Design and Technology Notes

D&T
DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY NOTES
“The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places
you’ll go.” - Dr. Seuss
BOKAMOSO JSS
s.s
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY
Design and Technology is a subject which aims to equip learners with life skills and lay a foundation for
the real world of work. It is a field of study whereby students design & make products or models to solve
real life problems using available materials, knowledge, skills and the use of technologies. The subject
makes a person to be trainable in a number of career paths or work areas. These areas include engineering,
teaching, business, agriculture, media and many others.
SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP

 Safety precautions: Are the things you do in order to prevent something dangerous or unpleasant from
happening.
WORKSHOP SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS
 Never enter or leave the workshop without the teacher’s permission.

 Never run in the workshop.
 Do not play with tools or drop tools.
 Always keep the workplace clean or tidy.
 Always concentrate on your work never disturb others
 Avoid practical jokes-because one may loose concentration and get hurt.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
 Use of protective clothing
a. Put on an Apron when working to protect your clothes against dirt and the body against minor
injuries.
b. Wear Safety goggles when working with cutting, filling or grinding tools to protect your eyes
from flying particles
 Use of tools and equipment
a. Never use a blunt tool to avoid spoiling work and causing injuries. Sharpen them when they
are blunt.
b. When using a sharp tool always cut away from your body.
 Store of tools and equipment
a. Hand tools are organized by mounting them on a display board attached to the wall of the
workshop or keeping them in a tool rack or cabinet.
b. Electric powered hand tools and other equipment can be stored safely in a cupboard or cabinet
in the storeroom.
 Preventing transmission of infections
a. Having an open wound or cut or, may result in blood transmission if one person touches another
without protection e.g. Hepatitis and HIV and AIDS are easily spread through contact with
infected blood.
 Using sockets and switches
a. Never touch electric switches or sockets with wet hands because it results in a short circuit and
cause an electrical shock.
b. Emergency stop buttons are positioned in the workshop corners in case of emergency to turn
off all electrical power to all machines.
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 Warning signs
a. The international organization for standardization (ISO) has developed a series of safety signs
and colours meant to:
• Draw one’s attention to objects and situations which could affect health and safety.
• Give information and directions.
• Indicate emergency equipment area.
• Outline potential hazards
Five types of safety signs used in the workshop include warning, mandatory, prohibition, safe condition
and fire equipment.
Sign Type Illustration Colour Meaning Use

Red with a Indicate an immediate Stop signs e.g. do not
white hazardous situation. use mobile.
Prohibition background Don’t do Emergency stops e.g.
do not enter
Yellow with a They indicate a Indicate hazards like
black symbol potentially hazardous electrical, explosive
Warning and text. situation. and toxic signs.
Risk of danger
Blue with They indicate specific They require one to
white course of action that wear personal safety
Mandatory symbols and must be done to avoid equipment e.g. safety
text. accidents. gloves.
They are They communicate They include signs for
Safe conditions green with information about safe emergency stop, safe
white conditions. drinking.
symbols text.
They are red They indicate the These signs indicate
with white location of fire the exact position of
Fire equipment symbols and equipment. fire extinguishers, fire
text. alarm e.t.c.
 Hazards
Hazards refers to things that are dangerous and could bring injury to ourselves. A hazard can be something
easily seen like exposed electric wires, faulty machine and fire.
Hazard How to avoid them
Fire hazard can be caused by naked flames or hot a. Putting hot metals on a safe surface to avoid fire.
objects in the workshop. b. Storing flammable chemicals safely.
Chemical hazard can be caused by chemicals or a. Washing your hands with soap and water.
substances used in the workshop. They may cause b. Wearing surgical /disposable gloves when using
irritation and skin disease. substances like thinners or paint.
c. Always work in well ventilated areas.
Eye hazard can be caused by flying particles or a. Wearing safety goggles when there is a risk of
excessive light. damage to your eyes like drilling, welding,
grinding etc.
Tools, Equipment and machine hazard can be a. Storing tools correctly.
caused by arrangement of work benches, machines b. Avoiding sharp edges of tools when working e.g.
and tools. keeping both hands behind the cutting edge.
Electrical hazard can be caused by overloading of a. Ensuring that cables are not damaged.
sockets, damaged cords, wet hands (water) and poor b. Not using faulty machines.
electrical installations. These hazards may cause c. Not switching or operating machines with wet
electric shock. hands.
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FIRST AID
 Definitions
First aid is a help given to an injured person immediately after an accident before arrival of the doctor
or before taking that person to the clinic. An injured person is referred to as casualty.
 Reasons for applying first aid

1. To save life
2. To promote quick recovers
3. To reduce pain
 Treating of cuts / wound-A cut is a break or opening in the skin caused by a sharp-edged tool or object.
A wound is any damage or break in the surface of the skin. The following are steps to help you care for
minor cuts:
1. Wash your hands & wear surgical gloves- This helps avoid infection.
2. Stop the bleeding.
3. Clean the wound.
4. Apply an antibiotic or petroleum jelly
5. Cover the wound with a plaster(cut), wound (bandage)
 Treating of bruises- A bruise is a common skin injury that results in a discoloration of the skin. Blood
from damaged blood cells deep beneath the skin collects near the surface of the skin, resulting in what
we think of as a black and blue mark. People get bruises when they bump into something (corners of
benches) or when something bumps into them (loose heads of hammers). The following are steps to
help you care for bruises:
1. Wear surgical gloves- This helps avoid infection.

2. Rest the bruised area, if possible.
3. Ice the bruise with an ice pack wrapped in a towel. Leave it in place for 10 to 20 minutes.
Repeat several times a day for a day or two as needed.
4. Compress the bruised area if it is swelling, using an elastic bandage. Don't make it too tight.
5. Elevate the injured area.
 Treating of burns- A burn is an injury to the skin or other organic tissue primarily caused by heat or
due to radiation, radioactivity, electricity, friction or contact with chemicals. Types of burns include:
a. Heat/Dry burn caused by open flames such as flame of gas welding equipment.
b. Chemicals burn caused by chemicals such as acids and phosphorus.
c. Electrical burn which result from contact with an electric current.
d. Radiation burn such as sun burn while working in an open air.
Burn Level Description Symptoms
First-degree -burns causes minimal skin damage. Redness, minor inflammation, or
burn They are also called “superficial burns” swelling, pain, dry, peeling skin occurs
because they affect the outermost layer as the burn heals.
of skin.
Second- degree -burns are more serious because the This type of burn causes the skin to
burn damage extends beyond the top layer of blister and become extremely red and
skin. sore.
Third-degree -burns are the most severe. They cause waxy and white color, char, dark
burn the most damage, extending through brown color, raised and leathery
every layer of skin. texture, blisters that do not develop
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To treat minor burns, follow these steps:
1. Wash your hands & wear surgical gloves- This helps avoid infection.
2. Cool the burn. Hold the burned area under cool (not cold) running water or apply a cool, wet
compress until the pain eases.
3. Remove rings or other tight items.
4. Don't break blisters.
5. Apply lotion.
6. Bandage the burn.
7. Take a pain reliever.
8. Take the patient to the clinic or hospital
 Handling & treating shocks- Shock is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body is not
getting enough blood flow.
Common signs and symptoms of shock include: Low blood pressure, altered mental state, including
reduced alertness and awareness, confusion, and sleepiness, cold, moist skin, hands and feet may be
blue or pale, weak or rapid pulse, rapid breathing and hyperventilation, decreased urine output. To treat
shock, follow these steps:
1. Lay the Person Down, if Possible.

2. Begin CPR, if Necessary. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure
that can help save a person's life if their breathing or heart stops.
3. Treat Obvious Injuries.
4. Keep Person Warm and Comfortable.
5. Seek Medical help Immediately
To treat electric shock follow these steps:

1. Call 911 immediately.
2. Separate the Person From Current's Source. To turn off power.
3. Do CPR, if Necessary. When you can safely touch the person, do CPR if the person is not
breathing or does not have a pulse.
4. Check for Other Injuries.
5. Wait for Emergency Medical Care
 Controlling bleeding- Bleeding is the escape of blood from the blood vessels. It may be caused by
large cuts. The most commonly accepted and utilized methods of bleeding control are direct pressure,
elevation and the use of pressure points. To control bleeding, follow these steps:
1. Wear surgical gloves- This helps avoid infection.
2. Control blood flow. If the area is covered, remove or cut the cloth to expose the wound.
3. Lay the victim down. Keep the injured part raised and if the bleeding doesn't stop, lay the victim
on a firm surface.
4. Secure the dressing.
5. Ask for ambulance.
6. Monitor the victim.
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 Disposing clinical waste-Clinical waste is any waste resulting from skin penetration or other related
clinical activity that has the potential to cause injury, infection. It includes waste containing: human
body fluids or blood e.g used bandages, gauges, face masks, surgical gloves. Clinical waste disposal
procedure
1. Wear appropriate PPE (personal protective equipment) like gloves, aprons, face masks or
overalls.
2. Check all storage bags are effectively sealed and undamaged.
3. Only touch bags at the neck.
4. Clear accidental spillages promptly.
 Handling contagious infections-Remember that where there is blood, there is the danger of HIV
infection.
1. Always avoid direct contact with another person’s blood.
2. Always wear surgical (latex) gloves when you first aid to someone who is bleeding. If you do
not have surgical gloves, cover your hands with plastic bags.
Essential Content of the First Aid Box and their Uses
1. A box of adhesive dressing (Plasters) of different sizes for covering small wounds. A roll of plaster
(Cloth backed, plasticized or micro-pore tape). Blunt-ended scissors for cutting bandage of plaster.
2. Antiseptic lotion to use with the cotton wool and antiseptic wipes.
3. Cotton wool for cleaning cuts and gauzes.
4. Some triangular bandages to several safety pins for making a sling or emergency bandage.
5. Sterile dressings (field dressings) of various sizes for covering wounds. Sterile eye dressings with
bandage attached for eye injuries.
6. Aspirin or paracetamol preferably sealed in foil to give longer life.
7. Anti-histamine cream for insect bites and stings.
8. Tweezers for removing splinters.
9. Tubular gauze bandages for finger injuries and applicator tongs.
10. Two or three crepe or conforming bandages for sprains and for wounds in awkward places such as
elbows and ankles.
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PLASTICS
Plastics are a group of materials, either synthetic or naturally occurring, that may be shaped when soft and
then hardened to retain the given shape. Natural plastics such as rubber and resin come from trees.
Synthetic plastics are chemically made from crude oil, coal and gas.
 Classification of plastic
There are two main classes of plastics which are: Thermoplastic and Thermosetting plastics.
1. Thermoplastics-Thermoplastics can be heated and shaped so many times. Once heated,

they soften and can be shaped in different forms. When cooled, they become stiff and solid.
Thermoplastics have plastic memory: Ability of thermoplastics to return to their original shape after
being heated and shaped then reheated again.
Types of Thermoplastics with their properties and uses.
Type Physical Properties Working Properties Uses

Scratches easily, durable, Breaks easily, lighter ad less Shop signs, covers for car
Acrylic comes in various colours, breakable than glass, can be lights, watches, wash basins
(Perspex) softens when heated cleaned easily, bends well and baths.
when heated.
It is stiff, opaque, strong, Has good impact strength, car dash boards, safety
ABS flexible and tough, comes finishes well, light in weight. helmets, telephones, toys,
(Acrylonitrile in a wide range of colours. Scratches easily, glues well. electrical appliances (irons,
Butadiene Has a smooth surface kettle)
Styrene)
It is soft, flexible and stiff It is tough, non-flammable, hosepipes, suit cases,
PVC and flexible, light in weight, electrical insulations, floor
(Poly-Vinyl can be easily cut. Glues well tiles, pipes, guttering,
Chloride) fittings,
Very buoyant (able to float Crumbles easily light in Sound insulation. Heat
Expanded in water). Light in weight. weight, absorbs shocks very insulators, packaging items
polystyrene well, Burns easily
(Expanded
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2. Thermosetting plastics-These plastics can only be heated and shaped once. They
become permanently hard and cannot be shaped again. They do not have plastic memory.
Types of thermosetting with their properties and uses.
Type Physical Properties Working Properties Uses

It is stiff and hard. Sets very fast, Gives a It is used to make Glass
Polyester -
high bond strength, Good Reinforced Plastic (GRP) boats,
resin
electrical insulator and car bodies and canopies, chair
good heat resistance. shells and roofing sheets.
It is stiff, hard, Good heat and electrical It is used to make electrical
Urea colourless and strong. insulator. Heat resistant, fittings (wall sockets, three pin
formaldehyde scratch resistant, stain plugs) door handles, electrical
resistant knobs and knife handle.
Stiff, hard & strong, Resists fire and abrasion. Laminating work surfaces,
Melamine Bonds well with other electrical insulation
Formaldehyde materials tableware(plates, cups)
It is transparent or Resists heat & moisture. It It is used for making glue casting,
Epoxy resin opaque in colour, hard sets quickly, good tanks, printed circuit boards
and resistant to heat. adhesive qualities
 Properties of Plasctics- are useful in selecting correct plastics to use. Plastics are selected upon the
following:
a. Colour, How it looks (appearance)
b. Texture_How it feels when touche(smooth or rough)
c. Odour- the smell of the plastic
d. Density-the relationship between the mass and its size
e. Melting point-the temperature at which plastics melts or become a liquid when heated.
 Working safely with plastics
a. Disposable gloves must be worn when working with thermosetting plastics which come in a liquid
form like polyester resin which may cause skin irritation.
b. Always work with plastic in a well-ventilated area.
c. Do not allow molten plastic to touch your skin because it will stick to your skin and cause severe
injury.
d. When machining thermoplastics, put on nose mask because they produce bad smell when over-
heated.
Disposing plastics- Plastics must be disposed off separately from other material in workshop.
a. Where possible re-use and re-cycle rather than throwing them away.
Re-using plastics is a process of re using plastic for the same job or a new job. A plastic bottle can
be used for planting flowers or as watering device or funnel.
Recycling-recycling plastics is process of recovering scrap or waste plastics, melting it down and
reprocessing it into useful products
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 Storage techniques for plastics- storing plastics properly protect them from direct sunlight and other
undesirable weather conditions.
a. Horizontal racking b. Vertical racking
Tubes , rods and slabs of plastics can be stored by Sheet plastics can be stacked on their edges
stacking them on a rackhorizontally. vertically.
c. Closed containers- Some plastics are available in a resin, powder or granulesform and theses are
stored in containers
 Commercially available sections of Plastics
Rod Slab Pipe
Square Tube Film Sheet
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TIMBER
Timber is a large piece of wood which is a natural material. It is available in two forms which are natural
timber obtained from trunk of timber and man-made boards, manufactured in a factory from waste wood.
 Classification of timber
Timber is classified into two main groups namely hardwoods and softwoods.
Hardwoods
 They are produced by broad leaved trees which are deciduous meaning that they shed their leaves
during winter.
 Deciduous grow very slowly and grain patterns are formed close to one another.
Examples of hardwoods
NAME Physical Properties Working Properties USES
Light to dark brown in It is difficult to work with, Used for making quality,
colour, It is strong, Polishes and varnishes well furniture, Carpentry, Joinery
Mukwa Heavy in weight work, Flooring, Paneling
Internal and external
constructions
Straw to light red colour It takes nails, screw and glue Used to manufacture low cost
It is soft hardwood & well, Varnishes and polishes furniture, Joinery work,
Meranti easy to cut. fairly well, Bends easily and Veneering Plywood, Windows
fairly light in weight and door frames
It is cream to yellow in It is soft and easy to work Suitable for wood carving
colour, Very light in with, Glues and takes nails Furniture making
Jelutong weight, has fine texture well and varnishes well Toy making
Softwoods
 They are obtained from coniferous (cone-bearing) trees.
 These trees have narrow, needle-like leaves and are evergreen.
 Coniferous trees grow very fast and their grain patterns are formed far apart.
Example of Softwoods
Name Physical Properties Working Properties Uses
SAP Cream yellow with brown grain Varnishes and paints Roofing (rafters)
(South structure, Fairly hard and strong well, Easy to work Ceiling
African Has knots which make it with, Very difficult to Joinery work
Pine) attractive finish its end grain Wooden flooring
Built in cupboards
 Methods of Conversion
Conversion is the process of cutting a log into boards or planks of usable and marketable sizes.
Methods of Conversion
Two basic and common methods are:
 Plain sawing/ through and through sawing/ flat sawing/ slash sawing.
 Quarter sawing/ radial sawing.
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Plain sawing Quarter sawing
 Log is cut into parallel slices of variable  Logs are first cut into and then cut it again
thickness. Used mainly in softwood. in different angles. Preferable for
Advantages hardwoods.
 Quickest and easy to carry out as the log Advantages
does not have to be turned.  Certain grain patterns are exposed.
 It is cheapest method.  It produces excellent timber.
 There is little wastage.  Timber is stable.
 Attractive grain pattern is exposed.  Boards are less likely to warp and shrink.
 It produces wide boards or planks.  Boards produced cannot easily attacked by
Disadvantages insects.
 Planks tend to warp when drying. Disadvantages
(Warping is distortion of timber from true  It is expensive to carry out.
shape and shrinks (splitting and twisting of  It requires skilled man power.
wood)).  It produces a lot of waste (unusable
 Boards are weaker and easily attacked by material).
insects as some have lot of sapwood (the  It is slow process of conversion than plain
young, soft part of the tree). sawing.
 Methods of Seasoning
Seasoning is the removal (reduction) of excess moisture content from wood or the drying of timber.
Reasons for seasoning timber

 To increase the strength of timber.
 To increase the stability of timber.
 To increase the timber resistance to decay.
 To reduce insect and fungal attack.
 To make it easy to work with.
 To make it easy to receive finish.
The two methods of seasoning timber are

 Natural or air seasoning.
 Artificial or kiln seasoning
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Natural/ Air seasoning

 The timber is stacked in an open shed, which gives protection from direct sun and rain while sun-
warmed air is allowed to circulate freely.
 The planks are separated from each other by smaller squares (stickers) placed between them to allow
air to circulate and planks to remain straight.
 The ends of the planks usually dry out quickly and are therefore painted to prevent cracking and
splitting.
Advantages Disadvantages
 It is cheap.  It takes a long time to season timber.
 Needs little skilled attention.  It depends on the prevailing weather.
 There a less risk of damage to the timber as a  Timber can be easily attacked by fungi and
result of cracks, shrinkage or warps. insects.
Kiln/ Artificial seasoning

