Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238

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Journal of Rural Studies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jrurstud

Cultural tourism and rural community resilience: A framework and

its application
Ozgur Gocer a, *, Didem Boyacioglu b, Ebru Ergoz Karahan b, Pranita Shrestha a
a
Sydney School of Architecture, Design and Planning, The University of Sydney, Australia
b
Faculty of Architecture and Design, Ozyegin University, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Rural heritage settlements have encountered many challenges and risks due to the rapid evolution of the cultural
Cultural Tourism tourism economy, such as changing demographics, overcrowding, evolving consumer demands, and biodiversity
Rural Settlements loss. Conservation of environmental and sociocultural assets of these rural settlements and strengthening com­
Rural Heritage Community Resilience
munity resilience have been considered indispensable in global sustainable development. In this regard, a
Conservation
Infrastructure
growing body of research has investigated the implications to wider issues of environmental sustainability
through lessons learned from these rural, vernacular settlements. However, discussions on transformation driven
by tourism and socio-cultural resilience in rural contexts have attracted limited attention. Contributing to this
gap in the literature, based on a longitudinal survey study (spanning from 2000 to 2022) conducted in Beh­
ramkale (rural, vernacular village in Türkiye), this paper investigates rural community resilience strategies
adopted by residents to cope with transformation led by cultural tourism and strict heritage conservation re­
strictions. The study results showed that the new development area (new settlement) of the village served as an
infrastructure of the old settlement, by means of a home for the local residents, and an economic asset for the
village. The establishment of the new settlement, to some extent, prevented the displacement of local residents
and provided the continuation of the traditional rural economy in the village.

1. Introduction ‘resilience’ broadly constitutes three key principles: persistability,

There is an emerging literature on sustainable development within
the context of heritage conservation. Moreover, there is also increasing
recognition highlighting the significance of the sociocultural pillar of
sustainable development as one of the key contributors to building and
maintaining heritage settlements within these conservation areas.
Furthermore, more recently, protecting cultural heritage was fore­
grounded with the endorsement of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
11 ‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sus­
tainable’ (UN Commission, 2023). The implementation of SDG 11 pri­
oritizes strategic importance of conserving identical environmental and
sociocultural assets of the places and strengthening the heritage com­
munity resilience. Within this context of sustainable development in
relation to heritage conservation, the concept of ‘resilience’ is equally
important in deriving local learning from old settlements. Although the
term ‘resilience’ is used across various sectors, it is also widely debated
in the literature (Cutter, 2016; Cretney, 2014). The concept of
adaptability, and transformability (Keck and Sakdapolrak, 2013). More
recently, the concept of ‘social resilience’ has been introduced in liter­
ature as an empirical studies-based entry point to address critical
questions on ‘resilience’: ‘Resilience to what? What is the threat or risk
we examine?’ (Barns, 2019; Keck and Sakdapolrak, 2013; Obrist et al.,
2010) – with a key emphasis on the social aspects of resilience. Although
they are well-adapted to their immediate surroundings and provide
distinctive instances of resilient ecosystems (Dipasquale, et al., 2014;
Dayaratne, 2018), vernacular settlements change as a result of tourism,
and it is still unclear how seriously these changes affect the local com­
munity. Especially it is noted that poorly managed tourism and devel­
opment associated with tourism harm the physical and social integrity
by exploiting vernacular villages along the cultural tourism trail (Sher­
min, 2017). However, there is limited empirically based studies on
community responses to building social resilience as a coping mecha­
nism for long-term structural changes associated with tourism within
heritage settlements (Bec et al., 2016).

* Corresponding author. The University of Sydney, School of Architecture, Design and Planning, Wilkinson Building, 148 City Rd, Darlington, NSW, 2008,
Australia.
E-mail address: ozgur.gocer@sydney.edu.au (O. Gocer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2024.103238
Received 6 March 2023; Received in revised form 30 January 2024; Accepted 5 February 2024
Available online 17 February 2024
0743-0167/Crown Copyright © 2024 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
O. Gocer et al.
In this regard, this paper provides an opportunity to investigate so­
cial sustainability and resilience of Behramkale, a unique, rural heritage
village in Türkiye. This is a critical case study of rural heritage settle­
ment with increased tourism after its declaration in 1982. Hence, the
selection of this case study area is crucial to understanding on ground,
community coping mechanisms to derive local learnings for improving
future planning and building interventions in rural heritage settlements
in Turkey and wider other Mediterranean contexts with similar typol­
ogies of rural, heritage settlements. The paper begins with a brief
theoretical background and then describes the research context. The
data collection process and an overview of the research method are
followed by the study’s results in relation to community resilience
experience in Behramkale rural heritage settlement. The paper con­
cludes with a discussion that involves the new settlement’s role in
fostering community resilience and conservation of the old settlement
and conclusion.
2. The concept of rural community resilience and heritage
conservation
2.1. Sustainable development and resilience
The terms ‘sustainable development’ and ‘resilience’ are both widely
critiqued yet adopted buzzwords in literature. These are powerful yet
highly contested concepts (Brown, 2014). The Brundtland Report
(Brundtland, 1987) defines ‘sustainable development’ as development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising those of
future generations. Similarly, the term ‘resilience’ is defined as “the
capacity of a system to deal with change and continue to develop”
(Stockholm Resilience Centre, 2023). Both terms have been more widely
adopted within the discipline of disaster and environmental manage­
ment. Despite their widespread use and mainstream popularity, these
terms, among others, have been labelled as ‘buzzwords’ – fluffy words
without clear definitions (terms are often viewed as oxymorons)
(Redclift, 2005). Moreover, these terms are often critiqued for their
embedded politics – sustainability for whom and resilience for whom.
Most of the critique for both terms have centred around trade-offs in
terms of social/ecological factors – hence, there has been ‘a social turn’
within both terms – especially in relation to resilience (socializing
resilience (Brown, 2014)) – social and community resilience. These
approaches that connect social and ecological (‘Social Ecological Sys­
tems’ or SES) aspects of resilience can be used as essential tools to un­
derstand threats within communities as well as examine coping
strategies in relation to the role of innovation, adaptability, and trans­
formability (Adger et al., 2005; Folke et al., 2010).
More recently, a new term, ‘sustainable adaptation’ has emerged in
literature with an attempt to combine sustainable development and
resilience (Brown, 2011). Sustainable adaptation is identified as a
possible pathway for ‘climate adaptation and poverty reduction’
(Ulstrud et al., 2008). This notion entails “measures that reduce
vulnerability and promote long-term resilience in a changing climate”
(O’Brien and Leichenko, 2007, p. 31). Moreover, there are also similar
discussions emerging on the significance of social sustainability (Shirazi
and Keivani, 2017) and a focus on ‘resilience of a place’ (Mehmood,
2016). Hence, more recently, there is an emergence of literature on
social and community resilience. Social resilience is defined as “the
ability of communities to withstand shocks to their social infrastructure”
(Adger, 2000, p. 361). The significance of community in relation to
agency and capacity is further explored through the concept of com­
munity resilience (Brown, 2014). Critical literature on resilience and,
more specifically, the emergence of social and community resilience is
still criticized for its inadequacy in addressing key issues of power and
agency (Davidson, 2013). Moreover, social resilience, which focuses on
the importance of politics, power, and socioeconomic, psychological,
and moral parameters, receives little attention compared to the other
aspects since the difficulty of measuring these indicators (Wu and Yuan,
2
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
2023).
2.2. Rural community resilience and heritage conservation
Most literature on sustainable development and resilience focuses on
disaster risk management, however, there is a lack of literature on the
use of social sustainability and resilience in relation to heritage con­
servation and tourism. Within heritage conservation and cultural
tourism, the concept of community resilience can be highly applicable to
understanding the coping strategies of residents living in areas impacted
by conservation and tourism pressures.
