Lecture 6 - Industrial Instrumentation and Actuators - 3

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMETATION AND
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Lecture 6. Industrial
instrumentation and actuators
Assoc. Prof. Dr. BUI Dang Thanh

School of Electronic & Electrical Engineering,
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
1 Dai Co Viet road, Ha Noi, Viet Nam
6/5/2023 Buidangthanh.3i@gmail.com 1
Presentation Outline
• Overview of Industrial actuators

▪ Electrical actuator
▪ Hydraulic actuator
▪ Pneumatic actuator
• Control valves
Industrial Actuators
1
Introduction
❖ The prime mover or actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting

energy and signals going into the system. The motion it produces can be either
rotary or linear.
❖ It provides the source of mechanical power in a control system.
❖ Typical prime movers are motors, hydraulic cylinders, and control valves.
Linear Actuator
❖ An actuator that can provide a

back-and-forth straight-line motion
is called a linear actuator.
❖ Some devices (such as the
solenoid and the linear motor) can
convert electrical energy directly
into linear motion, but more often it
is done in two stages.
❖ The three general types of linear
actuators are electric, hydraulic,
and pneumatic. Each type has its
particular advantages and
disadvantages, and all are in wide
use.
Electric linear actuators

❖ Electric actuators require the least hardware and maintenance.
❖ However, they tend to be relatively slow-moving or to have other restrictions, which makes
them suitable in only a limited number of applications.
Diagram of an electric linear actuator Electric linear actuator main component
2
Leadscrew linear actuators
A leadscrew linear actuator has a threaded shaft

(called the leadscrew or drive screw), which is rotated
by an electric motor. A “nut” on the shaft moves in a
linear motion as the shaft rotates.
To reduce the friction and increase the efficiency,

many units use ball bearings to transfer the force from
the drive screw to the nut.
When the shaft rotates, the balls roll in the grooves.

When the balls get to one end of the nut, they are
recirculated to the other end through small pipes. Ball
bearing screws practically eliminate friction when
Cutaway drawing of a ball bearing screw
compared with the traditional nut on thread design.
Example 1
An electric linear actuator is used to lift 600
lb castings for a vertical distance of 8 in.
Using the data from beside figures, how long
will the lifting operation take?
Using the top graph of beside figure, we

see that for a load of 600 lb the extension
rate is about 0.9 in./s. The time required to
lift a distance of 8 in. is calculated as
follows:
Performance characteristics of a
typical electric linear actuator
Leadscrew linear actuators
The unit resembles and acts like a hydraulic

cylinder, the main visual difference being the
attached electric motor. Many units come with a
built-in electrically activated brake that prevents the
shaft from rotating when the motor is not energized.
This feature ensures that a heavy load cannot back
drive the motor after it is turned off. Also, “over-
travel” limit switches should be included in the
application design, to cut off power to the motor if it
attempts to drive beyond its intended travel.
Electric linear actuators come in all sizes, with rated
loads from under 100 lb to over 1000 lb and strokes
from 4 to 36 in. and beyond. An important parameter
for electric actuators is extension rate, that is, how
fast the unit can extend and contract. A typical
extension rate is around 1 in./s, but this depends on
the size of the motor and the load. Performance characteristics of a
typical electric linear actuator
3
Solenoids
A solenoid is a simple electromagnetic device that
converts electrical energy directly into linear
mechanical motion, but it has a very short stroke
(length of movement), which limits its
applications.
The solenoid consists of a coil of wire with an iron

plunger that is allowed to move through the
center of the coil.
When the coil is energized, the resulting
magnetic field pulls the plunger to the middle of
the coil. The magnetic force is unidirectional—a
spring is required to return the plunger to its
unenergized position.
10
Solenoids
Both AC and DC solenoids are used, the major difference being that AC solenoids use a
plunger and frame made from laminations instead of solid iron. Laminations are thin sheets of
lacquered iron that are riveted together to form the frame and plunger. Laminations prevent
power-consuming eddy currents (induced by the AC) from circulating in the metal parts of the
solenoid.
11
Solenoids
A continuous duty solenoid is

designed to deal with the
heat, so it can operate all the
time.
An intermittent duty solenoid
is designed to operate for a
short time and then take time
to cool.
12
4
Electric Linear Motors
One of the newer types of linear actuators is

the electric linear motor. Basically, a linear
motor is a rotary brushless DC motor (BLDC)
that has been rolled out flat. Linear motors
convert electric power directly into linear
motion.
A linear motor consists of two parts: the base
unit known as the magnet way, which consists
of an iron plate with a row of alternate-pole
permanent magnets, and the moving part
known as the slider, which contains the coils.
The slider is supported on linear ball bearings
so that it can slide along over the magnet way
(there is a small air gap between them). A
flexible cable connects the slider to the drive
unit.
13

Beside figure illustrates the operation of
a simplified three-phase linear motor.
Note that there are three coils spaced
over four magnets. In Figure (a), coil A is
switched on, causing it to become a
north pole (N). The attractive force
between this N pole and the nearest S
pole on the magnet way causes the
slider to move to the right. When the
slider has moved to the position shown
in (b), coil A is switched off and coil B is
switched on, causing renewed attractive
force to the right, and the slider moves
further (to the right). When the slider
gets to position (c), coil B is switched off
and coil C is switched on, causing the
slider to move to position (d). The coils
have now advanced one full cycle. They
are now back to the same orientation as
in (a), and the whole sequence starts
over
14

