Property of the Ministry of Educatio 11

Produced with assistance from

"The Government of Finland, '\f'
Contents

INTRODUCTION Plant reproduction 55

Plant genetics 68
1 GENERAL AGRICULTURE
The importance of 5 PRINCIPLES OF CROP
agriculture 2 PRODUCTION
The history of agriculture 3 Soil preparation 71
Systems of farming 3 Planting 72
Land management 4 Crop disposal 73
Forestry 6
Agricultural legislation 7 6 CROPS
Agriculture today 7
Career opportunities 12 Grain crops 75
Leguminous crops 80
21 ENVIRONMENTAL Root crops 82
INFLUENCES Fruit crops 84
Vegetable crops 87
The water cycle in nature 13 Oil crops 88
The atmosphere 16 Fibre crops 89
Solar energy 17 Other crops 91

3 'J SOIL AND ITS 7 -1 CROP PROTECTIOND

MANAGEMENT
Weeds 95
Formation of soil 20 Insect pests 101
Soil constituents 23 Nematodes 111
Classification of soils 26 Bacterial disease 112
Soil water 26 Fungal disease 112
Soil organisms 28 Viral disease 113
Nutrients in the soil 29 Losses in storage 113
Maintenance of soil fertility 33 Precautions when using
Soil erosion 38 pesticides 113
Prevention and control 39 Other causes of damage to
Cultivation 40 plants 114
Practical work 41
8:/ MICRO-ORGANISMS
4 PLANT GROWTH AND
Fungi 116
DEVELOPMENT
Bacteria 118
Plant structure 46 Viruses 122
Plant nutrition") 50 Practical work 122
.
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 /
9 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 14" FARM STRUCTURES
The importance of animals Building materials H
to man 125 Fencing H
Types of livestock 126 Structures for cattle H
Livestock management 128 Pig housing H
Sheep and goats H
10 THE LIVING ANIMAL Poultry n
The skeleton 132
Teeth 132
The blood system 133 15 WATER FOR
Excretion 135 AGRICULTURE
Animal nutrition 136
• The composition of food 137
Water supply
Water storage
2Q
2Q
How animals use their food 138 Water treatment 2Q
The process of digestion 140 Irrigation 2Q
Feeding livestock 143 How much water to apply 2Q
• Nutritional value of
feedstuffs 145
Methods of irrigation
Setting up an irrigation
2Q

I scheme 2Q
• 11/ GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT
Management 148
• Making the best use of
pasture 149
16 ENERGY AND
AGRICULTURE
Pasture plants 151
Planting and establishing a Engines 2
• pasture
Conservation offorage
154
154
Agricultural machinery
Safety
2_
2:

12~ANIMALBREEDING
17 AGRICULTURAL
Reproduction in mammals 156
Mating 158 ECONOMICS
Lactation 162 Principles 2_
Breeding management 163 Farm records 2_
Reproduction in poultry 165 ~
Farm budgeting ...t

Improvement oflivestock 167

13 ¥., ANIMAL PESTS AND I)
c:
Multiple Choice Questions
DISEASES Essay Questions c.

Keeping livestock healthy 171 Glossary .-

Diseases of livestock 172 Index
..
c-
Common pests of livestock 177 Useful Measurements
Introduction
Agriculture is regarded in some countries as
the most important subject in the curriculum.
Although every subject has an educational
value, agriculture points the way to improving
food production and offers a practical solution
to many development problems.
In countries where most of the people work
on the land it is vital that the next generation
of farmers have a basic understanding of the
principles of agriculture so that these can
be put into practice for the benefit of the
community.
This book sets out to cover all the topics of
the new Ordinary level Agriculture syllabus of
the Cambridge Overseas Certificate as well as
rriuch of the material for other examining
bodies. It deals with all the main crop and live-
stock production practices, soil improvement,
r,
~- e , ::>- ••,-
disease prevention, agricultural energy
and management considerations. All the
examples used are based on Central African
conditions but may be equally applicable to
other tropical and sub-tropical areas.
The countries of the 'Third World' face many
problems in their development. An increasing
population, the need for improved health facili-
ties, greater opportunities in education, rais-
ing the peoples' standard of living, extending
trade to reduce imports and the need for better
welfare services have all become targets in
development plans. But agriculture is the
mainstay of the economy, not only for income
but simply to provide enough food for the
people to eat. A study of agriculture can help
to lay the foundations upon which to build all
the other aspects of national development.
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1
The importance of agriculture
Agriculture is an essential activity because
through the production of crops and livestock
people obtain their food. The more food a vil-
lage or a country can produce for itself, the less
dependent it is on production by others.
There are many aspects of agricultural
production, as is shown in Figure 1.1.
The food products of agriculture are well
known, e.g. maize, soya beans, bananas, meat,
eggs, milk, but there are also some non-edible
products such as cotton and sisal.
One of the roles of the Ministry of Agri-
culture is to assess which products can be
obtained most successfully, allowing for the
soils and climate of the area, and to promote
those commodities at village or commercial
levels. For example, some areas may be very
suitable for pineapple production and other
areas may be very suitable for dairy cattle.
Agriculture is also important for providing
employment for the population. Apart from vil-
seed production I pest control
crop pmouctior.
marketing
Figure 1.1
General
Agriculture
lage production, many people can find work on
sugar estates, tea plantations or fruit enter-
prises. The supporting industries such as fer-
tiliser firms, grain depots or canning factories
also provide valuable jobs for people.
Some agricultural products supply the basic
raw materials for further industries, for exam-
ple wool for the clothing industry, hides for
footwear, or sugar for the production of
alcohol which can be used as a substitute for
petroleum.
The greatest contribution the agricultural
industry can make nationally is to provide
foreign exchange. If some of the produce
is exported to other countries, the money
obtained can be used to improve conditions at
home. such as building new roads, hospitals
and schools.
So it can be seen that agriculture has a vital
role to play in supporting the people in the
village. the province and the country, as well
as making a contribution towards world
production (Figure 1.2).
machinery I buildings
animal production
transport I food processing
production
 General Agriculture 3

gathering the fruits he found during the period

from 8000 BC to 5000 BC. The earliest plants.
to be grown as crops, being sown and reaped,
farm
were wheat, barley, sorghum and millet. The
first animals to be kept by man were wild oxen
and goats. Gradually man tamed these ani-
mals and herded them in groups near his
settlements. Over many centuries, both crops
and animals became dependent on man for
their existence. This process is known as
produce. domestication.
The first farmers in Africa were in the north,
in Egypt and along the Mediterranean coast.
Agriculture in Africa south of the Sahara is
much more recent. Some of the crops and live-
stock breeds we see today have only been intro-
village duced during the past 100 years.
Shifting cultivation

j One of the earliest types of farming practised

in Central and Southern Africa was shifting
cultivation. The farmers cleared an area of
district
bush and burned it. Then they planted their
market crops. After a few years, when the soil had lost
its value they moved, or shifted, to another
1
province
part of the bush. They did not use ploughs but
instead dug the soil with a sharpened stick.
Later, they used metal hoes and axes. The
main crops were sorghum, millet, maize, cas-
sava and sweet potatoes.
As Africa began to be developed, ploughs
and other machines began to be used. New
roads helped farmers to get the things they
needed. Oxen were used for work and different
crops and breeds of livestock were brought in
to improve production.
nation

Figure 1.2 Agriculture is important at all levels

The history of agriculture
Early man was a hunter. He trapped and killed
animals, birds and fish for his food, and he
noticed that the fruits and seeds of certain
plants were edible. However, man lived on the
earth for thousands of years before he began to
practice what could now be called agriculture.
It is believed that man first began to plant
seeds for his own crops instead of simply
Systems of farming
Nowadays many different systems of farming
can be found throughout the world but the
three main types are as follows.
Subsistence farming
People who grow only enough food for their
family and never produce any surplus for sale
are known as subsistence farmers, because
they subsist or live on the food they grow.
Their methods are basic, and most of the work
is done by hand, rather than machinery. They
4 O-Level Agriculture
may keep some animals but their staple food
is a crop rich in carbohydrates, such as maize,
rice, cassava or bananas.
Subsistence farmers are the ones most likely
to suffer if the rains fail or some other problem
affects their crop because they do not have the
money to buy food.
Cash crop farming
When farmers grow more of a crop than is
needed for the family they can sell it for cash
and use the money to improve the farm or their
standard of living. Sometimes a crop may be
grown entirely for sale, such as cotton or
groundnuts. This is known as cash crop farm-
ing. In order to produce a larger crop, the
farmer uses improved methods of agriculture
such as fertilisers, oxen for ploughing, or
machinery. Planning and management are
essential to maintain the farming system and
to make sure there is a market for the crop.
Commercial farming
Commercial farming involves large-scale agri-
cultural production. Crops are grown in large
fields or on plantations and livestock are kept
in large numbers. Commercial farms require
considerable sums of money, known as capital
investment, in order to buy the machinery
needed or put up buildings.
It is the commercial farms which produce
crops for exports or for sale in the towns. Some
crops are more suited to growing commercially
than at village level because of their special
requirements or the skills needed for their suc-
cessful cultivation. Tobacco, cotton, sugar cane
and citrus fruits are examples of crops which
are chiefly grown on commercial farms. Maize
is produced in large quantities commercially,
but it is also one of the major subsistence and
cash crops. Cattle ranching and dairly farming
are also commercial enterprises. Pig keeping,
broiler chicken production and egg production
are largely run commercially.
Land management
When land is to be used for agricultural Jl.."O-
duction many factors have to be taken nro
account. The question of ownership of - to lane
may be one consideration - whether rent has
to be paid from the profits of the farm. The
value ofthe land for agriculture is also a major
influence - what crops will grow well? Can
steps be taken to prevent soil erosion or to
conserve water? Is irrigation possible? Can
machinery be used on the land? These are just
a few of the questions which need to be
answered when planning land management.
Land tenure
Land tenure refers to the way in which the
land is owned or held. When farming was first
extended into the bush, land was so plentiful
that no problems of ownership of the land arose
and farmers were able to move freely wherever
they chose. Gradually, however, as more settle-
ments grew up, land was claimed by tribal
chiefs.
Then, with the development of a structure
of government administration, many areas of
land became the responsibility of local
councils.
In all the developing countries, Europeans
have had an important influence on agricul-
tural progress. Many Europeans took owner-
ship of land from the chief so they could farm
it. This ownership is known as freehold.
The farmers would pass the land to their
descendants when they died. This is called
inheritance.
Sometimes a landowner does not farm the
land but lets other people farm it. These people
are then tenants and pay a rent to the land-
owner for the li....'€ of the land. Another system
of land tenure 15 leasehold in which the land
is held for a fixed period of time and there are
controls on how it is used.
Since Independence, most countries have
tried :0 regain possession of the land so that it
becomes under state ownership, rather than
ownership by individuals. State farms have
become established throughout the developing
world.
Crop rotation
on a piece of land year after year,
becomes exhausted of nutrients
very often the crop becomes affe
up of pests and diseases. This •....
-"..,_~-o.