 Boards are stacked on trolleys with sticks between them and pushed into the kiln.
A wood drying kiln is a built room with ovens, controlled amounts of steam and fans to control the humidity
levels inside. Steam is controlled by gradually blowing hot air to reduce the board’s moisture content.
Advantages Disadvantages
 It takes a few days or weeks for the boards to  It is very expensive to build a kiln and run it.
dry.  It needs more attention and a lot of skilled
 The moisture content can be reduced to 12%. manpower.
 Insects and their eggs in the wood are killed.
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DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Since timber is a natural product, developed through many years of growth in the open air, exposed to
continual and varying climate conditions, it is prone to many defects. Defects can be caused during
growth, during drying, through insects, through fungi or during subsequent handling or machining, and
each should be known, so that imperfect pieces can be detected and rejected.
a) During growth-(Natural)
Shake is called a partial or complete separation between adjoining layers of wood, due initially to causes
other than drying. The three types are Heart shake, Cup shake and Star shake.
Star shake Heart shake Cup shake
Knots can be caused by a branch or limb being cut through the process of sawing up the log. Knots are
classified in two groups: live knot and dead knot. Live knot is left by a branch when the tree is felled.
Dead knot
b) During or after drying process (Artificial)
Bow is a deviation from the flat, the piece being arched.
Bow
Twist is a spiral distortion along the length of a piece of timber.
Twist
Cup is a curvature across the width of a piece of timber.
Cup
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c) Defects through insect - Termites or white ants attack timber structures and are a serious problem in
Papua
 Storing Timber
Timber is inclined to crack, bend, twist or cup so it need to be stored:
• In a dry place
• Can be stored vertically or horizontally
• Planks can be stored lengthwise on top of each other with spacers in between.
• The ends of timber are often painted so that they do not crack.
(a) Vertical racking(sheets), (b) Horizontal racking (boards) (c) stacking
 Working safely with timber

a. Wood dust can cause a range of skin, eye, lung and other diseases. All work with timber should
be carried in such a way as to reduce the production of dust.
b. Machining should be done with equipment fitted with exhaust extraction. Hand power tools
should be fitted with dust bags and used in well ventilated areas. A vacuum cleaner or wet mop
should be used to clean work areas.
c. Use protective clothing and equipment when cutting large boards with machine, power tool or
hand tools
 Re-use of timber
a. Any scrap pieces should be kept safely. These piece may be used in other project or scrap
pieces that protect your clamp work piece. Old products can be broken down and the piece can
be re-used to make new products.
 Disposing timber
• Recycling timber: solid timber can be processes into chips or fibre to make manufactured
boards.
• Always keep scrap piece of timber safely as they are used to protect your work pieces when
using cramping and holding tools.
• Using it as fire wood
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 Commercial sizes of timber

1. Log: It is the trunk of a timber tree obtained after the removal of branches etc.
2. Baulk: It is a roughly squared timber piece, obtained by removing the bark and sapwood,
The cross-sectional dimensions exceed 50 mm in one direction and 200 mm in another
direction.
3. Batten: These are the pieces of sawn timber whose breadth and thickness do not exceed
50 mm.
4. Boards: It is a sawn piece or plank of timber with parallel sides, having a thickness less
than 50 mm and width exceeding 200 mm.
5. Plank: It is a long timber piece with parallel sides, having a thickness of less than 50 mm
and width of more than 50 mm.
6. Scantling: It is a timber piece whose breadth and thickness exceed 50 mm but is less than
200 mm in length. Scantlings are the pieces of the miscellaneous size of timber sawn out
of a log.
7. Pole: A pole or a spar is a long log of wood whose diameter does not exceed 200 mm.
8. Strips: These are wooden pieces having a thickness less than 50 mm and a width less
than 100 mm.
9. Quartering or squares: These are square pieces of timber, having sides 50 mm to 150
mm.
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MANUFACTURED BOARDS
These are man-made boards which are made from thin layers of wood, saw dust, shavings or waste
chippings that are glued together and compressed with huge amount of heat and pressure.
The greatest advantage of manufactured boards over solid timber is that:

• Manufactured boards are available in large sheets and different thicknesses.
• Boards are also stable.
• They do not warp easily.
Types, Properties and Uses of Manufactured Boards
Examples of manufactured boards include: Plywood, hardboard, MDF (medium density fibreboard), block-
board and chip board.
Plywood
It consists of number thin layers of timber called veneers, bonded (glued) together so that the grain of each
ply is at 90° to the next. Plywood is always made with an odd number 3, 5, 7, 9, 11… to balance the stresses
around the central core cancelling out any chance of shrinkage across the grain and increase strength.
Uneven numbers are used so that the grain patterns of the two outside layers running in the same direction.
Common thicknesses are 4, 6, 9 and 12mm.
Examples of plywood include 3 plywood and multi-plywood.
Physical & Working Properties Uses

 It is fairly stronger than chipboard.  Paneling
 It is flexible and can be formed into curved shapes.  Cabinet backs and drawer bottoms.
 It can be nailed and screwed at the ends without splitting  Boat building.
 It is very stable.  Partitioning.
 Packaging.
 Table tennis bats
Hardboard
Hardboard is manufactured from wood-fibre mixed with water and glue. This mixture is then put under
high pressure to form sheets. Only one surface is smooth, the other being rough. The smooth side should
face inside when used. Common thicknesses are 3mm and 5mm.

 It is stiff, hard and resistant to scratches.  Used for covering furniture backs
 It is not strong. like for:
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 It absorbs water easily and breaks down.  Cupboards

 Does not split when nailed near the edges.  Wardrobe
 Smooth on one side and rough on the other.  Door panels
 Bottom of drawers
MDF (Medium Density Fibre-Board) or Supawood

It is made from wood fibres by mixing them with glue then bonded together under high pressure and heat.
It has a smooth and even surface. When cut or sanded, it gives off a very fine dust. Therefore, always use
a face mask when working with MDF.

 Smooth on both faces.  Suitable for interior use under dry
 Generally thicker, heavier than hardboard and easily conditions for making:
absorbs water.  Display cabinets
 Good electrical insulator.  Wall panels
 Takes paint and finishes very well.  Storage units
 Easy to machine, mould and work with.  Furniture
 It does not need edge treatment  Pattern making.
 It is stiff, flat and strong.
Blockboard
It is made from core strips of wood glued together and covered between two outer facing veneers whose
grains runs at right angles to the core to ensure strength and stability. Common thicknesses are 18mm

It is not waterproof. Suitable for interior use only. It needs edge Knock-down furniture.
treatment. It resists warping. Very expensive as compared to other Shelving. Cupboard doors
man made boards. and sides. Table topsDoors
Worktops. Panelling.
Partitions.
Chipboard
Chipboard it is made from wood particles (small chips of wood) which is mixed with glue then squeezed
between rollers and then dried between metal plates under heat and high pressure. Common thickness is
18mm.
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 Suitable only for interior (inside) use.  Shelving,worktops,
 It is weak. It is cheap.  Cupboard sides,
 It is easy to cut but wears saw teeth quickly.  Table tops
 Fixings are difficult to make in the edges.  , Chest of drawers,
 Needs edge treatment.  Wardrobes,
 Stable with high tensile strength. It soaks water, swells and  Kitchen units,
breaks down easily. Kitchen tops
 Disposing manufactured boards

• They should be disposed off in a separate rubbish bin from other materials such as plastics.
• Small quantities of waste manufactured boards can be burnt.
• Large quantities should be deposited at the land fill.
• The manufactured board waste pieces can be recycled by processing them again into chips or
fibres to make other manufactured boards.
• It is wise to always keep scrap pieces safely as they can be used again to protect your work
pieces when using cramps.
 Safe working with Manufactutred boords.

• Manufactured boards are not as strong as solid timber e.g. chipboard and hardboard swell and
breakdown when they come in contact with so care must be taken when selecting the boards.
• Some manufactured boards are suitable for indoor use only because of their limited strength as
compared to solid timber.
• When sawing manufactured boards, safety should be observed in terms of wearing safety
goggles and protective clothing.
 Storing Manufactured Boards

• Stack the boards with piling sticks in between.
• Veneered boards are best stacked horizontally with paper placed between each layer to
prevent scratching.
• Store the boards in a dry place.
(a) Horizontal Stacking (b) Vertical Stacking
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METALS
Metals are minerals like iron or lead that are found underground in rocks (iron ores). These are
separated from the rocks using heat. Metals are very useful materials. Metals have many properties,
such as strength, toughness, and stiffness. When heated, metals can be shaped into anything from
a tiny paperclip to a building structures, ships, and vehicles including cars, trains, and trucks.
 Classification of metal
Metals are classified into two main groups which are ferrous metal and Non-ferrous
metal.
Ferrous Metals Non Ferrous Metals
 They contain iron.  They do not contain iron.

 They can be picked up by a magnet  They cannot be picked by a magnet (not
(magnetic). magnetic).
 They rust (not resistant to corrosion).  They are non-rusting metals (resistant to
corrosion).
 Properties of Metals
Properties Definitions
a) Hardness  The resistance a materials have to cutting, wearing and scratching

by other hard materials.
b) Toughness  This describes the ability of materials to resist to breaking, bending
or deforming. This is the opposite of brittleness.
c) Brittleness  Ability of materials to break easily when bending.
d) Tensile Strength  The maximum force a material can resist / withstand in tension
(pulling) compression (squashing), torque (twisting) and shearing
e) Malleability (sideways pressure).
 The amount of hammering, pressing and shaping a material can take
f) Ductility without breaking.
 The ability to be re-shaped or drawn into thin wires without breaking.
g) Conductivity .
 The measure of how well a material can conduct heat or electricity.
h) Corrosion
resistance
 The ability to resist to corrosion or staining by chemical reaction.
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Types, Properties, & Uses of Ferrous Metals

Name Composition Physical & Working Properties Uses
Tough, High tensile strength, Ductile, Bolts and nuts,
Mild Steel 0.15 - 0.30% Fairly malleable and Rusts easily Frames, Screws,
carbon Gates and Nails.
Pipes, cutlery,
Stainless Steel 18% Corrosion resistant, Shinny and does kitchen sinks,
chromium and not rust. teapots and medical
8% nickel instruments.
added.
Hard, Less ductile, tough and Chisels, garden
High Carbon Steel 0.70% - 1.40% malleable. tools, hammers,
carbon. drills, files, saws,
taps and dies.
Car brake discs, car
Cast iron Carbon 2-6% It is strong but brittle. cylinder heads,
and iron 94- metal work vices.
98%
Types, Properties, & Uses of Non Ferrous Metals

Name Composition Physical & Working Properties Uses
Reddish brown in colour, tough, Electrical wire, cables and
ductile, High electrical conductors, water and
Copper Pure metal conductor, corrosion resistant, heating pipes, printed
malleable, good heat conductor circuit boards, soldering
and finishes well. iron bits.
Silvery in colour, ductile, good Aircraft parts, boats,
conductor of heat and cooking utensils e.g. sauce
Aluminium Pure metal electricity, corrosion resistant, pans, window frames,
malleable, very light in weight electric cables, cooking
and tends to snap when bending foils, door handles and
ladders.
Yellowish/gold in colour, good Making keys and
conductor of heat, good padlocks, making
Brass Copper and conductor of electricity, does electrical plug pins,
zinc not rust, polishes well, harder making screws, hinges,
(Alloy) than copper, tarnishes easily, making water fittings like
corrosion resistant. taps, making musical
instruments.
Very malleable, have low For joining metal pieces
Soft solder Tin and Lead melting point. together and joining
(Alloy) electronic components to
circuit boards.
• Pure metals: Are metals which consists of only one element. The common pure metals are:
aluminium, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, silver and gold.
• Alloys: An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. When a material is needed which requires
certain properties and these do not exist in a pure metal we combine metals. The common alloys are:
brass, bronze, solder etc.
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 Working Safely with Metals

• Always put on appropriate safety clothing and equipment because metal cause allergic reactions
such as itching, rash.
• Wash hand thoroughly before and after work.
• Leather gloves must always be worn when bending or cutting sheet as they can cut your hands
easily.
• Leather gloves must be used to protect your hands when heating metal for easy bending and
shaping.
 Safely Disposing Metals

• In the workshop, metal should be disposed of separately from other materials.
• Metal should be disposed by re-using them.
• All metal scrap pieces should be collected and be placed in a rubbish
Recycling- is a safe way of disposing metals and it involves processing used materials into new products.
Benefits of recycling include:
• Reducing the use of fresh raw materials.
• Saving energy usage in processing raw materials.
• Reducing air pollution from incineration (burning waste).
• Reducing water pollution from land filling.
Metal recycling process

a. Put all scrap metals in a rubbish bin.
b. Recycling company takes the metal to a recycling plant.
c. Metal is sorted according to its type e. g. Aluminum, copper e.t.c
d. The metal is shredded and melted in a furnace.
e. Molten metal is poured into ingots form.
f. The metal is ready to be used to make new products.
 Storing Metals
• Always store metals away from chemicals which may corrode them.
• Store metals under dry and normal conditions to prevent rusting and tarnishing.
• Different metals should be stored separately.
(a) Horizontal racking (b) Vertical racking
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 Commercial Sections/Forms of Metals

• Sheet: - is a thin, flat piece of steel with many applications. It is measured by its thickness (gauge)
The commonly use a cross-sections have thicknesses varying from 0.6 mm to 3 mm
• Round Bars:-These are available in circular cross-sections with diameters varying from 5 mm to
250 mm. They are widely used as reinforcement in concrete structures, construction of steel
grillwork, etc. The commonly used cross-sections have diameters varying from 5 mm to 25 mm
• Square Bars:-These are available in square cross-section with sides varying from 5 mm to 250
mm. They are widely used in the construction of steel grillwork, for windows, gates, etc. The
commonly use a cross-sections have sides varying from 5 mm to 25 mm
• Flat Bars:-These are available in suitable widths varying from 10 mm to 400 mm with thickness
varying from 3 mm to 40 mm. They are widely used in the construction of steel grillwork for
windows and gates.
• Angle Sections-The angle sections may be of equal legs or unequal legs as shown in fig. 11-3 and
fig. 11-4 respectively. The equal angle sections are available in sizes varying from 20 mm x 20 mm
x 3 mm to 200 mm x 200 mm x 25 mm
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ADDITIONAL MATERIALS
Local or traditional materials or indigenous materials are the ones which are found in the same region
where they will be used. These materials include clay, leather, soapstone, reeds and cane.
 Identification of additional materials and their sources
Type Description Uses Source

It is a fine, white clay consisting Used to make sinks, toilets,
Kaolin clay mostly of the mineral kaolinite. floor tiles and spark-plug Obtained from the
insulators. soil.
Fire clay Basically kaolinite with some iron, Used in places of heat
oxides, magnesia, alkalis and generation such as in boiler Obtained from the
resistant to high temperatures. furnaces, glass melting soil.
furnaces, pottery kiln blast.
Porcelain Main component is kaolinite and Used to make bowls, cups, tea Obtained from the
other materials include ball clay, sets, vases, jewel cases and soil.
glass, bone ash musical instruments.
Obtained from the protective Used to make shoes, hats, hand Obtained from
Leather covering of animals called skin. gloves, wallets, jackets and skins and animal
belts. hides.
Soft in nature with soap like To make sinks, tiles, sculptural Mineral which is in
Soapstone properties and it is dark grey- work and ornaments. the form of a rock
greenish in colour. called steatite.
Is a long, flexible grass usually with Used to make fishing rods, Grows well in
Cane a hollow stem and it is light in walking sticks, baskets and warm and wet
weight. furniture (stool, tables). regions.
These are grass-like plants growing Used to make mats, baskets, Grows in places
Reed in shallow water or on swampy temporary walls, thatching with lot of water.
ground. roofs and musical instruments
like flute.
 Incorporating locally available materials in projects

• Ways in which cultural elements can be included in designing the products is to use
locally available materials which are unique to a particular area and that provide
products with a unique cultural value which cannot be found elsewhere.
• The advantages of using local materials are because they are quite cheap to get than
artificial materials. They have very little impact in polluting the environment.
 Working safely with additional materials

• Materials such as soapstone produce a lot of dust and therefore, hand gloves, nose mask and
goggles must be worn.
• When working on soapstone, it is always safe to hold the product well in a bench vice to prevent
it from cracking.
• Always use a sharp knife when working on leather, cane and reeds while working away from
your body.
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• When using clay and glazer for ceramic work, always wash your hands and apply hand cream
after work.
• When using the kiln for firing clay, follow rules for the control of electricity and gas equipment
 Safe disposal of additional material waste

• Leather, cane and reeds materials can be burnt in smaller quantities.
• Cane and reeds can be crushed and recycled to make paper.
• Cane and reeds can be buried in the soil as landfill since they can rot in the soil to make manure.
• Clay and soapstone products can be crushed and used as landfill.
Examples of Additional Materials Incorporated in making Products
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ABRASIVES
Abrasives are substances made from a wide range of materials used to remove the unwanted rough marks
and dirt on the material to make the work piece smooth for the application of the final finish.
 Selecting abrasives.
The choice of abrasive when abrading materials depend upon:
• The type of material (wood, metal and plastics) to be abraded.
• The type of finish that will be used (e.g. painting, varnishing or polishing).
• The type of fabrication techniques (gluing, welding).
• The surface area to be joined (small or large).
• What the abrasive manufacturer recommends.
 Abrasives grades
The grade of the abrasive is determined by the size of the grit. Grit is the rough particles glued on the
paper. The smaller the grit, the finer the grade, and the bigger the grit, the rougher the grade. An
abrasive with course grits normally abrade the material faster than the one with fine grits.
Grade Description Grit size
Very Produce very smooth finish on metals, plastics & wood. Used to 150, 180
Fine abrade between coats of paint & varnish. or 220
Used after medium grade for final abrading before the application of 100 or
Fine
finish. 120
Used to remove any marks left by the course grade. Prepares a smooth
Medium 80
surface for final abrading
Has the ability to remove material rapidly. It is used to remove saw, 40, 50 or
Coarse
chisel, plane, file marks and to smoothen the surfaces. 60
 Correct order of abrading

Sequence of abrading
1. Hold your work firmly on the work bench.
2. Wrap the coarse grade paper around a sanding (rubber) block and glass paper along the
grain to remove rough surface.
3. Change to medium grade to remove any marks left by the course grade.
4. Use a fine grade to get a smooth surface finish.
5. Finally, use the extra fine grade to get a very smooth surface ready for finishing.
 Working with abrasives

Safety precautions should be taken into consideration when abrading any material.
• Always wear an apron to protect your clothes from thin dust or dirt which comes from material.
• Always wear a respirator or dust mask to prevent dust from affecting you.
• Work in a well-ventilated area.
• Using a sanding block or cork block wrapped with the abrasive to prevent you from sustaining
minor cuts from the grit. The sanding block also helps to keep the surface flat.
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 Disposing abrasives
After using abrasives for a long time in the workshop, they will wear off and they must be disposed off
safely.
• Throw all used abrasive paper in a box for it to be reused.
• When the abrasive paper has been re-used for some time and it no longer has the grit, it can then
be recycled.
• Used steel wool should be kept on different box because steel wool can harm the environment if
disposed in the soil.
• If the abrasives are not reused or recycled, they can be disposed off with other materials such as
paper because they are environmental friendly.
The following are most commonly used abrasives.
Wood Plastic Metal
Glass paper Wet & Dry Emery Cloth
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ADHESIVES
Adhesives are substances used to join pieces of materials by bonding them together.
This bonding makes a permanent joint because materials joined by gluing cannot be easily separated. The
common name used for adhesives is glues.
Types of Adhesives
The common types of adhesives used are PVA (polyvinyl acetate) glue, Epoxy resin, Contact adhesive,
Tensol cement and Glue stick.
 Characteristics of adhesives
NAME CHARACTERISTICS USES
PVA is a water-based adhesive.
It dries/sets in 2-4 hours after application For joining wood
Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA glue) It is not suitable for outdoor because it is to wood.
not waterproof.
It is none staining.
It is white in colour and fairly thick.
It is a general purpose wood glue.
Epoxy Resin It is available in two tubes (resin and

hardener). Used for gluing:
It is waterproof, It is heat resistant. Metal to metal.
It bonds/adheres to many materials e.g. Metal to wood.
wood, metals, glass, ceramic, rubber and Metal to plastics.
plastics. Plastic to wood.
Takes 24 hours for the glue to set/dry (sets
firmly).
Used for joining:

Metal to wood.
Metal to plastics.
Plastics to wood.
Tensol Cement The glue should be applied to the surface It is used for
This is a colourless liquid with an that is to be joined only. gluing acrylic to
awful smell and should be used in a It is waterproof. acrylic only.
well-ventilated area. The glue hardens quickly and the work
should be assembled without delay.
It is highly flammable.
Glue stick It is applied by pressing a trigger. It is used for

This is glue which is found in a solid It dries quickly. gluing wood, card,
state in the form of sticks or rods. Joints produced are not strong. plastics and other
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The rods are melted using an Not heat resistant. modeling

electrically heated hot metal gun. materials.
 Selecting adhesives
Selection of the correct adhesive depends on the following factors:
• The material to be joined.
• The job to be done.
• Weather conditions.
• The manufacture instructions.
 Safe application of adhesives

Before any surfaces are joined with adhesives the following should be done:
• Both surfaces must be clean, dry and free from oil, grease or any other foreign matter.
• Do not apply any finish to the parts to be joined.
• If possible roughen the surfaces to be joined; this creates keys for the adhesives.
• Dry-cramp; cramping the work pieces before gluing to make sure the parts fit closely together.
• Always check for squareness and correct assembly before the glue sets and wipe off surplus glue.
• Make sure your work pieces are protected by scrap pieces.
• Avoid contact with the skin and eyes. In case of eye contact, the eye must be washed with running
water.
 Storage of adhesives
Proper storage of adhesives increases their shelf life (the length of time an adhesive can be stored after
opening it before it becomes unsuitable for use) and pot life (the length of time an adhesive can be used
after it has been manufactured). Appropriate storage of adhesives means:
• Making sure that containers or tubes of adhesives are closed after use.
• Adhesives should be stored in a well-ventilated room.
• Adhesives should be stored in a place which is cool or at room temperature.
• Making sure that all bottles, tins and tubes are tightly closed and put in a safe place such as the
workshop storeroom.
 Disposing adhesives
Some adhesives contain toxic substances therefore observe the following when disposing
adhesives to avoid polluting the environment:
• Adhesives which have expired should be exposed off in the rubbish bin.
• The best method to dispose off liquid adhesives will be to let it dry up before disposal.
• Never dispose off liquid adhesives in the drain as this will block the pipes.
• Always follow the manufacturer’s instruction on how the adhesives should be disposed off.
• Containers of adhesives should be cleaned thoroughly before being re-used or recycled.
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FINISHES AND FINISHING
Finishes are substances that are applied to the surface of a material to give it its final appearance.
Finishes are applied to materials for the following reasons:

 To protect the material from weather, moisture, wear, abrasion, fungal attack, insect attack, heat and
dirt.
 To improve the material appearance, its colour or texture.
 To improve the material durability, surface hardness or other properties.
Finishes are classified according to the materials used in the workshop like wood finishes, metal finishes
and plastic finishes.
Finishes can be divided into two groups which are Pre-finishes and finishes. Pre-finishes are used before
the final finish is applied to prepare the surface so that it easily accepts the final finish like sanding sealer
and paint (primer and undercoat). Finish is applied after the application of pre-finishes to give the last or
final look of the surface like varnish, paints and lacquers.
Characteristics of finishes
When choosing a finish, it must satisfy these general conditions
 It must be appropriate for the material.
 It must produce the desired results.
 It must be safe to apply and to the user.
Wood Finishes
Finish Characteristics Uses
Used to finish outdoor
Varnishes  It protects the wood from moisture and liquid. wood like boats/yachts,
 Protects the wood from insects and fungal attack. furniture, indoor
 Improves the appearance of wood. furniture.
 It is waterproof.
 It provides a glossy, transparent or stained surface
finish.
 It produces a hard and durable finish.
 Can be used for indoor and outdoor furniture.
Wood stains  It improves the appearance of wood.

 It does not offer any protection to the wood. Benches, sheds and
fences.
Sanding sealer  It blocks the pores on wood so that moisture cannot Indoor furniture
be absorbed by wood.
 It seals the grains so that varnish cannot be absorbed
into wood.
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Wood and metal finishes

Oil
 It produces a good natural finish. Salad serves,
 It is suitable for indoor and outdoor use. wooden
spatulas, guns
and outdoor
decks.
Paint

It provides a glossy or matt surface finish. Car bodies,

It protects metal from corrosion (rusting). lawn mowers,

Protects wood from decay and insect or fungal tools and
attack. furniture.
 Polyurethane paints are waterproof and provide an
opaque coloured finish.
 Emulsion paints are water-based
Lacquers Wood lacquers
 They are very tough.
 They are able to withstand heat, water and spirits.
 They produce a high gloss finish.
Metal lacquers
 It preserves the metal shininess after polishing.
 It provides the surface appearance of the metal.
 It protects the metal from corrosion (rusting).
Plastic finish
 Plastics cups
Self-finishing  it provides a smooth, shiny surface finish. and plates,
Many plastics products  It improves the appearance of the plastic. iron,
does not need a finish.  It can be used for indoor and outdoor products. switches,
plastics
bottles.
Edge polishing acrylic  It provides a safe working edge.

 It provides a smooth, shiny edge finish.
Removed marks on a  It improves the appearance of the acrylic piece.
work piece can be
polished with an acrylic
polish, brasso or at the
buffing wheel.
Selecting appropriate finishes and solvents.

A solvent is a liquid that dissolves a solid or another liquid into a solution. Examples of solvents include
paint thinners, acetone, spirits and water. A solvent keeps the paint in a liquid form until the solvent
evaporates after the paint is applied.
Selection of appropriate finishes and solvents depends upon:
29
 The material to be finished.

 Their material protection from weather and other environmental conditions.
 They should improve the surface appearance, texture and colour of material.
 The purpose of the product.
Storing finishes and solvents appropriately

 Make sure that all tins are tightly sealed after use.
 Store finish and solvent tins in cool, dry areas that will not freeze.
 Store finish and solvent tins away from source of direct sunlight, spark or flame because some are
highly flammable.
 Follow the manufacturer’s instruction on the proper storage of each finish or solvent.
Preparation of material surface for appropriate finish
a) Steps when preparing the wood surface for painting.

 Use a smoothening plane to remove any saw marks. Plane along the grains.
 Smooth the knots and rough grain by using a scrapper or scrapping tool.
 Fill any holes in the wood by using wood filler.
 Use abrasive paper at 45° with course paper then medium, fine and extra fine.
b) Steps when preparing the wood surface for varnishing.

 Use a smoothening plane to remove any saw marks. Plane along the grains.
 Smooth the knots and rough grain by using a scrapper or scrapping tool.
 Fill any holes in the wood by using wood filler.
 Glass paper along the grain using different grades of abrasives starting with course to extra fine.
c) Steps when preparing the metal surface for painting

 Thoroughly clean the metal by removing rust and scales by draw filing.
 Finish off the work piece by using different grades of emery cloth starting with course, medium and
finish off with a fine grade.
d) Steps when preparing the plastic surface for polishing.

 After cutting the work pieces, cross file to remove saw marks on the edges.
 Draw file to further smoothen the edges.
 Use a scrapping to remove draw filing marks.
 Use fine grades of wet and dry paper.
Correct order of applying finishes
a) Painting wood and metals

 Apply one coat of primer, under paint with a brush, aerosol spray paint or spraying gun.
 Allow the coat to dry.
 Rub down lightly to smoothen the surface using a fine or extra fine glass paper.
 Apply one or two final coats of glossy or matt finish paint. Rub down lightly between the coats.
b) Varnishing wood
 Apply sanding sealer with a brush or spray gun.
 Allow it to dry.
 Rub down lightly using an extra fine glass paper to smoothen the surface.
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 Apply a thin coat of varnish along the grain.

 Allow it to dry and rub it down lightly with an extra fine glass paper.
 Apply the final coat of varnish and leave to dry.
c) Polishing plastics
 If the plastic is to be finished by hand polishing use metal polishes such as brasso or wax.
 Use a cloth to apply the polish to the edges.
 When machine polishing, use the buffing machine by keeping the work moving lightly against the
wheel of the mob coated with a mild abrasive.
Working safely with finishes and solvents

 Avoid using solvent and finishes next to open flames because they are highly flammable.
 Work in a well-ventilated area because some finishes and solvents produce bad smell.
 Avoid inhaling finishes and solvents fumes because they can cause nose, eyes and lungs irritations and
put on a respiratory mask.
 Wear disposable gloves to avoid skin contact while handling finishes and solvents because they can
cause skin irritation.
Care for finishing equipment

 After using a brush or spraying gun for painting or varnishing, it needs to be cleaned thoroughly using
appropriate cleaning liquid.
 When brushes are not cleaned, the bristles will stick together and become hard.
 If a spraying gun is not cleaned, the nozzle will be clogged or blocked.
Cleaning liquids to use on different finishes

Finish Cleaning liquid
Water based paints Cold or hot water
Oil-based paints Paraffin or turpentine
Varnish White sprit or thinners
French polish Methylated sprit
Safe disposal of finishes and solvents

All finishes and solvents should be disposed off safely to avoid damaging the environment.
 Never put liquid finishes and solvents into the rubbish bin or pour it down the drain.
 Take the finish or solvent to your community’s household hazardous waste collection point.
 If the tins contain any remaining product, it should be used up following the safety directions on the
label.
 If the solvent or finish tin is empty, it can be placed in the rubbish bin or recycled.
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FIXINGS
Fixing is the act of fastening, securing or repairing something. Common fixings used are nails, rivets and
screws.
Nails
Nailing is the quickest method of making permanent joints in wood. When joining two pieces of wood,
always nail through the inner piece into the thicker one. Nails are identified by length, type, material and
weight.
A nail has three parts namely the head, shank and point.
Shank
Head
Point
Head: the part that is hit by a hammer when driving nails into material
Shank: the body of the nail.
Point: is the sharp part of the nail.
The common nails used are round wire nails, panel pins and oval wire nail.
NAME AND ILLUSTRATION CHARACTERISTICS

Round wire nail
 It has a round shank and a flat head.
 The shank is slightly ribbed to ensure a better grip on the wood.
 It is used for rough carpentry work.
 Its head cannot be driven into the wood.
 The head and shank are oval-shaped.

Oval wire nail  It can be easily driven into the wood surface.
 It has a sharp point.
 It is mostly used for interior joinery work.
 The shank is slightly ribbed to ensure a better grip on the wood.
Panel pin  It is thin has round and a small head.
 The head can be easily driven into the wood using a nail punch.
 It is for light work such as securing hardboard and plywood as
well for fixing small joints.
 Usually used in combination with glue.
Nailing Techniques
The common methods of nailing include dovetail nailing, staggered nailing and clinched nailing.
Nailing Techniques Illustration
Dovetail nailing (skew nailing)

 In these techniques nails are driven in at an
angle.
 It is difficult for the two pieces of wood to be
pulled apart.
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Clinched nailing
 Nails are bent over to ensure a much stronger
joint.
Staggered nailing
 Nails are driven in different grains to prevent
splitting to ensure stronger joint.
Wood Screws
Wood screws provide a neat and strong method of fixing more accurate than nails because they pull the
parts together and can be removed without causing damage to the wood. Screw is specified by length,
material and type of head. Screws are usually made of steel or brass.
Parts of a screw
Slot
Slot is the part where the screwdriver fit in and is cut into the head of the screw.
Types of screw slots
Straight slot Phillips slot Posidriv slot
Screwdriver can slip out of Slots of screwdriver blades do Slots of screwdriver blades do
straight slot and damage screw not slip out of the slots so easily. not slip out of the slots so easily.
head and wood.
The blade of a screwdriver should exactly fit the length and width of the slot in the screw head.
Head: have different shapes like the countersunk, round and raised shape.
Shank: is the smooth part between the head and thread of the screw.
Screw thread: it forms the lower part of the shank which consists of the core.
Point: sharp part of the screw in order to draw the screw into the wood.
33
Types of screws
Name and Illustration Characteristics

Countersunk head screw
 They are made of brass or mild steel.
 The head sinks in flush with or slightly into the wood
surface.
 Used for general woodwork and for fixing hinges to doors.
Round head screw

 They are made of brass, chrome and mild steel.
 The head is not screwed into the surface of the wood-it may
serve as a decorations.
 It is used to fix brass fitting, handles, plates, brackets etc.
Raised-head screw  Is a combination of the flat countersunk and round-head

screws.
 Lower part of the head is countersunk and the upper part is
round.
 They are made of mild steel or chrome plated.
 Used for fitting drawer handles, door handle plates, door
locks, aluminum strips around tables.
Self-tapping screw  It is used to join thin sheets of metal and plastics.

 Also used in self-assemble furniture such as tables,
television stands, chairs, computer stands.
 They are very hard and cut their own thread.
 A clearance hole is needed when using these screws.
Hints for screwing

 Select the correct length of a screw. Always screw through the thinner piece of wood into the
thicker.
 Drill the pilot hole too slightly less than the screw length. Use a bradawl in softwood and use a drill
in hardwood.
 Drill a clearance hole for the shank.
 Countersink for the screw head is needed.
Countersink hole (3)
Clearance hole
(2)
Pilot Hole (1)

1 2 3
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Bolts and nuts

Bolts and nuts are used together to fasten a stack of parts together. A nut is a small metallic object which is
fastened to a bolt whereas a bolt is basically a screw. They used for making temporary joints.
Rivets
Riveting is another method of making permanent joint on pieces of metal, to join metal to soft materials
and for joining soft materials to each other. There two methods of riveting which are solid and pop riveting.
1. Solid riveting
The common types of solid rivets are snap or round head, countersunk head, flat head and bifurcated rivet.
Name And Illustration Uses

Round (snap) head rivet.
Decorative work.
Countersunk head rivet.

To join very thin plates where a flush surface is
needed.
Flat head rivet

To join thin metal plates.
Bifurcated rivet
For joining soft materials like leather and
plastics.
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Riveting tools include:

 The rivet set which is used for setting or pressing together metal plates.
 The rivet snap which is used to support the head of a round head rivet while riveting
 Ball pein hammer used to shape the head of the rivet.
Stages in riveting
1. Drill both plates (countersunk if needed) and clean off any burrs.
2. Put in the rivet and press the rivet and the metal plates together with a rivet set.
3. Support the countersunk head on a flat block or round head with a rivet snap.
4. Swell the rivet with the flat face of a hammer until it is tight in its hole.
5. Use the ball-pein to fill up the countersink.
6. Finish with the flat face and file the head smooth.
2. Pop riveting
Pop rivets (blind rivets) are used to join thin metal plates or sheet metal. Pop riveting is quick to make and
are used where only one side of the joint is accessible. Pop rivets are made from aluminium which make
them weaker than solid rivets and are applied using a pop rivet gun.
Steps in pop riveting
Process Illustration
i. Mark the position of the hole

on one piece of sheet metal
and centre punch it.
ii. Clamp the two pieces to be

joined using a hand vice.
iii. Use the drill bit of the

correct size and drill through
both pieces.
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iv. Insert the pop rivet into the

pop rivet gun.
v. Put the pop rivet through the

hole and squeeze the gun
while ensuring that the rivet
head is held against the work
piece.
vi. Squeeze the gun until the

material snaps and the pin
head breaks off due to
increased pressure.
 Selecting Appropriate Fixings When Joining Materials

Selection of the correct fixings when joining materials depends on the following:
 The type of material to be joined.
 The surface area to be joined.
 The type of fixing method to be used.
 The type of finish required.
 The purpose of the product.
 Whether the product will be used indoors or outdoors
Working Safely With Fixings To Prevent Spreading Of Contagious Infections
Nails and screws have sharp points which can cause injuries and safety precautions must be observed all
times.
 Nails must be held properly during hammering so that they cannot fly off and cause serious injuries.
 Never play with screw driver because they are very dangerous objects.
 Always use correct screw driver for the right slot of screws.
 Observe the correct method of handing sharp tools to your colleagues.
 Use safety gloves to avoid contacting infectious diseases when injured or helping someone bleeding
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FITTINGS
Fitting which are commonly used include hinges, catches, handles, knobs, hasp and staple, barrel bolt,
catches and locks.
Fittings are used to:
 To connect a loose to an object like door to a frame.
 Ensure a better grip on cupboard drawers when they are opened.
 Keep doors or lids in a closed position.
a) Hinge is a piece of a metal on which a door, lid, gate turns or swing as it opens or closes. It consists
two metal plates (Wings) joined by a round metal bar (pin) to allow movement.
Pin
Wing
Knuckle
 Pivot point (pin): is the part that gives a movement to a hinge.
 Knuckle: it covers the pin.
 Wings (leaves): are the parts which are mounted to the frame and the door or lid.
Types of hinges
Name & Illustration Characteristics

Butt hinge  Used for household and cupboard doors, small boxes lids and
windows.
 Usually made of steel or brass and may be plated.
 They fit onto the edge of the wood and are usually recessed so that
that when the door is closed they are neat and almost hidden.
 Its disadvantage is that screws are in a straight and close together
there is a danger of splitting the wood.
Back flap hinge  It has extra wide leaves.
 They fit onto the surface of the wood and the screw holes are spaced
out for greater strength.
 It is used for flaps of cabinets, folding table’s tops and drop-down
leaves.
 It is made of mild steel or brass.
 It is highly suitable for heavy doors.
 The pin of this hinge is so designed that the hinge can swing
backwards through an angle of 180º.
Piano hinge 
 It also referred as continuous hinge.
 It can be fixed to the entire length of the object to be hinged and
allow the screw to be spread out over the whole door length.
 It is used for flaps for pianos, cupboard doors and cabinet doors.
 It is available in long lengths and can be cut to any convenient size.
 Piano hinges are made of brass.
 It is best suited for light doors.
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Tee hinge  Are used on shed doors, gates and workshop cupboards.
 The long arm spread the load across several planks of a tongue and
grooved while the short arm fits onto a narrow frame or post.
Catches are used mainly on the inside of cupboard door to grasp or catch the door and retain it when it is
closed.
Name Characteristics
Magnetic catch Consist of two magnets fixed onto the cabinet frame and
door respectively.
The size of the magnet depends on the size of the catch.
Spring catch It has a spring loaded catch which is firmly holds the pin or
catch.
It is used to close kitchen cabinet doors and cupboard
doors.
Ball catch It has a ball on a cylinder which is firmly held on the striker
plate
Mainly used to close cupboard, cabinet and wardrobes
doors.
Roller mortise catch It is a string loaded catch made from steel or plastics with
rubber roller
Both parts have elongated screw-slotted holes for
adjustment when fitting.
It is used to close kitchen units doors.
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Handles , Knobs & Pad locks
Handle
Is a small round object or a lever that is attached to a door and is used for opening and closing it.
Knob
A knob is a rounded handle on a door or drawer which you use in order to open or close it.
Lock
Is a device which is used on a door or drawer to keep it shut and prevent other people from opening it.
Locks are usually used with a key.
Pad lock
Padlock is a portable lock with a shackle that may be passed through and opening to prevent use, theft,
vandalism or harm. It is used for fastening two things together. One end of the bar is released by turning a
key in the lock.
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Hasp and staple