An actual linear motor would probably be
operated in a bipolar mode, wherein each coil
becomes alternately north and south, and two of
the three coils are on at the same time. This
system produces smoother operation with more
torque but requires a more complicated drive
unit because current reversals are necessary.
Figure beside shows one schematic for a three-
phase bipolar linear motor that permits the
current in each coil to go in both directions
(allowing it to be either a north or a south pole).
The three push–pull amplifiers (Q1 –Q2 ), (Q3 –
Q4 ), (Q5 –Q6 ) could be driven by the three
waveforms shown in Figure 10.9(b). These
waveforms would be created from the Hall-
effect sensor outputs. Notice in Figure 10.9(b)
that the voltage peaks in the sequence A, B,C;
this would correspond to energizing the coils as
a “north” in the sequence A, B, C. Using sine
waves to turn on the coils causes the force to be
passed gently from one coil to the next and
practically eliminates cogging.
15
5
Hydraulic systems
Hydraulic systems are ideally suited to

provide a strong, fast, or slow linear
motion. The system uses a fluid (light-
grade oil) to transfer energy from a
pump to an actuator.
Hydraulic systems consists of the
following components: a tank of
hydraulic fluid, a pump, a control valve,
and a cylinder. the pump pushes the
fluid through a tube to the control
valve. The control valve directs the
fluid to the cylinder, causing the piston
to move down in response to the fluid
pressure. The pump is the actual
source of mechanical power, and it is
physically separate from the cylinder
actuator.
16
Basic Principles of Hydraulics
The fluid on the high-pressure side of the

pump is pressurized to 100 psi. This means
that the tubing, cylinder walls, and piston face
are all receiving 100 lb of force for each
square inch of area. All internal surfaces are
under pressure, but only the piston is
movable, so it moves to the right.
F = PA
Where:
F = total force exerted on the piston
P = hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure pushes out in all directions
A = area of the piston face
17
Example 2
The hydraulic cylinder in the beside

figure is 3 in. in diameter. Find the force
exerted on the piston if the pressure is
100 psi.
18
6
Example 3
A 2-in. diameter hydraulic cylinder is being supplied with a
pressure of 1000 kPa.
Find the force exerted on the piston in pounds.
19
Basic Principles of Hydraulics
Static hydraulic systems can be used to “amplify” a force. The system contains two cylinders of
different diameters that are connected by a tube. When a force is applied to the small piston, a
pressure develops. This same pressure is transmitted through the tube and is applied to the large
piston. Because the large piston has more surface area, it receives a larger net force. Of course, it is
also true that the large piston will move a shorter distance than the small piston because the work
done by the two pistons must be the same.
A hydraulic system that “amplifies” force
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21
7
Hydraulic Pumps
In an active hydraulic system, a pump is used to create the hydrostatic pressure.
There are 3 types of hydraulic pumps
• Gear pump
• Vane pump
• Axial piston pump
Hydraulic Pumps
22
Hydraulic Pumps
Gear pump consists of two meshed gears

in a housing. As the gears rotate, fluid is
trapped in the little spaces between the
teeth and the housing (both top and
bottom) and is conveyed from the inlet to
the outlet. The mesh between the gears in
the center is tight enough so that no fluid
moves through either way at that point.
This type of pump is also known as a
positive-displacement pump because a
constant volume of fluid is pumped for
every revolution of the gears
A hydraulic gear pump
23
Hydraulic Pumps
Vane pump consists of an offset rotor in a housing with retractable vanes. The
spring-loaded vanes push out and seal against the housing wall. Because there is
more fluid between the vanes in the top half of the housing than in the bottom, there
is a net transfer of fluid from the inlet to the outlet. In some designs, the position of
the rotor axis is adjustable. The more offset the rotor axis, the more fluid is pumped.
A hydraulic vane pump
24
8
Hydraulic Pumps
An axial piston pump uses small pistons reciprocating back-and-forth to pump the
fluid. the pump consists of a rotating cylinder and a metal ring called a swash plate
(which does not rotate). The cylinder contains a number of small pistons that do the
actual pumping. One end of each piston rides against the swash plate. Because the
swash plate is at an angle to the cylinder, each piston is forced to move in-and-out
with each rotation of the cylinder. By changing the angle of the swash plate, the
quantity of fluid pumped per revolution is changed
25
Hydraulic actuators
The most common type of hydraulic actuator is the hydraulic cylinder. It consists of
a piston and a cylinder body. The piston has a rod that extends out one end of the
cylinder. Fluid can enter and leave the cylinder on either side of the piston through
ports. Under normal operating conditions, both ends of the cylinder are filled with
fluid. If additional fluid enters port A, the piston will move toward the right, but the
fluid must be able to escape through port B.
A double-acting hydraulic cylinder.
26
Hydraulic actuators
Some hydraulic actuators can create rotary motion and are very similar to the pump
designs discussed previously. For example, the gear motor rotary actuator shown in
under figure is almost identical to the gear pump. For the motor, fluid is pumped in
the left side of the case, putting that area under pressure (indicated by p). Within the
pressurized area, all surfaces receive a force, but only those three surfaces
indicated with arrows will affect rotation (the other surfaces are balanced out or
unmovable). The pressure on the teeth next to the case (top and bottom arrows) will
cause the gears to rotate as shown. The pressure on the meshing teeth in the
center would cause the gears to turn in the opposite direction, but this torque is
overpowered because two teeth (top and bottom) are pushing the other way.
A hydraulic gear motor

27
9
Pressure control valves
A pressure-control valve is a spring-loaded valve that is capable of maintaining a
constant pressure in a system, regardless of the flow rate. If the pump were
connected directly to the cylinder, it would have to start and stop each time the
piston moved to a new position. When a pressure-control valve is put into the
system, the pump can remain on the whole time—when the fluid pressure exceeds
the preset limit, the valve opens, and the surplus fluid is simply returned to the tank.
In other words, when the piston is not moving, the fluid is simply circulating from the
tank, through the pump, through the valve, and back to the tank. If the pressure-
control valve opens at 1000 psi, then the pressure in the lines will never get much
above 1000 psi.
A relief valve circulates

A pressure-control valve (partially
surplus fluid to the tank
open position)
28
Accumulators
An accumulator, which is connected into the system, is a special kind of spring-loaded
storage tank for hydraulic fluid (Figure 10.20). The accumulator serves two functions. First, it
acts as a low-pass filter to remove pressure pulsations from the pump; second, it stores extra
fluid for those high-demand times when the actuator requires fluid at a faster rate than the
pump can supply.
The three types of accumulators are: spring-

loaded (already mentioned), weighted, and
gas-pressurized. The weighted type uses a
weight to provide the pressure on the fluid.
This has the advantage of providing a
constant pressure but the disadvantage of
needing to be mounted in an upright and
relatively stable position. The gas-pressurized
type uses a gas (dry nitrogen) under pressure
to provide the push on the fluid. This is the
most popular type because the pressure it
exerts is easily adjustable and it can be
mounted in any position.
An accumulator in a system.
29
Directional Control Valves