larly to the main staple crops like maize, rice,
cassava and sweet potatoes.
Crop rotation is a way of growing different
crops in succession so that the same demands
are not made on the soil each year. Thus, a
knowledge of suitable crop rotation is an essen-
tial part of land management.
Actual rotations vary from place to place
depending on the soil type and on the varieties
of crops to be grown. Nearly all rotations
include a leguminous crop, e.g. beans, in the
succession because this adds nitrogen to the
soil through the nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the
roots (see Chapter 3). The following crop, e.g.
maize which is a heavy user of nitrogen, then
benefits from the nitrogen in the soil. This may
mean less expenditure on nitrogen fertilisers.
Further crops may be included in the rotation,
e.g. sweet potatoes, groundnuts.
This method is known as a rotation because
it takes place over a fixed period of time - often
4 or 5 years - after which the cycle of cropping
begins again. This means that the area of land
must be divided up into roughly equal parts,
each growing a different crop each year (Figure
1.3)
/
~4·
maize
,
~~. / . /
beans I,(
(legume) / <; <, <,
/ ---"---..~
/ '---..:;
\ ;' sweet potatoes
/>: ~~ ~ /
/ ~~~
/ fly ensures that this does not happen as game
Figure 1.3 A n example of a crop rotation
involving four crops in a 4-year cycle
Grazing
When man first began to keep cattle and goats
as domesticated animals he allowed them to
wander over large areas of land to wherever
suitable grazing was to be found. Even today
this open or unenclosed grazing system is still
\ ,
General Agriculture 5
practiced with small boys being used to keep
an eye on the animals. However it is now
recognised that this method is not very effi-
cient. The cattle choose the best grasses first
and by the time they return for the remaining
grasses these have lost their nutritive value.
It is also wasteful of the animals' energy; use-
ful pasture gets spoiled by trampling and no
area is left long enough to recover properly.
Enclosed grazing is a system where the cat-
tle are kept in fenced areas. They eat up all the
grass in one area then move to another area or
paddock. The area left behind is then allowed
to recover and benefits from the manure left in
it. This is now being widely adopted by cattle
farmers.
Wildlife
The wildlife of Africa fulfils a very important
role in maintaining the natural ecosystem.
Herbivores help to keep the grass and vegeta-
tion in check, which could otherwise eventu-
ally smother the trees. Fruit eating animals
and birds help to disperse seeds while hooked
seeds are often carried in animals' fur. Ani-
mals which root about in the soil help in
natural cultivation assisting new plant
growth. Animal manure and the remains of
dead animals help to enrich the soil.
It should be remembered that African wild-
life represents a valuable tourist attraction
)< and therefore an important earner of foreign
/\~~ exchange. The game reserves cover large areas
~ of land where wildlife is protected. There is no
/ ground nuts
(legume)
reason why game reserves and agricultural
systems cannot exist side by side. It is not
necessary for agriculture to expand into the
game reserves. Indeed in many areas the tsetse
animals are immune from the diseases carried
by the insects while man and his domestic
animals are not.
However, poaching is an increasing threat
throughout the African game reserves. It is
easy to poison water holes and to trap or shoot
animals in a game reserve where game is
easily tracked down. There is also temptation
because it means quick money for the
poachers. Hunting may also be considered as
a natural human instinct. But some species of
 6 O-Level Agriculture
wildlife are already threatened with extinc-
tion because of indiscriminate killing. If num-
bers fall very low they may never recover and
this would be Africa's, and indeed the world's,
permanent loss.
Soil and water conservation
Soil erosion results in serious losses of soil and
plant nutrients. Whatever system of farming
is proposed, soil conservation methods must be
planned in order to maintain soil fertility.
Details of soil conservation methods and the
causes of soil erosion are covered in Chapter 3.
One of the problems faced in many areas of
the tropics is the serious shortage of water dur-
ing the dry season. Any means of ensuring a
supply of water at this time is of major benefit
to the farming system. This may involve the
construction of a dam or borehole or the
diverting of water from a river for irri-
gation. Methods of irrigation are dealt with in
Chapter 15.
It is also important to conserve water in the
soil and available to the growing crop. This
may be achieved by mulching. (page 37).
Forestry
Trees are one of the most essential natural
resources on the earth. Apart from providing
man with firewood, building materials and
many other benefits, our forests help to main-
tain an ecological balance. They provide much-
needed oxygen to be used during respiration by
both plants and animals.
In recent years, large areas of forest
throughout the world have been cleared for set-
tlements, new roads, the supply of timber and
many other of man's activities. Trees are not
being replaced fast enough and already in
some areas there is a shortage of wood. For-
estry has an important part to play in the
natural environment and is of particular value
to the farmer.
Types of woodland
Much of Central and Southern Africa is
covered by vegetation known as savanna. Tree
savanna is where woodland predominates and
,,
grassland savanna is where open areas of grass
are found, with fewer trees.
Deciduous woodland
Deciduous trees are those which shed their
leaves once a year, usually during the dry
season, to enable them to withstand the long
period of drought. Most of the woodland of
Central and Southern Africa is of this type.
M opane woodland
The mopane tree is also a deciduous type but
it is associated with hot river valleys. It can
withstand long droughts and can often survive
bush fires. The wide-trunked baobab trees are
often found in mopane woodland.
Evergreen woodland
Trees which retain their leaves throughout the
year are evergreens and this type of woodland
is found in various parts of Central and South-
ern Africa.
Many other local types of woodland can also
be distinguished, usually with one or two
species of trees predominating (Figure 1.4 on
page 8).
Plantations
Apart from making use of naturally occurring
trees, man has established plantations or for-
est areas where trees are planted and grown
for timber. Trees are reared from seed in nur-
series and then planted out in rows. They are
quick maturing trees to provide a good supply
of building wood. In the nursery stage, they
need careful watering, protection from wind
and feeding with nutrients. Eucalyptus and
pine are the most common types of tree grown
in plantations.
The value of trees and forest products
A cover of trees helps to protect the soil from
erosion by wind or water. Tree roots help to
aerate the soil allowing water to penetrate. At
the same time, the fine hair roots help to bind
the soil particles together. By shading the
earth, a tree cover helps to conserve water in
the soil. The litter from trees goes towards the
formation of organic matter in the soil. Finally,
trees are of particular value to man. as well as
birds, bees and other living organisms.

Uses of trees
flowers and fruit food for insects, birds and
man
leaves food for animals
branches firewood and charcoal
bark resin, glue, string, rope,
medicine
trunk timber, poles, fencing,
canoes, charcoal
roots medicine
Agricultural legislation
Every country has its laws and regulations
which provide a legal framework for man's
activities. These laws are known as legislation.
Agricultural legislation deals with such mat-
ters as the control of pests and diseases, the
introduction of clean certified seed, the notifi-
cation of sick animals or the movement of
animals. There may be further regulations
about the erection of buildings or fences, or
burning the bush. Some crops require particu-
lar regulations to be enforced, such as burn-
ing cotton plant residues.
The purpose of agricultural legislation is to
ensure that farming practices are controlled.
Very large areas could be affected by disease
if there were no restrictions. Tsetse fly control
areas are an example of agricultural legis-
lation aimed at restricting the spread of this
important cattle pest.
Whenever living material is imported into
a country it must be kept in a controlled place
for a fixed period of time. This is known as
quarantine, and is intended to stop the spread
of disease from one country to another. The
plant or animal is closely observed to see if any
disease symptoms arise. If not it can be
released to the farm where it is needed. If a
disease does develop the plant or animal must
be either destroyed or re-exported.
The Forest Ordinance
Legislation which controls the felling of trees
and use of timber is put together in a set of
rules known as the Forest Ordinance. Some of
these regulations are as follows:-
1 The Government may set aside areas for
forest reserves or protected forest areas.
General Agriculture 7
2 In these areas it is an offence to cut, burn
or remove any wood without a licence.
3 Cattle are not allowed into forestry areas.
4 Fires must not be started in these areas.
5 In certain protected forest areas, cultiva-
tion is not allowed.
6 Certain species of trees are protected and
must not be felled wherever they are grow-
ing, unless a licence has been issued.
Details of the Forest Ordinance can be
obtained from the Forestry Department.
Agriculture today
Social environment
In recent years many people have left the rural
areas where they used to work on the land to
go to the towns in search of employment. This
urban drift has caused many problems. Fewer
people are left behind to grow the food and
more people are living in the towns expecting
to buy food. The rural and urban areas cannot
be treated separately - they are interdepen-
dent. Farmers in the rural areas must be able
to obtain their agricultural requirements, such
as seeds, fertilisers and machinery from the
towns. In return they expect a market for their
produce. However, many people in towns
remain unemployed and are unable to buy
food. This creates social problems.
" Population growth
Another problem is the increasing population.
With so many more mouths to feed, particu-
larly in the developing countries, it is essential
to increase agricultural production if hunger
and starvation are to be avoided. People want
not only to maintain their standard of living
but to improve it. Better agricultural methods
can help them to achieve this. Figure 1.5 on
page 10 summarises the main points which
need to be tackled to increase agricultural pro-
duction in the developing world.
Appropriate technology
In order to improve agricultural methods and
production it is necessary to have an input of
technology. This may take the form of new
varieties of seed, artificial fertilisers or some
machinery. However, it is important that the
 8 O-Level Agriculture