The term “sustainable cultural tourism” offers a new perspective
since it prioritizes cultural heritage and local communities in decision-
making processes and ensures strong conservation practices that
benefit the local economy (European Commission, 2019). The United
Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2017) defines “cultural
tourism” as “a type of tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential
motivation is to learn, discover, experience, and consume the tangible
and intangible cultural attractions/products that encompass arts and
architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, litera­
ture, music, creative industries, and the living cultures with their life­
styles, value systems, beliefs, and traditions in a tourism destination.” In
this framework, historic towns and villages became one of the most
important heritage destinations for cultural tourism.
“Archaeotourism” is one of the forms of cultural and heritage-based
tourism in which the archaeological landscape represents a core moti­
vation for the tourism destination (Thomas and Langlitz, 2019). While
most of these archaeological heritage sites have a rural setting, some of
them overlap with rural vernacular settlements (Aslan, 2016). As
archaeology and tourism draw closer together, local communities
become involved in the process and confront both the positive and
negative impacts of tourism (Mustafa and Tayeh, 2011; AlMasri and
Ababneh, 2021). Communities may discover new pathways to cope with
those impacts, or they may persist on existing pathways, which is called
“pathway dependency”. Pathway dependency is related to structural,
economic, political, and socio-psychological lock-ins that can be
explained as resultant difficulties for communities to choose alternative
pathways (Wilson, 2014).
Although cultural tourism contributes to local resilience in different
ways, such as the provision of new job opportunities that help to reduce
the risk of out-migration and depopulation, it is necessary to possess
adaptive capacity in social aspects, economic characteristics, and envi­
ronmental features to develop more sustainable and resilient commu­
nities (Steiner and Atterton, 2015). As Wilson (2014) highlighted, the
strongest resilience is achieved when all three capitals (social, economic,
and environmental) are equally well developed. Communities that do
not rely on only one capital asset are well adapted to cope with distur­
bances, while others generally have weak resilience or high vulnera­
bility (Wilson, 2014).
Most literature on community resilience focuses on geographically
within urban settings, and there is limited empirically based research on
enhancing aspects of rural community resilience, especially in historic
towns and villages – vernacular settlements. Rural resilience is described
by researchers as the capacity of rural areas and locals to adapt to
changing external circumstances (mostly in relation to natural disasters)
by resisting, adapting, reworking, transforming, etc., in such a way that
rural stable characteristics are kept and satisfactory living standards for
locals are maintained (Wu and Yuan, 2023; Anthopoulou et al., 2017). In
their studies, Wu and Yuan (2023) and Anthopoulou et al. (2017)
identifies the rural resilience as adaptation to changing circumstances
by keeping the rural stable characteristics, but meanwhile maintaining
satisfactory living standards for locals. Within the field of heritage
conservation and tourism, limited to the scope of this study, we define
rural community resilience as ‘the ability of the community to adapt to
cultural tourism-driven circumstances while protecting its unique heri­
tage identity’.
O. Gocer et al.
The diversification and growth of a rural economy with the provision
of new job opportunities, tourism businesses, and entrepreneurship are
essential strategies to reduce rural vulnerability (Shen and Chou, 2022).
Processes such as community-level economic opportunities, personal
and household livelihood benefits, and increased household income also
enhance community resilience (Wilson et al., 2018). The improved
diversification of a rural economy that is still dominated by agricultural
activities with non-agricultural income through tourism development
will have enhanced benefits for living conditions and the social envi­
ronment (Zhang et al., 2022). On the other hand, due to the rapid
evolution of tourism, heritage sites have encountered many challenges
and risks, such as changing demographics, overcrowding, evolving
consumer demands, and biodiversity loss (European Commission,
2019). Reports, charters, and guidelines of international institutions
(ICOMOS, 1999; Europa Nostra, 2006; EAHTR, 2009; UNESCO, 2017a;
UNWTO, 2017; European Commission, 2019; ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022)
have been prepared to improve responsible and diversified cultural
tourism development and management, contributing to cultural heri­
tage preservation; community empowerment, social resilience, and
wellbeing; and a healthy global environment, the issues that correlate
with the main aspects of sustainability. This paper, therefore, aims to fill
in this gap in the literature and attempts to understand the significance
of rural community resilience within the context of heritage
conservation.
3. Research methods
3.1. Selection of case study area
The case study of Behramkale, a rural village in Türkiye, was selected
as due to its heritage significance and its intersection with tourism. This
rural village is located on the Aegean coast in the Ayvacık district of
Çanakkale province, Türkiye (Fig. 1). The ancient city of Assos partially
overlaps with the historical village of Behramkale which was situated
inside the ancient city walls. The archaeological site of this ancient city
was incorporated into the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List in
2017 (UNESCO, 2017b).
Fig. 1. Location of Behramkale in Çanakkale, Türkiye Source: Authors (base map (Google Earth) and image (authors).
3
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
Founded on the north slope of an extinct volcanic hill, the settlement
has unique characteristics harmonized with the topography. Dwellings,
constructed with local basalt stone walls have small openings and
wooden shutters, can be seen behind the high courtyard walls. Narrow,
serpentine stone-paved streets reach up the hill to the Hüdavendigar
Mosque and ruins of ancient city walls that give clues about the history
of this settlement. Houses in prismatic forms originally had flat earthen
roofs, but most of them are renovated as pitched roofs with tiles (Kar­
ahan et al., 2021). Behramkale has become an important destination for
cultural tourism since its vernacular characteristics of dwellings and its
archaeological site, which was declared as a 1st-degree Archaeological
Site by the Superior Council of Immovable Antiquities and Monuments
in 1982. Through the same act, the geographical boundary of the 1st-de­
gree Natural Site was determined, and the historical village of Beh­
ramkale was put under protection. Later in 2000, the status of the site
changed to Urban Archaeological Site (KAIP, 2021).
The vernacular settlements proclaimed as heritage sites are subject to
the Law on Conservation of Cultural and Natural Assets (Law No. 2863)
in Türkiye. Until the conservation plan is finalized, which is supposed to
be done in three years, all kinds of planning implementations of any
scale in these areas are halted. During the transition period, the Regional
Conservation Council determines the principles and terms of use to
apply. However, it usually takes decades to complete the Conservation
plans in Türkiye. Thus, it took 39 years to declare "The Plan for the
Conservation and Development of Assos/Behramkale”. This delay dis­
rupted the traditional practice of how the local residents solved their
needs for new spaces, extensions, and simple renovations for mainte­
nance purposes. Since the intensified pressure on spatial change was
prohibited by protection laws, the formation of a new development area
outside the ancient city walls was seen as a potential solution in 1993
(Boyacıoğlu et al., 2023). The plain land near Tuzla River, on the
northwest side of the old settlement, was determined as the new
development area with the approval of the Provincial Directorate of
Rural Services in the same year.
The population of Behramkale has grown significantly between 1980
and 2021 while that of its bordering villages (Korubasi and Pasakoy) has
declined since the historical site was declared in 1982. Although the
O. Gocer et al.
Table 1
Household surveys based on questionnaire (conducted in 2000 and 2017) and
semi-structured interviews (2022) (Source: Authors).
Time Format of data Key themes Key question
period collection categories
June 2000 Household surveys Socio-economic Age, gender,
and July based on characteristics education level
2017 questionnaires Demographics Occupation types.
(Face-to-face) Occupation Local residents,
Place of origin newcomers
Dwelling structure Landlord (local or
and tenure-based non-local), tenant
characteristics: House, second house,
Tenure structure ruin, touristic/
Function of building commercial units,
Tourism impact rent
Tourism
development in the
village and its impact
on their social life
December Semi structured Household views on How have the
2022 interviews (via key events leading to households coped/
telephone) changes within the adapted to the
settlement: transformation of the
- - Declaration of settlement as a result
“The Plan for the of heritage
Conservation and conservation and
Development of tourism related
Assos/Behramkale” policies?