The flow-control valve is used to regulate the flow rate of hydraulic fluid. For this
discussion, the most important type of flow valve is the directional control valve,
which regulates the movement of the piston in the cylinder.
The control valve consists of two major parts: the valve body and the spool.
A directional control valve for a double acting cylinder
30
10
Directional Control Valves
A basic hydraulic system includes the tank, filter, pump, accumulator, pressure-
control valve, directional control valve, and cylinder. The constant-displacement
pump would be running all the time the system is on. During those times when the
cylinder is not moving, the fluid from the pump, after filling the accumulator, returns
to the tank through the pressure-control valve. Of special importance is the filter that
removes small contaminants, which can get into the fluid. These contaminants can
cause abrasive wear on the system components and reduce their lifetime
considerably.
A basic hydraulic system
31
Pneumatic systems
Pneumatic systems use air pressure to create mechanical motion. The basic system
includes an intake filter that traps dirt before it enters the system, an air compressor
that provides a source of compressed air a dryer that removes the moisture in the
air, a pressure tank that is a reservoir of compressed air, a pressure regulator that
maintains air pressure, a valve that controls the air flow, and a pneumatic cylinder
that creates the mechanical motion
32
Pneumatic systems
Pneumatic systems are very similar to hydraulic systems, but there are several
important differences.
The major functional difference is that air is compressible, whereas hydraulic fluid is
not.
Another difference between hydraulic and pneumatic systems is that pneumatic
systems do not have to return the low-pressure air to the compressor
33
11
Compressors, Dryers, and Tank
The air compressor is a machine that
pumps air from the atmosphere into a
tank. There are a number of types of
compressors, but one of the most
common is the reciprocating piston
compressor.
The compressor crankshaft is driven
by an external power source,
typically an electric motor. As the
crankshaft rotates, the piston is
forced up-and-down in the cylinder.
The air is drawn into the cylinder
through a valve during the intake
stroke then during the exhaust
stroke, the air is pushed out through
another valve into the pressure tank.
34
Compressors, Dryers, and Tank

Water vapor in the compressed air must be removed, or it will eventually damage
the pneumatic components. Removing the moisture in the air is done by the dryer,
of which there are several types. One type, an aftercooler, chills the air, causing the
moisture to condense into drops, which can then be drained off.
The receiver tank (pressure tank) receives air from the compressor and becomes
the high-pressure air reservoir for the system. Figure below shows the compressor
and tank system. Power to the compressor motor is controlled by a pressure switch
on the tank. When the tank pressure falls below a set value, the switch closes, and
the compressor motor starts. When the tank pressure increases to a specified value,
the switch opens, turning off the compressor.
A receiver tank (pressure tank) system showing a pressure

switch, which controls the compressor
35
Pressure Regulators
The tank pressure can range anywhere between the high and low limits of the pressure
switch. Some systems cannot tolerate this variation and hence require a pressure regulator to
be installed between the tank and the system components. The pressure regulator can
supply air at a constant pressure regardless of the source pressure as long as the source
pressure stays above the desired regulated pressure. A spring-loaded diaphragm is pushed
on by regulated air pressure. If the regulated air pressure starts to fall, the reduced pressure
on the diaphragm causes it to move downward, thus opening a valve and allowing more high-
pressure air in.
A pneumatic pressure regulator
36
12
Pneumatic Control Valves
Pneumatic control valves regulate the air
flow, which in most cases means on or
off. Many configurations are possible, but
of particular interest is the bidirectional
control valve that causes a piston to
move in either direction. A pneumatic
bidirectional control valve is functionally
similar to the hydraulic control valve
shown in figure in slide 33, but there are
some differences. For instance,
pneumatic control valves use O rings
(rubber seals) to minimize internal leaks.
Pneumatic valves are usually designed to
be full on or completely off and are driven
by either an electric solenoid or a
pneumatic control signal. Finally, these
valves require only one tube coming.
Cutaway view of a pneumatic control valve
37
Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators convert air pressure into mechanical motion. There are two basic types:
linear actuators (cylinder/piston or diaphragm types) and rotary actuators. Piston and rotary
actuators are functionally similar to their hydraulic counterparts. Pneumatic cylinders are
available in a variety of shapes and sizes. There are two basic internal configurations. The
double-acting cylinder connects to the valve with two tubes and can be driven in either
direction. The single-acting cylinder can only be driven in one direction with air pressure and
is returned by a spring.
Two types of pneumatic cylinders
Pneumatic cylinders
38
Example 5
A spring-loaded single-acting cylinder has a diameter of 2 in. and a stroke of 2 in.
The return spring has a spring constant of 3 lb/in. The available air pressure is 30
psi. What force can this cylinder supply to a load at the end of its stroke?
39
13
Pneumatic Actuators
Rotary actuators convert air pressure into rotary mechanical motion. One common
design is the vane motor. The motor consists of a rotor that is offset in a housing.
Protruding from the rotor are spring-loaded vanes that seal against the housing and
slide in-and-out of the rotor as it turns. Motion is achieved because the vanes on the
top have more exposed surface area than those on the bottom and hence receive
more force, causing the rotor to turn clockwise.
A pneumatic vane motor
40
Control valves
41
Introduction
❑ A valve is a device that regulates, controls, or controls the
flow of a liquid (gas, liquid, liquefied solid, or slurry) by
opening, closing, or partially obstructing various
passages. This opening and closing can be done
manually or by pneumatic, electrical or hydraulic
actuators in response to an external control signal and is
called a Control Valve.
❑ Control Valve
▪ Acts as an actuator in the control loop that is
responsible for receiving control signals and directly
controlling the flow.
▪ Maintain parameters such as pressure, flow,
temperature or level at desired values, despite
changes in dynamics and loads.
▪ Designed with characteristics suitable for the type of
fluid it controls, similar to meeting the protocols of the
control device.
❑ The development of Control Valves in response to the
processes they or the systems they control manifests
itself in such elements as the design of the valve body,
actuator, controller and interface fittings.
42
14
Parameters to evaluated the
Performance of Control Valves
43
Deadband
• Dead band is the range through which an input can be
varied without initiating an observable response.
• For example, in a diaphragm, actuated control valve dead
band is the amount with which the diaphragm pressure can
be changed without causing the valve stem to move.
• Studies suggest that dead band is one of the major
contributors to excess variability. The control valve
assemblies can be a primary source of dead band in an
instrumentation loop. It is usually expressed as a
percentage of diaphragm pressure spans. Backlash and
striction behavior is caused by mechanical tolerances and
friction in the control valve-positioner-actuator-linkage
system. Friction and backlash, and dead zones in relays
are some forms and reasons for the dead band. Most
process control applications using advanced systems send
signals which are very small (sometimes less than 1
percent).
• A well-designed valve is expected to respond to these
small changes to keep a tight control on the process. If the
dead band is more, the valve may not respond to these
signals which in turn creates disturbance to the process
and hence to the process variability.
44
Valve Response Time
The modern control systems can