Is a locking mechanism that is used on a door or cabinet and held in place with a padlock or pin . The
hasp part of the lock contains pre drilled holes enabling it to be screwed to the door and has a hinged
strap attached to it containing a slot. The staple is a metal loop which fits on the opposite door, frame
or lid
Barrel bolt
Is used to secure doors, cabinets and gates. The bolt may be mounted for right or left hand use. It is
easy to install, made of steel and great for indoor or outdoor use
 Selecting of fittings
When choosing the appropriate fitting the following should be considered:
• Type of materials to be used.
• Weather conditions.
• Appearance.
• Function.
 Working safely with fittings

When working with fittings, it involves the use of sharp objects such as screws, bradawl, and screw
drivers, great care must be taken to observe all the necessary precautions.
• Always be careful when cutting piano hinges because sharp edges produced may cut your skin.
• Always chisel away from your hands when cutting slots for fittings.
• Use the correct size screw driver when fixing screws to hold fittings.
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How to fit a Hinge
1. Mark the position of the hinge on both two pieces 2. Mark the thickness of the hinge on both two
to be joined using the hinge as template and a materials and shade the areas to be cut away.
pencil.
3. Using a tenon saw, make a chain of small cuts 4. Using a sharp chisel, remove the waste
along the shaded area. material to make a recess on the two
materials.
5. Position the hinges on the recessed area and 6. Drive in the screws to hold the hinges firmly
make pilot holes for the screws using a bradawl. on the materials.
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ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work. Work is the transfer of energy to move an object to a certain
distance.
Energy occurs in two primary states, potential and kinetic. Potential energy is stored energy like a
stopped car has potential energy. Kinetic energy is the release of the potential energy to create
motion like a kicked ball.
Uses of Energy
Energy is used for different things such as; cooling, heating, cooking, lighting, operating machines
Forms of Energy
These forms of energy can be changed from one type to another to generate energy to do work.
These forms include:
a) Mechanical Energy
This is the energy of moving objects from human beings, machines and other objects. Example
include when chiseling a wooden piece, throwing javelin and driving a screw into a wooden piece.
b) Heat energy
Is the energy created by the movement of tiny particles which is produced when we burning
combustible material like wood, gas or coal. Heat is transferred by conduction (movement of heat in
solids), radiation (movement of heat in vacuum) and convection (movement of heat in liquid).
c) Electrical energy
Electrical energy is the flow of electrons along current. The movement of electron creates an electric
current which generates electricity.
Examples of electrical energy include shocks, lightning and electricity that run through wires.
Electrical energy is used to power appliances like computers, electric irons and fans.
Electrical energy can be found in kinetic and potential form like a cell (battery) which stores chemical
(potential) energy which comes in the form of electrical energy (kinetic) when released. When battery
is connected in a circuit, current flows through it, thus kinetic energy.
d) Chemical energy
Is the form of energy stored in matter. It is generated through chemical reactions in which the
chemical bonds of a substance are broken and arranged to form new molecules that can provide
energy. Fuels such as petroleum, coal and oil have stored energy.
e) Sound energy
Sound energy is a form of energy that one can hear. It comes from particles that are vibrating or
moving back and forth rapidly. It is from sound producing objects like radios, televisions and car
hooters.
f) Light energy
This is the form of energy that enables us to see objects. It is from light producing objects like,
candle, lamps, and torches, street lights, fire, car lights. Sun, stars, lightening, moon also produces
light energy.
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Sources of Energy
These are things from which we obtain different forms. These sources are either Renewable or Non
Renewable. In Botswana, the three major sources of energy are solar, wood and coal.
Renewable energy sources

These are sources of energy, can be used over and over without running out or can be replaced when
they are finished.
Examples are: sun/ solar, water and wind
a) Solar energy
Solar energy is the energy that comes from the sun. This energy is converted into other forms of
energy such as heat and electricity. When converted to heat, solar energy is used to:
• Heat water for use in homes, building or swimming pools.
• Heat or cool spaces inside homes.
Solar energy is also needed by plants during the process of photosynthesis.
Solar energy can be changed to electricity in two ways:

• Solar cells (photovoltaic) which changes sunlight directly into electricity.
• Concentrating solar power plants generates electricity by using heat from solar collectors to
convert liquid to steam that is used to power the generator.
b) Wind energy
Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun.
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement with the movement of atmospheric
air. It is used for sailing, grinding grain and irrigation. Wind energy systems convert this kinetic
energy to more useful forms of power. Wind energy is used to generate electric power. Windmills for
water pumping in the rural areas. Wind turbines transform the energy in the wind into mechanical
power, which then can be used directly for grinding or converting it to electric power to generate
electricity
c) Hydro-electric energy
This is the energy that is produced from water which flows down pipes from a dam or lake.
Hydropower is a renewable energy source that produces electricity in countries where there are big
dams, lakes and seas. The water flows through a pipe, or penstock, then pushes against and turns
blades in a turbine to spin a generator to produce electricity.
Non-renewable energy sources

These are source of energy that is limited or finite and if used again and again they will eventually run
out or get finished.
Examples are wood, coal, oil and gas.
a) Wood energy
It is used for cooking and heating especially in rural areas and in most schools. Wood is considered as
the cheapest energy option available and serious precautions need to be taken to avoid deforestation.
b) Coal energy
Coal contributes significantly to the production of electricity in Botswana. It is mined at Morupule. It
is burnt in large quantity at the power station to generate power which drives big turbines. These
turbines produce a lot of electricity which is then supplied country wide to provide power in schools,
households and industries. Coal is also ideal for cooking.
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MECHANISMS
Is a device used to change input motion/force to a desired/wanted output motion/force

Input Motion/Force Mechanism Output Motion/Force
A machine with different parts that work together to perform a certain job.
Benefits of mechanism
• Mechanism make job easier.
• Has input force and output force.
• It can change direction of motions.
• It can change the size of force.
• Can change place where the force acts.
Types of motion
Mechanical devices all have an input motion, which transforms into force to make an output motion. The
four types of motion are:
 linear
 rotary
 reciprocating
 oscillating
Linear motion moves something in a straight line, eg a train moving down a track:
Rotary motion is where something moves around an axis or pivot point, eg a wheel:
Reciprocating motion has a repeated up and down motion or back-and-forth motion, eg a piston or
pump:
Oscillating motion has a curved backwards and forwards movement that swings on an axis or pivot
point, eg a swing or a clock pendulum:
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Types of Mechanism
Mechanisms commonly used in mechanical systems are Levers, Linkages, Cam and follower, Gears,
Pulleys, Crank Slider, Chain and Sprocket.
Levers
A lever is a rigid beam/bar that rotates at a fixed point called the fulcrum/pivot. Other points are load and
effort.
 The load is the object you are trying to move.
 The effort is the force applied to move the load.
 The fulcrum or pivot is the point where the lever is pivoted.
Uses of levers
 To move large loads using little effort.
 To increase movement.
Classes of Levers
There are three classes of a lever. The class of a lever depends on the relative position of the load, effort
and pivot.
 First Class Levers
In class 1 lever the pivot is in between the effort and the load like seesaw, pair of pliers, crowbar etc
 Second Class Levers

In class 2 lever the load is between the effort and the pivot e.g. pair of nut crackers, wheelbarrow etc
 Third Class Lever

In these classes of levers the effort is between the load and the pivot e.g. spade a pair of tweezers, pair
of barbeque tongs etc.
Mechanical Advantage (MA)
This is being able to move heavy loads using little effort / the rate at which a mechanism makes work
easier / the ratio between the effort and the load? Moving large output load with small effort. Load and
effort are forces and are measured in Newtons (N)
This is calculated by dividing Load with Effort.
Load
Mechanical Advantage = Effort
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Load 1200N Effort 300N
Pivot
Load
Mechanical Advantage = Effort
1200N
=300N
= 4N
Velocity Ratio
Is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load.
Distance moved by the effort

Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by the load
80cm
Effort
Load
120kg
20cm
Load
Effort Distance
Velocity Ratio = Load Distance
80cm
=20 cm
= 4
1 Answer = 4:1
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Linkages
 Is a mechanism made by joining together a number of levers.
 An assembly of levers designed together to transmit motion and force.
Linkage consists of a system of rods or other rigid materials connected by joints or pivots and these allows
forces and motions to be transmitted where they are needed.
Uses of Linkages
 Used to change direction of motion.
 Change type of motion.
 Change the size of a force.
 Make things move in the same direction.
 Make things move in the same time.
 Make objects move parallel to each other
Types of Linkages
Name Illustration Description
Reverse Motion  It changes direction of movement.

Linkage  It changes size of force.
 Look like Z.
 Makes things moves in the same

Push and Pull Linkage direction.
 Look like u
 Make objects move parallel to

Parallel Motion each other e.g. lazy tongs,
Linkage cantilever toolbox, pantographs.
 Look like little n
 Changes direction of movement

Bell-crank Linkage through 90°
 Look like L
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Crank Mechanism
Crank and slider is a type of mechanism which is used to change rotary motion into reciprocating motion
or reciprocating to rotary motion. This mechanism consists of a:
 Slider: It moves backwards and forwards sliding between the two guides as the crank rotates.
 Connecting Rod: It connects the slider and the crank.
 Crank: Is used to apply rotary motion and torque (turning force) to a shaft.
 Guide: Hold slider in position when moving backwards and forward.
Slider
Crank Reciprocating
Motion
Connecting rod Guide
Crank: it has two corners at 90° in opposite directions which is usually referred to as a crank
handle.
Crank Handle Shaft
Crankshaft: When a number of cranks are made or incorporated into a shaft. It is used to make
things move up and down e.g. car engines.
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Cam And Follower

A mechanism used to change rotary motion into reciprocating motion. A cam mechanism has four parts:
cam, guide, shaft and follower.
Rotary movement
A cam is a special shaped piece of metal (or other suitable material) which is fixed to an axle or shaft.
Types of Cams
A follower is something designed to rest on top of the cam and move up and down following the shape or
profile of cam as it rotates. The follower can only do three things: Rise (move up) Fall (move down) or
Dwell (remain stationary). The follower's pattern of movement depends on the profile or outside edge of
the cam that it follows.
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Types of Followers
Pulley Systems
A pulley system is a mechanism which transmits rotary motion and force from the driver shaft to the
driven shaft. It consists of pulley wheels on each shaft, connected by a belt (drive belt).
Pulley is a simple wheel with a groove in its rim.
Advantages of pulley are they are quiet in operation, no lubrication is needed. The belt however can
slip.
If the pulley wheels are different sizes, the smaller one will spin faster than the larger one. The difference
in speed is called the velocity ratio. This is calculated using the formula:
Velocity ratio = diameter of the driven pulley ÷ diameter of the driver pulley
120mm
Velocity Ratio = 40mm
3
= 1
= 3:1
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Uses of Pulleys
 Used to change speed.
 Change direction of rotation/turning force (torque).
To reverse the direction of rotation using a pulley system, the belt must be crossed.
Gears
A gear is wheel with specially shaped teeth along its rim so that it can mesh or interlock easily with
another gear. A number of gears connected together are called a gear train. Gear train has two types
of gears: Driver gear is a gear which is being rotated or being turned by means of a crank handle or a
motor and driven gear is a gear which is being rotated or turned by the gear.
SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN: When two to three gears are meshed together.
Where there are two gears of different sizes, the smaller gear will rotate faster than the larger gear. The
difference between these two speeds is called the velocity ratio, or the gear ratio, and can be calculated
using the number of teeth. The formula is:
Gear ratio = number or teeth on driven gear ÷ number of teeth on the driver gear
Gear ratio = 60 teeth ÷ 15 teeth
=4:1
When two gears are meshed together they turn in opposite directions to change their direction of rotation
or make them rotate in the same direction a small gear called the Idler gear is put in between them. The
idler gear does not affect the speed of driver gear and driven gear.
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Compound Gear: This is when many or more than three gears are meshed together.
Uses of gears
 To transfer rotary motion from one shaft to the other.
 To change speed.
 To change direction of movement
 To change one form of motion to the other.
 To transmit motion at 90°.
Special Gears: Are designed for a specific task.
Name Illustration Uses
 It is used to change the rotary motion of

Rack and the pinion into the linear motion of the
Pinion rack e.g. in a car steering and pillar drill.
 It has only one tooth shaped like a screw.

Worm Gear  Used to obtain a large reduction in speed
and high output e.g. food mixers,
windscreen wiper motors.
 Teeth of bevel gears are specially cut at

45°.
Bevel Gear  When two gear are meshed together they
join to transmit rotary motion at an angle
of 90° e.g. in hand drills.
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Chain and Sprocket
Is a mechanism which uses chain to transmit rotary motion from the driver shaft to the driven shaft to
linear motion?
Sprocket: Are toothed wheels on which the chain runs.
Chain: Is a length of loosely jointed links.
Chain and sprocket system cannot slip but is relatively high in cost. Need lubrication and noisy in
operation.
Sprocket Chain
 Recycling metals
 Produce a working model using metal
PROJECTS (MECHAMINSMS)
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STRUCTURES
A structure is an object which will support a load or resist a force. Simply, a structure can be referred to as
a supporting framework. A structure must be able to support its own weight and whatever load it is designed
for. A load is usually in the form of an object, a person or a force. The structures should be able to perform
the task it has been designed for without collapsing or toppling over.
Structures are all around us, houses, bicycles, bridges, aircraft, chairs, e.t.c.
USES OF STRUCTURES
1. To support a load, e.g. a water tower.

2. To span a gap e.g. a bridge.
3. To enclose objects or people, e.g. a car.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
Structures are grouped into two classes
1. Man-made structures or Artificial

2. Natural structures
1) Manmade structures: These are structures created by man.

Examples: Buildings, Cranes, Tables, Cars, Pylons, Planes, Bridges etc.
2) Natural structures: These are structures which were brought about by nature.
Examples: leaves, spider web, trees, snail shell, honey comb, mountains etc.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES.
1) Frame structures
2) Shell structures
 Frame structures
They are made of strips of material put together to form frame work. A frame supports external
loads.
Examples: bridges, chairs, ladder, cranes, skeletons, window. The truss below is a good also a frame
structure.
55
 Shell structures
These structures support the weight by containing it. It is the exterior covering that houses an internal
load.
Examples: cans, chairs, house, aero planes, eggs, cups, honeycombs etc.
 Mass structures
They are solid structures such as dams, mountains, lakes and seas. These resist forces that occur
because of their own heavy weights.
Examples: dams, hills, mountains, soil, oceans, seas, roads, stadium etc.
FORCES
A force is the power of moving something. For instance, pull and push action. Also a force is
anything that changes the speed, direction and movement of an object. When you pull a door to
open it, the pull is a force. When you stand on an empty cardboard box, the force you exert bends
or flattens the box.
FORMS OF FORCES
o Static force.
A stationary force applied to a structure. E.g. a person sitting still on a chair is a static force.
o Dynamic force
A moving or changing force applied to
TYPES OF FORCES
There are different ways of applying force to an object.
a) compression,
b) tension,
c) torsion,
d) bending and
e) shear.
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o Compression
A force that tries to press or squash an object is referred to as a compressive force. The chair’s legs
are squashed, or in compression.
o Tension
A force that tries to pull or stretch an object is referred to as a tensile force. The ropes of the swing
are pulled, or in tension.
o Bending
A force that tries to bend an object is referred to as a bending force. The bookshelf is bending in
the middle due to the heavy weight of the books. The load acting on the shelf is a bending force.
o Shear
A force that tries to cut across an object is referred to as a shear force. The screws are undergoing a
shearing action or are under a shear force.
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o Torsion
A force that tries to twist an object is referred to as a torsion force.
STRUCTURAL FAILURE Sometimes a structure is not able to perform the task it has been designed
for. When a structure collapse or topples over it, the effect is known as structural failure.
CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL FAILURE
 Poor design, Weak materials, Fatigue, Excessive loads, or Poor construction methods
TRIANGULATION-The process of joining strips of material together to form triangle is called

triangulation. Triangle is the most rigid structure. Rigidity and Stability are the most important
properties that a structure must have. A rigid structure will not easily be changed or moved into a
different shape. A stable structure will not fall over easily when a force is applied. The principle of
triangulation is used in many structures.
Examples: Gates, roof trusses, bridges, beams, pylons, furniture, cranes, bicycle, doors etc.
TRIANGULATION TECHNIQUES
 Using gusset plates

A gusset is a piece of material used to join the members of a structure to add rigidity to a frame
structure.
 Adding a member diagonally across a rectangular frame.
The additional strip prevents the frame from being forced out of shape.
58
ELECTRICITY
Electricity is the study of the flow of electrical energy in an electric circuit.
a) Electric circuit
A circuit is a path that electric current follows when it moves through the components.
When a circuit is complete and the electric current flows, the circuit is referred to as a closed circuit. If the
circuit is broken and current does not flow it is said to be an open circuit.
Types of circuits
 Series circuit: circuit in which current flows along one path.
 Parallel circuit: circuit in which current flows along more than one path.
SERIES PARALLEL
Circuit diagram is when using symbols of electronic components to show how they are connected in a
circuit. Circuit diagrams show the connections as clearly as possible with all wires drawn neatly as straight
lines. They are useful when testing a circuit and for understanding how it works.
Tips when drawing circuit diagram
 Make sure you use the correct symbol for each component.
 Draw connecting wires as straight lines.
 Put a ‘blob’ (o) at each junction between wires.
 Label components such as resistors and capacitors with their values.
 The positive (+) supply should be at the top and the negative (-) supply at the bottom.
 Arrange the diagram so that signals flow from left to right: inputs and controls should be on the
left, outputs on the right.
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b) Electric current
Current is the rate at which electricity flows around in an electrical circuit. Current can also be defined as
the flow of electricity in a circuit.
Current symbol is (I) and is measured in amps (A) using an instrument called Ammeter, connected in
series.
Types of current
 Direct current: current flow in one direction only e.g. in a battery.
 Alternating current: current flows to and fro (forward and backward) e.g. in an alternator.
c) Voltage
Voltage is the pressure that causes electricity to flow in an electric circuit. Also is the force that drives
electricity through a circuit.
Voltage is measured in volts (V) using instrument called voltmeter, connected in parallel. Consumption of
current e.g. in a bulb is measured in watts (W).
d) Resistance
Resistance is the ability to oppose the flow of an electric current in a circuit or is the property of a component
which restricts the flow of electric current. . Resistance symbol is (R). The amount of resistance is measured
in ohms (Ω). Resistance reduces the amount of electric current that flows through components in a circuit.
The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material from which it is made. Material can be
divided into three groups which are Conductors, Semiconductors and insulators.
OHMS LAW
Conductor
Conductors are material or substances which have less or low resistance to the flow of electric current like
metals (copper, aluminium, brass, silver) and carbon. Metals are used to make connecting wires, switch
contacts and lamp filaments. Resistors are made from carbon.
Semi conductors
Semi conductors are materials which have moderate resistance like germanium and silicon. Semi
conductors are used to make diodes, LEDs, transistors and integrated circuit (chips).
Insulators
Insulators are material that does not allow electric current to pass through or have high resistance like dry
wood, plastic, paper, glass and rubber.
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e) Electrical components and devices

