◦we can also note that the angle of friction has had friction has had a significant
a significant increase
increasein
the value of 10.61 for the soil not reinforced to the value of 44.48 ◦ for the floor with 10%
in the value of 10.61° for the soil not reinforced to the value of 44.48° for the floor with
Diss.Diss.
10% ThisThis
is dueis to
due thetolowthe density
low densityof theofDiss
thefibers, the rearrangement
Diss fibers, the rearrangementand new andtexture
new
resulting from the introduction of the Diss fibers into the
texture resulting from the introduction of the Diss fibers into the soil matrix. soil matrix.
The mechanism of stabilization of the swelling and improvement of the geotechnical
properties of the soil studied is at the same time physical and mechanical. Adding the
fibers of Diss, the structure of the soil will be changed. In addition, the application of forces
and loads in the various tests contributes to the tightening of the grains and reduction in
the voids, which improves the behavior of the soil in general. These results are confirmed
by other studies [23,25].
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 11 of 16

50 1.2

45
1
40

35
0.8
Friction angle (°)

Cohesion (bars)
30

25 0.6

20
0.4
15

10
Friction angle (°) 0.2
5
Cohesion (bars)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fibers content (%)

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Variation
Variation of
of the
the mechanical
mechanical shear
shear characteristics
characteristicsaccording
accordingto
tothe
theDiss
Dissfibers’
fibers’content.
content.

The mechanism
3.4. Effect ofon
of Diss Fibers stabilization of the
Compressibility swelling and improvement of the geotechnical
Properties
properties of the soil studied is at the same time physical and mechanical. Adding the
The purpose of this test is to study the consolidation of intact or reworked soil sam-
fibers of Diss, the structure of the soil will be changed. In addition, the application of forces
ples, subjected to a constant vertical load in stages, drained vertically, and laterally sur-
and loads in the various tests contributes to the tightening of the grains and reduction in
rounded by a rigid enclosure. Table 5 shows the effect of Diss fibers’ content on the com-
the voids, which improves the behavior of the soil in general. These results are confirmed
pressibility characteristics of soil reinforced with different percentages of natural fibers.
by other studies [23,25].
Table 5. Variation of compressibility parameters as a function of the percentage of Diss fibers.
3.4. Effect of Diss Fibers on Compressibility Properties
The purpose of this test is to study0% 1% of intact or5%
the consolidation reworked soil10%
samples,
Compressibility Parameters
subjected to a constant vertical loadDissin stages,
Fiber drained vertically,
Diss Fiber andFiber
Diss laterallyDiss
surrounded
Fiber
by a rigid enclosure. Table
Swelling index (%) 5 shows the effect
12.11 of Diss fibers’
11.79 content on
7.29 the compressibility
1.69
characteristics of soilindex
Compressibility reinforced
(%) with 27.65
different percentages
27.09 of natural fibers.
27.01 19.99
Preconsolidation pressure (bars) 1.29 1.02 0.81 0.73
Table 5. Variation of compressibility parameters as a function of the percentage of Diss fibers.
Figure 13, shows the effect of0%
Compressibility Diss fibers on 1% the compressibility5% characteristics 10% of the
soil studied. The
Parameters final value of the swelling,
Diss Fiber after stabilization,
Diss Fiber makes
Diss Fiber it possible
Diss to calcu-
Fiber
late the relative variation
Swelling index (%)
in the volume
12.11
of the sample
11.79
expressed as a
7.29
percentage. The
1.69
same
procedure is used
Compressibility to study
index (%) the swelling
27.65 of the samples
27.09 in the presence
27.01 of different
19.99 fiber
content. The results of the oedometric tests show a decrease in the swelling index, the
Preconsolidation
1.29 1.02 0.81 0.73
compressibility index and the preconsolidation pressure with the increase in the rate of
pressure (bars)
Diss fibers. It is observed that the soil loses its sensitivity to swelling from 1% of fibers.
The effect
Figureof13, adding
showsDissthe fibers
effect is
of clearly visible.
Diss fibers These
on the curves show characteristics
compressibility that the swelling po-
of the
tential
soil decreases
studied. significantly
The final from
value of the the addition
swelling, of 1%. The swelling
after stabilization, makes itispossible
linked totoplasticity,
calculate
and it affects the fine particles [3,39]. The randomly distributed
the relative variation in the volume of the sample expressed as a percentage. Diss fibers are capable
The same of
altering the structure and texture of the soil in various aspects, namely
procedure is used to study the swelling of the samples in the presence of different fiber resistive tension
forces generated
content. The resultsdueofto the
soil–fiber contact
oedometric [40–42].
tests showThese changes
a decrease can swelling
in the be attributed
index,to the
the
replacement of more of the swelling soil with non-swelling fibers.
compressibility index and the preconsolidation pressure with the increase in the rate ofIn addition, the pres-
ence fibers.
Diss of fibersIt in
is the mass of
observed thethe
that ground creates
soil loses its voids, which
sensitivity to involve
swellingthe reduction
from in the
1% of fibers.
surface
The of effective
effect of adding contact between
Diss fibers the fiber
is clearly and the
visible. expansive
These curvesparticles
show that of the
theground.
swelling
potential decreases significantly from the addition of 1%. The swelling is linked to plasticity,
and it affects the fine particles [3,39]. The randomly distributed Diss fibers are capable of
altering the structure and texture of the soil in various aspects, namely resistive tension
forces generated due to soil–fiber contact [40–42]. These changes can be attributed to the
replacement of more of the swelling soil with non-swelling fibers. In addition, the presence
 Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 12 of 16

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

of fibers in the mass of the ground creates voids, which involve the reduction in the surface
of effective contact between the fiber and the expansive particles of the ground.