- COVID-19 * Continuity of
pandemic traditional
knowledge
* Informal learning
methods
* women’s
participation in social
and economic life
* Relationship
between the
newcomers and the
local people
* Positive/negative
thoughts of the locals
and the newcomers
about Behramkale
and the new
settlement
* Lack of
infrastructure
* Social and
economic, positive
and negative impacts
of tourism on the
settlement/people
* Thoughts about the
conservation process,
problems, demands
and wishes
* Thoughts about the
government’s
collaboration and
guidance
* Have the villagers/
village adapted
themselves to the
crucial economic
impacts of the
pandemic?
population rate in rural areas of Turkey declined as a result of rural to
urban migration, Behramkale’s population was increased with the
recognition of the settlement as a cultural tourism destination. The
current population of Behramkale is 652 (TUIK, 2024); when those who
continuously reside there but are not registered officially in the popu­
lation are included, the population will be around 800.
4
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
3.2. Data collection
The empirical evidence is based on a longitudinal study that includes
repeated data collection procedures in three different periods: July
2000, June 2017, and December 2022 (Table 1). Data for each of these
periods were collected through primary and secondary research
methods including semi-structured interviews (N = 10), household
survey (67 and 117 household surveys were conducted, respectively, in
July 2000 and June 2017) (based on questionnaire), direct observation,
comprehensive site analysis, census data, archival records, etc.
Household surveys through questionnaires aimed to collect infor­
mation on household characteristics, attitudes, and opinions about the
tourism development in the village and its impact on their social lives.
One person aged 18 and over from each household participated in the
survey. The prompting reasons were that, since June 2017, two impor­
tant events have had crucial impacts on residents’ social lives and the
economy. One is the declaration of “The Plan for the Conservation and
Development of Assos/Behramkale” and the other is the impact of
COVID-19 pandemic, which caused severe disruptions to demand for
travelling and hit the tourism economy of the country.
Interviews were conducted in December 2022 via telephone. In this
phase of the study, we employed a different methodology from the
initial surveys in 2017, opting for telephone interviews due to practical
considerations, including COVID-19 travel restrictions. A total of 18
individuals who had participated in the 2017 survey were randomly
selected for tracking, and we successfully interviewed 11 of them (9
males and 2 females, comprising 6 local residents and 5 newcomers).
Despite this shift, respondent engagement remained high, and insights
were equally profound. The use of open-ended questions in telephone
interviews effectively captured the impacts of significant events on so­
cial lives and the local economy. The interviewees’ ages (2022) ranged
from 24 to 73 (8 of them were between 45 and 65). Among the locals
who participated, there was an ice cream manufacturer, a former
mukhtar (headman of the village), a hotel keeper, an olive cultivator,
and real estate; among the newcomers were a retired teacher, two
shopkeepers, a hotel keeper, and an interior architect. Interviews took
between 15 and 30 min which were recorded and later transcribed.
Interviews were done in the native language (Turkish) of the re­
spondents, and texts were translated into English by the research team.
3.3. Analysis framework
The empirical data (spanning from 2000 to 2022) is analysed based
on Ross et al. (2010) and Maclean et al. (2014)’s framework of
social/community resilience, which uses six key attributes; knowledge,
skills, and learning; community networks; people-place connections;
community infrastructure; diverse and innovative economy; engaged
governance to comprehensively evaluate and derive learnings (Table 2).
Maclean et al. (2014)’s framework has a holistic approach with the
proposed attributes that elucidate the entailed interactions between
individuals, the community, infrastructure, the environment, and the
economy in the resilience process. Furthermore, Fabbricatti et al. (2020)
integrated 23 heritage community resilience indicators, which are
inspired by values of social inclusion, human rights, and community
well-being elaborated in the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention
on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society (Faro Convention, 2005)
into this framework. The method has been applied to deprived and
disconnected heritage areas in southern Italy. In our study, Fabbricatti
et al.’s (2020) heritage community resilience indicators have been
modified to include key terms such as “cultural tourism” and “rural
heritage” by referring to the sources ICOMOS International Charter for
Cultural Heritage Tourism (ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022) and ICOMOS-IFLA
Principles Concerning Rural Landscapes as Heritage (ICOMOS-IFLA,
2017) (Table 2). In brief, 19 indicators introduced as “Cultural tourism
& rural heritage community resilience indicators” have been applied in
Behramkale to investigate the “community resilience” process. In the
O. Gocer et al.
Table 2
The indicators of cultural tourism & rural heritage community resilience
(Source: Authors).
Community Heritage Community
Resilience Attributes Resilience Indicators
(proposed by (proposed by Fabbricatti
Maclean et al., 2014) et al., 2020)
knowledge, skills, - skills innovation and/or
and learning consolidation
- development of
educational actions and
culture dissemination
community -creation or strengthening
networks of networks between
different actors
-strengthening or increase
of cultural associations
people-place -strengthening the sense
connections of belonging
-development of a
broader vision of cultural
heritage
-commitment in a process
of narrating one’s place of
life
-development for the care
of cultural heritage and
management of common
goods
-re-use of discussed or
underutilized sites
-development of the
measures to promote
cultural heritage
-legitimation of traditions
by outsiders
Table 2 (continued )
Cultural Tourism & Rural
Heritage Community
Resilience Indicators
(proposed by authors, based
on ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022
and ICOMOS -IFLA, 2017
principles)
acquired skills in small-scale
tourism business and
management (ICOMOS
ICCHT, 2022; principle 6)
- awareness for
consolidating and
transmitting skills on
traditional occupations
and handcrafts (ICOMOS
-IFLA, 2017; action
criteria, A-6, D-2)
- development of
educational actions such as
workshops and seminars
on cultural tourism and
heritage value
conservation (ICOMOS
ICCHT, 2022; principle 5,
ICOMOS -IFLA, 2017;
action criteria, D-1)
- promotion of gender equity
in social life and the
economy (ICOMOS ICCHT,
2022; principle 4)
-presence of local initiatives
and/or a local association
that organizes the
community network
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022;
principle 5)
-revitalization of the existing
networks and creation of
opportunities for new
networks through special
activities such as meetings,
and festivals, consistent with
the identity of the place and
community, (ICOMOS
ICCHT, 2022; principle 5)
-cooperation among public
institutions, non-
governmental organizations,
and universities for research,
information sharing, tech­
nical assistance, and coordi­
nation of a variety of
knowledge (ICOMOS -IFLA,
2017; action criteria, A-7)
- robust sense of belonging
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022;
principle 5)
- development of a broader
vision of cultural heritage
besides its economic
contribution (ICOMOS
ICCHT, 2022; principle 5)
- development of the care for
the cultural heritage,
natural and built (also to be
built) environment
(ICOMOS -IFLA, 2017;
action criteria, B)
5
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
Community Heritage Community Cultural Tourism & Rural
Resilience Attributes Resilience Indicators Heritage Community
(proposed by (proposed by Fabbricatti Resilience Indicators
Maclean et al., 2014) et al., 2020) (proposed by authors, based
on ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022
and ICOMOS -IFLA, 2017
principles)
community - increase in number - increase in number and/or
infrastructure and/or type of health, type of health, social,
social, cultural, and cultural, green
tourist services, green infrastructure, and public
infrastructure, and transport for a good
public transport standard and quality of
living that are compatible
with the heritage values
(ICOMOS-IFLA, 2017;
action criteria, C-2, C-5)
COMOS - increase in facilities
and services for the children
and the young (ICOMOS
-IFLA, 2017; action criteria,
C-2)
- management of tourist
services considering the
local conditions and
cultural heritage
protection priorities of the
host community (ICOMOS
ICCHT, 2022; principle 1,
2)
diverse and - provision of new job - conservation of traditional
innovative opportunities jobs (ICOMOS ICCHT,
economy - creation of innovative 2022; principle 1).
jobs - creation of new jobs
- development of interest related to the tourism
in heritage-led actions industry and its sub-sectors
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022;
principle 6)
- encouragement of
entrepreneurship,
creativity, and innovation
based on the use of local
resources and abilities
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022;
principle 5)
- endorsement of heritage-
led activities which are
compatible with everyday
life and social activity
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022;
principle 5)
engaged - development of a - development of
governance collaborative approach collaborative cultural
to event management tourism management and
- participation of all participatory governance,
related actors in public placing cultural heritage
life protection and
- aspiration of a conservation at the centre
democratic socio- (ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022;
economic model based principles 1 and 5)
on respect for human - participation of all relevant
dignity and diversity actors in regular meetings
during the process of
planning decisions for an
informed and engaged
community (ICOMOS
ICCHT,2022; principle 4,
ICOMOS -IFLA,2017;
action criteria, B-7)
- enabling all voices to be
heard (ICOMOS ICCHT,
2022; principle 4)
O. Gocer et al.
scope of this study, “community resilience” has been referred to as the
ability of the community to absorb cultural tourism-driven changes
without fundamentally altering its unique heritage identity. The study’s
strengths include the fact that, to our knowledge, this is the first attempt
to apply an integrated methodology to a rural heritage settlement to
investigate the adaptation of local residents to the changes brought by
tourism.