Electrical components include dry cells, batteries, switches, connecting wires and devices include bulbs,
buzzers, speakers and sirens.
Transducers change energy type from one form to another. Input transducers supply the system with
electrical energy by converting some other form into it e.g. light dependent resistor, thermistor etc. Output
transducers change the electrical energy they receive from the system into another form e.g. loudspeaker,
motor, lamp, LED etc.
 Dry cell is a source of electrical energy.
 Battery is a source of electrical energy. It consists of a number of cells.
 Connecting wire is used to conduct electricity from the source e.g. cell to where it is consumed
e.g. a bulb. Single core or stranded wire as well as thin metal plate are usually used for making
conductors. They are usually insulated with polythene or PVC plastic to prevent shock. The wires
are insulated separately and altogether to form a cord.
Connecting wire wires joined

wires not joined
 Switch is a component that is used to control electricity. It is used for making (switch ON) and
breaking (switch OFF) an electric circuit.
Selecting a switch
Three important features to consider when selecting a switch are contacts (e.g. single pole, double
throw), ratings (maximum voltage and current) and method of operation (toggle, slide, key).
Switch contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole – number of switch contact sets.
Throw – number of conducting positions, single or double.
Open – off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed – on position, contacts conducting.
Momentary – switch returns to its normal position when released.
Types of switches are toggle switch, push button switch, rocker switch, membrane switch and slide
switch.
Name Diagram Type of switch
Toggle switch  Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)

is a simple on-off switch.
 Push to make. A push to make

Push button switch (ON). Allow current to
(SPST flow only when the button is
momentary) pressed.
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 Push to break. A push to break

switch (OFF). It is normally
closed (ON) and open (OFF)
when pressed.
 Special form of switch made of

Membrane thin flexible layers of plastic and
copper or aluminium.
 It is in form of magnetic switch
commonly used on calculators,
telephone, keyboards and cell
phones.
 Bulb is a device which converts electrical energy to light. The filament of an electric bulb is made
of a metal with high electrical resistance and becomes red hot as the current flows through it then
gives out light energy and heat energy.
Other devices
Component Circuit symbol Function
 A transducer which converts electrical

Buzzer energy to sound.
Bell  A transducer which converts electrical

energy to sound.
Motor  A transducer which converts electrical

energy to kinetic energy (motion).
Loudspeaker  An output transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.
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ELECTRONICS
 Electronics is the study of the controlling of the flow of electron around the circuit using various
electronic and electrical components.
 The study of the use of electronic/ electrical components in controlling the flow of electrons in a
circuit.
 The study of management and control of electrons using semi conductors.
Electronic components
These include diodes, resistors, capacitors and transistors.
a) Diodes
Diodes are semi-conductors that allow current to flow in only one direction, from anode (+ ve) to cathode
(- ve). The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. The lead nearest
to the band is called the cathode and the one on the other end is the anode.
It is only when the anode is connected to the positive (+ ve) and the cathode connected to the negative (-
ve) of power supply like battery, will the current flow.
i) Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

LED is a special form of a diode which gives out light when current passes through it.
LEDs must be connected the correct way round. The cathode is the short lead and anode is the long lead.
For safety, never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply. LEDs must have a resistor in series
to limit the current to a safe value.
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. The colour of an LED is
determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the ‘package’ (the plastic body).
LED is mainly as visual indicators lamps in radio receiver, cassette player, video recorder and television.
b) Resistors
Resistors are semi-conductors restrict the flow of electric current in a circuit. Also opposes current flow in
a circuit or reduce current to a desired value in a circuit.
Types of resistors include fixed resistor, variable resistor, Light Dependent Resistor, Thermistor etc.
i) Fixed Resistor
Fixed resistor is a type of resistor which has a fixed value of resistance which once set does not change.
The value of a fixed resistor is measured in ohms (Ω). 1KΩ = 1000 Ω, 1MΩ = 1 000 000Ω. Fixed resistors
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are colour coded and their value is calculated using colour band shown in the table. The bands are read
from left to right where bands are closer to one another and give resistance value in ohms (Ω).
Most resistors have four bands.

 The first band gives the first digit.
 The second band gives the second band.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor.
The resistor above has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and silver (± 10% tolerance). So its value
is 2 7000 Ω = 270 KΩ.
The resistor colour code

Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)

The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is the precision of the
resistor and it is given as a percentage. A special colour code is used for the forth band tolerance.
Silver ± 10%, gold ± 5% red ± 2% brown ± 1%
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.
ii) Variable resistor

Variable resistor (potentiometer) is a type of resistor used to adjust the flow of current in a circuit. It consists
of a resistance track with connections at both ends and wiper which moves along the track as you turn the
spindle. An example where variable resistor is used is volume control of a radio.
iii) Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).

An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which its resistance depends upon the amount of light falling on it.
An LDR may be connected either way round.
 Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1MΩ.

 Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100Ω.
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iv) Thermistor
A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts temperature (heat) to resistance. Its resistance
depends on temperature. Thermistor has a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their
resistance decreases as their temperature increases.
c) Capacitor
Capacitor is a semi-conductor which store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to
store charge.
Two basic types are polarized and non-polarized.
 Polarized capacitor
They have a definite positive (+ve) and negative (-ve) terminal which must be correctly connected or
otherwise it blow up.
 Non-polarized capacitor
They do not have either positive or negative terminal and they can connected either way round in a circuit.
d) Transistor
Transistor is a semi-conductor which control current flow in a circuit by acting as an electric switch or
amplifying electrical signal. The amount of current amplification is called the current gain.
There are two types of transistors, NPN and PNP. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material
used to make the transistor.
 Transistors have three leads labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms refer to
the internal operation of a transistor.
 Transistor s has two paths for current to flow.
NPN (negative positive negative) transistor e.g. BC 108
 With NPN transistor, the collector and the base must go to the positive of the power supply e.g.
battery and the emitter to the negative of the power supply.
 Base current enters by the base and the collector current enters by the collector and both leaves
with the emitter.
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PNP (positive negative positive)
 PNP transistor connection, the collector and the base must go to the negative of the power supply
and the emitter to the positive of the power supply.
 The emitter current enters by the emitter and base current leaves by the base and the collector leaves
current by the collector.
Safety on transistor
 Base, emitter and collector leads must be connected correctly in a circuit to avoid damage to the
transistor.
 Transistor base should always be protected with a resistor.
WORKING WITH ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT: Minor repairs and maintenance
Working with the electric power source can be extremely dangerous. Be aware of the basic safety
requirements and rules.
 Protective clothing must be worn at all times, especially overalls, rubber gloves and rubber soled
to prevent electric shock.
 Never try to repair electrical products in the workshop or home.
 Do not touch water while you are working with electrical equipment.
 Avoid ordinary wire connections, particularly in things like extension cords. Use proper connecting
plugs.
 Do not lay cords under carpets or other floor coverings.
 Damaged electrical wire should not be patched with insulation tape.
 Remember not to remove a person who has been shocked by electricity by bare hands. Always use
a dry stick or other object that does not conduct electricity.
WIRING A THREE-PIN PLUG

It is used to connect electrical devices to the electrical mains. Pin is a part that sticks out in a plug and
pushed in a socket. The plug has to be wired correctly to avoid electrocution (when electric current passes
through the body).
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The correct way to wire a three pin plug

COLOUR PIN/TERMINAL USES
Brown Live (L) Carries current from the mains to the appliances
Blue Neutral (N) Carries current from appliances to the mains

Conducts current to the ground when something is wrong with
Green/ Yellow Earth (E) appliance (safety junction) to prevent electric shock
Earth
Live
Neutral
Cord/cable grip: secure the cable in a plug by holding it firmly.

Steps in wiring a three-pin plug
 Remove the plug cover
 Strip off about 40mm of the outer insulation of the cord to expose the three conductors (wire)
 Shorten the live and neutral wires by 10mm
 Prepare the end of the wires for connection
 Lay the wires outer over the plug base to check if the wires are long enough to reach their terminals
(prolongs) in the plug.
 Clamp the wire ends in the clamping holes in the prongs according to the approved colour code.
 Finally clamp the insulated cord in the clamping device provided in the plug.
FUSES
It is used for breaking a circuit when there is excess current. The purpose of a fuse is to protect the circuit
in the appliance against overload or short-circuit (the current exceeds its limits). The fuse wire (fuse
element) made of suitable material will melt and break the circuit in case of overloading or short-circuit
before enough heat can build up to damage the appliance or cause fire.
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
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DESIGN PROCESS
Design process refers to a designer's sequence of activities which involves identifying and clarifying a
problem, making a thoughtful solution and then creating and testing your solution.
Steps followed by designers when making or manufacturing something to solve an identified problem.
A portfolio is the booklet used to record design process stages on a plain paper through graphics and written
text.
These steps are:
Analysis Situation Problem Design Brief
Exploration of Working
Specifications Development
Ideas Drawing
Production Testing
Realisation
Plan Evaluation
THEME ANALYSIS
Theme Aspects Illustrations:

 Choose three aspects and illustrate them correctly using paste ups or sketches.
 Provide examples of products/activities related to the aspects.
E.g. Hanging, Shelving and Arranging.
Theme Aspects Explanation:
 Explain products/activities in form of paste ups/sketches related to the aspects.
Examination of Area of Interest;

 Pick one area of interest and then describe it
 Definition of the aspect, how the aspect is done and products used
 Write down the advantages and disadvantages of the aspect.
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SITUATION
Situation is explanation of what is happening in a given area. The situation should always have a concern
(worry).
 Derive a situation from the theme analysis (an area of interest).
 Situation should be related to one area of interest.
 Problem should not be written in the situation.
E.g. “Our library teacher always keeps her magazines on top of the table which is very large and takes
a lot of space”
PROBLEM
Problem is the result or disadvantage of what is happening in a given area.
 Derive a clear statement of the problem from the situation.
 They should be one problem written.
 There is no artefact to … should not be written as a problem.
E.g. “There isn’t enough space for storing other items in the Library”.
DESIGN BRIEF
Short statement of intent or what should be done to solve the identified problem.
 Provide a relevant and concise statement of intent from the problem.
 It should be brief not long statement.
 You should never state or name what you want to make e.g. should not say Design and Make a
magazine rack, rather words like device, something, artefact, product, unit etc are normally
used.
E.g. Design and Make a device that can be used by our Library teacher for keeping magazines.
SPECIFICATIONS
Specification is how want you want your finished product look like. Is a detailed instruction about how
something should be designed or made? It consists of qualities, characteristics, parameters and limits that
your artefact must have. These include: Function, Safety, Users, Size, Range of Users, Properties of
materials, Construction methods and Intended Finish. All these elements must be accompanied by reasons
why you want your artefact to be like that (justification).
a) FUNCTION
Is the job which the artefact will have to do? It addresses the HOW part (how is the artefact going to
work).
E.g. “It will be used for keeping magazines in the library in such a way that they do not occupy a large
space in the library”.
b) SAFETY
It states what is going to be done to the artefact to make it safe (free from hurt and danger) to the user.
Consider stability, rigidity and strength of joints or material as safety.
E.g. “Material to be used should not be brittle so that when it falls or drop down accidentally from the
table it will not injure the user”.
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c) CONSTRUCTION METHODS
It states properties of construction methods that will be used for making the artefact. NB: Should not
be names of joints. Permanent and temporary joints it is pre-conceived rather describe the joints.
Discuss the joints looking at how and where it will be used
E.g. “Strong methods of construction should be used so that it cannot collapse easily due to magazine
load”.
d) MATERIAL
This states the properties of materials that will be most likely to be used for making the artefact. NB:
Should not be name of material. Consider the function, where and how it will be used.
E.g “Material to be used should be easy to work with so that less time will be taken when making the
artefact”.
e) FINISH
It states properties of finishes that will be most likely to be applied for making the artefact. It should
relate to the function. Non toxic is only avoided for human consumption.
E.g. “Finish should be easy to clean so that less time is taken to clean dust on the artefact”.
N.B: Waterproof should only be stated in one element of specification.
f) COST
This is the range of prices at which the artefact can be produced. It needs research and calculation.
Existing ideas may be used to help in costing. The range should not be very wide e.g. P10-P100 or be
too small e.g. P5-P6. Cost must be estimated looking at material to be used, time to be taken and labour
to needed.
E.g. “The cost should range between P20-P40 because material to be used will be cheap looking at the
function of the product”
g) RANGE OF USERS
This gives the age of people who are going to use the artefact that is to be made. Range is given when
it is made for a group like children, teenagers, youth, adults or the aged.
E.g. “It will be used by people between the age of thirteen and eighteen because most students who
normally read magazines at the library fall in this range”.
h) SIZE
This states the size of the artefact in terms of weight, length, width, and height or capacity. Consider
function, where it is used and how it will be used. It should not be dimensions.
E.g. “It should hold ten magazines to occupy less space in the table measuring Length 900mm and
Width 600mm where the artefact will be kept”.
EXPLORATION OF IDEAS
Generate a variety of possible solutions to a given problem. N.B: Should not be a development of one
main idea. Should be the one which address the situation
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i. EXISTING IDEAS
These are ideas produced or used by other people to solve a similar problem. These are in form of
paste ups (Pictures obtained from magazines, newspapers, textbooks etc).
 Identify One existing idea to the problem.
 Analyse the existing ideas by function written in present tense, material and construction
methods.
ii. INITIAL IDEAS

These are ideas produced by individual (yourself/own idea) to solve the problem identified. There
are in form of sketches. They can be modification of existing ideas.
 Sketch TWO varieties of initial ideas.
 Indicate possible materials to be in each idea.
 Indicate possible methods of construction in each idea.
 State the function of each idea in future tense.
 Graphics should be in 3D (isometric projection or oblique projection) and communicating.
 Indicate the chosen idea within the four possible ideas and justify it (reasons why you think
is likely to solve the problem identified).
DEVELOPMENT OF CHOOSEN SOLUTION

Development is the improvement of chosen solution by making changes in aspects like methods of
constructions, materials and considering safety for it to solve the identified problem.
Show the logical progression of all the aspects of development.
i) Make informed decisions about the methods of construction to be used.
 Sketched alternatives methods of construction should be considered.
 Justification of choice should be stated.
ii) Make informed decisions about the materials to be used.

 Alternatives material should be considered.
 Justification of choice should be state.
N.B: State in this stage if you will be making working model looking at the size of the product.
Material should be scaled down correctly. Ergonomics is considered to determine size of the
product.
iii) Make informed decision about shape and form for the final idea
 Sketch alternative shapes and justify the chosen shape
iii) Produce a presentation drawing of the developed idea.

 Pictorial drawing should be well rendered and proportioned not colouring but texturing or tone
shading.
WORKING DRAWING (1st Angle Orthographic Projection)

Working drawing shows outside detail and sectional views (inside details) of the product.
It shows exact measurements and how parts are joined together. It is done using the presentation
drawing not finished product using conventional methods of orthographic projection like margins,
symbol of projection, title block and scale. It shows THREE separate views of the product (Front View,
End View, and Plan) correctly positioned. Hidden detail parts and spacing are not marked. Fixing like
screws should not be represented in a working drawing rather use a cross +.
Demonstrate use of space, apply proper dimensioning skills and draw developed solution to scale.
 Produce a detailed working drawing in conformity to International Standard Organisation (ISO).
 Illustrate all the necessary details of the product which include:
a) Correct Front Views ii) Correct End View iii) Correct Plan View
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iv) Correct Spacing v) Dimensions (measurement) vi) Quality of lines

 Symbol of 1st Angle projection should be shown.
 All measurements should be in millimetres (mm).
PRODUCTION PLAN
Is the path you should follow in making the product.
Produce a detailed and sequential production plan of the developed solution with no illustrations.
i) Compile a detailed and realistic material list with final sizes not cutting size. Amount of finishes
like paint is not included but size for fixing like screws and electronics components value should
be shown. Readymade material like caster wheels can be used.
Part Material Quantity Final Size (Mm)

Side South African 2 400x200x20
Pine
Base Mukwa 1 350x200x20
ii) Produce a sequential plan of action for making the product by each part until assembling and
finishing. Sheet material should not be countersunk because it weakens their strength rather use round
head screw.
 State steps to be followed.
 Outline process to be followed.
 List the tools to be used for making the product.
 Estimate the time required for doing each task e.g. applying glue not allowing it to set and should
be realistic.
Part: Side (2) Material: South African Pine

Stage Process Tools And Equipment Estimated Time
1) Measuring and marking Pencil, Steel rule, Try Square 10 Minutes
out to the final sizes.
2) Holding and cutting to the Woodworkers bench vice, 1 Hour
final sizes. Tenon saw, Rip saw,
Smoothining plane, Jack plane
etc
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REALISATION
In this stage one has to make the finished product to solve the problem identified. Single material
product are occur because they avoid misuse of materials.
i. Suitable For The Purpose

Show how the outcomes satisfy the requirements.
 Make a prototype that conforms to the technical requirements of the design brief and specifications.
 Make a product that functions effectively.
ii. Manufacturing Skills

Skills are things that make project work like fittings, nailing, screwing, forming, deforming,
joining, wiring, pasting, stencilling etc. Produce a quality product.
 Select appropriate construction techniques.
 Consider all safety aspects of the product by looking at function.
 Demonstrate good making skills.
 Apply appropriate finish correctly.
 Produce an aesthetically appealing product.
iii. Use of Materials

 Choose suitable materials for making the product.
 Make economic use of materials.
EVALUATION
This is the last stage of Design Process.
i. At this stage one looks at the artefact he/she has made, test it in order to assess whether
they meet the brief and specifications. To do this entire artefact must be tested by giving it
to the targeted group to use it and see how it behaves and record their comments.
 Therefore there must be some evidence of testing e.g. tell how you did the testing and your
observations or other peoples observations during the testing. Testing should be done with
reference to design brief and state why if your product works or fail to work.
 There must also be reference to the elements of the specifications. Justify why you say it meets
the brief. Indicate which elements of specification the artefact does not meet and give reasons
why.
ii. Analyse the product highlighting its strength and weaknesses e.g. the good and bad things
about your product.
iii. Acknowledge modifications made and suggest future improvements.
 Modifications are changes you made to your product during making and reasons for making
them. Acknowledge the modifications you made not the person who helped you. Identify if
you did not do modifications and why. Material s changed should be stated also.
 Future improvements are changes you can make to your product if you can be given second
chance to make it again and reasons. These can be sketched where possible. State improvement
made to your product and why. It should be the one stated on the folio.
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PRESENTATION
Present all components of the portfolio in a clear, attractive and logical way.
Portfolio may be typed if funds permit. It should banded, out cover having candidate name,
candidate number, centre name, centre number and project title, page numbered correctly and
table of contents. Presentation techniques include: tables, rendering, charts, orthographic,
exploded view, paste ups, isometric projection, oblique projection, perspective, tree diagram.
Use of stencil takes much time.
 Draw design ideas using a variety of graphical techniques.
 Communicate ideas and information clearly in writing.
 Enhance their drawing using a variety of presentation techniques.
 Arrange sequentially all the components of the portfolio.
Portfolio (part A) Product (part B)
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MARKETING
Marketing refers to activities involved in getting goods and services from the producer to the consumer
or the actions, which ensures the better selling of the product which meets the need, want and demand of
the buyers. Marketing is important in building customer relationships as well as creating product awareness.
a) Selecting advertising strategies

Advertising is a way of promoting products so that consumers can be informed about the product in order
to buy it. Advertising media include the following;
i) An appropriate and effective advertisement strategy is one which will:
 Promote awareness of a business and its product.