Tamarindus indica Tamarind used as

a shade tree and for boat building;
pulp from the seeds can be eaten

Adansonia digitata
Baobab tree

® unmistakable huge
grey trunk with large
root-like branches; the
seeds, fruit and leaves
can be eaten

Pi/iostigma thonningi Pericopsis ango/ensis

Monkey bread the seed Mubanga the chief wood
pods make cattle feed; the inner bark used for carving; also
is used for rope building, fencing and canoes

Combretum imberbe
Leadwood a common
savanna tree; the wood is
sometimes used for timber
and the ash can be made into
whitewash

Baikiaea p/unjuga Teak the most useful of

all the timber trees; very hard wearing

Figure 1.4 Examples of important timber species

· ,
 General Agriculture 9

Borassus aethiopum African fan palm

Ximenia americana Wild
very tall palm tree of flood plains;
plum oil can be obtained
fibre from the leaves is used for
from the seeds and a sour
drink made from the fruit

Co!ophospermum mopane
Mopane a heavy wood
used for hut and

Pterocarpus ango!ensis
Mukwa a valuable wood
for furniture making Afze!ia quanzensis Mupapa
a valuable timber tree used for
building

Ficus capensis Cape fig produces

small edible fruit; an indicator of
underground water
10 O-Level Agriculture

reduce soil better use

erosion of water
resources

reduce losses of
crops in storage

make greater four-wheeled tractor and plough

better use of land use of fertilisers
and machinery

improved use of
animal chemicals
husbandry to protect
crops

Figure 1.5 Ways of increasing agricultural

production in developing countries
ox-plough
technology introduced is appropriate (or suit-
able) for the level of development. For exam-
ple, it is no use giving a tractor and expensive
equipment to a farmer who does not under-
stand how to use it or maintain it. Such equip-
ment is not appropriate in those circumstances.
It may be more appropriate to provide a better
plough for use with oxen. If the farmer can be
educated to use the tractor and equipment then
it may become appropriate.
Many mistakes have been made in the
developing countries by introducing the wrong
two-wheeled tractor
type of technology. Some examples of different
levels oftechnology are shown in Figure 1.6
Extension services
In most countries the Department of Agricul-
ture employs agricultural advisers to go out
into the rural areas and show farmers how to
improve their methods. These people are
known as extension workers. They may advise
on the most suitable seed varieties, what fer-
tilisers to apply or how to protect crops or live
stock against pests and diseases. They have a
valuable part to play in helping to increase
hand-hoeing
agricultural production.
Aid programmes
Figure 1.6 Different levels of technology - each
Another way in which developing countries are
one may be appropriate in different circumtances
able to make advances in their agricultural

Figure 1.7 Research work may lead to improved varieties of crops
methods is through aid programmes. Some-
times technical assistance is provided by the
United Nations or by countries sending out
skilled people to help to train local farmers in
improved methods. Agricultural schemes may
be set up for the benefit of the rural population.
These aid programmes are valuable as long as
local people are able to learn the improved
techniques themselves. If not, they will be no
better off when the aid programme ends.
In times of drought, aid may be sent in the
form of food to make up the shortfall in pro-
duction. Most countries aim to reduce their
dependence on aid in the form of food by trying
to build up supplies of their own.
Research
Research means investigating something
thoroughly and forming conclusions about it.
Agricultural research is carried out at research
stations where teams of scientists study a
General Agriculture 11
whole range of problems. The results of the
research enable better methods to be adopted
in future.
First of all, the problem to be investigated
has to be clearly stated. Then as much infor-
mation as possible is collected. Next, experi-
ments are carried out and the results are
checked. Finally, conclusions are drawn and
then recommendations to farmers are made.
Examples of research work are the study
of crop varieties to compare the yields, the
improvement of pasture for stock by introduc-
ing legumes, re-constructing machinery to
make it work better. As a result of field trials
over a number of years, new varieties of crops
have emerged which give greatly increased
yields (Figure 1.7).
Livestock and Crop Improvement
It is the aim of most farmers to achieve higher
yields from their crops and livestock. A study
12 O-Level Agriculture
technical industry and those who work in it
of agricultural science helps the farmer to
must be properly trained. Agricultural Science
select the seed or breeding stock for his farm.
and the practice of Agriculture are subjects
With crops, he is looking for greater production
being taught in an increasing number of
without a loss of quality. Some crop varieties
secondary schools. Pupils leaving with a pass
today are adapted for disease resistance or for
in an agricultural subject should be much bet-
the particular climatic conditions. Plant breed-
ter informed about ways of improving effi-
ers investigate all the characteristics of the
ciency in farming than those who do not study
crop and select the most suitable varieties for
seed production. Thus, farmers buying certi- the subject.
However, school work is not vocational
fied seed can expect higher yields than from
training and for a student to learn the skills
ordinary seed. needed to work in the agricultural industry he
Likewise, the animal breeder is looking for
or she must study at an agricultural college or
animals which have a high fertility or produce
even a university. Courses such as veterinary
healthy young or which put on weight quickly.
science, soil and water engineering, animal
This is achieved by keeping accurate records
husbandry and farm management enable
of all the offspring. Meat, milk or egg produc-
students to specialise in a particular branch of
tion can be greatly increased by the careful
agriculture and, it is hoped, to gain employ-
selection of livestock. Careful breeding also
enables poor qualities to be lost, e.g. slow ment later.
Some of the jobs which require trained
growth, poor shape, because these animals are
personnel are:-
prevented from breeding.
animal husbandry workers
artificial inseminators
Career opportunities crop breeders
farm mechanics
Although a large proportion of the population marketing managers
work on the land, relatively few people are irrigation engineers
employed or paid to carry out agricultural agricultural economists
work. However, there is always a need for farm managers
skilled technical personnel in agriculture, to crop protection advisors
carry out modern methods leading to improved vets
Many of these jobs are with Government
output. Agricultural Departments, but there are
Subsistance farmers learn their skills from
opportunities on privately owned farms and
their parents and grandparents. Sometimes
estates, as well as state farms and ranches. The
these skills are well founded but more often
chemical and machinery trade also employ
than not traditional methods give low yields.
people with agricultural skills.
Agriculture today is a highly organised and
 r '
." __ .•_l-lf.,..
2 t_"",~.,...._
Climate and soil are the two most important
influences on agriculture. Weather is a de-
scription of the prevailing conditions, e.g. sun-
ny or windy. Climate refers to the average
weather conditions for an area and can usual-
ly be divided into marked seasons where par-
ticular conditions predominate, e.g. cool or dry
seasons.
Agriculture is influenced by the following
weather and climatic conditions.
Temperature The heat from the sun, also
called solar radiation or insolation, deter-
mines the growth rate of plants.
Rainfall Water is essential for plant
growth but if rainfall is heavy or prolonged
damage to soil or crops can occur.
Wind High speed winds can damage crops
but a gentle wind increases water loss from
plant leaves (transpiration) and cools the
atmosphere.
Agriculture in the tropics is almost always
controlled by the rainy season. Farmers tradi-
tionally plant with the rains and they hope to
have a mature crop by the time the rains end.
The introduction of irrigation (Chapter 15)
has meant that crops can be grown during the
dry season, providing conditions are warm
enough.
The water cycle in nature
Water in the atmosphere is in a constant state
of motion. Rain consists of large drops of water
'
•.....
Environmental
influences
which are no longer able to remain in the
atmosphere so they fall to the ground. Even
when it is not raining, the air contains large
amounts of water in the form of water vapour.
This is water which has evaporated from areas
of open water such as oceans, lakes and rivers
and from moist soil. Plants lose water through
their leaves by transpiration and animals
breathe out water vapour. Water vapour
builds up in the atmosphere eventually form-
ing clouds and rain. Sometimes the sun evapo-
rates the clouds before rain falls, and the cycle
is prolonged. Figure 2.1 shows the water cycle
in nature. )k
Cloud formation
Clouds are formed when the water vapour in
the atmosphere cools sufficiently for it to con-
dense (return to the liquid state). The parti-
cles of water in clouds remain very small and
are affected by:
1 the air currents from the earth holding
them up;
2 air movement or wind from the sides;
3 the warmth of the sun to evaporate them;
4 particles of dust in the atmosphere which
gives the water particles something to hold
on to.
The air in the upper atmosphere is much
thinner, or less dense, than air nearer to the
earth. It is also much colder. Sometimes the
particles of water freeze (enter the solid state)
when the temperature drops below freezing
point, 0 °C. Even in the tropics, freezing
14 O-Level Agriculture

OJ 0··.· dO"dfO'm'Otion.····•..·•····

~.,,:
....