4. Results: Heritage community resilience experience in
Behramkale vernacular rural settlement
The following results section is divided into six main subsections
according to the analysis framework for community resilience as
described in the methods section above.
4.1. Knowledge, skills, and learning
Maclean et al. (2014) defined this attribute as the capacity of in­
dividuals and groups to respond to local needs and issues. To maintain
social resilience, individuals and communities should have the ability to
adapt to changing circumstances and alter their behaviours appropri­
ately, along with a desire to push the boundaries of knowledge (Fazey
et al., 2007; ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022). Developing an adaptive capacity
through learning flexibly in a variety of ways, contexts, and circum­
stances can help to modulate the transformation of the system to a new
trajectory and manage its impacts and outcomes on the community (Bec
et al., 2016). From the perspective of sustainable development, formal
or informal learning is a vital element for poverty reduction, economic
growth, gender equality (ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022), women’s empower­
ment, and conserving the environment (SDG 4-UN, 2023; Didham and
Paul, 2015). Events such as workshops and seminars on cultural tourism
and heritage value conservation can help to recognize (ICOMOS-IFLA,
2017) and transfer traditional knowledge to newcomers and tourists
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022; ICOMOS-IFLA, 2017).
In parallel to the heritage-led tourism activities seen during the last
decades in Behramkale, the formal education level of local residents has
increased. According to the survey conducted in 2000, the total per­
centage of people without any basic education was 22.4% (13.4% illit­
erate, 9% literate but without a primary school diploma). However, over
the course of 17 years, this percentage reduced to 10.7% (The per­
centage of people without a school diploma in Turkey is 10.5%; TUIK,
2024). This can be regarded as a success despite the regulation of
“Bussing Education” (Repuclic of Türkiye Ministry of National Educa­
tion, 2024), which involved closing less populated primary schools in
villages and sending children to nearby villages or districts for education
(Aksoy, 2008). Residents in Behramkale who were unwilling to send
their children to school via buses relocated to a nearby county (Ayvacık)
or city (Çanakkale). When the interviewees were asked to indicate the
reasons for their visits to Ayvacık or Çanakkale in 2017, 6.0% of the
respondents mentioned commuting to Ayvacık or Çanakkale 5 or 4 times
a week for their kids’ school. However, any visits to those places for
educational purposes were not recorded in 2000 (as the primary school
was closed at the time of the survey).
Unfortunately, very limited informal learning opportunities, such as
workshops, festivals, seminars, etc., aimed at raising awareness and
appreciation of culture and heritage, have been observed (further details
are provided under Section 4.2). On the other hand, local residents
experienced informal learning and expressed the reflection of intercul­
tural tolerance and dialogue with tourists and newcomers through the
following statements:
“our local accent is improved” (interviewee 1)
“our awareness and self-confidence rose with the increase in popularity of
our village, and we made friends with educated people” (i.e., lawyer)
(interviewee 1)
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Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
Women’s participation and entrepreneurial activities in the tourism
business have begun with the development of rural tourism in the
village. In 2000, 32.8% of women residents were in the street market,
selling products such as woven carpets and rugs, laces, homemade jam,
tomato paste, native herbs, etc. In addition to a slight increase (37.2%)
in the percentage of women in the street market by 2017, it was stated
that women residents were more occupied in the accommodation
business and touristic enterprises such as a home pension, and restau­
rant management. The rise in income of rural women has enabled them
to participate in social life and empowered them. An interviewee shared
an expression about the change to women’s participation in social life:
“when we first settled in the village in 1988, women didn’t go out,
now they have their own stand to sell their products, they become
financially independent, feel stronger and trust themselves in making
money and more socialized” (interviewee 10)
The continuity and transfer of knowledge and skills on traditional
construction techniques to the new buildings were also limited. There
are possible reasons for that, such as the cost of masonry and timber
materials, the lack of masonry craftsmen, and the unsuitability of old
construction techniques for the new constructions (Karahan et al.,
2023). Compared to the past, local residents were more educated and
aware of the importance of the historic value of the area. However, they
were struggling with the challenge of the long and expensive bureau­
cratic process of renovation procedures and regulations of conservation
laws (more details in Section 4.6).
4.2. Community networks
This attribute strongly relies on the concept of social capital and
refers to the social processes and activities that enable people and groups
to come together in a particular place (Maclean et al., 2014). The exis­
tence of collective activities and projects in which community members
participate strengthens the links between themselves (Fabbricatti et al.,
2020). Generating or maintaining formal and informal networks, such as
local initiatives and associations, is vital for organizing the community
network (ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022). In times of change, these networks
provide essential support, operationalize community capacity, and
identify opportunities that are very important for the community’s
resilience (Maclean et al., 2014). Mair and Duffy (2019) claimed that a
‘successful’ festival in terms of social connectedness is one that brings
about a feeling of togetherness, a collective joy that transforms in­
dividuals into a community. Yet, festivals also offer opportunities for
developing new networks or revitalizing existing ones via social capital
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022). Qu and Zollet (2023) argue that socially
engaged art can represent an effective catalyst for community resilience
and revitalization by promoting festival tourism and ensure the
involvement of small and micro-entrepreneurs.
According to the survey results conducted in 2017, 35% of partici­
pants came to the village after the declaration of the area as a conser­
vation site in 1982, and 26.3% of these new residents came in the last 17
years (Göçer et al., 2021). These numbers show that the number of
people who bought houses from the local residents increased gradually.
While the early newcomers mingled with the community over the years,
those who used their houses as second homes did not socialize with the
village community. It was observed that most of the second homeowners
and the local residents had parallel lives that did not intersect much in
the village. One of the local residents stated:
“those who come from Istanbul do not go to the village coffee house
and drink tea. They stay at home or host their friends from Istanbul in
their houses. They do not say hello to the villagers. They come and
stay in the village for 2 months and complain about the garbage, the
donkey, sheep, lamb, and everything” (interviewee 8)
Whereas, in Türkiye, a village coffee house is a public place where
the community network becomes the most visible. It is a very important
O. Gocer et al.
Fig. 2. Village coffee house (Source: Authors).
socializing place, especially for the local men; they meet their friends
and hear the news. To facilitate important announcements or discus­
sions, Mukhtar utilizes the village coffee house as a communal meeting
hall. In Behramkale, as well, the village coffee house constituted a
cohesive social system, bringing local residents, newcomers, and tourists
together and initiating informal learning from each other; it was a
gathering place for the local men, a chatting corner for the newcomers,
and a resting place for tourists before and after visiting the ancient ruins
located on the high hill (Fig. 2).
It was observed that the relationships between newcomers and locals
increased when there was a shared interest. The newcomers, who had
ties to the village and cared about its preservation, assisted the locals in
acting legally and following the proper processes. For instance, once
"The Plan for the Conservation and Development of Assos/Behramkale"
was finished in 2021, there was widespread opposition to the plan. One
of the local residents stated that they were informed by the inhabitants
who followed the procedure.