 Persuade customers to buy the product.
 Stimulate sales and attract competitors’ customer.
 Catch the customer’s attention.
 Show the advantages of the product (key message).
ii) Selecting an appropriate strategy is influenced or determined by:
 Demographics: that is age, gender, income, job and hobbies.

 Behaviours: examination of the consumers’ awareness of the business and its competition.
 Needs and desires: determination of the consumers’ needs in practical terms and in terms of
self-image.
 Location of the customers.
 Educational background of the target customers.
b) Identifying the target market

Designers should first start by identifying the needs or wants of their customers through market research
(collecting information that will be used in the design of the product). The designer will be able to know
what client really want to buy, why they want to buy it, when they want to have it, and how they will have
it. This will help you to know the target group either by gender, age, position and profession.
c) Ways of packaging a product

Packaging is the technology used to contain, protect, and preserve products through their distribution,
storage and handling. Packaging is the term used for all the different types of containers used to pack various
products.
Materials used for packaging include paper and board, plastics, aluminium, glass, wood, steel.
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Forms of packaging include cartons, boxes, cases, wrappings, bags, bottles, cans, crates, tubes.
Packaging helps in identifying products, providing valuable information or instructions on the products,
and promoting them. It is also one form of advertising, especially when the package bears the name of the
company. It can be used as branding to promote a particular product.
d) Determining the cost of a product

The main factors determining the selling price of a product are:
 Material cost.
 Indirect cost
 The labour cost
 The profit
Direct costs: these include the material and labour costs. Direct material costs are those costs involved in
making the product to be sold. For example: sand, cement and water in cement building bricks. The direct
labour costs refer to the costs incurred directly on the workers such as salaries, bonuses, and allowances
they are paid.
Indirect costs: also known as overheads, are costs other than directs costs such costs of the telephone,
advertising, cleaning equipment, electricity, and insurance.
To determine the cost price (the price the buyer paid for a product or service) one should add the cost price
of the material, labour and indirect cost.
Total costs= direct costs + indirect costs
In order to arrive at the final selling price (the price that the product or service is sold for) of a product, a
certain percentage (e.g. 30%) is then added to the total costs so as to make a profit (when a product or
service is sold for more than what the seller paid for). It is calculated by subtracting the cost price from
selling price and the result should be positive to be a profit.
Profit= selling price – cost price
The loss (means that a product is sold or a service provided for less than what the seller paid for.
MARKET MIX
(4PS)
PRODUCT PRICE PROMOTION PLACE
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METHODS OF JOINING
Wood joints are used for two main purposes. They are used to build boxes of various shapes and sizes
and frames. A box may be used for storing jewelry, toys or clothes. Frames are used for making things
like stools, chairs and ladders. It is important to try to cut joints as accurately as possible or the strength
of the joint will considerably reduced.
BOX JOINTS
Butt Joint
The butt joint is the simplest of all joints.
It is rather weak unless strengthened by
using glue, nails or corner blocks. Butt
joints can be used on corners or as
partitions.
Mitre Joint
This joint is used on corners. It is useful
because it hides the end grain and also
provides a larger gluing area. Like the butt
joint it is weak unless the joint is
strengthened. This is often done by cutting
slots and gluing veneers in between.
Mitres must be cut at 45O we use a mitre
box for this purpose.
Rebate Joint
This corner joint is stronger and more rigid than a butt
joint, but some end grain shows. You will need a saw,
chisel and mallet to cut this joint by hand
Dowel Joint
This corner joint is essentially a butt joint
which is strengthened by wooden pegs
called dowels which are pushed into both
pieces of wood as they are glued. Dowel
joints can also be used to make partitions.
If the dowel holes are 'blind' (they do not
go all the way through) the dowels are
completely hidden
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Dovetail Joint
This is a very strong joint but is also a
very difficult joint to cut. It has very good
mechanical strength which is increased if
it is glued.
Housing joint
Is stronger than as simple butt joint. It is usually used for
shelves or partitions but it is difficult to cut accurately. It is
usually glued but can also be nailed.
Stopped Housing
Is more difficult to cut but gives a neater
finish. It is normally just glued into place.
FRAME JOINTS
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Corner Mitre
As with the box mitre joint this really needs

pinning for strength. The end grain is hidden.
This type of joint is often used on picture

frames
Corner Halving Joint
This is a simple corner frame joint that can be

made with just four saw cuts. End grain shows on
both sides of the joint and although quite strong it
is often dowelled or screwed.
Tee-Halving Joint
This is similar to the cross halving joint, but this

joint is used to make Tee's or separators in
frameworks. It is quite strong but the tee can
slide apart if pulled.
Dovetail Halving Joint
This joint is much stronger than the Tee

Halving as it can withstand pulling of the cross
member. It is a difficult joint to cut accurately.
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Cross Halving Joint
This type of wood joint is used where two pieces

of a framework cross. It is similar to the corner
and tee halving joints, and can also be
strengthened with dowels or screws if necessary.
Mortise and Tenon
This joint is simple and strong. Woodworkers have used it for many years. Normally you use it to join
two pieces of wood at 90-degrees. You insert one end of a piece into a hole in the other piece.
A mortise is a cavity cut into a piece of wood to receive a tenon. A tenon is

a projection on the end of a piece of wood to insert into a mortise. Usually
the tenon is taller than it is wide.
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KNOCK-DOWN JOINTS
There are many different types of knock down fittings. They are usually fixed with screws to the two
pieces being joined and are pulled tightly together by a locking screw.
Most knockdown fittings are used for temporary joints which hold pieces together without the use of glue.
They are usually used with self-assembly furniture.
Much furniture is sold in flat packs. This makes it easy to transport and store. The customer then has to
assemble it at home. Usually knock-down (KD) fittings are used. Most KD fittings consist of corner
blocks or bloc-joint fittings. Usually these are made from a plastic such as nylon.
Permanent joints are intended to stay put. They may make use of adhesives, nails, rivets, or one of the
heat processes of brazing, soldering or welding. Assembly jigs are often used to hold components in place
while they are being joined. For example, the parts of a steel roof frame can be put into the jig and then
welded together.
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Edging
When pieces of wood are joined along their edges, the joint may need to be supported in some way to
reinforce or make it look neater. Sometimes a strip of wood is glued or pinned over the joint, called
lipping. Sometimes - eg with floorboards or timber cladding - a thin strip projecting from one edge slots
into a slot in the other edge. This is called a tongue and groove joint.
Joining metal
As with wood, there are many ways of joining metal permanently. The method used will depend on the
function of the product, the strength needed and the quality of the product.
Brazing and soldering

Brazing is a way of bonding materials (usually metals) by melting a filler metal or alloy between the
components you want to join. The filler metals used in brazing usually have melting points between
450°C and 1000°C, but must have a lower melting point than the material being joined. Brazing forms
very strong, permanent joints.
Soldering is a type of brazing which works at lower temperatures. Soft soldering is used to make
permanent joints between copper, brass, tinplate or light steelwork, and is the normal way of joining
electronic circuit components. Soft solder melts at about 200°C. The solder flows into the heated metal
along the joint, distributes itself by capillary action, and grips the two pieces together when it all cools.
Hard solder melts at 625°C, and is used for stronger joints.
Welding
Welding is different from soldering in that the two pieces of metal are themselves melted along the joints,
fusing together as they cool. In oxy-acetylene welding a very hot flame is used. In electric arc welding a
spark is used to heat the metal. In both processes a filler rod may used as well to get a really strong joint.
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DEFORMING
1. Deforming is a method of shaping changing the shape of a material by bending, press moulding, plastic
memory, hollowing and steam bending. Most materials are deformed by application of heat.
2. DEFORMING PROCESS
The common plastics deforming processes are: line bending, press moulding and plastic memory.
Deforming plastics
a) Line bending
Line bending or strip bending is used to form straight, small bends in thermoplastics sheet. Heat is applied
along the bend line in order to bend the material. This type of bending is used for sheets with thickness of
up to 6mm.
i) Mark the bend line on the plastic with a ii) Place the work piece over a strip heater with the
felt-tip pen. bend line above the heating element.
iii) As soon as the plastic softens along the bend line, remove it from the strip heater and bend it
using a bending jigs or former. N.B Wear leather gloves and allow it to cool while still holding it in
place.
If a large bend is needed, then the plastic will need to be heated in an oven.
 Mark the area to be bent on the piece of acrylic using a felt-tip pen.
 Heat the plastic in an oven or using a hot air gun until it softens.
 Removing it from the oven and holding it against a former until it cools.
b) Press forming
This is the process of forming plastics using a male and female. The plastic sheet is heated to soften and
then held in-between the male and female mould. This method is used for making lids, covers, trays and
small dishes.
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i) Make an accurate former (mould) to the ii. Wear leather gloves and heat the plastic sheet in
required shape. the oven at about 160°C until it softens.
iii) Place the male former onto the plastic sheet and iv. Remove the plastic from the formers and cut it
apply pressure until the sheet has cooled. to size and finish the work piece.
c) Plastic memory
Thermoplastic has the ability to regain their original shape after being heated and formed and then reheated
again. This characteristic of thermoplastics is used to make imprints onto its surface. Imprinting is the
process whereby a pattern is stamped onto a heated surface. When the pattern is stamped onto the surface,
the plastic shapes itself around the pattern. When it cools, the plastic retains the shape of the pattern. If the
plastic is reheated, it regains its original form.
i. Prepare a shape, letters or words to be ii. Prepare an acrylic sheet of an appropriate

imprinted on the plastic sheet by using a size to accommodate the prepared shape,
wire or sheet metal. letters or words.
iii. Wear leather gloves and heat the oven to iv. Hold the prepared shape, letters or words in
about 160°C. the bench vice against the shape, letters or
words until it cools.
v. Cramp the softened acrylic in the bench vi. Remove the acrylic from the bench vice:
vice against the shape, letters or words cross and draw file to remove about a
by masking tape. millimeter from the surface of the sheet at the
imprinted side.
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vii. Reheat the acrylic piece in the oven until the imprint rise to the acrylic original size before removing
some material off.
Deforming wood
The most common process used in deforming wood is called steam bending.
a) Steam bending
When timber is heated in a steam bath, it will bend without splitting. This process is suitable for making
furniture (chairs), coat hangers, coat hooks and decorative forms of jewellery.
i. Cut timber into laminations (strips of ii. Heat in a steam bath and this allows the
wood). steam to get to hall parts of the timber more
quickly.
iii. The laminations can be bonded with an iv. Cramp the lamination in a former and
adhesive during cramping if a thicker piece leave it to cool and dry out. After drying
is needed. the timber will keep its new bent shape.
v. Cut off any waste and finish off the product.
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Deforming metals
Aluminum, copper and mild steel can be deformed. Thin sheets, wires and rods can be deformed when cold
while thicker pieces can be deformed when the materials is hot. Metal can be deformed by bending and
hollowing.
a) Metal line bending

Thin sheet metals can be bent when cold. Sheet metal can be bent in a bench vice or folding bars to give a
straight bend line.
i. Measuring and marking out bending line using steel rule, engineer square and scriber.
Scriber
Steel rule
Engineer square
Workpiece
Bending line
ii. Holding and bending using engineer vice, folding bar and rubber mallet.
Rubber mallet Folding bar
Engineer vice
b) Hollowing
Hollowing is a process used to make shallow dishes/ shapes.
i. After annealing (softening the metal by heat), clean the work piece.
ii. Draw concentric rings in pencil round the inside of the dish.
iii. Use small face of a bossing mallet and a leather sandbag. Work round the outside line and then
each line in turn, working towards the centre or place the work piece on a hollowed wooden block
and it with a blocking hammer.
iv. After each round of hollowing, use a large face of the mallet to true up the shape by removing
wrinkles on the edges.
v. The final stage is to planish the bowl in order to further smooth the surface and true up the shape
as well as work-harden it.
3. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN DEFORMING PROCESS

Deforming Process Material used Equipment used
Plastic line bending Acrylic, and polystyrene Line bender/ strip heater
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Press moulding Acrylic and polystyrene Oven, male and female mould
Plastic memory Acrylic Oven
Steam bending Wood laminations Steam bath, former and clamps

Mild steel, copper, Aluminium Engineers vice, rubber mallet and
Metal line bending and Galvanised sheet. folding bars.
Sandbag, hollowed wood block,
Hollowing Copper and Aluminium bossing mallet, Planishing hammer
and stake.
4. SELECTING APPROPRIATE DEFORMING PROCESS

 Type of material to be deformed.
 Availability of the specific deforming tools.
 Availability of the specific deforming material.
 Availability of deforming equipment.
 Skill of the maker (designer).
 Time taken to do the process.
5. WORKING SAFELY WITH DEFORMING EQUIPMENT

 Leather gloves must be worn at all times as well as other protective clothing and safety shoes.
 Hold a hammer or mallet properly to avoid hurting your fingers and others in bending metals.
 The hammer or mallet head must be held tightly in the handle.
 Do not overheat plastics in the oven or strip heater because it will produce a bad smell which may affect
your eyes or respiratory.
6. CARING FOR DEFORMING EQUIPMENT

 Make sure that after using a strip heater or oven, it must be switched off.
 Clean the strip heater after using it.
 All other tools and equipment such as mallets, hammers, clamps and sandbags should be stored at their
storage places after use.
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TOOLS & PROCESSES
1. MEASURING & MARKING OUT TOOLS

 Measuring means taking dimensions.
 Marking out means the transfer of shapes and lines onto the material as guides for cutting, bending or
shaping them.
a) Measuring and marking out tools:
Tool name and illustration Uses

Steel rule
 It is used to measure, mark out and check for
flatness on wood, metal and plastic
Outside calipers
 Used to measure the outside diameters of
rods and cylinders.
Inside calipers
 It is used to measure internal diameter of a
pipe and tube.
Measuring tape
 It is used for measuring lengths between 0-2
metres.
Pencil
 It is used for marking out lines on wood.
Felt-tip pen
 It is used for marking out lines on plastic.
Scriber
 It is used for marking out lines on metals.
Try square  It is used for accurate checking of surfaces for

straightness and squareness of edges.
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 Marking out lines at right angles to the true

edge.
Engineers square  For accurate checking of surfaces for

straightness and squareness of edges.
 Marking out lines at right angles.
Sliding bevel  Used for marking lines at any angle to a given

edge by using a pencil or marking knife,
scriber or felt-tip pen.
Marking gauge
 Used for marking lines parallel to an edge on

wood.
Mortise gauge  It is used for marking a mortise joint in wood.
Odd-leg calipers  It is used to mark lines parallel to the true edge

in plastic and metal
Pair of compass  It used for marking circles and arcs in wood.
Spring dividers  It is used for scribing circles and arcs in metals

and plastics.
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Centre punch  It is used for marking out the centre of a hole

on metal.
Marking/ trimming knife  It is for marking lines of where to cut on metal.
Bradawl  It is used to make small holes in wood for

screws and nails.
Dot punch  Used to witness mark when marking out so

that they are clearly visible.
b) Selecting appropriate measuring and marking out tools

The selection of appropriate measuring and marking out tools depends upon:
 The material being measured or marked.
 The use of marked lines. Temporary lines use pencil or felt tip pen and permanent marks use scriber or
dot punch.
 The length of the work to be measured or marked out. Steel rule for small work and tape measure for
large work.
c) Using measuring and marking out tools correctly and safely

 Marking out tools have sharp points and they should be used correctly and safely.
 Each tool should be used for its intended purpose to make them last longer and prevent unnecessary
accidents.
d) Checking for squareness and flatness

 Checking for squareness means checking whether the two sides form a right angle (90°).
 The work piece should be made flat using a steel rule.
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e) The principles of marking out materials

 Always measure from a baseline or datum surface (Flat and straight edge).
 Use a steel rule or straight edge to check that the surface is flat. Then check that a surface is at right
angles to another surface with a Try square or Engineers square.
 Mark out where the material should be cut.
 Cut the material, leaving some spare material for finishing to a smooth surface.
 Smoothen the material to the lines marked out.
 Cut any joints.
 Apply a suitable surface finish.
SAWS AND SAWING

Saw is a tool that uses a hard blade with saw set to cut through materials. Sawing is the method of separating
material that is needed, from the material that is not needed (waste).
1) CLASSIFICATION OF SAWS AND USES

There are three of saws namely: hand saws, backsaws and curve saws.
a) Hand saws
Name and illustration Description and Uses
Rip saw cuts very aggressively, but will produce a very
Rip saw ragged cut if used across the grain. The lengths are from
600 to 700mm.
 It is used for sawing large pieces of wood along the

grains.
It can cut along the grain but not as quickly as a rip saw.
Cross cut saw The length is about 600mm.
 It is used for cutting across the grain of large pieces

of wood.
It is fine toothed saw used for cutting across the grain.