30 Swelling Index Cimpressibility Index Preconsolidation Pressure

Compressibility parameters (%, bars)

25

20

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Fibers content (%)

Figure 13.Variation
Figure13. Variationof
ofcompressibility
compressibilityparameters
parametersas
asaafunction
functionofofthe
thepercentage
percentageofofDiss
Dissfibers.
fibers.

3.5. Effect of Diss Fibers on Microstructural Analysis

3.5. Effect of Diss Fibers on Microstructural Analysis
The scanning electron microscopy test consists of observing the texture of the sample
The scanning electron microscopy test consists of observing the texture of the sample
and the characterization of its mineralogy. The morphologies of the untreated natural
and the characterization of its mineralogy. The morphologies of the untreated natural soil
soil samples were observed by the SEM. Figure 14a shows the presence of voids, porosity,
samples were observed by the SEM. Figure 14a shows the presence of voids, porosity, and
and cracks. There are many small particles of different shapes. At higher magnification, a
cracks. There are many small particles of different shapes. At higher magnification, a num-
number of large and small pores of different shapes can be seen without the appearance of
ber of large and small pores of different shapes can be seen without the appearance of
aggregations. The image shows the surface of the natural ground allowing visualization of
aggregations.
the structure inThe image
scales. Thisshows
aspectthe
of surface
scales isofdue
thetonatural groundofallowing
the presence visualization
montmorillonite pro-
of the structure in scales. This aspect of scales is due to the presence of montmorillonite
portion. Figure 14b shows the SEM image of the reference soil grains at 5 µm magnification.
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWproportion.
The SEM image Figure 14buntreated
of the shows theSB SEM
soilimage
allowsofvisualization
the referenceofsoil
thegrains
weak at
and5 µlaminated
m17magni-
of 21
structure with a certain arrangement between them. This laminated aspect is due to and
fication. The SEM image of the untreated SB soil allows visualization of the weak the
laminated
presence of structure with a certain arrangement between them. This laminated aspect is
montmorillonite.
due to the presence of montmorillonite.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure14.
14.SEM
SEMimages
imageswith
with5 5µ µm
m magnification
magnificationofof(a)
(a)soil
soiland
and(b)
(b)SB
SBsoil.
soil.

The result obtained from the SEM analysis for the Diss fiber-reinforced soil is shown
in Figure 15. It illustrates the spatial relationship between the Diss fibers and the soil ma-
trix. It can be observed that very few spaces are created between the fiber and the soil
matrix.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 13 of 16

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21

The result obtained from the SEM analysis for the Diss fiber-reinforced soil is shown in
Figure 15. It illustrates the spatial relationship between the Diss fibers and the soil matrix.
It can be observed that very few spaces are created between the fiber and the soil matrix.

Figure 15. Inking of Diss fiber spines in soil matrix.