“we didn’t know that the conservation plan was completed, they
warned us that there were some serious problems with the plan, and
we caught up on the last day of the legal objection period” (inter­
viewee 9)
Individual efforts proved that local residents came together against a
threat in Behramkale. In 2017, the newspapers reported the protest in
Fig. 3. Protests in Behramkale in October 2021 (Kazdağı association for the
Preservation of Natural and Cultural Resources, 2021).
7
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
Behramkale with a slogan: “Do not touch my Assos!”. People protested a
hotel construction that did not fit with the historical pattern of Beh­
ramkale although the project was approved by the conservation council.
Most of the protestors were not local residents but newcomers who knew
their rights and ways to make their voices heard. Eventually, they
managed to cancel the construction (DHA, 2017).
After that, with the involvement of the local residents, an initiative
called “Fellows of Assos” was founded. It is an association that ensures
the community network, unity, and solidarity. In the last five years,
Fellows of Assos, together with the Mount Ida Natural and Cultural
Assets Preservation Association, have organized several press confer­
ences and put effort into resisting the conversion of the agricultural
areas in the skirts of Mount Ida to eco-tourism sites. Also, they protested
the “Assos Rock Reclamation” project on the upper side of Assos Ancient
City and Ancient Harbor in October 2021 (Fig. 3).
Between 1995 and 1999, under the leadership of Hüseyin Katır­
cıoğlu, who was a famous theatre and performance artist, a three-week
festival was held once a year with the collaboration of the local residents
in Behramkale named “Assos International Performing Arts Festival”.
Artists from various backgrounds stayed in the village for three weeks,
produced site-specific works, and at the end of the three weeks pro­
duction process, presented their works/performances/plays to the
festival audience, including the residents of Behramkale (Akıncı, 2008).
In an interview in 1997, Katırcıoğlu stated that “There is no point in
complaining about the environment, if you want a different environment, you
will set it up yourself” (Alpay and Kuyaş, 1997). Unfortunately, after the
death of Hüseyin Kahvecioğlu in 1999, the festival was cancelled. Since
2000, national and international activities centred on philosophy, art,
and science have been carried out in Behramkale based on the reputa­
tion of the ancient city of Assos in philosophy because of the school of
Aristoteles. Also, an annual jazz festival representing local music has
been held since 2021 in Kadırga Bay. However, it has neither been an
interactive festival that enriched the involvement of the local residents
nor focused on Behramkale/Assos.
Apart from the local networks, according to ICOMOS-IFLA (2017)
action criteria, information sharing and cooperation among public in­
stitutions, non-governmental organizations, and universities are also
crucial for the resilience of rural communities. Many studies have been
conducted on the villages of Çanakkale (i.e., Kocabıçak and Pilehvarian,
2017; Uysal and Sakarya, 2018; Alyakut and Gençer, 2018); however
there is a lack of network for the coordination of a variety of knowledge.
4.3. People-place connections
This attribute identifies the interdependence and connections be­
tween humans and the environment. In order to become more resilient,
community members must have a close connection to their biophysical
environment. Heritage community resilience combines adaptive ca­
pacity with a strong identity and sense of belonging (Fabbricatti et al.,
2020). People develop bonds with specific places and build their
self-identities, around these places (Moore, 2000). They create connec­
tions with places depending on their memories, experiences, and dura­
tion/length of residence (Fallov et al., 2013). The connection to place
drives much of the passion and commitment to protect and preserve
cultural and natural landscapes and influences sustainable behaviour
(Zhang, et al., 2020; Daryanto and Song, 2021). This strong bond mo­
tivates people to continue to develop and improve their adaptive ca­
pacity to deal with change.
According to the 2017 survey, in Behramkale, 81% of the re­
spondents stated that “they felt like a Behramkale and/or Assos resi­
dent”, 93% were satisfied to be living in Behramkale, and 58% of the
respondents stated that they would not leave the settlement in any case,
while the rest would in case of need for health care, a job, or education.
The local people who had businesses such as hotels, hostels, and olive
cultivation and who continued to live in the old settlement had strong
bonds with their houses and the village; they adapted their homes,
O. Gocer et al.
businesses, and lives, as it was stated by one of those local residents:
“it is our father’s house, mother’s house. Of course, I would never sell
my house in the old settlement. After me, my children will live here
…” “I renovated the old house and even had insulation, so it is very
convenient to live in …” “we don’t move anywhere, my children go
to the school in Ayvacık by bus” … “… my children decided to stay in
the village and continue my business here” (interviewee 3)
However, individual attachment levels may differ over time. Lewicka
(2010) indicated that people with high incomes are more mobile and
have less attachment. As the local residents in Behramkale earned extra
revenue by selling their properties, they purchased a house in another
city. Those owners were using their houses (in the new settlement) as
second homes.
“a few residents are left in the village during the winter months … I
came to Çanakkale to live with my youngest daughter during winter
… I take care of my grandchild; my daughter takes care of me … We
have an ice cream business, I go back in the spring, my older
daughter deals with olive cultivation, she is in the village but has a
home in Ayvacık” (interviewee 1)
According to Smaldone (2006), the length of connection with a place
is an important factor in forming place attachment, and people grow a
stronger attachment to a place, which is very important for the resilience
of the community, when they have more time to interact and do activ­
ities within that place. The short duration of the residence led to weak
self-belonging and unawareness of the area’s problems. They develop
neither a broader vision of cultural heritage besides its economic
contribution nor care for the cultural heritage, natural and built (also to
be built) environment (ICOMOS-IFLA, 2017; ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022).
The interviews in 2022 revealed that in Behramkale, newcomers who
had a long duration of residence were more aware of the problems and
more eager to help the settlement’s development. Conversely, the rise in
real estate prices post-pandemic has prompted a recent trend among
short-term residents, particularly newcomers to the village, to sell their
houses. One of the local residents complained about that, as cited below:
“actually, we don’t want our houses to be sold to the urbanities
coming from Istanbul or other big cities … now the ones who came
from outside (newcomers) sell their houses to the outsiders, to richer
people” (interviewee 4)
Regrettably, these sales could herald a new challenge for Behram­
kale, potentially leading to further changes in the demographic profile of
the settlement in the future. future.
4.4. Community infrastructure
The term community infrastructure primarily refers to small-scale
basic structures, technical facilities, and systems built at the commu­
nity level that are critical for the nourishment of the livelihoods of the
community. Community infrastructure is required to support needs and
actions, comprising various services and facilities such as medical,
dental, and human services; community centres, education, and youth
recreation facilities; green infrastructure; appropriate transport options;
energy lifelines; and local arts, music, and food markets (Maclean et al.,
2014; Fabbricatti et al., 2020; Bagnall et al., 2019). Residents should
have access to services that guarantee their basic needs. Infrastructure
and services are crucial for resilience (Maclean, et al., 2014). They are
socially, economically, and operationally linked with community lives
and livelihood options, provide basic services to their population, and
are thus regarded as critical lifelines for the community’s survival
(Bagnall, et al., 2019). Increasing the number and/or type of amenities
for a good standard and quality of living, finding appropriate ways and
solutions compatible with heritage values, and increasing facilities and
services for children and the young (ICOMOS-IFLA, 2017) are vital for
community infrastructure. “Community infrastructure” is an important
8
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
attribute that affects other attributes through community hubs, squares,
and courtyards. Bagnall et al. (2019) found that appropriate neigh­
bourhood design may positively affect the sense of belonging; may in­
crease the networks and the community’s skills and knowledge.
Community infrastructure helps to strengthen community networks,
learning, knowledge, and a sense of belonging.