Panel saw The length is about 500mm.
 It is used for sawing plywood and thin wood as well

as large joints.
b) Back saws
Tenon saw A large saw (300-350mm) with course teeth used for
rougher joinery work like cutting tenon cheeks.
 It used for cutting tenon saw joints and straight

lines in wood.
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Dovetail saw A short saw (200-250mm) with very fine teeth.
 It is used for sawing dovetail joints.
c) Curve cutting saws

Coping saw The frame is made from sprung steel. The wood or
plastic handle is used to tighten the blade. The saw
cuts on the pull stroke.
 It is used for cutting curves, shapes and slots in

wood or plastics.
 Also used to remove waste from joints.
Bow saw
The blade is tightened by twisting the cord. The
handles turn to change the direction of the blade.
 It is used for sawing curves in thick wood.
The blade length should be as short as possible to

Pad saw avoid blade breakage. The blade length is adjusted by
sliding it through the handle.
 It is used for cutting small curves in difficult
places where a coping and bow saw cannot reach.
d) Frame saws
It has a very fine teeth and thin disposable blades. A

screw mechanism is used to add tension to the blade.
Hacksaw The teeth face away from the handle and cut on the push
stroke.
 Used for sawing straight cuts on flat, round, square
or hexagonal forms of metals and plastics.
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Junior hacksaw The blade is held in tension in a sprung steel frame.
 Used for sawing straight cuts on small, light work

pieces of materials.
Piercing saw It has fine blades intended for cutting metal. It is used
by jewelers in model making or any work that requires
details.
 It is used for cutting curves in soft or thin metals

and plastics.
2) PARTS OF SAWS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Blade  Blade is used for cutting along the wood

grain.
 Handle used to hold the blade and handle the
Handle saw when sawing.
Back
 Back stiffens the blade to provide sufficient
weight to cut. It also prevents the blade from
wobbling or bending when cutting.
 Teeth used for cutting.
Teeth
Wing nut
 Frame is used to hold the blade.
 The wing nut/ knob are used to tighten or

loosen the blade.
Frame
 The handle used for holding the saw when
Handle
cutting and for adjusting the blade of the saw.
 Ferrule it prevent the handle from splitting.
Blade Ferrule
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3) CORRECT USE OF A SAW

a) Correct way of using a tenon saw
 Hold the saw with the first/ fore-finger supporting and guiding the blade during sawing.
 Use your thumb against the side of the handle and pull the saw backwards to start it at a right place.
 Use the whole blade to cut the work piece. Do not force the saw.
 One leg should be in front of the other and the there should be sufficient space between you and the
work piece to allow effective sawing.
b) Correct way of using a hacksaw

 Make sure that the blade is well tightened.
 One hand should hold the handle while the other hand holds the frame towards the wing nut.
 Hold the saw with the first/ fore-finger supporting and guiding the frame during sawing.
 Use the whole blade to cut the work piece when you push the saw.
 On the return stroke, lift the saw slightly to avoid wearing off the teeth.
c) Correct way of using a coping saw

 Make sure the blade is tight. If loose, tighten it by twisting the handle.
 Both hands should hold the handle of the coping saw.
 The cutting action is when you the saw.
4) SELECTING APPROPRIATE SAWS WHEN CUTTING MATERIALS

 The type of material being cut.
 The size of the material.
 The type of cut.
5) SAFE HANDLING OF SAWS

 When handing saws to someone, the receiving person should receive it by the handle.
 Do not drop saws as the blade or teeth may bend or break.
 Do not saw the work piece too fast because it will overheat the blade resulting in either bending or
breaking.
 Do not rub the blade against any work as this will make the teeth blunt.
 Do not apply too pressure on the saw as this will make the blade to overheat and it will either bend
or break.
 Always make sure the work piece is tightly held in a holding device.
 Never hold the work piece with your hands when sawing.
6) CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF SAWS

Common faults made when using saws involve breaking the blade.
 Blade breakage is caused by stroking out of line, too much tension of the blade, too much pressure,
insufficient tensioning of the blade or work piece being cut not securely fixed in the bench vice and
jamming in the kerf.
 Tooth wear is caused by fixing the blade the wrong way round in the frame, insufficient or too much
pressure, and speed applied to the material being cut.
 Make sure that the teeth are always sharpened and at the correct set.
 When teeth are worn out, use a triangular file to sharpen them and a saw set tool to bring it to the
correct set.
 After using saws, the must be stored properly in racks or compartments where the blades will not rub
each other.
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 Teeth in a blade often break and this is caused by sawing against a corner and material not properly
fixed in the holding device.
PLANES AND PLANING

A plane is a tool for shaping wood and plastic. Planes are used to remove excess material either on wood
or acrylic to produce a smooth surface or used to make and shape the edges of the material.
1) TYPES OF BENCH PLANES
TYPE USES
Jack plane
 General purpose work.
 Planning along the grain and its great length (350mm) produces
a flatter surface.
 It is used before the smoothing plane to plane rough surfaces.
Smoothing plane
 Give a smooth surface after using the jack plane.
 Cleaning all previous tool and pencil marks.
 Planning end grains.
 Its short sole makes it difficult to produce a flat surface.
2) SPECIFIC USE OF PLANES

 Planning rough wood surfaces.
 Straightening wood and plastic surfaces.
 Making chamfers (sloping) on material edges.
 Making grooves.
 Smoothening surfaces.
 For making rebates.
 For making convex and concave curves.
3) PARTS OF A PLANE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
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a) The mouth: an opening in the bottom of the plane down through which the blade extends, and up
through which wood shavings pass.
b) The blade: is a plate of steel with a sharpened edge which cuts the wood. The blade cuts into the wood
when the plane is pressed on the material and moved along the surface.
c) The lever cap: holds the blade down firmly to the body of the plane.
d) The depth or fine adjustment knob: controls how far the blade extends through the mouth.
e) The knob: a handle on the front of the plane.
f) The cap iron: make the blade more rigid and to curl and break apart wood shavings as they pass
through the mouth.
g) The lateral adjustment lever: is used to adjust the iron by skewing it so that the depth of cut is uniform
across the mouth.
h) Handle: the part where you hold a plane on the back.
i) The frog: is a sliding iron wedge that holds the plane iron at the proper angle. It slides to adjust the gap
between the cutting edge and the front of the mouth.
j) The sole: made from cast iron and does not wear off easily. The sole forms the base of the plane and
its length determines which type of plane it is. The sole helps to produce accurate and flat surfaces.
k) Toe: the front part of the sole.
l) Heel: the hind part of the sole.
4) SELECTING APPROPRIATE PLANES FOR THE CORRECT JOB

Selection of appropriate planes depends upon:
a) The shape to be planed.
b) The purpose of planning the surface, for instance;
i) Shaping
ii) Smoothening
iii) Rebating
iv) Grooving
v) Decorating
vi) Planning rough surfaces
vii) Shooting
5) HANDLING PLANES SAFELY

 You should always put on appropriate safety clothing.
 The material to be planed should always be securely held by a holding and cramping devices.
 If the material is very long, it should be held between the two stops.
 Planes have a sharp blade which might cause injury if mishandled.
 You should never touch the blade when setting it.
6) CARE AND MAINTENANCE FOR PLANES

 Always place the plane carefully by its side to avoid damaging or chipping of the blade.
 When not in use, the blade should always be adjusted such that it does not protrude beyond the sole and
the plane should be put in its appropriate place.
 The blade should at all times be kept sharp to produce a smooth surface.
 A blunt blade should be grinded to an 25° and sharpened to an angle of 30°. The wood shavings that
get trapped in the plane should be removed.
 Take care not to plane on nails or other metals.
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7) CORRECT WAYS/ TECHNIQUES OF PLANING

Two techniques used when planning are planing along the surface (grain) and planing across the surface
(grain).
a) Planing along the surface

The following steps should be followed:
i) Plane along the wood grains to the marked gauge line.
ii) This should result in thin shavings rising above the surface of the wood as the edge of the plane
iron is pushed forward leaving a smooth surface.
iii) Use a rule to check the flatness. If the surface is not yet flat, some light will get through between
the steel rule and wood surface.
iv) Use a try square to check for squareness.
b) Planing across the end grain

When planing across the end grains, the wood will split at the ends. These can be prevented by:
i) Placing a waste wood to the edge of the work and cutting its corner off.
ii) Plane half way the work piece and plane the other half from the opposite direction.
FILES AND FILING
Files are multi-toothed tools used to cut, shape and smoothen materials such as metals and plastics. Filing
means to make the edge of material flat using a rough tool on its surfaces which comes in different
grade/cuts called a file.
1) CLASSIFICATION OF FILES AND THEIR USES

Files are classified according to the shape of their faces. Files are also graded according to the space of the
file teeth. The smaller the space between the teeth, the finer the cut and the bigger the teeth, the coarser the
cut. The common classes of files include:
NAME CROSS SECTION USES

 For general use on flat surfaces.
Hand File  Double-cut on both faces, single-cut on one edge
 Only another edge is smooth called safe edge.
Flat File  For general use on flat surfaces.

 Double-cut on both faces, both edges single-cut.
 For enlarging holes and finishing inside or concave
Round File curves.
 For flat as well as round and curved surfaces.

Half-Round File
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 For filing triangular holes or any face which meets

Three Square at less than 90°.
(Triangular File)
 For filing slots, as well as square and rectangular

Four Square File holes.
File cut
This describes the pattern in which the teeth are arranged on the blade of the file.
Single-cut file: A file has a single series of teeth cut across its face and follow to one direction. They are
used for soft material and for getting a smooth finish/surface.
Double-cut file: When a file has two sets of teeth cut across its face. They are general purpose file. They
are good for medium and hard metals and plastics.
2) FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A FILE
a) Face: used for filing the material. Made of hardened and tempered high carbon steel.
b) Tang: the part which is fitted into the ferrule (connects the face and the handle).
c) Ferrule: Prevents the handle from splitting if a wooden handle is used. Made from steel or brass.
d) Handle: Used for handling the file. Made of ash, beech or plastics.
e) Tip: the last part of a file and has no teeth.
f) Shoulder or heel: the part which supports the tang and has no teeth.
g) Blade: the cutting part of the file. It is composed of the face and teeth.
h) Teeth: sharp pointed parts arranged across the file face and they are used to cut the material.
3) GRADE OF A FILE
A file grade refers to the degree of coarseness of the file. File grades include:
Bastard (coarse): Rough filing to remove the most material in the shortest time.
Second-cut: To bring the work close to the final or finished size.
Smooth: To remove small amount of material to give a smooth and good finish.
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4) CORRECT WAYS OF FILING

Two methods of filing are cross filing and draw filing.
Cross filing Draw filing

The file is moved across the work using full length The file is moved sideways along the work. It is
of the blade. This method is used for rapid removal used to obtain a smooth finish after cross filing.
of waste material and filing to the line. It normally
leaves the surface rough.
5) SELECTING APPROPRIATE FILES WHEN FILING MATERIALS

The selection depends on the following:
 The type of material to be filed (wood, metal, plastics).
 The shape to be filed.
 The amount of material to be removed.
 The grade of the file.
 The cut of the file.
6) WORKING SAFELY WITH FILES

Files are sharp objects which can cut someone if safety precautions are not allowed:
 Never use a file without a handle because the tang will injure your palm.
 Never bang files together. This will result in the teeth of the files being damaged or file breaking
because it is brittle.
 Keep files away from oil or grease as these will facilitate the pinning of the file. Pinning is the clogging
of the file teeth with particles of material causing the file to lose its cutting ability and badly scratching
the work.
7) CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FILES

 Fit your work firmly to the bench vice when filing to avoid chattering and chipping of the file teeth.
 Never use a file on welded joints as these will damage the file’s teeth.
 Never allow the file to slip over the work because it makes the file teeth blunt.
 Clean the teeth as soon as they become pinned by a special wire brush called a file card. Pins can also
be removed by a file pick (a sharp pointed piece of brass). A little chalk rubbed on the file helps keep
the teeth clean.
 After using files, they must be cleaned and stored in compartmental trays or in a rack.
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DRILLS, DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS
Drilling is the process that produces holes by rotating a drill in a powered device in metal and plastic.
Boring is the process of making a hole in wood with a rotating cutting bit.
1) TYPES OF DRILL AND BORING BITS AND THEIR USES
DRILLING BITS
NAME ILLUSTRATION USES
Twist drill bit  Used for drilling holes in wood, metals and
plastics. Sizes range 1-14mm.
 Drill counter sunk in a hole already drilled
Counter sunk bit so that a countersunk headed screw or rivet
will flush with the surface of the material.
 Used for cutting holes in sheet materials

Hole saw/ cutter (wood, metal and plastics).
BORING BITS ( used on wood only)

NAME ILLUSTRATION USES
Auger bit  Used for boring deep holes in green

wood.
Centre bit  Used for boring shallow holes in wood.
Expansive centre  Used for boring various sized holes in

bit thin materials.
Fortner bit  Used for boring large flat bottomed

holes in wood.
2) PARTS OF DRILLS AND BORING BITS
 Twist drill bit parts
Tang
a) Tang: it used for the ejection of the drill.
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b) Shank: it provides the drill bit drive.

c) Body: it provides clearance in deep holes.
d) Flutes: provide room for the escape of chippings and allows the coolant to get to the cutting edge.
e) Land: it gives the body clearance.
 Auger bit parts

Tang Shank Auger Nose/ spur
Point
a) Body: it provides clearance of the hole.
b) Spur: it cuts the edges of the blade.
c) Cutters: it cuts the material.
d) Screw point: it guides the bit when boring.
3) DRLLING MACHINES
Name and Illustration Uses
Electric hand drill
 It is used to drive drill bits. The maximum drill

shank diameter to be accommodated in the
chuck is 13mm.
Hand drill or wheel brace
 Used to drive drill bits up to a maximum of

8mm diameter.
Breast drill
 Drive drill bits up to a maximum of 13 mm
diameter. Chest is usually used to provide
extra pressure.
Carpenters ratchet brace

 It is used to drive boring bits only because the
chuck holds square-shank bits. The ratchet
allows the brace to be used in corners where a
full turn is not possible.
4) TYPES OF HOLES
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Through hole Blind hole/ stopped hole Countersunk hole

The drill or boring bit cuts The drill or boring bit does not A countersunk bit is used to
through the material to the other cut through the material. increase the diameter of a hole
side. already drilled so that the
countersunk headed screws or
rivets can flush with the surface
of the material.
Counter boring Pilot hole Clearance hole

The process of hiding bolts heads Small guiding holes used when Is the hole that holds/
into the material. joining wood. accommodate the shank of the
screw.
5) SELECTING APPROPRIATE DRILL AND BORING BITS

The selection depends on the following:
 The type of material to be drilled.
 The size of hole to be drilled.
 The depth of the hole to be drilled.
 The thickness of the material.
6) CORRECT WAYS OF DRILLING AND BORING HOLES
a. Drilling a hole in metal

i. Support work firmly in a vice or clamp to a bench.
ii. The drill should be held tightly in the chuck.
iii. Centre punch the work piece before drilling to guide the drill bit.
iv. When drilling, withdraw the drill at intervals to remove the swarf.
v. Use sharp drills.
vi. Apply just enough pressure to make the drill cut.
b. Drilling a large hole in metal or plastics

i. Drill a pilot hole to guide the large drill bit.
ii. Change to a drill that is almost as large as the final dimension of the required hole.
iii. Use the required size drill bit.
c. Drilling large holes in thin materials.

i. Hold the material in between two pieces of wood of the same size with the work piece.
ii. Drill the hole in the wooden piece through the metal sheet.
d. Drilling a hole to a certain depth

i. Measure the depth of the hole size on the drill bit.
ii. Mark the depth by wrapping masking tape around the drill bit.
102
e. Using boring bits

i. Drill from one side with a bit until the screw point shows through and then turn the work piece
and locate the hole point.
ii. Drill from the other side.
iii. Do not drill right through the wood as this will leave a ragged exit hole.
7) HANDLING DRILL AND BORING BITS SAFELY

 Wear safety goggles when drilling materials.
 Clamp the material down securely or use a bench or machine vice.
 Never hold materials by hand while drilling.
 Always allow the swarf to clear the drill by drilling a small amount at a time.
 Drilling and boring bits should be stored safely in racks to avoid damaging the cutting edges.
 Apply coolant when drilling holes in metals to prevent the bits from getting heated up.
 Always use fast speed when using a smaller bits and slow speed when making bigger holes.
CHISELS AND CHISELLING
Chisels are used for removing small amounts of wood or metal waste by chipping. Chisel for wood are
called wood chisel while for metal are called cold chisel.
1) CLASSIFICATION OF CHISELS AND THEIR USES
Wood chisels
 Cut and clean acute corners or corners less than
Bevel-edge chisel 90°.
 Used for light work since the blade is not strong.
Firmer chisel  General purpose work.

 Used for cleaning grooves and accessing tight
spaces.
Mortise chisel  Cut heavy duty work and mortises.

 Has a very thick blade and can with stand heavy
mallet blows.
Cold chisels (cut metal only)

Flat chisel  Used for cutting, chipping work, cleaning castings

and trimming metal to size.
Diamond point chisel
103
 It is used for squaring corners and cutting v-

grooves.
Cross-cut chisel
 Used for cutting keyways, grooves and removing
rivets heads.
Round nose
 Used for cutting round grooves and cleaning
rounded corners.
2) PARTS OF A CHISEL AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS
 Wood chisel Shoulder

Tang
Ferrule Blade
Handle Cutting edge
a) Blade: the long metal part made of high carbon steel which is sharpened at the edge for cutting.
b) Tang: the part fitted into the ferrule (connects the face and the handle).
c) Ferrule: it prevents the handle from splitting if a wooden handle is used.
d) Handle: used for handling the chisel.
e) Cutting edge: the last part of the blade that cuts on the material.
f) Shoulder: holds the chisel tang which connects into the handle.
g) Leather washer: found in mortise chisel between the shoulder boss and the ferrule. It acts as a shock
absorber when a mallet is used.
Body
 Cold chisel
Cutting edge
Head
a) Head: it absorbs the hammer blows during chiseling.

b) Body: hold the chisel in place when hammering.
c) Cutting edge: the last part of the body that cuts on the material.
3) CORRECT WAYS OF CHISELLING

Two methods of chiseling are chopping and paring. The following steps should be taken when chiseling:
 Securely hold the work piece with a holding device.
 Make sure the blade is very sharp.
 Always keep your hands behind the cutting edge.
 Take a good stance which will allow you to make a complete arm movement.
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Chopping Paring
 Chopping is when you drive chisel using  Paring is the process of cutting off the surface
blows from a mallet. or edge of the wood using hand pressure.
 The chisel is used vertical across the line of
the grain.
4) SELECTING APPROPRIATE CHISELS WHEN CHISELLING MATERIALS

Selection of an appropriate method of chiseling depends upon the following:
 The type of material to be chiseled.
 The area to be chiseled.
 The shape of the work to be chiseled (curved, corners, grooves).
5) WORKING SAFELY WITH CHISELS

 Always chisel away from your body keeping both hands behind the chisel’s cutting edge.
 The work piece should be secured in a holding or cramping device.
 When chopping a through mortise, protect the bench with a waste wood.
 Carry chisels safely with the blade facing downwards and close to your body.
 Store chisels in a safe place to prevent them from falling and causing injuries or chipping the cutting
edge.
 Always use a chisel with a sharp cutting edge.
 Never use a chisel with no handle.
 Never put a chisel in your pocket.
6) CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CHISELS

For chisel to last longer and to be able to produce a good work, care and maintenance should be practiced:
 Chisels should always be stored properly such that the blade is not exposed to any material that can
chop it.
 Chisels should be regularly grinded and sharpened using a grinding stone and an oiling stone. (Cutting
edge has two surfaces- the grinding angle and the sharpening angle).
 The grinding angle: reduces the thickness of the. It should be grinded to 25°.
 The sharpening angle: makes the sharp edge to 30°
105
SHEARS AND SHEARING
Shearing involves cutting thin sheet metals and soft plastics by the use of tin snips.
1) PARTS OF SHEARS Pivot point
Cutting edge
Handles
2) TYPES OF SHEARS AND THEIR USES

Straight tin snip

 It is used for cutting straight lines and outside curves.
Curved tin snip

 It used for cutting inside curves.
Universal tin snip

 Used for cutting curved and straight cuts in thicker
materials.
Bench shear (guillotine)
 Are designed to cut flat sheets, rods and flat bars.
3) CORRECT WAYS OF SHEARING

The following steps need to be followed:
 Hold the tin snip with the base of the thumb and the finger round the handle and squeeze.
 Make sure your fingers are not put between the handles.
 Push the jaws of the tin snip into the piece in order to open it.
 The tin snip should not be completely closed except at the end or corner of the cut.
 When cutting complex shapes, remove most of the waste and then cut the line.
4) SELECTING APPROPRIATE CHISELS WHEN CHISELLING MATERIALS
Selection of an appropriate method of chiseling depends upon the following:
106
 The type of material to be cut (copper, aluminium, galvanized sheet).