control difficult process with less
variability only if the final control
element such as valve can reach its
desired position quickly and responds
to smallest changes in the control
signals (less than one percent). The
process variability is improved when the
control valve assembly identifies and
quickly responds to the small changes.
This is a function of the volume of air
that is required to produce any desired
pressure on the diaphragm of a valve
actuator. To a lesser extent, speed of
response depends on the friction
between the valve stem, packing the
bushings in the valve (rotary) body and
actuator, and the seal to rotary element.
45
15
Valve Type and Sizing
❖ While selecting a valve, consider the
valve style, valve size, and inherent
Choosing the correct valve size is as equally characteristics that provide the broadest
important as choosing appropriate control valve possible control range for an application.
materials and pressure temperature ratings. The economic results of an operating
❖ Oversized valves limit the efforts of plant are directly impacted by the
reducing process variability. The pipes performance factors. These parameters
may be designed larger than required (like response time, dead time or gain)
considering some future plans and are measured in open-loop and closed-
safety factors and some larger rotary loop conditions. Control valve assemblies
manual ball valves etc. The oversized play a vital role in loop/unit/ plant
control valves operate at lower levels of performance. The parameters (material
positions due to less flow. If the valve of construction, flow capacity, leakage
has dead band, the situation becomes and open-loop lab performance data) are
even worse. The large flow of liquid in
sudden jerks leads to process variability. not treated as not enough to specify and
select valve, unless the dynamic
characteristics are specified. This is the
fact that a single subsystem cannot be
specified in isolation to achieve loop
performance.
46
Control Valves' Capabilities

and Capacities
47
Valve Type and Characterization
Linear trim
Equal percentage trim
48
16
Valve Type and Characterization
❑ Most control valves used in the process industry have one of the three flow characteristics:
linear, quick-opening, or equal percentage.
▪ Linear: the straight line on a rectangular plot of flow versus percentage of rated valve
stem travel. A linear valve gives approximately equal increments of flow per increment
of valve stem travel at a constant pressure drop.
▪ Equal Percentage: the equal increments of rated travel will ideally give equal
percentage changes of the existing flow.
▪ Quick-opening: maximum flow achieved with minimum travel. A quick-opening valve
has an approximately straight-line characteristic near its seat (from 0 to about 60% flow
at 30% travel). Beyond this point, flow increases too rapidly with valve opening for the
quick opening characteristic to be useful in a flow-proportioning application.
❑ Valve characterizations can be changed by reshaping the valve trim. For example,
modifying the plug proles of a single-ported, stem-guided globe valve will give you the
typical linear, quick-opening, and equal-percentage characteristics.
Valve seats for each type of characteristics
49
Control Valve Performance Considerations

Rangeability
Noise and Cavitation
• The ratio of maximum to minimum flow rate in a
control valve can be defined as Rangeability, a ❖Noise and cavitation are undesirable behaviors in a
characteristic of a control valve. valve, and they occur in conditions where there is high
pressure drop and flow rate.
• Higher rangeability is needed if there is an ❖Cavitation is the noisy and potentially damaging
anticipated large change in the flow and also in case
implosion of bubbles formed when the pressure of a
the valve is designed for working in startup, normal
and maximum flow conditions. For a wide liquid shortly dips below its vapor pressure through a
rangeability, partial ball valves, rotary valves are constriction at high velocity. In controlling gases and
preferred compared to the normal sliding stem vapors, noise results from the turbulence associated
varieties. with high-velocity streams.
❖When cavitation or noise found to be a problem, its
Pressure Drop
severity must be predicted from the valve’s
• The maximum pressure drop at shutoff, when fully specifications according to well-known techniques,
or partially open, is an essential selection factor. and valves with better specifications must be sought,
Sliding-stem valves are good in both regards due to if necessary. Cavitation-control and noise-control trims
their rugged and well-supported design of their are widely available in sliding-stem valves at a
moving parts. progressive penalty in terms of cost and flow capacity.
• Most rotary valves are restricted to pressure drops, ❖Rotary valves have more limited noise and
well below the body pressure rating. This is cavitation-control options and are also much more
especially true, under follwing conditions as the susceptible to cavitation and noise at a given pressure
dynamic stresses imposed on the disk or ball drop.
segment by high-velocity flow.
50
End Connections Flow Capacity

❖ When compared to rotary valves, sliding-
• The valve end connections must also be stem valves are highly costly for large
considered during valve selection. The lines but for small flows, rotary valve
question to be answered is whether the
might not be available. If the same valve
desired connection style is available in the
valve style being considered. In some needs to manage a much higher flow in
situations, end connections can quickly limit the future, a sliding-stem valve with
the selection or dramatically affect the price. replaceable, restricted trim would be the
For instance, if a piping speciation calls for best option. Generally, rotaries have a
welded connections only, the choice might be bigger capacity than sliding-stem valves.
limited to sliding-stem valves. ❖ Rotaries are employed in applications
• The few weld-end buttery and ball valves that where the pressure drop is rather
are available are rather expensive. minimal. Rotaries, on the other hand, are
not ideal for high-pressure drop
applications (letdown or pressure
regulation).
51
17
Shutoff Capability
❑ A valve’s shutoff capability, which ordinarily is rated in terms of classes specified in ANSI/
FCI 70-2 [4] or IEC 534–4, must also be considered during valve selection. In real time
service, shutoff leakage depends on various factors that include temperature, the condition
of the sealing surfaces, pressure drop, and stem valves (very importantly for sliding). Stem
valves force load on the seat. Shutoff ratings are generally stated based on standard test
conditions. The actual service conditions will be different from standard conditions.
However, it is difficult to predict the leakage at service conditions and hence the standard
conditions are used for comparison among different types of valves.
❑ Tight shutoff is particularly important in high-pressure valves because leakage can cause
seat damage, leading to ultimate destruction of the trim. Special precautions in seat
materials, seat preparation, and seat load are necessary to ensure success. Valve users
tend to over specify6.10 Instrumentation and Control Systems shutoff requirements,
incurring unnecessary cost. Actually, very few throttling valves really need to perform
double duty as tight block valves. Since tight shutoff valves generally cost more initially and
to maintain serious consideration is warranted.
52