~
~

V
respiration
~
evaporation
evaporation

Figure 2.1 The water cycle in nature

temperatures are recorded in the atmosphere
above 6000 m. Figure 2.2 shows the sequence
of cloud formation. The summit of Mount Kili-
manjaro (5850 m) has a permanent cap of ice
and snow because of the freezing temperature
at that height.
In cold climates the frozen particles in a
cloud may fall as snow if the ground tempera-
ture is also near freezing point. Hailstones are
formed when water droplets in a cloud are
rapidly cooled by being thrust upwards bv
strong air currents. This often happens during
thunderstorms. In cold conditions the hail-
stones fall to the ground as ice but usually
they melt into water in the atmosphere and .
fall to the ground as rain.
Clouds are formed at different heights and
there are many different cloud formations,
some indicating particular weather conditions.
Figure 2.3 shows the most common cloud
types.
cold air

....~

vapour· .,..
condensation

further evaporation
by sun's rays
I

Figure 2.2 Cloud formation


heiqht
In
metres
5000
4000
3000
2000
1()()()
ground
level
Figure 2.3 Common cloud types
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are a dramatic feature of the
weather and occur chiefly during the rainy
season. They are important for agriculture in
three ways.
1 Sudden heavy rainfall is useful for crop
growth especially after a dry period.
2 The addition of nitrogen to the soil due to
lightning in the atmosphere.
3 Heavy rain causes splash erosion and excess
run-off may lead to sheet or gully erosion.
Thunderstorms are caused by the sudden
cooling of moist air. The most common condi-
tions for a storm are when the moist ground
has been heated by the sun all day. Moist air
rises up in the atmosphere and cools. More air
moves in to take its place and the upward air
currents become very strong. Strong winds
blowing just before a storm approaches are a
common feature. This turbulent movement in
the thundercloud causes large raindrops to
form. At the same time, the friction of the air
currents is sufficient to cause a release of
energy in the form of an electrical discharge
which we see as a flash of lightning. This
Environmental influences 15
Figure 2.4 A thunderstorm
causes some nitrogen in the atmosphere to
combine with the oxygen and form oxides of
nitrogen which dissovle in the raindrops and
fall to enrich the soil. We hear the discharge
as a crash of thunder but since sound travels
much more slowly than light, the noise follows
some seconds after the flash. As the storm be-
comes established, heavy rain begins to fall
until the atmosphere has once more returned
to equilibrium. The cycle of a thunderstorm
lasts from 1-2 hours (Figure 2.4).
Measuring rainfall
The amount of rainfall which an area receives
depends upon the pattern of air circulation
and on the extent of the moisture within the
atmosphere. Tropical rain forests give off
large amounts of water vapour daily and con-
sequently the rainfall of the area is high. De-
serts give off very little moisture and have a
very low rainfall.
Rainfall is recorded in millimetres using a
rain gauge (Figure 2.5).
It is useful to plot the amount of rainfall
each day or week on a graph (Figure 2.6).
Rainfall records are essential if irrigation is
carried out. They should tell exactly how
much rain has fallen and how the rainfall was
distributed throughout the season. From rain-
fall records, a pattern can be seen and this
may help with planning the planting and
selection of crops.
Dew
Dew is formed when water vapour in the air
condenses on the surface of plants. This occurs
16 O-Level Agriculture
funnel The lower layers of the atmosphere are much
more dense than the upper reaches. Thus the
atmosphere exerts a pressure. Air pressure is
measured in units, called millibars, using an
measuring instrument called a barometer.
cylinder Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude,
latitude and season, as well as with local
weather conditions. It depends on the weight
of the layers of atmosphere above it and press-
ure falls with an increase in height. Standard
atmospheric pres sur, ~ is given as 1016 milli-
Figure 2.5 The rain gauge is sited away from bars. This is equivalent to a reading of 762
trees and buildings and is firmly secured in the millimetres of mercury in the barometer,
ground. The gauge should not be surrounded by based at sea level and at a standard tempera-
bare earth - vegetation absorbs the rain and ture of 0 "C. From this standard figure, atmo-
prevents splashes. spheric pressure can be determined as high or
(a) low, depending upon the comparative reading
on the barometer.
Wind
':1
omm
Wind is the movement of a mass of air from an
area of high pressure to an area of lower
Men Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Men Tue
pressure.
(b) As a general rule, high pressure (over 1030
~ millibars) indicates stable conditions in the
~ atmosphere. Low pressure (below 980 milli-
ml
10
bars) indicates unstable conditions, such as
~ il
0 strong winds, rainfall and thunderstorms.
mm Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Nev Dec Jan Feb The wind can have an effect on agricultural
Figure 2.6 (a) Daily rainfall record production by carrying weed seeds and some
(b) Seasonal rainfall record disease organisms. Some plants are depen-
dent upon the wind for pollination. Strong
winds can destroy crops and even buildings.
during the night when the temperature falls
and the cold air stops the evaporation of mois-
ture. With the warmth of the sun in the morn-
ing the dew soon evaporates.

S E

The atmosphere
The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of
gases. Nitrogen amounts to approximately 78
per cent and oxygen to 21 per cent of the atmos-
phere. The remaining 1 per cent is made up of
other gases of which carbon dioxide is the most
important. The atmosphere also contains
varying amounts of water vapour and particles
of dust and smoke which arise from the earth.
Although the atmosphere cannot be seen, it
does exert a mass and it can be compressed.
Figure 2.7 A wind vane
A wind vane can be used to tell which way
the wind is blowing. It consists of a flat piece of
metal which can spin on a post or spindle so
that it points to the direction from which the
wind is blowing (Figure 2.7).
Wind speed is measured by using a cup
anemometer (Figure 2.8). The cups spin

Figure 2.8 A cup anemometer
round on a spindle and a small meter records
the number of turns made. The more turns in
a given time, the stronger the wind speed.
Solar energy
Energy from the sun is vital in maintaining
life on the earth. About 55 per cent of the
sun's heat or radiation is lost before reaching
the earth. Some is absorbed by clouds; some is
reflected by clouds and some is absorbed by
the air. When the sun reaches the earth its
effect in warming the surface is governed by
the angle at which the sun's rays strike the
earth. Thus the poles which never receive
overhead sun remain cold throughout the
year; the tropics which receive overhead sun
every day remain warm throughout the year.
Temperature zones which receive hot sun dur-
ing the summer, show marked warm and cold
seasons.
Altitude also affects the influence of the
sun. The temperature of dry air cools by 9 °C
per 1000 metres.
Environmental influences 17
day
,1//
hot air rises
<,
-
»:
0
/ / 1 ,'\,
.-'
-
<,
D . #OOOI';'~'~
fJ! ~ePlace
hot air
Figure 2.9 The effect of solar energy. During the
day wind blows from water to land to replace the hot
air. At night the land is cooler and wind blows from
land to water.
Solar radiation warms up land more quick-
ly than water. Hot air rises and causes a cir-
culation of air from water to land (Figure
2.9). Weather and climatic patterns are wide-
ly affected by solar radiation.
The amount of sunshine can be measured
by the sunshine recorder (Figure 2.10). This
is a glass ball which allows the sun's rays to
pass through it and mark a paper placed at
the back. The heat of the sun causes burn
marks on the paper which is set out in hours.
The number of hours of sunshine each day can
be recorded by seeing the extent of the burn
marks on the paper.
Recording the temperature
The temperature is measured by means of a
thermometer. The tube contains mercury or
alcohol which expands as it becomes warmer.
The temperature is recorded in degrees Cel-
sius COC).
The maximum and minimum thermo-
meter records the highest and lowest temper-
ature each day and a marker remains in the
tube to indicate these two points. It can then
be re-set when the temperatures have been re-
corded (Figure 2.11).
Relative humidity
The wet and dry thermometer consists of
two separate thermometers (Figure 2.12). One
 18 O-Level Agriculture
reading is called the relative humidity (RH).
When the atmosphere is saturated during
rain, for instance, the two recordings are the
same and the relative humidity is 100 per
cent. If the air is dry, the two temperatures re-
corded are different (the wet bulb showing a
lower reading) and the relative humidity is
below 100 per cent.
These thermometers should be kept in the
shade, as the sun gives a false reading. They
are normally housed in a Stevenson's screen
(Figure 2.13). This allows air to circulate but
does not let the sun shine on the thermometers.