Mosques and the village coffee houses are two symbolic places that
are crucial in supporting social life in vernacular settlements. The old
settlement hosted two mosques; one at the top of the hill from the 14th
century (Murat Hüdavendigar Mosque) and one next to the village
coffee house at the village square, which was built because of the dif­
ficulty for the elderly locals to climb the steep road up to the hill (Aslan
and Aslan, 2014). Although the construction of a new mosque and a
community centre were planned in the development plan of the new
settlement, nothing was started until December 2022. The mosque has
an essential place in Turkish culture. In addition to being a place of
prayer, it provides educational and political welfare (Al-Krenawi, 2016),
a meeting point, and neighbourhood networking for individuals. As
mentioned in Section 4.2, the village coffee house also served as a
meeting place for the local men. For women residents, on the other
hand, vernacular traditional houses with their courtyards were places to
come together and help each other with housework (Karahan, et al.,
2023). Besides, the high stone walls of these courtyards (Fig. 4) served as
protective infrastructure to keep the children away from the risks of
traffic. Although the new settlement involved a children’s park, it was
not in good condition and suffered from a lack of green infrastructure
(Fig. 5). There were no youth recreational services, both in the old and
new settlements, but according to the survey results in 2017, the young
generation spent their free time helping their parents in agricultural or
tourism businesses.
A medical centre and an elementary school, which were crucial
services and facilities in community infrastructure to meet the vital
needs of the community, did not exist in the village. The lack of a
medical centre impacted how older people spent their time in the
village. According to the interviews, to get the care they needed, old
people left the village to spend the winter with their children, who lived
in other cities, and returned to the village in the summer. As mentioned
in detail in Section 4.1., with the regulation implemented by Bussing
Education (Ministry of Education, 2000) primary school in this village
was closed. Children were going to nearby villages or districts for
schooling. Bus schooling could be overwhelming, especially during
winter conditions due to transportation cutbacks. Besides, in winter, the
number of minibuses to the centres such as Ayvacık and Çanakkale and
even to the old settlement from the new settlement decreased. The lack
of public transformation also affected the choice of place of residence for
the newcomers:
“I live in the downtown (new settlement) because it is hard to live in
the uptown (old settlement) if you do not have a private car. The
public transformation is less during winter … besides, driving and
car parking are tricky in the uptown.” (Interviewee 7)
Tourism facilities such as restaurants, shops, cafes, and hotels were
located in the old settlement and the pier (Fig. 6). Most of the tourism
establishments were closed at the end of the summer season. The hotels
and restaurants on the pier met the tourism needs in the winter.
The food supply did not seem to be a problem for the village. In
addition to the goods that the locals produced and farmed, there was a
convenience store in the old settlement and a supermarket in the new
one.
While the old settlement of Behramkale had stone-paved streets, the
new settlement had earthen roads. Only the main street coming from
Ayvacık (Gürpınar road) was asphalt, which passed outside the ancient
walls and ended at the pier. All houses in the village had electricity, a
water supply network, and sewage infrastructure. For the hot water
system, most residents have chosen solar home systems, as seen in Fig. 7.
In 2000, it was observed that wells in the courtyards were not
O. Gocer et al.
Fig. 4. Courtyards in the old settlement (Source: Authors).
Fig. 5. Children’s Park in the new settlement (Source: Authors).
functioning for domestic purposes but only for gardening. The systems
were getting older and needed to be maintained, as mentioned by
Mukhtar:
“the sewage system was realized at the beginning of the 2000s and it needs
to be repaired” (Interviewee 11)
Fig. 6. Hotels and cafes in the old settlement (Source: Authors).
9
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
4.5. Diverse and innovative economy
This attribute is related to the interdependency of businesses and the
community and the diversity of jobs, which depend on multiple sources
(Fabbricatti et al., 2020). The resilience of a community pertains to
economic development, which is reflected in income changes, structural
changes in the economy, and changes in the standard and quality of life
(Murzyn-Kupisz, 2012). Diversified complementary skills of individuals
away from traditional dependence on primary activities in the rural
economy can boost stronger and more resilient communities (Steiner
and Atterton, 2014). Fostering a diverse and innovative economy
(ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022) that can keep up with the changing demands of
the sector and defeat the risks of national and global events helps to
reduce vulnerability and leverage social resilience (Maclean et al.,
2014). The flip side of promoting diversity and creating innovative jobs,
securing traditional jobs, and popularizing these activities among visi­
tors is also crucial in heritage conservation (ICOMOS ICCHT, 2022).
With the recognition of the old settlement as one of the most popular
cultural tourism destinations in the North Aegean of Turkey, changes in
occupation types and the generation of new employment opportunities
were experienced. Rural activities such as agriculture, forestry, live­
stock, and fishery were transformed into tourism businesses between
2000 and 2017 (Göçer et al., 2021). Tourism-related activities among
households increased from 13.4% to 36.7% (i.e., hotel, pension,
restaurant, café, bar, camping) in 17 years. Although there was a
transformation in occupation types, rural activities (agriculture and
livestock, 21.1%; fishery, 2.1%) and traditional occupations (carpenter
and masonry, 2.7%) continued in the village, especially among the
residents who lived in the new settlement. As mentioned in Section 4.1,
O. Gocer et al.
Fig. 7. Roads of the old (left) and new (right) settlements (Source: Authors).
Fig. 8. Street market business (Source: Authors).
women residents, in addition to their household work, contributed to
this sector by selling handicrafts and homemade local food production
(thyme, jam, Turkish ravioli, etc.) either in the streets or in shops
(Fig. 7). In addition, small local businesses such as grocery, butcher, and
convenience stores were opened in the village. As mentioned in the
research area section, the village is located on the top of a hill, and the
pier and beach are 235 m down the hill. Before, local residents had very
limited relations with restaurants and hotels on the pier, there wasn’t
any transportation between the pier and the village, and very limited
with Ayvacık and Çanakkale. Due to increased tourist attention and
relations with the pier and Ayvacık, land transportation has gained
importance. Some local residents bought minibuses to transport the
passengers from the city and operated a ring service between the village
and the pier during the tourism season.
It can be stated that there was a diverse economy in the village,
which showed evidence of the ability to cope with change in Behram­
kale. Among the newcomers, in addition to the professions related to the
tourism sector, professions that required expertise, such as artists, and
designers, were also seen.
The provision of new job opportunities led to spatial changes in the
village. Most of the renovated houses in the old settlement were occu­
pied for touristic purposes, such as boutique hotels, restaurants, and
small outlets selling a range of local crafts. The units around the
courtyard, which were not used for their original purposes, such as the
barn and storage area, had been transformed into touristic/commercial
units.(see Fig. 8)
“local residents who have touristic businesses in the old settlement
restored their houses and stayed there” (interviewee 5)
In the new settlement, production places existed, but commercial
10
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
units (grocery, pharmacy) were rare, and most of the buildings were
used as dwellings. However, the number of rental units occupied by
seasonal employees or temporary residents was also impressive. Local
residents shared a part of their houses with the tenants, as indicated in
interviews:
“some prefer to have a100 m2 house in a garden, some use the parcel land
to build a house with four units and rent three of those and live in one”
(interviewee 6)
Some of these tenants were from different cities and even countries.
“people were coming to work here from eastern cities till 2020, now
Kazak and Afghan people are coming to our village” (interviewee 1)
Dinçer and Dinçer (2005) emphasized the risks associated with the
rapid depletion in the tourism market and the allure of short-term gains.
The potential decline in popularity and diminishing public interest often
stem from phenomena such as overexposure, a saturation of tourist at­
tractions, and the risk of commodification.” However, Behramkale has
protected its popularity among cultural tourism destinations in North
Aegean and still resists political instability and unstable inflation in the
country.