The considerations for valve selection can be summarized as follows:
❖ For both economic and technical reasons, the following valves are recommended. For lower
ranges: sliding-stem valves; for intermediate capacities: ball valves; and for very largest sizes:
high-performance buttery valves.
❖ For the very least demanding services in which price is the dominant consideration, one might
consider economy sliding-stem valves for the small-size applications and buttery valves for the
largest.
❖ For sizes of NPS 0.5–3 or DN 15–80, general-purpose sliding-stem valves provide exceptional
value. For a minimal price premium over rotary products, they offer unparalleled performance and
service life. The premium for these devices over rotary products is warranted. For severe service
applications, the most frequently used and often the only available product is the sliding-stem
valve.
❖ Applications ranging from NPS 4 to NPS 6 or DN 100 to DN 150 are best served by such
transitional valve styles as the eccentric plug valve or the ball valve. These products have excellent
performance and lower cost. They also offer higher capacity levels than globe designs.
❖ In valve sizes such as NPS8 or DN200, the maximum pressure ratings are high while maintaining
the pressure drop to lower levels. This gives rise to the possibility of using high-performance
buttery valves for most situations. These valves are economical, offer tight shutoff and provide
good control capability. They provide cost and capacity benefits well beyond those of globe and
ball valves.
❖ There will be situations where the general commercially available valves do not meet the process
demands. In such circumstances, the special valve design and manufacturing is performed which
are meant to handle high noise, high pressure, cavitation, temperature, etc.
53
Valve Sizing
54
18
Valve Sizing
❖ Rearranging the equation so that all of the

fluid and process-related variables are on the
right-hand side, the expression for the valve
Cv required for the particular application is
based on a given flow rate and pressure drop,
a required Cv value can be calculated. This Cv
can then be compared to Cv values for a
particular valve size and valve design.
Generally, the required Cv must be between
70% and 90% of the selected valve’s Cv
capability. Allowance for minimum and
maximum flow pressure conditions should
also be considered.
55
Valve Sizing
Basic Sizing Procedure
• Once a valve is selected and C v is known, the pressure

drop for a given flow rate or the flow rate for a given
pressure drop is calculated by substituting and solving
for the appropriate quantities in the equation. Refer to
Figure for the flow with reference to the pressure drop.
• This basic liquid equation covers conditions governed

by the test assumptions. Unfortunately, many
applications fall outside the bounds of these standards
and therefore outside of the basic liquid-ow equation.
Instead of developing a special flow equation for all
possible deviations, it is better to account for different
behavior using a simple correction factor.
56
Valve Sizing
Choked flow
❖Sizing equations suggest that as the pressure
drop is increased, flow increases proportionally—
forever. As the pressure drop is increased,
choked flow caused by the formation of vapor
bubbles in the flow stream imposes a limit on
liquid flow. These choked-flow conditions must be
considered in valve sizing.
❖If the pressure drop across the valve is
increased, the flow rate increases. The situation
reaches a point where there is no additional flow
rate increase for any additional increase in
pressure difference. This condition is referred as
chocked flow. This phenomenon occurs on both
liquids and gases.
57
19
Valve Sizing
Viscous Flow: Piping Considerations

• The type of flow such as laminar or ❖Valve installation on a pipeline will be
turbulent plays a role in the selection and different from the standard test conditions
design of the control valve. In the case of even though the recommendations from the
laminar flow, the uid particles move suppliers are followed such as straight lines
horizontally and parallel. In the case of in the upstream and downstream. This is
turbulent flow, the flow of the uid is due to additional elbows, reducers and tee
random, in all the directions, with junctions installed in the pipes and the
different velocities at different directions.
However, the net flow remains the same additional pressure drop in the line due to
which is sum of flow in all the directions. all these components. In order to
The correction factor F_r is a function of compensate the effects of such additional
Reynolds number which describes the components in the pipe, a correction factor
extent of the turbulent flow. Fp is considered.
58
Control Valves, Terminology and Types

Fundamental comprehension is that actuator is controlled by the control system and valve is in
turn driven by Figure. A simple final control element composition would look as described in Figure.
Different terms are described as follows:
▪ Actuator spring: is installed inside the casing and creates a counter-
balance to the direction of the diaphragm pressure.
▪ Actuator/valve stem: connects the actuator and valve and is used
as transmission line for the force generated from the actuator to the
valve.
▪ Bonnet: is the casing in which the valve is packed, and all the
internal parts of the valve are arranged. Bonnet is also the part of
the housing which is used for opening the valve to access the
internal components. It also provides the mechanism for connecting
the actuator to the valve body. Usually the bonnets are bolted,
threaded or welded with pressure seals to the body.
▪ Cage: is a part that is housed inside the valve and surrounds the
trim. The cage along with the trim denes the characteristics of the
valve and flow. In addition, the cage provides a seating surface to
the trim and provides stability, guidance and facilitates assembly of
other parts of the trim. These are the reasons for which the walls of
the cage are sensitive parts and can change the flow
characteristics if damaged.
▪ Diaphragm: A flexible, pressure responsive element that transmits
force to the diaphragm plate and actuator stem is known as a
diaphragm.
59

▪ Diaphragm case: The diaphragm case is meant for enclosing the diaphragm with top and bottom
sections. The casing is designed to create the pressure chambers to act on the diaphragm from both
directions.
▪ Plug/valve plug: A term frequently used to refer to the closure member. Closure member is nothing but
the moving part in a valve which fundamentally decides the rate of fluid flow.
▪ Seat: The seat in the valve is the place where the trim closes the
flow path using a surface and establishes the shutoff to the valve.
▪ Seat ring: A seat ring in the valve provides the surface for plug and
is part of orifice created for flow control.
▪ Spring adjustor: A fitting that is usually threaded on the actuator

stem or into the yoke, to adjust the spring compression. This
compression is what decides the movement of the actuator.
▪ Stem connector: The device that connects the actuator stem to the
valve stem.
▪ Travel/indicator: The travel is the movement of the stem or the

closing member from a fully open to the fully closed position. The
indicator will be provided to know the position of the closing
member such as percent of opening or degree of rotation.
▪ Yoke: Yoke is the structure that rigidly connects the actuator power
unit to the valve.
60
20
▪ Actuator yoke lock: Actuator yoke lock is

the area where the actuator is joined
with the valve stem.
▪ Trim: A trim is the subsystem in the
valve that includes plug, seat ring, cage,
stem and stem pin, etc. The trim is the
component that modulates the liquid for
a controlled flow. Based on the popular
applications valve selection is done as
shown in Table 6.2 to 6.4:
61