Day length and light intensity

It is not only the warmth of the sun which is
necessary for plant growth. Light also is an
essential requirement for photosynthesis -
the plant's food making process. Day length in
the tropics shows little variation throughout
the year unlike in temperate regions where
Figure 2.10 A sunshine recorder
there is considerable variation. Certain vari-
records the temperature of the air and the eties of plants require a particular day length
other records the temperature of saturated air to bring about flowering or to form tubers. For
because a wet cloth surrounds the bulb. From this region, the sowing date is important so
these two readings a measure of the amount of that the day length is right when the plant
water vapour in the air can be taken. The two reaches the flowering stage. Some varieties of
figures are matched in tables which show the wet dry
percentage of water vapour in the air. This
L---TT'"TT--..J a F
minimum maximum
110
100
90
80
70
-It--=-=-- aIcoho I
60
11lt--"",- metal
index 50
40
30
20
10
o

container

water
simple hygrometer

Figure 2.11 Six's maximum and minimum Figure 2.12 Wet and dry thermometer
thermometer

Figure 2.13 A Stevenson's screen
rice, maize and sorghum are sensitive in this
way.
Light intensity refers to how bright the
sunlight is when reaching the crop. For
instance, during long periods of cloudy
weather there may be insufficient light to
enable much photosynthesis to occur. This pre-
vents the crop from increasing in size. It has
been demonstrated that yields of sugar cane
can increase up to three times in areas where
there are long clear sunny periods compared
Environmental influences 19
with that grown under prolonged cloudy con-
ditions. Thus light intensity has an important
bearing on crop yields. Reference to the read-
ings on the sunshine recorder may be a useful
indicator when investigating the drop in yield
of a particular crop.
Questions
1 a Make a large labelled diagram to show
the occurrence of the water cycle in na-
ture.
b Describe how clouds are formed. Under
what conditions are hailstones produced?
c State two ways in which thunderstorms
are beneficial to agriculture.
2 a What are the conditions which affect the
amount of solar energy reaching the
earth?
b How can rainfall be measured accurately
in the field? Of what value is it to the farm-
er to keep records of rainfall amounts?
c What do you understand by the term rel-
ative humidity and of what importance
is it in agriculture?
3
Soil and its
management

Soil is a thin layer of material covering the Table 3.1

land. It is the outermost layer of the earth's Some types of rock
crust. Soil is made when rocks break down to
Igneous rocks
small particles. Soil is an essential part of the a granular rock rich in potassium minerals
granite
agricultural environment. It provides the basalt a black rock formed from molten lava
plants with water, air and nutrients and en- Sedimentary rocks
ables the plants to be held firmly in the sandstone consists of particles of sand cemented together
limestone consists of calcium carbonate formed from deposits
ground.
of calcium material
Soil needs careful management to produce a soft rock made from deposits of mud which have
shale
good yields of crops. Management involves a solidified
basic understanding of the types of soil and Metamorphic rocks
their properties as well as the correct cultiva- marble formed from limestone
quartzite formed from sandstone
tion and treatment for particular crops. Soils
gneiss formed from granite
must be protected against excessive wear and
over-use to avoid erosion.
Formation of soil
Parent material
The rock from which the soil is formed is the
parent rock. Although there are many differ-
ent rock types, three basic groups can be dis-
tinguished (Table 3.1 and Figure 3.4).
Igneous rocks
These are the hard volcanic rocks formed
when molten larva from a volcano or crack in
the earth's crust pours out over the land. The
molten rock is called magma and as it cools it
becomes very hard and solid. Some magma
solidifies beneath the earth's surface. Igneous
rock is slow to break down into soil because it
is such hard resistant material (Figure 3.1).
Volcanoes produce ash and dust as well as mol-
ten material and these settle on the land and
form soil particles quite quickly. Figure 3.1 Granite inselberg
 Soil and its management 21

Figure 3.3 Quartz rock crystal

Figure 3.2 Layered sandstone cliff face
Sedimentary rocks
Running water often carries sand or mud
particles and these are deposited in lakes, on
flood plains or in the sea. This deposit is
known as sediment. Over long periods of time
the sediment becomes compressed by earth
movements and the particles become stuck
together or cemented. The rock is formed in
layers as deposits are laid one on top of
another. Because it is made up of tiny parti-
cles, sedimentary rock is easily broken down
into soil by the further action of wind and
rain. Often, sedimentary rock is found in the
sea bed and beneath lakes and low-lying river
valleys. Where the land has been uplifted or
folded, layers of sedimentary rock can be seen
in outcrops (Figure 3.2).
Metamorphic rocks
Weathering
Soil is formed by the breakdown of rock into
smaller particles. This process is known as
weathering. Figure 3.5 shows the environmen-
tal factors which affect the formation of soil.
Weathering consists of the mechanical break-
down, or the chemical decomposition of rock.
Biological factors also playa part in weather-
ing (Figure 3.6). The rate of soil formation de-
pends on the nature of the parent rock and the
kind of weathering that takes place.
Biological
Trees or other plants often cause rocks to split
and crack as their roots penetrate and expand.
Animals digging and burrowing in the ground
also cause some breakdown. Even minute
plants like lichens can break up the particles
of a rock.
wind-blown "-
volcanic v, "-
material
I
I
\
\
I
I

These rocks are formed from either volcanic or ~: ~/i..t9

I I "'.s-
sedimentary rocks which have undergone igneous rock : :
changes in formation beneath the earth's sur- formed from : : ~ lakes
face by means of intense heat and pressure.
molten ~
~
r---___ '~j:::j:::j:j:j:::j::::
metamorphic rock ----...... ',,-~
The rock material is squeezed and stretched so formed by heat -- -
and pressure sedimentary rOCK
that it becomes flattened (Figure 3.3). The on other rock formed from
~ deposits of
rate at which metamorphic rocks break down ~ ----...... rock particles
into soils depends on the composition of the
rock. Figure 3.4 The formation of rocks
22 O-Level Agriculture

ft
~I/II\\~
""-----~
I climate

I soil organisms

weathered rock I
Figure 3.5 Environmental factors and soil formation

into cracks within the rock and freezes. This

Physical
Biological factors contribute to the mechanical
breakdown of rocks. Other factors include the
intense heat of bush fires and lightning which
can split rocks. In temperate lands, frost is im-
portant as a weathering agent. Water gets
expansion opens up the cracks and splits the
rock. In the tropics where there is a rapid
warming and cooling in the atmosphere, rocks
may crumble. When the wind carries particles
of sand and grit these have an abrasive effect

wind carrying ~
particles of rock~

~antson
rock surface

- - tree roots
penetrating cracks

water and air

entering cracks
1If3>
% '!fib .
!fi3"termite
mounds

, "f iiJl!l-,
"""" .. ,~I... Figure 3.6 Some agents of weathering
bacteria

on exposed rocks. Any process which allows
water and air to get inside the rock structure
contributes to the weathering. The impact of
heavy rain may also cause particles of rock to
break away.
Chemical
All rock is made up of chemical substances
and during the course of time these undergo
changes which alter the composition of the
rock. The chief agent in chemical weathering
is water. Mechanical processes open up the rock
to allow water to enter. As rain falls it dis-
solves some carbon dioxide from the atmos-
phere to form a very weak acid called carbo-
nic acid. Over a period of time this acid reacts
with the mineral particles of the rock, particu-
larly calcium carbonate causing decomposi-
tion. This chemical reaction is summarised as
shown in Figure 3.7. The calcium hydrogen
carbonate formed by this reaction is soluble in
water and the process effectively dissolves the
rock.
The oxygen in the air causes oxidation of
the iron in some rocks. The change in chemic-
al composition weakens the structure and
particles break off.
carbon dioxide weak
rainwater carbonic
from the air
acid
Hp + CO2 H2C03
H2C03 + CaC03 Ca1HC03)2
calcium
limestone hydrogen
carbonate
Figure 3.7 The effect of rainwater on limestone
rocks
Soil constituents
So far we have seen that soil contains mineral
particles derived from rocks. However,
mineral particles alone cannot support plant
life. The other essential constituents of soil
are organic matter, air and water. Many small
animals and bacteria live in the soil and con-
tribute to its formation and properties. Figure
Soil and its management 23
mineral
particles
water 25%
Figure 3.8 The approximate composition of
topsoil. The percentages of air and water vary
according to rainfall, temperature and drainage.
3.8 shows the approximate proportions of
these constituents.
Mineral particles These are the product of
the weathering process. They make up the
bulk of a soil. The size of particles ranges from
small stones or gravel over 2 mm in diameter,
through sand and silt particles to fine clay
particles of 0·002 mm diameter. The size and
nature of the particles depends on the parent
rock. Most soils consist of a mixture of parti-
cles.
Organic matter Decaying plants and
animals are gradually broken down to a rich
dark humus. The top few centimetres of the
topsoil is richest in humus but some may be
found at the top of the next layer. The main
agents for the breakdown of organic matter in
the soil are bacteria. The plant material is
gradually converted into substances which can
be used by growing plants. Fertile soil con-
tains a high proportion of humus. Humus pro-
vides nutrients, and improves the soil texture;
it separates the mineral particles and thus
allows air and water to enter the soil.
Air Soils contain varying amounts of air
in the spaces between the mineral particles.
Soil animals such as earthworms help to aer-
ate the soil. Soil air contains oxygen and car-
bon dioxide and it is usually saturated with
water vapour.
To be fertile a soil needs a good supply of
air for the following reasons.
1 To ensure good exchange of gases for the
cells of plant roots.
24 O-Level Agriculture
2 To provide oxygen for the respiration of soil
bacteria and other soil organisms which are
essential for the breakdown of organic mat-
ter.
Soil texture
The texture of a soil is the proportion of diffe-
rent-sized mineral particles it contains. Soils
with different textures feel different. Take a
small amount of soil in the fingers, moisten it
slightly by adding water then rub it gently be-
tween finger and thumb (Figure 3.9). Table
3.2 gives a guide to soil texture. From this
table it can be seen that there are four basic Figure 3.9 Testing for soil texture
soil groups: sand, loam, silt and clay. Loam
can be regarded as a mixture of sand and clay
or silt. Particles of sand are large and loose; Table 3.2
silt and clay particles are small and when Soil texture
Soil group Description of texture Soil type
moist, easily stick together. The size of the
particles of these three groups is shown in sand coarse feel, large sand
particles, even when
Figure 3.10.
wet
coarse feel, but begins loamy sand
Soil structure
to hold together when
The structure of a soil is determined by the moist
way the particles hold together. A good soil
has obvious sand sandy loam
structure is essential if the soil is to be culti- loam
particles but can be
vated. The type of structure depends on the
moulded
proportions of sand, silt and clay particles and contains sand, can be loam
the amount of organic matter and water in the moulded and sticks to
soil. fingers slightly when
The structure can be determined by ex- moist
can be moulded but not silt loam
amining the soil, preferably in the field, using
very sticky
a hoe. Table 3.3 shows the five classes of soil sticky soil but no clay loam
structure. obvious sand particles
Sand is an example of a structureless soil.
smooth, soapy feel silt
The particles do not form a bond. Clay soils silt
are commonly blocky as the lumps of soil fit clay
clay soft, plastic and sticky;
together easily forming a heavy structure. can be moulded into any
Loam usually has a crumb structure. This is shape and can be
the most suitable structure for cultivation as polished
the soil particles will bond together and yet
allow air and water to circulate freely.
Soil profiles
Most soils result from weathering of rocks
found directly beneath the surface. A straight- 2 mm b.05 mm 0.002 mm
sided hole dug through the soil layers to the silt clay
sand
parent rock reveals the soil profile. The differ-
ent layers that can be seen are called hori- loam

zons (Figure 3.11). The depth of soil in a pro-

Figure 3.10 The sizes of soil particles
file may vary from nothing at all, where the
 Soil and its management 25

Table 3.3 rock is exposed, to several metres.