 The type of cut to be obtained (straight or curved).
5) WORKING SAFELY WITH SHEARS

Cutting sheet metal produces very sharp edges which are dangerous and can cause injuries.
 Strong leather gloves must be worn to protect your hands.
 Always make sure that your fingers are behind the cutting blades to avoid accidentally cutting them.
 After use, make sure that the handle is locked in the upright position.
 Place the tools in their correct storage after use.
6) TAKING CARE OF SHEARS

 Shears should be placed in a tool well when working to prevent accidental falling down.
 They must not be used to cut wires because the cutting edge will be damaged.
 They should be regularly sharpened so that the blades are kept sharp.
 Shears must be stored safely during and after use.
 Bench shears should be tightly held on the bench top.
HOLDING AND CRAMPING TOOLS

These tools are used to hold work securely while drilling, sawing, welding, grinding, bending, heating,
filling etc.
1) HOLDING AND CRAMPING TOOLS AND THEIR USES.

Pliers
 It is used to hold small and light work.
Vice grip (mole wrench)

 Firmly locked onto pieces of work to clamp
them together or hold them while drilling,
grinding or welding
Hand vice
 It is used for holding small sheet materials
while shaping, filing or drilling on a machine
drill.
Woodworker’s bench vice
 To hold wood while being sawn, planed,

chiseled, and drilled.
 Hold plastic sheets when glued.
107
Engineer’s vice (metal bench vice)

 Used to hold materials (plastic and metal)
while being shaped, filed or sawn.
Bench hook
 Hold wood or plastic while sawing.
 Usually held in a vice or bench well.
Machine vice
 It is used for holding round, flat or square
materials while drilling on a drilling machine.
G cramp  Hold work down onto the bench and to cramp

together small pieces of glued wood or
plastics.
 Holds material to a bench while being drilled.
Sash cramp
 Hold pieces of wood and plastics together
while gluing.
 It also holds metal frames during welding.
Bench hold-fast
 It is used to hold materials onto the bench
top while carving, sawing and drilling. (A
scrap piece of wood should be used to
protect the work piece).
2) USING APPROPRIATE HOLDING AND CRAMPING TOOLS
a) Using sash cramps to hold a frame
108
 The cramp should be laid on a flat surface.

 Used wood scrap pieces to protect the work piece.
 Cramp along the centre line of the rails.
 Test the work piece for squareness.
b) Using a bench hold-fast to hold glued wood.

 Glue the pieces together.
 Place a scrap piece to protect your work piece from damage.
 Tighten the screw mechanism to hold your work piece in position.
c) Using an Engineer’s vice to hold a metal sheet

 Make sure the vice has rubber protectors or use a scrap piece to protect your work from damage.
d) Using a Woodworker’s vice to hold wood

 Cut scrap pieces to protect your work from damage.
e) Using a G-cramp to hold wood

 Place a scrap wood piece to protect the work piece.
 Tighten the G-cramp handle.
3) HANDLING HOLDING AND CRAMPING TOOLS SAFELY

 When using sash cramps, be careful not to hurt people working around you because of their length.
 G-cramps, hand vice and sash cramps can injure your feet if they can happen to fall from the bench.
 Cramped work should always be put at the back of the workshop where there is no or little movement
of people.
 Do not over-tighten your work piece.
 Remember to always use a scrap piece at the shoes of the holding devices to protect your work.
4) CARE AND MAINTENANCE FOR HOLDING AND CRAMPING TOOLS

 Holding and cramping tools should not be misused. They should not be thrown down as they may bend
or even break.
 The vices should always be cleaned after use otherwise the screw mechanism will get clogged with dirt
and it will make it difficult to open or close the vice.
 When the vices are not in use, the jaws should not be left tightly closed. Leave a little gap which could
fit your fingers.
109
DRIVING AND PERCUSSION TOOLS

Driving tools are used to force fixings into the material when joining them. Percussion (hitting) tools are
used to hit fixings into material when joining them.
1) DRIVING AND PERCUSSION TOOLS AND THEIR USES

Screw driver
 Flat screw driver used for driving flat slot head
screws.
 Philips screw driver used for driving Philips
head screws.
 Pozidriv screw driver is used for driving
Pozidriv head screws.
Nail punch
 To drive headless nails and panel pins below
the wood surface.
Cross-pein hammer
 It is used for hitting panel pins and thin nails
into wood.
Ball-pein hammer
 It is used for general purpose metalwork
(riveting, bending, dot/ centre punching).
Claw hammer
 It is used for hitting nails heads and removing
unwanted nails.
110
Carpenter’s mallet
 It is used for hitting the handle of chisels and

gouges.
Rubber mallet  It is used for bending or flattening sheet

metal.
Bossing mallet
 It is used for hollowing sheet metal.
Planishing hammer  Used to smoothen the metal sheet during the

process of Planishing.
Pin hammer
 It is lightweight cross-pein hammer used for
driving small tacks, panel pins and thin nails.
2) CORRECT USE OF DRIVING AND PERCUSSION TOOLS
a) Using driving tools correctly

 The screw driver blade should fit the length and width of the slot in the screw head.
b) Using percussion tools correctly

 A hammer or mallet should be held by the handle towards the tip.
111
3) SELECTING APPROPRIATE DRIVING AND PERCUSSION TOOLS

a) Screw drivers are selected according to:
 The size of the screw.
 The type of the screw slot (flat, Phillips or Pozidriv).
b) Hammers are selected according

 Type of nail to be used.
 Type of nail to be removed.
 Type of work to be done (riveting, chiseling, gouging, bending or hollowing).
4) WORKING WITH DRIVING AND PERCUSSION TOOLS
a) Wrong use of a screwdriver

 Using a screw driver blade which is too narrow in the slot of the screw. The blade will chew up the
screw head because of too much pressure applied.
 Using a screw driver blade which is too wide for the slot. It will damage the screw head.
 Using a screw driver blade which is too thick to touch the bottom of the slot will slip out and damage
the screw head and the work piece.
b) Wrong use of a mallet

 Holding the hammer or mallet handle in the middle or towards the head not towards the handle tip is
common faults made when using the hammer.
5) TAKING CARE OF DRIVING AND PERCUSSION TOOLS

 You should always use a screw driver blade which fits the length and width of the screw head.
 Screw drivers should be stored in a tool rack or tray after use.
 Percussion tools should be used for their intended purpose like never use a mallet to drive nails.
 Never use hammers with mushrooms.
 Store driving and percussion tools safely in a bench rack or tool rack after use.
112
SCREEN PRINTING
This a method in which an image can be printed or be reproduced many times on a paper, textile
and many other materials by squeezing an ink through a stencil, which is attached to a fine mesh
stretched over a rigid frame.
Equipments for screen printing
The Screen
This simply consists of a wooden frame with a fine mesh material attached to it.
The Frame
This can be made of wood or metal. This can be found in different sizes such as 50x50cm,
75x75cm etc.
The Screen Fabric/The Mesh

This is a porous mesh material that is used to support the stencil. It can be made from a synthetic
material like terylene, nylon, polyester etc .Another material that can be used is a fine white
cotton organdie.
The Squeegee HANDLE
BLADE
This is the tool which is used to draw ink across the screen, hence squeezing it through the mesh.
The squeeze consists of a blade which could be made of rubber or plastic and may vary in
sharpness and flexibility e.g
The blade is fixed to a handle which can be made of wood or metal [aluminium] an can be
removed and be replaced when worn out.
The Stencil
This is a substance or something which carries the image to be printed.
There are different types of stencils which are made from different materials such as
Paper Stencil. This is a stencil in which the design or the image to be printed is cut out on a
piece of paper. It is the easiest stencil to make, but cannot last longer.
113
Hand –Cut Film Stencil-This is a stencil which consists of a clear plastic base, which is coated
with a thin layer of gelatin, which is peeled off after the stencil has been stack to the mesh.
It is more reliable and lasts longer than paper stencil.
*There are two types of hand –cut films stencils which are water-soluble film and lacquer-
soluble films. The difference between them is the solvents that dissolve their gelatin layers.
Pva Stencil –This is a stencil which is made using PVA. You simply apply PVA glue on areas
not to be printed in your design after tracing your design on the mesh or screen fabric.
Inks
There are different types of inks which are used for printing on different materials.
The ink should dry rapidly, however should not dry too rapidly as it will block the screen.
-It must also be thick enough not to run through the screen. There are three types of inks that are
available for screen printing which are;
 Water-based inks, oil-based ink and plastisol ink.
Water-based inks; can be cleaned easily with water and should not be used on a water-
soluble film stencil.
 Oil-based inks; are the most commonly used inks in screen printing. They can be used
with any stencil and are cleaned with solvent such as mineral spirits.
 Plastisol inks; are special synthetic inks which are used in heat-transfer printing. They do
not dry by themselves; they must be cured after printing by heating it at approximately
180˚ for a minute.
Inks for printing on fabric consists of a pigment bound in water soluble emulsion, plus a
substance that some might need addition of a catalyst, a binder or a tinter.
For printing on paper or card oil based inks may be used and the most commonly used is the
densely pigment ink with a matt or satin finish, they are opaque straight from the tin but can be
mixed with an extender base which makes them transparent.
-Some water soluble inks can also be used for printing on paper or card. These are usually in
powder form and have to be mixed with water and a binder which can be a gum Arabic or wall
paper paste.
There are some inks for special purposes

Eg-for printing on wood and hardboard, plastic or cellulose gloss screen inks will be suitable.
-For printing on gloss, metal and glazed ceramic tiles a hard gloss ink is recommended.
There are also some multi-purpose inks which are used for a variety of techniques such as block-
printing batik or direct printing on fabric.
114
Stencil Preparation
-This consists of the cutting of the design made and fixing it on to the mesh. This depends on the
type of stencil being used.
-This is the process of covering areas around the stencil to stop ink from passing through the
screen after fixing the stencil to the screen.
Printing Process
-This consists of making the design to be printed, cutting out the design, registration of the
stencil on the screen, adhering the stencil to the screen, blocking out ,printing and cleaning
equipments.
These stages can be represented in the form of a flow or progress chart like this;
STAR
T
MAKE YOUR DESIGN
CUT OUT YOUR DESIGN
REGISTRATIN OF THE STENCIL ON THE SCREEN
ADHERING STENCIL TO THE SCREEN
BLOCKING OUT
PRINTING
IS
THE
PRINT
OK
YES
NO
CLEAN THE EQUIPMENT
STOP
115
Curing-Is the processes of treating fabric printing for preservation. This usually done in fabric
printing by ironing the printed fabric to set the ink.
Care of the Screen
Cleaning the Screen

 Immediately after printing remove any excess ink from the screen and squeezee and put it
back into the containers.
 Remove the stencil from the screen. For water-based film stencils the stencil can be
removed by washing the screen with water in a sink. The water will dissolve the stencil
or the gelatin. For lacquer-based film stencils, the stencil can be removed using lacquer
thinners.
 The screen is placed on a stack of newspapers, and then lacquer thinners is poured on the
screen and spread with a piece of cloth. The stencil will slowly dissolve and stick to the
newspapers below. The top newspaper under the screen is then changed and the
procedure is repeated until all the stencil is removed from the screen.
 Wash the screen under tap water or with soap and water, a hose pipe may be used for
cleaning.
 Thoroughly clean the squeeze under a tap after removing excess ink from it.
Storage of Equipment/Tools
 All equipment used in screen printing must be stored properly and be handled with care
 Store the equipment s in a safe dust -free place away from sharp objects which could
damage or tear the mesh.
116
GRAPHICS
 Constructing lines- To construct a line segment connecting two points, you need to line up a
straightedge with two points and trace.
 Bisecting line- “Bisector” is a line that divides the line into two different or equal parts.
 Dividing of line- A line segment can be divided into 'n' equal parts, where 'n' is any natural
number.
 Constructing a perpendicular line- A perpendicular is a straight line that makes an angle of 90° with
another line
117
 Constructing & bisecting angles- an angle is the space (usually measured in degrees) between
two intersecting lines or surfaces at or close to the point where they meet.
 Constructing quadrilaterals- A quadrilateral is a 2D shape with four sides. A list of five types of
quadrilaterals: square, rectangle, parallelogram, trapezium, rhombus
 Constructing a circle and tangencies- A circle is a closed curved line around a central point. Every
point on the line is the same distance from the central point. This distance to the center is called the
radius. A tangent line is a a line that just touches a curve at a point, matching the curve's slope there
118
 Constructing polygons- A polygon is a two-dimensional geometric figure that has a set number of
sides.
Regular Polygon
If all the sides and interior angles of the polygon are equal, then it is known as a regular polygon. The
examples of regular polygons are square, rhombus, equilateral triangle, etc.
Irregular Polygon
If all the sides and the interior angles of the polygon are of different measure, then it is known as an
irregular polygon. For example, a scalene triangle, a rectangle, a kite, etc.
 Two-dimensional 2D drawing-The abbreviation for two-dimensional drawing is 2-D, and it

describes a view having only width and height, width and length, or height and length
dimensions.
 Three –dimensional 3D drawing - 3D drawings use optical illusions to make it appear that
an image has depth. This technique can make any drawing come to life.
 Enhance drawings using different presentation techniques
119
Tone shading- refers to the lightness or darkness of an object. It is done by setting down various
strengths of shading to demonstrate where an object is affected by the light and shadows.
Rendering- In 3-D graphic design, rendering is the process of add shading, color to a 2-D or 3-D drawing
in order to create life-like images.
Texturing Line shading
120
 Draw simple solids & blocks in isometric projection
 Perspective drawing is a technique to create the linear illusion of depth. As objects get further away
from the viewer they appear to decrease in size.
 Oblique drawing - an oblique sketch has a more focus on the front side of an object or the face.
Isometric Sketch focuses on the edge of an object. It is drawn usually using the 45-degrees angle to
render the third dimensions.
121
 Convert Isometric Projection into Orthographic Projection-Isometric drawing, also called

isometric projection, method of graphic representation of three-dimensional objects
 Convert Orthographic Projection into Isometric Projection- An orthographic drawing, or

orthographic projection, is used to represent a three-dimensional object through multiple two-
dimensional views.
Thank you.
GOD BLESS YOU IN YOUR EXAMINATIONS!!!!!
122
The descriptions below provide a general indication of the skill acquisition expected of candidates
for the award of key grades A, C and E.
GRADE A
Candidates should be able to;
1. identify general safety precautions in order to minimise potential work hazards in the workshop;
2. describe First Aid techniques in treating minor injuries;
3. justify the selection and use of appropriate materials and finish;
4. identify and describe the use of tools and equipment in the workshop;
5. identify a problem from a situation and use a variety of design ideas to arrive at a solution;
6. solve a design problem using a wide range of creative and innovative design ideas;
7. communicate ideas in a concise and detailed manner using a wide range of presentation
techniques;
8. use appropriate construction techniques and good making skills with safety considerations.
GRADE C
1. identify general safety precautions and possible work hazards in the workshop;
2. state First Aid techniques in treating minor injuries;
3. make appropriate selection and use of materials and finish;
4. identify tools and equipment in the workshop;
5. solve a design problem using a range of design ideas;
6. communicate ideas with some aspects of presentation techniques;
7. use acceptable construction techniques and making skills;
8. show some safety considerations.
GRADE E
1. recall general safety precautions in the workshop;
2. show basic knowledge of First Aid techniques;
3. show basic knowledge in selection and use of materials and finish;
4. state tools and equipment used in the workshop;
5. identify a problem from a given situation and use simple forms of communication to arrive at a
solution;
6. solve a design problem using limited design ideas;
7. communicate ideas using limited presentation techniques;
8. use limited construction techniques and making skills;
9. show little safety considerations.
You reap what you sow-Make the right choices
123

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D&T

DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY

SAFETY IN THE WORKSHOP

WORKSHOP SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS

 Never enter or leave the workshop without the teacher’s permission.

Sign Type Illustration Colour Meaning Use

 Reasons for applying first aid

1. Wear surgical gloves- This helps avoid infection.

To treat minor burns, follow these steps:

1. Lay the Person Down, if Possible.

To treat electric shock follow these steps:

Essential Content of the First Aid Box and their Uses

1. Thermoplastics-Thermoplastics can be heated and shaped so many times. Once heated,

Types of Thermoplastics with their properties and uses.

Type Physical Properties Working Properties Uses

Types of thermosetting with their properties and uses.

Type Physical Properties Working Properties Uses

a. Horizontal racking b. Vertical racking

 Commercially available sections of Plastics

Rod Slab Pipe

Square Tube Film Sheet

Plain sawing Quarter sawing

Reasons for seasoning timber

The two methods of seasoning timber are

Natural/ Air seasoning

Kiln/ Artificial seasoning

Star shake Heart shake Cup shake

b) During or after drying process (Artificial)

Bow is a deviation from the flat, the piece being arched.

Twist is a spiral distortion along the length of a piece of timber.

Cup is a curvature across the width of a piece of timber.

(a) Vertical racking(sheets), (b) Horizontal racking (boards) (c) stacking

 Working safely with timber

 Commercial sizes of timber

The greatest advantage of manufactured boards over solid timber is that:

Types, Properties and Uses of Manufactured Boards

Examples of plywood include 3 plywood and multi-plywood.

Physical & Working Properties Uses

Physical & Working Properties Uses

 It absorbs water easily and breaks down.  Cupboards

MDF (Medium Density Fibre-Board) or Supawood

Physical & Working Properties Uses

Physical & Working Properties Uses

Physical & Working Properties Uses

 Disposing manufactured boards

 Safe working with Manufactutred boords.

 Storing Manufactured Boards

(a) Horizontal Stacking (b) Vertical Stacking

Ferrous Metals Non Ferrous Metals

 They contain iron.  They do not contain iron.

a) Hardness  The resistance a materials have to cutting, wearing and scratching

Types, Properties, & Uses of Ferrous Metals

Types, Properties, & Uses of Non Ferrous Metals

 Working Safely with Metals

 Safely Disposing Metals

Metal recycling process

(a) Horizontal racking (b) Vertical racking

 Commercial Sections/Forms of Metals

 Identification of additional materials and their sources

Type Description Uses Source

 Incorporating locally available materials in projects

 Working safely with additional materials