Figure 15. Inking of Diss fiber spines in soil matrix.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
Algeriaisisa acountry
Algeria countryvery veryrichrichininvegetable
vegetableplants.
plants.They
Theyare arescattered
scatteredthroughout
throughoutthe the
national territory, and they are found in the coastal regions much
national territory, and they are found in the coastal regions much more than in the interior more than in the interior
regionsofofthe
regions thecountry.
country. The current current context,
context,whichwhichisisparticularly
particularlyconcerned
concerned about
about thethe
en-
vironmental impact,
environmental impact,leads leads totothetheuse of of
use natural
naturalplant fibers
plant fibersto replace
to replacesynthetic
synthetic fibers and
fibers
even
and certain
even certainmaterials
materials in in
thethefield
fieldofofconstruction
construction(slabs,
(slabs, thethe production of of tiles
tilesandandcar car
parkpaving,
park paving,asaswell wellasasthe thereinforcement
reinforcementofoffragile fragilesoils).
soils).
The
TheuseuseofofDissDissfibers
fibers shows
shows significant
significant improvements
improvements in the plasticity
in the plasticityandand
engineering
engineer-
properties of expansive soils. The results show a significant modification
ing properties of expansive soils. The results show a significant modification of the pa- of the parameters
oframeters
shear, cohesion
of shear,(reduction of 60% to 10%
cohesion (reduction of 60% of fibers)
to 10% and angle and
of fibers) of friction
angle of (anfriction
increase (an
ofincrease
35% to of 10% 35% of to
fibers)
10% of of the treated
fibers) of thesoil. The oedometer
treated compressibility
soil. The oedometer tests show
compressibility a
tests
decrease
show a in the swelling
decrease in theindex
swelling(reduction of 86% to 10%
index (reduction of fibers),
of 86% to 10%the compressibility
of fibers), index
the compressi-
(reduction
bility index of (reduction
28% to 10%ofof28% fibers),
to 10%andof the preconsolidation
fibers), pressure (reduction
and the preconsolidation pressure from 43%
(reduc-
totion
10%from
fiber) with increasing fiber content. Adding Diss fiber fundamentally
43% to 10% fiber) with increasing fiber content. Adding Diss fiber fundamen- changed the
behavior of the soil. It depends on the amount of fiber added
tally changed the behavior of the soil. It depends on the amount of fiber added and thoseand those changes from 1%
fiber dosage. It can be expected that with other laboratory tests
changes from 1% fiber dosage. It can be expected that with other laboratory tests such as such as triaxial tests, more
soil parameters
triaxial tests, morecan be soilimproved
parameters withcansoil–Diss
be improvedfibers.with soil–Diss fibers.
The
Theuse useofofDiss
Dissrodsrodsasasa areinforcing
reinforcingelement
elementisisan anancient
ancienttechnique,
technique,used usedby byour
our
ancestors for the reinforcement of natural clay walls, and these
ancestors for the reinforcement of natural clay walls, and these constructions still resist constructions still resist
the
thevagaries
vagaries of of nature. However,itsitsuse
nature. However, useat at
thethe research
research level level is very
is very recent.recent.
For this, Forefforts
this,
efforts must be concentrated to develop its use as rods or fibers
must be concentrated to develop its use as rods or fibers as reinforcement in clay matrices as reinforcement in clay
matrices and/or construction
and/or construction materials. materials.
The fibers The fibers presented
presented in this studyin this
arestudy are agricultural
agricultural by-prod-
by-products
ucts generated at high volume; they can exist in different regions of Asia,of
generated at high volume; they can exist in different regions Asia, and
Africa, Africa,Eu-
and Europe, under different temperature and humidity conditions.
rope, under different temperature and humidity conditions. This makes it possible to This makes it possible
todemonstrate
demonstratethe theapplication
application capacity
capacity of of organic
organic fibers
fibers fromfrom different
different regions
regions forforthetheim-
improvement of the mechanical properties of soils. In the same way, the results of these
provement of the mechanical properties of soils. In the same way, the results of these in-
investigations open up the possibility of carrying out similar studies in other parts of the
vestigations open up the possibility of carrying out similar studies in other parts of the
world, where natural fibers are available, which allows one to deepen the knowledge on this
world, where natural fibers are available, which allows one to deepen the knowledge on
new technique of improvement of the technical properties of soils. This study has shown
this new technique of improvement of the technical properties of soils. This study has
the complexity of the phenomena involved when using plant fibers as reinforcements in
shown the complexity of the phenomena involved when using plant fibers as reinforce-
ments in soils. It is necessary to follow these studies and study the biodegradation of nat-
ural leaves in a mineral-rich environment as a function of time to approximate common
Buildings 2022, 12, 1770 14 of 16

soils. It is necessary to follow these studies and study the biodegradation of natural leaves
in a mineral-rich environment as a function of time to approximate common use cases for
soil reinforcement such us embankments, road areas, etc., because their often low moisture
resistance and incompatible nature of the fibers become the main disadvantages. Therefore,
modifying the properties of these fibers with chemical treatments can improve the adhesion
between the fibers and the matrix, as well as the mechanical properties of the reinforced
soils. In the near future, natural fiber will become one of the sustainable and renewable
fiber resources in the field of composites and geotechnics that can substitute for synthetic
fibers in many applications.

5. Future Recommendation
The current research clearly demonstrates the use of natural fibers for expansive
soil stabilization, which is an environmentally-friendly and economical alternative. In
addition to that, the authors have some reservations that need to be addressed in the future.
Primarily, the long term durability as well as its utilization in a wide range must need to be
investigated. Secondly, the use of the natural fibers with some other pozzolanic materials is
also recommend, and it needs to be examine in the future.

6. Suggestions Implement the Practice in a Real World Projects

• Diss fibers are obtained using a harvester (machine that cuts and collects the fibers).
The preparation of the fibers is done in a shredder. The length of the fiber depends on
the shredding time (adjustable).
• The mixing is carried out in the real world by the use of machines such as backhoe
loaders, by mixing the materials according to the quantities defined by the formulation.
• Another procedure is to use a large motorized mixer specially designed to mix the
materials used with the quantities already calculated.
• Alternative technology proposed for the preparation of composite involves the tech-
nology of large machinery such as the paver, which is used for the preparation of
bituminous concretes where the aggregates can be replaced by soil, and bentonite and
the bitumen tank can be replaced by Diss fibers. The mixing of the materials is carried
out following the mixing of the bituminous concretes.

Author Contributions: This article was written by S.R.B. and M.B. and reviewed and edited by U.Z.
The methodology was proposed by S.R.B. and M.B. and the data analysis was carried out by G.M.,
Z.A. and U.Z. Fieldwork and data acquisition was carried out by S.R.B. and M.B. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The work is funded by Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP-2021/34), King Saud
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors extend their appreciation to Researchers Supporting Project (number
RSP-2021/34), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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