Soil structure The A horizon is the zone containing the
Description Structure topsoil. This is the soil which nourishes the
roots of plants and which is cultivated. It con-
loose, individual particles structureless tains the organic matter called humus which
is made from decaying vegetation and animal
remains. Some soils, such as laterite, have a
hard surface and there is no humus or topsoil
flat, horizontal units of soil, platy
~ zone so the A horizon is absent.
like plates ~ The B horizon is the sub-soil zone. It may
~ consist of clay or sand particles and is normal-
~
ly from about 30 em to 120 em below the sur-
vertical units of soil prismatic face. In some soils it may be absent altogether.
The C horizon consists of broken down rock
and often a zone of clay material. The parent
rock is the D horizon.
equal amounts of flat and blocky Soils which are wind-blown or carried by
upright units; easily fit water and deposited some distance away from
together
their parent material, such as alluvium, do
not show soil profiles like those derived from
lumps or crumbs of various crumb
the rock beneath them. Soils are formed from
sizes
many different types of rock by various weath-
ering processes and it follows that soil profiles
will vary in appearance and structure. Farm-
ers can use the soil profile to decide what
crops to grow and how best to cultivate the
land.

vegetation
(a) (b)
with little or
A horizon no humus
vegetatiOn}
humus layer of
A horizon }
friable clay
.. sandy (topsoil)
,':...<,,. :
<",,, ..• loam

B horizon

1
fra~:~nts

".,,:y"dY
B horizon
(sub-soil)
1 rich in iron
compounds

gritty clay
iron-rich
clay
C horizon C horizon
(parent material)

broken
rock leached
zone

parent } parent
rock 0 horizon rock

Figure 3.11 (a) A typical soil profile (b) Profile of a laterite soil
26 O-Level Agriculture
Classification of soils soil, water forms a film over the surface of the
soil particles. Spaces are left between the
Colour of soils particles in which air can circulate. Oxygen
The colour of soil varies with its ongm and from the air dissolves in the film of water. It is
method of formation. Colour can be observed available to the roots of plants as they grow in
easily and has been used as a basis for classi- between the particles. Bacteria and other soil
fication. organisms make use of this oxygen as well. If
The two main colouring agents in the soil the soil dries out, the structure breaks down
are organic matter and iron compounds. and the air spaces are filled in. There is no
Soils rich in organic matter are darker in col- film of water to carry the oxygen to the roots
our ranging from black to grey-brown, e.g. and soil organisms.
forest soils. Soils derived from areas of swamp Soils retain varying amounts of water
are also black. The oxides of iron in the soil according to their structure and texture.
colour it yellow, orange, red and brown. Red When water is applied to the soil surface or
soils indicate the drying out of iron-rich soils when rain falls, the water slowly seeps down-
by a long hot season. wards. At first, the water clings to the soil
particles but as more water enters, the spaces
between the particles gradually fill and the air
Soil maps is driven out. Eventually all the air is re-
moved and the soil becomes saturated. When
Agricultural development schemes make use
the rain stops, the soil begins to dry out and
of soil maps which show the types of soil found
regain air in the pore spaces. This is due to
throughout a particular area. This helps in
evaporation of water from the soil surface and
choosing a site for a project. There are many
the downward movement or drainage of water
different soil types found in the tropics and
through the soil. At the same time, water is
these are determined by the method of forma-
removed from the soil as plants take in water
tion and the type of parent material. The
through their roots (Figure 3.12).
three basic groups of tropical soils are as fol-
lows:
Zonal soils Where climate and vegetation
have played a major part in their formation,
e.g. laterite.
Intrazonal soils Where the parent rock is
the dominant factor in the soil formation, e.g.
limestone-rich soils.
Azonal soils Produced by deposition of
material, and without a soil profile, e.g. allu-
vium.
From the information obtained from the
soil maps, a more general classification, as
shown below, can be made, for agricultural
purposes.
1 Soils suitable for crop-growing.
2 Soils unsuitable for crop-growing but of
value for pasture or vegetation.
3 Soils of no productive value.

Soil water
drainage
Plants need both soil water and air so a bal-
ance must be kept between them. In a fertile Figure 3.12 The movement of water in soils
 Soil and its management 27
Drainage all the pores are filled
with water
Water naturally moves downwards through saturated
soil
the soil because of gravity. Soils differ in
porosity. This is the rate at which water can
drain down through the soil. The porosity of a
soil depends on its structure. A good crumb
structure has numerous pore spaces which movement of water
downwards has stopped
allow water to pass freely from one to another. field but a film of water is held
A compact blocky structure gives a low poros- capacity round the soil particles,
ity. Some soils are able to hold water firmly leaving air spaces
and drainage is slow, e.g. clay. They have low in between

porosity. In loose, structure less soils drainage

is rapid because the soil particles are unable there is a film of water
to trap the water. Soils can be classified around the soil particles
wilting but it is held too firmly
according to the extent of drainage through point for roots to make use of
them (Table 3.4).

Capillarity
In a soil where the soil particles are very close
Figure 3.13 The effect of different amounts of
together yet not touching, water is able to
water in the soil
move upwards by capillarity. The tiny pore
spaces lower down are filled with water, while water water water
those nearer the surface are air-filled. Water is
drawn upwards by surface tension into the air
0,/1/1 171#
~
v._171
~
7f/1/
spaces and may reach the soil surface. The , I , ~ ,,
, I \ /
I I \ I
I \
process can easily be demonstrated by experi- I
I \
I \
I

--
\ I

,,
I
,/
ment (page 44). I I I
\
, I
J
" -'-
-_-
I /
\ clay
\ J "" /
/

Amount of water in soil \

/
I
loam
\
'- -/
/

The water-retaining properties of soils are im- sand

portant to farmers because they affect the
ability of the soil to support crops (Figure
D wet area

Table 3.4 Figure 3.14 Movement of water through different

Drainage of soils
excessively drained water moves rapidly between the
particles
freely drained water moves steadily through the
soil and it rarely becomes
waterlogged
moderately drained water drains through but it holds
water, except during long dry
periods
poorly drained water is held between the particles
and there is very little downward
movement
very poorly drained the soil becomes saturated or
waterlogged whenever it rains
soils
3.13). Apart from different rates of drainage
and different water retention properties of
soils there is also a difference in the way wa-
ter spreads through a soil (Figure 3.14). Sandy
soils become wet deeper down and not as wide-
ly as clay soils.
A soil is said to be saturated when all the
spaces between the soil particles are filled
with water. When saturation persists the soil
becomes waterlogged. If more water is added
to the saturated soil the land becomes flooded
because the soil is unable to absorb it. A
waterlogged soil is infertile because air is ex-
cluded from the soil and the plants and soil
organisms do not get any oxygen.
28 O-Level Agriculture
Water-table
When water drains through the soil driving
out the air it forms an aquifer, or under-
ground water source. The upper level of this is
called the water-table (Figure 3.15). Thus, the
level of the water-table below the land sur-
face, varies according to the rate of drainage
or drying out which occurs. The water-table
may lie on the bedrock which is impermeable.
impermeable
rocks
Figure 3.15 A section through the Sahara desert
to show the aquifer
Field capacity
The field capacity of soil is the balance
achieved when water has stopped draining
downwards but the soil particles are still hold-
ing a film of water around them. Thus, pockets
of air remain in the spaces. If any more water
is added to the soil, drainage will resume or
the soil may become saturated (Figure 3.13).
Wilting point
When a plant wilts it is no longer able to take
in sufficient water to keep its cells turgid or
firm (Figure 3.16). Its leaves curl round and it
begins to droop. Wilting point occurs when a
soil is unable to supply enough water to the
plant. Sometimes there is water present in the
soil but it is held too firmly by the particles for
the roots to obtain. The addition of water will
return the soil to field capacity.
Plants sometimes wilt in hot sun or after
transplanting, even in wet soil. This is tem-
porary wilting and is due to an excessive de-
mand for water by the plant.
Soil organisms
Figure 3.17 shows soil organisms.
Micro-organisms
The breakdown of organic matter in the soil
cannot occur without the presence of countless
turgid cell flaccid cell
cell wall
J water in wilted plant
Figure 3.16 Plants wilt when water leaves their
cells. Turgid cells press against each other and
support the plant.
micro-organisms. These include bacteria, fun-
gi and algae. Between them these micro-
organisms are able to break down practically
all the organic remains in the soil. They are
found in greatest abundance in the topsoil
where there is a rich supply of food and where
conditions of warmth, moisture and air are
most suitable.
Some soil bacteria obtain their energy by
converting nitrogen compounds into subst-
ances which are available for plants. Some
nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the nodules
found on the roots of leguminous plants. They
use the nitrogen from soil air and convert it
into nitrogenous substances for the plant. This
forms an important part of the nitrogen cycle
in nature (page 31). Legumes are very useful
in crop rotations because they enrich the soil
with nitrogen (page 37).
Mesofauna
This is the name given to soil organisms
which are visible to the naked eye. Mesofauna
include termites and other soil insects, mil-
lipedes, mites, nematodes and earthworms.
They utilise air in the soil and ingest the orga-
nic matter thus breaking it down. Their waste
products improve the fertility of the soil and
their activity helps to provide better drainage
and aeration. Some of the mesofauna are
harmful in that they attack plant roots.
 Soil and its management 29