4.6. Engaged governance
Engaged governance revolves around collaborative approaches to
regional decision-making (Maclean et al., 2014). Different perspectives
and expectations of diverse stakeholders must be taken into account for
effective problem-solving (Keck and Sakdapolrak, 2013). Organizing
regular meetings with the relevant actors during the process of planning
decisions is needed for an informed and engaged community (ICOMOS
O. Gocer et al.
ICCH, 2022; ICOMOS-IFLA, 2017). In the management policies of
resilience, the participation of all relevant actors with respect for human
dignity and diversity plays a key role in building and maintaining social
resilience (Fabbricatti, et al., 2020). Cultural heritage management au­
thorities need to be aware of and sensitive to communities’ rights, needs,
and desires for more diverse heritage activities, experiences, and pro­
grams, to increase cultural heritage relevance for local people and lead
to new and more resilient pathways for sustainable development (ICO­
MOS ICCHT, 2022).
The 1982 declaration of Assos/Behramkale as 1st Degree
Table 3
Summary table of the key findings from six aspects of community resilience (Source: Authors).
11
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
Archaeological Site was a top-bottom decision, and “the principles of
conservation and terms of use pertaining to the transition period” were
clear about what was restricted but not descriptive enough about what
could be done. According to the survey results in 2000, 56.7% of the
residents believed that the declaration of the settlement as a protected
area was positive. However, it was observed that the residents were
complaining about the lack of adequate technical support and the lack of
guidance for the legal procedures. The interviews in 2022 proved that
they still felt the need for stronger leadership.
O. Gocer et al. Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238

“of course, we want Behramkale to look good, but there is no one skills in small-scale tourism business and management has instilled
guiding us. The conservation council says, ‘those should be removed, self-assurance and heightened awareness of the tourism industry among
you cannot do that, etc.’. Ok, but what can I do instead of that, they local residents through their social interactions with tourists and new­
say nothing” (interviewee 9) comers. The growth of rural tourism in the village aligns with the ob­
jectives of sustainable development, particularly with regards to
In Turkey, the local administrative unit for a village consists of the
women’s empowerment and environmental conservation, as outlined by
mukhtar (village headman), the village council of elders, and the village
SDG 4 (UN, 2023) and research by Didham and Paul (2015). Through
association, as outlined in Article 10 of Law No. 442 (1924). As the
the expansion of tourism and entrepreneurship activities, more women
representatives of the public legal entity, mukhtars are elected every five
in the village are becoming actively involved in economic endeavours.
years from among the natives of the village. They have duties to run
This increased participation empowers women and gives them a more
state affairs, assist central government units, and work as mediator be­
significant role in household decision-making processes. As women gain
tween the government and villagers. They have the right to approve
economic independence and influence, their empowerment is
official certifications and use their powers of disposition regarding the
strengthened, contributing to the broader goals of sustainable develop­
assets, pastures, and common areas belonging to the village. The fact
ment that aim to improve gender equality and promote women’s rights.
that the mukhtar is the first authority to apply to carry out many official
However, despite significant advancements in various aspects of
processes makes his position important in society.
construction, one particular area that has not witnessed substantial
The village administration (the mukhtar and 8–12 members, which
progress is the effective transfer of expertise in traditional building
includes the village council of elders) is responsible for providing ser­
methods to the construction of new structures. This lack of development
vices to meet the local and collective needs of the villagers. In this re­
and integration has led to a gap between traditional building techniques
gard, in the context of the development of the new settlement with
and modern architectural practices, presenting challenges in ensuring
growing pressures from the local community, the mukhtar of Behram­
the preservation of heritage knowledge and the adaptation of proven
kale (in date) applied to the affiliated civilian authority for the planning
methods to new buildings.
of the new development area with the rights of Law No. 3367 and the
confirmation of the council of elders in 1993. Heritage sites like Beh­
(ii) community networks;
ramkale are protected by the Law on Conservation of Cultural and
Natural Assets (Law no 2863). The conservation plan of Behramkale was
The assertion made by Qu and Zollet (2023) regarding socially
prepared by the Special Provincial Administration of Çanakkale and the
engaged art serving as a potent catalyst for community resilience and
approval authority was the Çanakkale Regional Directorates of Cultural
revitalization finds practical application in the context of Behramkale.
and Natural Heritage Conservation Board. Participatory management
By promoting festival tourism and ensuring the involvement of small
models are not efficiently implemented in Türkiye. Therefore, mukhtars
and micro-entrepreneurs, socially engaged art fosters a sense of unity
do not significantly impact heritage management or conservation
and empowerment among the local residents. However, despite the
practices. The mukhtar of Behramkale also complained about the poor
positive impacts of community resilience strategies, such as the estab­
coordination among the institutions and stated that he was not informed
lishment of "Fellows of Assos, a notable segregation emerged between
that the conservation plan was completed and opened to objections
local residents and newcomers, particularly those utilizing their homes
(Türkay, 2022).
as second residences. Nonetheless, some newcomers aided the local
Not only the mukhtar but also the residents of Behramkale com­
residents in navigating legal procedures and regulations, leading to the
plained about insufficient information and the lack of feedback during
formation of a local initiative that effectively protected the village’s
the preparation of the Conservation Plan and expressed that they needed
rights. Yet, challenges persisted as there was a lack of coordination and
a more collaborative approach to decision-making.
cooperation observed among non-governmental organizations and
“there was a meeting in the village coffee house but I didn’t under­ government agencies. This highlights the need for better collaboration
stand much” (interviewee 2) and communication between various stakeholders to enhance the
effectiveness of community resilience initiatives in Behramkale.
An architect from Çanakkale who attended the meeting organized by
the Provincial Administration about the Conservation Plan of Behram­
(iii) community infrastructure;
kale in 2019 stated that “after the beginning of the meeting, we understood
that this is not a plan discussion, but the presentation of the analysis studies
Expanding on the discoveries of the case study on community
documenting the current situation” (Erten, 2019).
infrastructure, this research can complement the previous investigations
This demonstrates a top-down decision-making structure with
carried out by Wu and Yuan (2023) and Anthopoulou et al. (2017).
limited community participation within the national and local gover­
Through an exploration of rural resilience dynamics, the study high­
nance structure in Turkey.
lights how communities adapt to changing circumstances while pre­
serving their traditions, all the while maintaining a satisfactory quality
5. Discussion
of life for the local residents. Daily visits to the square and the village
coffee house let them be a part of the social life and enabled the
Based on our summary of findings, as depicted in Table 3 below, the
enhancement of creativity and sharing of culture. The village coffee
aspects of community resilience that demonstrate significant strengths
house functioned as a communal meeting place, attracting individuals
are further delineated into the following four attributes, as briefly
from diverse backgrounds, including tourists, locals, and inhabitants.
elucidated underneath:
Conversely, courtyards primarily served as gathering spaces, particu­
larly for local women. On the other hand, the inadequate infrastructure,
(i) knowledge, skills, and learning;
such as the lack of educational and healthcare services for children and
young people, had a detrimental impact on the sense of place-people
The growth of rural tourism in the village has significant implications
connection and the overall community network.
from the perspective of sustainable development, particularly in terms
of formal and informal learning. As emphasized by ICOMOS-ICCHT
(iv) a diverse and innovative economy;
(2022), education plays a crucial role in achieving multiple sustainable
development objectives, including poverty reduction, economic growth.
As Shen and Chou (2022) emphasized, the creation of new job op­
Over the past two decades, the rise in education levels and acquired
portunities, such as tourism businesses, plays a crucial role in mitigating

12
O. Gocer et al.
rural vulnerability. This notion finds validation in the Behramkale case,
where cultural tourism has been instrumental in bringing about a sig­
nificant transformation in the community’s occupational landscape. The
shift from traditional rural activities to a greater emphasis on
tourism-related ventures has effectively generated new employment
opportunities. The local residents who stayed in the old settlement
(almost 30% of the local population, according to the 2017 survey) were
also entrepreneurs in the tourism business, some of them changed their
houses into hotels, restaurants, and souvenir shops. They sold some units
in their houses, olive gardens, lands, or even livestock in order to collect
the investment money. This also shows that local people sustained their
existence in the village not only as inhabitants but also as business
owners. Consequently, the percentage of individuals engaged in agri­
cultural pursuits in the old settlement witnessed a decline. Nevertheless,
among the long-standing residents of the new settlement, the rural
economy has continued to persist. Regrettably, promotional efforts for
heritage-led activities catering to visitors have remained underdevel­
oped. In addition, economic relations helped to sustain relations among
people living in the old and new settlements.