Sliding-stem Valves
• The most versatile of the control valves are the sliding-
stem valves. Mostly these are referred as globe valves
the reason being they are often designed in the shape of
globe. Based on the internal structure they are divided
into multiple categories; however, the most popular and
widely used ones are straight-pattern, angle-pattern, and
three-way valves. They can be purchased in sizes
ranging from NPS 0.5 to NPS 20 or from DN 15 to DN
500.
• A straight-pattern valve has the structure as shown in
Figure. The stem moves vertically in a linear motion and
offers a linear flow in accordance to the motion while
maintaining necessary resistance to the flow.
• Sliding-stem valves are available in a broad range of
sizes, materials and end connections. The balanced plug
shown reduces unbalance force and allows the use of
smaller actuators. Valves such as this are the first choice
for applications smaller than NPS 3 or DN 80.
Standard straight-pattern,
• Angle-pattern valve normally has input and output ports
sliding-stem valves at specific angles and the popular one being right angles.
In situations where the valve needs to be installed near a
bend or tee joint, an angle-pattern valves is preferred.
62
Sliding-stem Valves
• Reduced trim, angle-pattern, sliding-stem valve is shown in

Figure, and it shows the capability for trim reduction in a
sliding-stem valve. The valve also features an outlet liner for
resistance to erosion. The unbalanced plug provides tight
shutoff but requires a larger actuator than balanced designs.
Normally, the above valves can be:
▪ Single-port valves with single port and plug
▪ Double-port valves with two ports and single plug
▪ Two-way valves with two flow connections, single inlet
and single outlet
▪ Three-way valve bodies with three flow connections, two
of inlets combine or mix flows), or one inlet and two
outlets (for diverging or diverting flows) can be inlets with
one outlet (for converging flow) also known as
Standard straight-pattern, deformable flow passage whose diagram is given.
sliding-stem valves
63
21
Sliding-stem Valves
•Three-way valves have three end connections to allow for
converging or diverging operations. It is available in two
variations—diaphragm valve and the pinch valve. The
diaphragm valve uses a linear actuator to squeeze the
diaphragm onto a hard seat formed in the valve body. One
major disadvantage of these valves is that the elastomer
deteriorates above 100°C and its strength limits operating
pressure to 500 kPa or less. More choices of materials, end
connections, and control characteristics are available for
sliding-stem valves than for any other product family.
Sliding-stem valves are available in cage-guided, port-
guided, and stem-guided designs with flanged, screwed, or
welding ends.
•The important point to note here is that there is a cage in
which the valve plug always sits and its motion is guided
throughout. The arrangement does not allow the leakage of
the inlet fluid in high pressure to outlet in low pressure.
Outlet pressure acts on both sides of the plug and removes
the static unbalancing force acting on it there by reducing
the thrust required on the valve.
Three-way valves
64

Cage-guided Valve
•Cage-guided valves are similar to plug-in seat valves
differing by having a cage member around a at-
bottomed plug. This cage member has shaped flow
passages and as the plug rises, this passage or
window opens to allow flow to be established and
controlled. They may be balanced or unbalanced in
design. In an unbalanced valve, the ΔP across the
valve acts upon the full unbalanced area of the seat
ring. A balanced valve uses a piston seal ring, which
enables the downstream pressure to act on both sides
of the valve plug, thereby nullifying most of the static
unbalanced force. Interchangeability of trim permits
choice of several flow characteristics or of noise
attenuation or anti cavitation components.
•Port-guided valve plugs are usually selected in
applications with low pressure, on/off type. The ports
guided from both sides makes the operations reliable
and stable in harsh operating conditions. Port-guided
valves do not reside in a cage they are only guided by
the ports, as seen in Figure. There is no structure Port-guided globe valves
resembling a cage and all the way ports are the ones
that directly react the valve plug position thereby
determining the flow characteristics.
65

Cage-guided Valve
• High-pressure globe valves are typically available in
sizes NPS 1–20 and classes 900, 1500, and 2500 .
These valves provide throttling control of high-pressure
stream and other fluids. Refer to Figure for an illustration
on the valve. Economical cast iron as well as carbon
steel, stainless steel and other high-performance body
materials are available. Pressure ratings up to and
above class 2500 or PN 420 are available. Their precise
throttling capabilities, overall performance, and general
sturdiness make sliding-stem valves a good bargain
despite their slight cost premium. Sliding-stem valves
are built ruggedly to handle conditions such as piping
stress, vibration, and temperature changes.
• In sizes NPS 3 or DN 80, incremental costs over rotary
valves are low in comparison to the increments in
benefits received. For many extreme applications, High-pressure globe valves
sliding-stem valves are the only suitable choice. This
includes valves for high pressure and temperature, anti-
noise valves and anti-cavitation valves.
66
22
Ball Valves
• The ball valve is a typical valve where the ball or plug can
be rotated within the body through a quarter of a turn. The
plug has a passage through it. There are three variations of
the ball
• valve. In the first, the plug is a ball with a line sized circular
flow passage, offering minimal flow restriction when fully
open. The second is a ball with a V-shaped passage,
enabling smooth control at low and high flows. The third is
the cock which uses a conical shaped plug.
• While cocks are traditionally popular in the gas industry,
they are seldom used as automatic control valves because
the plug tends to jam in the body. Valves employing a
rotatable plug achieve tight shutoff.
• There are two subcategories of ball valves. The through-
bore or full-ball type valve shown in Figure 6.11 is often
Ball valve used for high-pressure drop, throttling and on/off
applications in sizes to NPS 24 or DN 600. Full-port designs
exhibit high flow capacity and low susceptibility to wear by
erosive streams. However, sluggish flow throttling response
in the first 20% of ball travel makes full-bore ball valves
unsuitable for throttling applications. Newer designs in full-
ball, reduced-bore valves provide better response.
67