J!IIiJ.~
~)~t:.r·. /
~ bacteria

nematodes

Figure 3.17 Soil organisms (not to scale)

Nutrients in the soil The elements present in the earth's crust,

and therefore forming the basic soil minerals,
The soil is a complex mixture of chemical sub- are shown in Table 3.5.
stances, some of which are essential for plant The elements oxygen (0) and silicon (Si)
growth while others are of little value in agri- amount to 75 per cent of the earth's crust and
culture. The elements present in the soil are most of the minerals of the soil are in the form
derived from: of silica (Si02) or silicates (silicon compounds).
1 minerals; Neither silicon nor aluminium are of import-
2 air and water; ance to crops.
3 plant and animal remains; The elements shown in Table 3.6 are essen-
-1 artificial fertilisers and manure; tial for plant growth.
5 chemicals used in crop protection. Soil can be tested III the field or in the
laboratory to find out what nutrients are pre-
Table 3.5 sent. The results of this soil analysis can give
::
Elements in the earth's crust an accurate picture of the amounts of different
chemical substances present and show any de-
Element Percentage by mass ficiencies, i.e. any missing elements. How-
ever, soil analysis does not tell a farmer what
caygen 47

~C()n 28 Table 3.6

almninium 8 Elements essential for plant growth
5
Major elements Minor or trace elements
alcium 4

mdium 3 obtained from air and water

pata5Sium 3 carbon
oxygen
_gnesium 2 hydrogen
obtained from soil
nitrogen chlorine
~e
phosphorus manganese
;:hur potassium iron
less than 1 copper
sulphur
oms
calcium zinc
magnesium boron
.:a::_g-anese molybdenum
30 O-Level Agriculture
fertilisers to apply because crops differ in their
requirements for nutrients. Also a nutrient
may be present in the soil but not available to
the plant because something prevents it from
being taken up. Some elements react with
other substances within the plant so that they
are not utilised properly.
Soil pH
The water in the soil can be acidic or alkaline
depending on the type of particles and the
amount of organic matter present. Any soluble
chemicals in the soil will dissolve in the wa-
ter. Acidity of a solution is decided by the
proportions of hydrogen ions (H+) and hy-
droxyl ions (OH-) present. Acidity is measured
using the pH scale (Figure 3.18).
This runs from 1 to 14. A neutral solution,
e.g. pure water, has a pH of7. An acidic solu-
tion has a pH below 7 and an alkaline solu-
tion has a pH above 7. Each number on the pH
scale represents the concentration of hydrogen
ions in the solution. Acidic solutions have
more hydrogen ions than alkaline solutions
(Figure 3.18). Although the pH of soils ranges
from 3 to 9, most soils are around pH 7.
increasing hydrogen ion concentration
pH 1112131415161718191101111121131141
')
acidic neutral alkaline
Figure 3.18 The pH scale
The following factors affect soil pH.
Parent material Soils rich in sulphur tend
to be acidic. Before cultivation reducing condi-
tions exist and sulphur is reduced to hydrogen
sulphide H2S. Cultivation opens up the soil to
the air and the H2S is oxidised to sulphuric
acid:
H2S + 202 ~ H2S04
This raises the hydrogen ion concentration of
the soil.
Soils formed from limestone or sodium car-
bonate are alkaline. The action of water and
carbon dioxide on these substances is to form
hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO;). This process
takes hydrogen ions out of solution (page 23).
Leaching Heavy rainfall tends to wash ca-
tions out of the soil. Hydrogen ions are con-
tinually produced as carbon dioxide reacts
with water. The hydrogen ions replace Mg" ",
Ca++, Na + and K + ions and the soil becomes
more acidic. Sandy soils are more acidic than
clayey soils because the clay particles tend to
hold on to the cations.
Bad management Bad management prac-
tice can make a soil more acidic. When a crop
is harvested and the residue removed, soil
nutrients used by the crop are not replaced.
The nutrients tend to be replaced instead by
hydrogen ions. This can be avoided by the cor-
rect use of fertiliser (page 33).
Bacterial action Bacteria help the break-
down of organic matter in the soil. The process
of decay releases hydrogen ions into the soil as
organic acids are formed.
The importance of soil pH for crops
All crops grow best at a particular range of
soil pH. This optimum pH gives the highest
yields. (Figure 3.19).
The growth of crops is affected by pH be-
cause the availability of soil nutrients depends
on pH. Where a crop is grown in soil at the
[H + 1 wrong pH some nutrients may not be avail-
able and the plant suffers poor nutrition
which reduces the yield. Bacteria in the soil
work best at an optimum pH of 5·5-7·8.
Since crops have an optimum pH range, far-
mers need to know the pH of the soil
(Figure 3.20). Soil pH is measured as de-
scribed on page 44. In order to produce good
crop optimum pH range
4 5 6 7' 8
bananas
beans
coffee
cotton
groundnuts
maize
millet
rice
sorghum
sugar cane
tea
Figure 3.19 The pH ranges for some tropical
crops
 Soil and its management 31

If the soil is too alkaline its pH can be in-

creased by the addition of sulphur or a fertilis-
er containing sulphur, e.g. ammonium sul-
phate:
soil solution ammonium soil solution
sulphate
base + acid ~ salt + water
(alkali) (acid) (neutral)
Carbon cycle
The series of changes which carbon undergoes
between the atmosphere, water, the soil and
living organisms is known as the carbon cycle.
Carbon dioxide is available in the atmosphere
Figure 3.20 Testing for soil pH for plants to convert into sugars by the process
of photosynthesis (page 50). As plant remains
are broken down in the soil, carbon dioxide is
yields a farmer may need to alter the pH of again released into the air. The combustion of
the soil. This can be done by the addition of fuel and forest fires release large amounts of
chemicals. carbon into the atmosphere. The addition of
If the soil is too acidic it can be made less lime to the soil contributes to the carbon cycle
acidic or neutral by the addition of lime. by making hydrogen ions available to plants.
There are various forms of lime but they are Figure 3.21 shows the carbon cycle in nature.
all calcium substances. When lime is applied
to the soil a neutralisation reaction occurs. Nitrogen cycle
Lime is a base and reacts with the acids in the Nitrogen is one of the most important ele-
soil: ments needed for plant growth. It occurs
soil solution lime soil solution naturally in the atmosphere and in the soil.
acid + base ~ salt + water
(acid) (alkali) (neutral)

CO2 in the atmosphere

bacterial decomposition
of organic material in soil

Figure 3.21 The carbon cycle in nature

32 O-Level Agriculture
nitrogen in
the atmosphere
denitrifying
bacteria
I plant
nitrification ammonium
~ INH4+1
Figure 3.22 The nitrogen cycle in nature
The activity of soil micro-organisms trans-
forms the nitrogen into various compounds, so
that plants can make use of it. Figure 3.22
shows the nitrogen cycle in nature.
The nitrogen cycle is one of the most fun-
damental processes in nature. Without the ac-
tion of soil bacteria, organic matter would not
be decomposed and new plant growth would be
reduced.
The transformation of these nitrogen com-
pounds is brought about by three main pro-
cesses.
Ammonification Bacteria decompose plant
and animal remains into ammonia and ammo-
nium compounds.
Nitrification Other bacteria convert the
ammonium compounds into nitrites, and then
into nitrates. These reactions are brought
about by Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas. The ox-
idation of nitrites is carried out by Nitrobac-
ter. Plants are able to take in nitrogen in the
form of nitrates. The sequence of this trans-
formation of nitrogen is shown in Figure 3.23.
This process continues as long as there is a
good supply of soil air because the nitrifying
bacteria are aerobic that is, they use oxygen
from the air for respiration. However, if the
photosynthesis
•
sugar
•
protein
decaying animal
material
.>
waste products
ammonification
soil becomes waterlogged and the air supply is
diminished, anaerobic bacteria convert the
nitrates back to nitrogen gas by the process of
denitrification.
Nitrogen fixation This is the process
whereby bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen
from the air into nitrogen compounds which
can be used by the plant. Azotobacter and
Clostridium are examples of bacteria which
cflrry out this process. The bacteria called
Rhizobium found in the root nodules of legu-
minous plants also convert nitrogen to ni-
trates.
Loss of nutrients from the soil
Leaching
The loss of nutrients downwards through the
soil is known as leaching (page30). If the soil
drains easily, e.g. sandy soils, nutrients are
readily washed downwards out of reach of the
plant roots. Clay soils, because of their poor
drainage, hold nutrients for longer. Thus ferti-
lisers can be wasted if more is applied than
can effectively be used by the crop. For this
reason farmers often apply two side dressings
of fertiliser instead of one large application,
which may be leached out of the soil.