On the other hand, the barriers that drain local residents’ resilience
have been determined, such as, instabilities in demographic structure
since the houses were sold and rented to the newcomers, lack of crucial
infrastructure support in medical and educational services, and lack of
residents’ engagement in decision-making processes (Table 3). The lack
of educational services prompted some local residents to relocate to
cities and utilize their village houses as second homes. There are also
some key areas where the community resilience of Behramkale could be
further improved or strengthened within the attributes of (i) people-
place connections and (ii) engaged governance.
(i) people-place connections;
The majority of residents in Behramkale expressed a strong sense of
belonging to the village, indicating a significant aspect of their resil­
ience. This finding provides insights that align with Fabbricatti et al.
(2020)’s comments highlighting that heritage community resilience
involves a combination of adaptive capacity and a strong identity with a
sense of belonging. The residents of Behramkale have demonstrated
strong connections to the village, influenced by their memories, expe­
riences, and the duration of their residence. This attachment to the place
fosters passion and commitment to protect and preserve the village’s
cultural and natural landscapes, as highlighted by Zhang et al. (2020)
and Daryanto and Song (2021).
The case study also reveals an interesting aspect related to new­
comers and their level of self-belonging. Those who had resided in
Behramkale for an extended period showed greater enthusiasm in
contributing to the settlement’s development, indicating a deeper
connection to the place. On the other hand, newcomers with shorter
stays, such as summer/second house owners, exhibited weaker self-
belonging. This finding is in line with the given references, showing
that the duration of residence and experiences in a place influence the
level of attachment and commitment to its well-being.
(ii) engaged governance;
After the pandemic, a noticeable trend emerged as newcomers with
second homes in the village began selling their properties at high prices.
This observation suggests the potential for further changes in the de­
mographic profile of Behramkale in the future. The observed lack of
residents’ engagement in decision-making processes can be attributed to
their limited involvement in the preparation of the Conservation Plan.
Although residents do have a say to an extent – however planning and
decision-making power lies with centralized governing bodies – limited
decentring of power and participatory decision making at the local level.
This reduced participation stems from insufficient information and a
lack of feedback from government agencies, despite their significant role
13
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
in initiating the establishment of the new development area. Power and
decision making to be transferred to local level is important for the
ongoing, sustainable development of the area.
In the scope of this study, “community resilience” has been referred
to as the ability of the community to absorb cultural tourism-driven
changes without fundamentally altering its unique heritage identity.
Findings from the key attributes of community resilience highlights the
role of the new settlement of Behramkale in fostering social and com­
munity resilience. The new settlement of Behramkale was a practical
response to the demand of the young generation over 18 years-who were
not allowed to build a house in the old settlement because of conser­
vation restrictions-to own a house in the village. In addition, it served as
an affordable home for local residents who sold their houses due to the
growing pressures of cultural tourism in Behramkale. The proximity to
the old settlement assisted in the process of continuing existing social
and community resilience structures – local residents were given a
choice to live close to their family roots within the old settlement,
minimizing severe gentrification and displacement of the area.
Furthermore, the new settlement fulfilled an economic role for the old
settlement by preserving traditional jobs and rural facilities, thereby
ensuring their continuity. In essence, it served as a cohesive infrastruc­
ture that fostered a strong connection between the residents and their
environment. In most cases in Türkiye, the policies that restrict the
supply of new housing in conservation areas attract the gentrification
process and lead to the displacement of local people (Okumus, 2020) by
upper-class gentrifiers due to economic and social adaptation problems
(Dinçer and Dinçer, 2005). Although the ownership of most of the
houses in the old settlement of Behramkale shifted from local residents
to newcomers, in contrast to other cases in Türkiye, the local residents
have stayed in the village by virtue of the new settlement. Approxi­
mately 64.1% (2017 survey) of Behramkale’s present population com­
prises old residents, which reflects a long-lasting continuity in terms of
community resilience despite the continuous infiltration of newcomers.
The presence of the local residents in the new settlement of the village
helped to sustain not only the social structure but also the rural econ­
omy. Some households (25%, 2017 survey) worked in agricultural ac­
tivities and traditional jobs such as carpentry and masonry. By gaining
skills in small-scale tourism business and management, creating new job
opportunities, and establishing networks with newcomers and tourists,
local residents of Behramkale are well-adapted to the pressure of intense
tourism.
As Wu and Yuan (2023) pointed out, measuring social resilience
poses challenges, and the subject receives limited attention in existing
literature. Consequently, this study makes a valuable contribution to the
field by developing a comprehensive framework based on the work of
Maclean et al. (2014) and Fabricatti et al. (2020) concerning heritage
community resilience. Moreover, it introduces a social resilience
monitoring and reporting framework for rural heritage communities,
firmly rooted in the guiding principles set forth by ICOMOS (ICOMOS,
1999; ICOMOS-IFLA, 2017; ICOMOS-ICCHT, 2022). Through the
application of this framework, the coping and adapting strategies of the
Behramkale rural community come to light, showcasing how they
embrace cultural tourism-driven changes while preserving heritage
identity.
6. Conclusion
Theoretically and methodologically, our study has demonstrated the
strength and relevance of the concept of community and social resilience
within the present context of heritage conservation and cultural tourism.
Evidence from our case study of Behramkale illustrates the need for
retaining and reinforcing social and community resilience in heritage
conservation (more specifically within the ‘living heritage’ context) with
growing tourism pressures. Methodologically, the analysis framework
adopted in our paper not only unpacks the concept of community
resilience through the six attributes within this context but also attempts
O. Gocer et al.
to address issues of power and agency. The applied framework helped to
define what is more crucial and urgent for Behramkale. In this regard,
the collaboration between government agencies and the residents to
activate strategic decision-making to care for the tangible and intangible
rural heritage has vital importance in supporting community resilience.
Structured organizations would be helpful in establishing the network of
the community and solidarity. People-place connection and community
networks can be improved by organizing regular festivals, and local art,
and music workshops and by strengthening the infrastructure, such as
community centres or cooperatives, in which residents, enterprises, as­
sociations, and institutions create a community that responds to multi­
ple mutual needs.
One of the main critiques of wider concepts of sustainable develop­
ment and resilience, -more specifically, community resilience-is that
these concepts are unable to deal with issues of power and agency. Sus­
tainability and resilience for whom? Who benefits from these concepts?
What lessons can we learn? Therefore, in addition to understanding
community resilience in the context of cultural tourism in Behramkale,
our study highlights the coping mechanisms of communities even when
faced with top-down, hierarchical power structures making decisions on
the environment that they live in. The decision to continue the living
heritage of Behramkale through the construction of a new settlement in
close proximity to the old one demonstrates the strength of the com­
munity coming together for a common cause. The lessons learned from
this case study demonstrate that agreements among authorities at
different levels (i.e., regional – local, provincial – local), and cooperation
between public agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and
higher education institutions are critical to strengthen the overall socio-
economic circle and to achieve sustainability and resilience of the
community. Additionally, for a more resilient future, inclusive and
participatory models must be improved that can be incorporated into the
conservation management plans of heritage sites accompanied by cul­
tural tourism management.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grants from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Ethics approval
The study received approval from Özyeğin University Research
Ethics Committee Approval Code (2015)/5.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ozgur Gocer: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Su­
pervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Formal
analysis, Investigation, Visualization. Didem Boyacioglu: Conceptual­
ization, Data curation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original
draft, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Investigation. Ebru
Ergoz Karahan: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Pranita Shrestha: Conceptualization,
Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
14
Journal of Rural Studies 107 (2024) 103238
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