Ball Valves
• Pressure ratings up to class 900 or PN 150 are available, as are a variety of end connections and
body materials. Another popular kind of ball valve is the partial-ball style (Figure).
• This subcategory is very much like the reduced-bore group except that the edge of the ball segment
has a contoured notch shape for better throttling control and higher rangeability.
❖ Partial-ball valves intended primarily for modulating
service and not merely for on/off control are generally
higher in overall control performance than full-ball
products. They are engineered to eliminate lost motion
that is detrimental to performance. The use of flexible or
movable metallic and fluoroplastic sealing elements
allows tight shutoff and wide temperature and fluid
applicability. Their straight-through flow design achieves
high capacity. Sizes range through NPS 24 or DN 600.
Pressure ratings go to class 600 or PN 100. Price is
normally lower than that of globe valves. The valve
shown can be used for pressure drops to 2220 psi (152
Partial ball valve bars). Class 600 and 900 or PN 100 and 150 bodies are
available; sizes range to NPS 24 or DN 600.
❖ Applications to class 600 or PN 100 can be handled by
this segmented or partial-ball valve. The flangeless body
incorporates many features to improve throttling
performance and rangeability. Tight shutoff is achieved
by either metal or composition seals.
68

Butterfly Valve
❖ The butterfly valve’s vane is so shaped that it closes off the flow passage when it is positioned
normal to it. The vane can be rotated with a quarter-turn actuator. More like a stovepipe damper
but considerably more sophisticated, this kind of valve has no seals—the disk swings close to
but clear of the body’s inner wall. Such a valve is used for throttling applications that do not
require shutoff tighter than +1% of full flow. Body materials are cast iron, carbon steel, or
stainless steel. Mounting is lugged or welded.
❖ While a very broad range of designs is available in these products, they are limited by lack of
tight shutoff. Lined butterfly valves feature an elastomer or polytetrauoroethylene lining that
contacts the disk to provide tight shutoff. Because this seal depends on interference between
disk and liner, these designs are more limited in pressure drop. A benefit, however, is that
because of the liner, the process fluid never touches the metallic body. Thus, these products can
be used in many corrosive situations.
❖ Heavy shafts and disks characterize high-performance buttery valves, full pressure rated bodies
and sophisticated seals that provide tight shutoff. Eccentric shaft mounting allows the disk to
swing clear of the seal to minimize wear and torque. The offset disks used allow uninterrupted
sealing and a seal ring that can be replaced without removing the disk. High-performance
butterfly valves come in sizes from NPS 2 to NPS 72 or DN 50 to DN 1800 with ageless or
lugged connections. Bodies are carbon-steel or stainless steel and pressure ratings are up to
class 600 or PN 100. With their very tight shutoff and heavy-duty construction, these valves are
suitable for many process applications
69
23
Valve Controllers
and Accessories
70
Valve Positioners and Controllers
• The position of a control valve actuator is accurately positioned in response to a control

signal thereby improving the control. The positioner takes the input signal (4–20 ma or 3–
15 psi) and gives the output power in the form of pneumatic pressure to the actuator. The
feedback mechanism between the valve stem and positioner is formed by the linkage and
proper signal and position can be established as needed by the controller.
• Positioners are required to linearize the stem position with the control signal and thereby
improve the performance of the control valves. Sometimes, the process dynamics
eliminate use of positioners. The use of positioners degrades on very fast loops as the
response of the positioner is unable to keep up with the system.
• Positioners operate with an electronic input signal and pneumatic output or with a
pneumatic input and output signal. A few of the electronic versions of positioners accept an
analog input signal, and while others accept a digital input signal.
71
Digital Positioners
Digital valve positioners are of three types:

❖ Analog signals: An output signal (4–20 mA) from the controller is provided to the positioner.
The loop powered signal is used for the positioner electronics as well as a control signal.
❖ HART communications: With a HART (highway addressable remote transducer) signals
are superimposed on control signals. These signals can provide additional diagnostics
information in the same wires used for control signal and loop power purposes.
❖ Fieldbus: It receives digital signals and positions the valve by using digital electronic
circuitry coupled to mechanical components. In these positioners, the analog
communication is completely removed, and the data/signal is transmitted in both directions
by digital means. These methods of communication provide more diagnostics, better
reliability and reduced cost of installation.
72
24
Digital Positioners
There is a general trend toward greater use of digital valve controllers on control valves for
the following reasons:
▪ Reduced cost of loop commissioning that includes installation and calibration.
▪ Using diagnostics maintain loop performance levels.
▪ By reducing the process variability, process control is improved.
▪ Offsets the decreasing mechanical skill base of instrument technicians.
The following features of digital valve controllers create most value addition to the users:
▪ Automatic configuration and calibration: The ability to configure the system by
automatic means and ability to calibrate the system easily reduces the cost of
engineering and cost of maintenance.
▪ Valve diagnostics: The valve diagnostics is important information for troubleshooting
the issues in the eld. The digital valve positioners can provide the diagnostics
information to the DCS, or to the special software tools or handheld communicators.
This information can be used to assess the health and further action can be taken very
easily
73
Electropneumatic Transducers
Electropneumatic transducers are devices that convert an electronic input

into a proportional pneumatic output signal. Electropneumatic transducers
are used in electronic control loops to help operate pneumatic control
valves. Most transducers convert a standard 4–20 mA signal to a 3–15 psig
(0.2–1.0 bar) pneumatic output. Devices are also available that can respond
to digital signals and nonstandard analog inputs. The transducer function is
sometimes included with the valve positioner. If the transducer is included,
the device is known as an electropneumatic positioner, where the input is an
electronic signal, and the output is position.
74
Volume Booster Trip Valves
❖ The volume booster is normally used in ❖ The trip valves are pressure sensing in
control-valve actuators to increase the nature and are required if a special
stroking speed. These pneumatic devices valve action is required in case of
have a separate supply pressure and problems in the supply pressure. These
deliver a higher-volume output signal to valves sense the supply pressure
move actuators rapidly to their desired getting reduced or no supply pressure
positions. Special booster designs are also and cause the actuator to force the
available for use with positioners. These valve to specific position such as open,
devices incorporate a dead-band feature to close or last position. The valve
adjust their response and eliminate operation is regained back once the
instabilities. This booster, therefore, permits supply pressure is resumed. Pneumatic
high actuator stroking speeds without volume tanks provide the auxiliary
degrading the steady-state accuracy power to actuator action in case of trip
provided by positioners in the loop. valve operation.
75
25
Limit Switches Solenoid Valves
❖ Electrical position switches are often ❖ Small, solenoid-operated electric

incorporated on control valves to provide valves are often used in a variety of
the operation of alarms, signal lights, relays, on-off or switching applications with
or solenoid valves when the control-valve control valves. They provide
position reaches a predetermined point. equipment override, failure-mode
These switches can be either integrated, interlock of two valves, or switching
fully adjustable units with multiple switches from one instrument line to another. A
or stand-alone switches and trip equipment. typical application involves a normally
Keep harsh environmental conditions in open solenoid valve, which allows
consideration while selecting limit switches positioner output to pass directly to the
to assure functionality over time. actuator.
❖ On loss of electric power, the solenoid
valve closes the port to the valve
positioner and bleed pressure from the
diaphragm case to the control valve,
allowing it to achieve its fail position.
76
Position Transmitters Manual Hand Wheels
❖ Electronic position transmitters are ❖ A variety of actuator accessories

available that send either analog or are available which allow for
digital electronic output signals to manual override in the event of
control-room devices. The instrument signal failure or lack of signal
senses the position of the valve and previous to start-up. Nearly all
provides a discrete or proportional actuator styles have available
output signal. Electrical position either gear-style or screw-style
switches are often included in these manual override wheels. In many
transmitters cases, in addition to providing
override capability, these hand
wheels can be used as adjustable
position or travel stops.
77
Calibration Procedures of
Control Valves
78
26
Pressure to Current Transmitter (PIT)
Calibrating Pressure
1. Connect the calibrator to the instrument under test as shown in Figure.
2. Press button appropriate for current (upper display). If required, press appropriate button
again to activate loop power.
3. If necessary, press source mode button.
4. Zero the pressure module.
5. Perform checks at 0% and 100% of span and tabulate the readings “As Found” values.
6. Adjust the transmitter as necessary to minimize the deviation of As Found value and actual
value.
7. Repeat step 6 and tabulate the reading “As Left” values. If error % is within the range. Then
the calibration is performed successfully. If not repeat steps 6 and 7 until error % is within
the specified range
Current to pressure calibration setup
79

Calibration Procedure
❖There are two options as shown in Figure 6.15—current to pressure calibration setup for
monitoring the output of the IPT. The input current can be measured by connecting a
multimeter (current mode) in series with the input terminals as shown by M1. The same
can be done by connecting test pins across the multimeter with less than 10Ω impedance
(+T and –T) as indicated by M2.
1. For zero correction, connect the current source to the input terminals. Set the input
current to be 4 mA.
2. Connect the pressure gauge to measure the input supply pressure. Connect the
filtered clean air supply to the port allocated. Please make sure that the pneumatic
connections are made with no leakages.
3. Measure the pressure in the gauge and it should be 3 psi for the unit connected
with the input of 4 mA.
4. The deviations from the above readings needs to be recorded and adjusted by the
potentiometers or using the digital communication commands based on the type of
the instrument.
5. The deviation in the output pressure (e.g 15 psig for a 3—15 psig unit) is corrected
by the span potentiometer or digital commands from the communicators based on
the Control Valves 6.37 type of instruments. Note that sometimes the adjustments
are not performed if the deviations are not more than certain threshold.
6. Repeat steps 1 through 5 (as applicable) until no further adjustments are required.
80

List of equipment for
calibration
Equipment Characteristics Purposes
Adjustable current 0–50 mA output Simulate input signal
Source DC
Accuracy to +0.05% Measure input signal
milliammeter
Instrument air supply Filtered Air supply
Air supply pressure Measure air supply

Accurate to +2%
gauge pressure
Output pressure Measure output
Accurate to +0.1 %
gauge pressure
Must have 2 mm
Easy access to input
Phone tip probes diameters
signal (optional)
tips, etc.
For IPT with optional Easy monitoring of
Pneumatic test
test output pressure
coupler
Flowchart for the calibration jacks (optional) Flowchart for the calibration
of IP converter Provide standard of PI converter
Load Volume of 7.5 in3
load for testing
81
27
Thank you for your attention!
82
28

Lecture 6 - Industrial Instrumentation and Actuators - 3

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INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMETATION AND

Assoc. Prof. Dr. BUI Dang Thanh

• Overview of Industrial actuators

❖ The prime mover or actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting

❖ An actuator that can provide a

Electric linear actuators

Diagram of an electric linear actuator Electric linear actuator main component

A leadscrew linear actuator has a threaded shaft

To reduce the friction and increase the efficiency,

When the shaft rotates, the balls roll in the grooves.

Using the top graph of beside figure, we

Leadscrew linear actuators

The unit resembles and acts like a hydraulic

The solenoid consists of a coil of wire with an iron

A continuous duty solenoid is

One of the newer types of linear actuators is

Electric Linear Motors

Electric Linear Motors

Hydraulic systems are ideally suited to

Basic Principles of Hydraulics

The fluid on the high-pressure side of the

The hydraulic cylinder in the beside

Basic Principles of Hydraulics

A hydraulic system that “amplifies” force

Gear pump consists of two meshed gears

A hydraulic vane pump

A double-acting hydraulic cylinder.

A hydraulic gear motor

A relief valve circulates

The three types of accumulators are: spring-

Directional Control Valves

A directional control valve for a double acting cylinder

A basic hydraulic system

Compressors, Dryers, and Tank

A receiver tank (pressure tank) system showing a pressure

A pneumatic pressure regulator

Two types of pneumatic cylinders

A pneumatic vane motor

Valve Response Time

The modern control systems can

Control Valves' Capabilities

Valve Type and Characterization

Valve seats for each type of characteristics

Control Valve Performance Considerations

Control Valve Performance Considerations

End Connections Flow Capacity

Control Valve Performance Considerations

❖ Rearranging the equation so that all of the

Basic Sizing Procedure

• Once a valve is selected and C v is known, the pressure

• This basic liquid equation covers conditions governed

Viscous Flow: Piping Considerations

Control Valves, Terminology and Types

Control Valves, Terminology and Types

▪ Spring adjustor: A fitting that is usually threaded on the actuator

▪ Travel/indicator: The travel is the movement of the stem or the

▪ Actuator yoke lock: Actuator yoke lock is

Control Valves, Terminology and Types

Control Valves, Terminology and Types

• Reduced trim, angle-pattern, sliding-stem valve is shown in

Control Valves, Terminology and Types

Control Valves, Terminology and Types

Control Valves, Terminology and Types