Tropical soils are very often low in nitrogen
due to the continuous process of leaching.
Removal of nutrients by cropping
As crops naturally take up nutrients from the
soil, it follows that the harvesting of the crops
takes away those nutrients which are then lost
from the soil. In the natural vegetation as a
plant dies, its remains are once again added to
the soil, even if only in the form of wood ash
after a bush fire. Unless fertilisers are added, a
soil soon becomes depleted of nutrients.
NH, I ,mm,,;om NH; I~
/ ~... nitrlfic~
~ ammonification
,-- =- , nitrification"'"
plant and animal remains , .
complex nitrogen compounds
Figure 3.23 Sequence of transformations of nitrogen. compounds in 'he
In the farming system called shifting cul-
tivation, the people move to a new area once
the soil becomes exhausted of nutrients and,
therefore, infertile. The exact amounts of nut-
rients lost by cropping can be determined by
reference to the yield and the crop. For exam-
ple, a crop of maize, yielding 4000 kg/ha of
grain removes the following amounts from the
soil: 32 kg nitrogen, 4 kg phosphorus, 8 kg
potassium. In addition to this the stalks which
are cut and carried off the field remove: 12 kg
nitrogen, 2 kg phosphorus, 12 kg potassium.
To bring the nutrient status of the soil back to
its original value similar amounts must be
added in the form of fertiliser or manure.
Additional nutrients are needed to allow for
leaching and to increase yields.
Figures for the quantities of nutrients lost
through cropping may be obtained from the
Department of Agriculture.
The maintenance of soil fertility
A fertile soil is one which provides all the con-
ditions needed for the successful growth of a
Soil and its management 33
r\ -nl-tr-lte-NO-2-----,\
L- .~
~\-~--
nitrate N03 -
,"i~
Rhizobium
crop. Figure 3.24 summarises these factors
which have been mentioned above. Different
crops need different conditions for growth.
Thus, a fertile soil for one crop could be un-
suitable for other crops. For example, lowland
rice requires a waterlogged soil but maize or
sugar cane could not grow in waterlogged con-
ditions. Thus soil fertility is concerned with
the nutrient status of the soil and with the soil
type, whether there is sufficient depth for root
development for the crop being grown, drain-
age, temperature, pH and so on. In order to
know how to treat the soil, a farmer needs to
know the texture, structure, soil profile, nu-
trient content, pH, water-holding capacity and
the stability of the land against erosion (page
38).
Fertilisers
Before a farmer decides on what fertiliser to
use and how much to apply the following con-
siderations have to be made.
1 The level of nutrients already present in the
soil.
34 O-Level Agriculture
climate
rainfall, seasons and
management
sunshine determine what crops
bad practices such as
can be grown
over-use deplete soil nutrients
crops and cause erosion; good practices
some crops use up nutrients, such as fertilisation and correct
e.g. maize uses nitrogen;
legumes replace nitrogen

temperature
soil micro-organisms air bacterial enzymes work at
breakdown of nutrients good circulation optimum temperatures;
organic material for plant growth required for plant roots overheating bakes soil
and destroys structure
and soil organisms
and dries out the soil
pH depth
affects bacterial action for unrestricted
and uptake of water soil structure
root development to dissolve nutrients
nutrients by plants a good structure
for uptake by plant roots
allows circulation of air
humus and retains sufficient
improves soil structure
parent rock water for plants
and provides nutrients the mineral nature of the soil
for plant roots
affects its fertility

Figure 3.24 Factors affecting soil fertility

of compound fertilisers and contain all three
2 The availability of the nutrients to the basic nutrients along with other elements-
plant, e.g. will they dissolve in water? Are These fertilisers have a variety of trade names
they held in combination with other nu- but the N :P:K percentage must be shown on
trients? the bag, and in the correct order.
3 Can the plant make use of nutrients once
they enter its tissues? Application of fertilisers
4 Economics: how much will the fertiliser Fertilisers are often in the form of crumbs or
cost? How will this compare with the in- tiny balls so that they spread more evenly
creased return from the crop? over the soil surface and dissolve more slowly.
The three most important elements for Some fertilisers react chemically with the
plant growth are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), mineral particles of the soil and the type of
and potassium (K)_ These form the basis for compounds formed depends on the fertiliser
nearly all fertilisers- and the nature of the soiL
The N:P:K values or ratings are expressed
as the percentage of each of these elements in Table 3.7
fertilisers. For example, the fertiliser ammo- N:P:K ratings of some fertilisers
nium sulphate ((NH4hS04) contains 21 per Percentage
cent N, and no P or K. The remaining 79 per N P K
Fertiliser
cent of the fertiliser is made up of hydrogen,
21 0 0
sulphur and oxygen, ammonium sulphate
35 0 0
The ratings of some common fertilisers are ammonium nitrate
26 0 0
calcium ammonium nitrate
given in Table 3_7. 46 0 0
urea
Some fertilisers give the percentage of 0 10 0
superphosphate (single)
phosphorus in the form of P205 and potas- basic slag 0 6 0

sium in the form of K20. Since these com- 0 0 48

potassium chloride
0 0 40
pounds also contain oxygen, the percentage of potassium sulphate
0 0 5
P or K is not as high as the figure given here. wood ash

Most commercial fertilisers are in the form


Figure 3.25 Fertiliser being applied by broadcasting
Nitrogen is generally in the form of ni-
trates which are readily soluble and quickly
available to the plant through the roots. Phos-
phates and potassium fertilisers combine in
the soil with mineral particles at the point
where the fertiliser is placed. For this reason,
these fertilisers should be placed in the soil
near the roots or before planting so that the
roots will not have to grow far to reach them.
A base or basal dressing is the placing of
fertiliser in the soil before sowing or planting,
or as part of the same operation. It is dug into
the topsoil so the nutrients are available for
the young emerging plant. Base dressings
usually have a high phosphorus content as
this is needed for root development, protein
and chlorophyll formation and for the growth
and colour of the plant.
A top dressing is the application of ferti-
liser to a growing crop after it has emerged. It
is often placed at the side of the plant as a
side dressing. Nitrogen is the most impor-
tant nutrient at this stage. Crops with a ni-
Soil and its management 35
trogen deficiency have yellow leaves, poor seed
or fruit formation and a reduced yield.
The amount of fertiliser to be applied de-
pends on the following considerations.
1 The type of soil and its texture, e.g. clay
soils hold nutrients longer than sandy soils.
2 The crop being grown, and extent of its root
system.
3 The previous use of the land, e.g. legume
crops leave a residue of nitrogen in the soil,
so less nitrogen fertiliser is needed.
4 The pH of the soil, e.g. an acidic soil may
need liming (page 36) whereas an alkaline
soil will need a fertiliser such as ammonium
sulphate to increase acidity.
5 The climate of the area, for instance, rain-
fall may cause a loss offertiliser.
Fertilisers may be applied by:
1 broadcasting when the fertiliser is scat-
tered over the surface of the soil as evenly
as possible, by hand or machine (Figure
3.25);
2 combine drilling where fertiliser is placed
36 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 3.26 A tractor being used to fertilise and
plant maize
in the soil at the same time as the seed is
planted (Figure 3.26).
Fertiliser recommendations for a particular
crop in any area can be obtained from your
local Department of Agriculture. The quanti-
ties are measured in kilograms per hectare
(kg/ha).
Lime
The chemical reaction of lime within the soil
helps to reduce the acidity of the soil (page
31). However, lime has other properties which
help to improve the soil.
Lime is available in several different forms,
e.g. ground limestone (CaC03), slaked lime
(Ca(OH)2), quicklime (CaO) or in compound
fertilisers.
When lime is added to a 'clay soil it reacts
with the tiny clay particles causing them to
bond together into small lumps. This process
is call flocculation. By converting the clay
particles into larger units lime improves the
soil structure. The units formed do not become
so compact as single clay particles and larger
spaces are left between them. Thus drainage
and aeration are improved.
Organic manures
Manure obtained from livestock provides a
valuable source of nutrients in the soil and
improves soil structure by adding organic
matter. It is traditional for farmers to apply
kraal manure on their fields and cheaper but
the yield from the crop does not always in-
crease as much as it can with commercial in-
organic fertilisers. The natural organic manu-
res such as animal manure or crop residues
supply quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium as well as other nutrients but it is
difficult to estimate by how much they enrich
the soil. Manure often contains fibre which
helps to separate soil particles and allows bet-
ter drainage and aeration.
Green manure
A crop which is grown for ploughing back into
the soil to improve the fertility is called a
green manure crop. Sun hemp, velvet beans,
and cowpeas are examples of green manure
crops. If there is any land not being used for
crop production, a green manure crop can be
grown and dug back into the soil to add nu-
trients.
Most green manure crops are legumes
whose root nodules fix nitrogen from the air.
When they are ploughed in, the nitrogen con-
tent of the soil is increased, Green manure
crops also add to the organic matter content of
the soil and the ploughing in may raise nu-
trients from deep down in the soil.
Compost
Most vegetable gardens have a compost heap
associated with them. This is where the crop
residues and kitchen wastes are stacked and
allowed to decay. If they are just stacked on
the surface the sun soon dries them up and
their nutrient value is lost. A well-planned
compost heap should be started in a pit
about 1 m deep. After each layer of crop waste,
about 20' cm deep, a layer of soil is added. The
heap must be kept moist and shaded to allow
rapid breakdown of the material by micro-
organisms. A compost activator should be
sprinkled on to each layer of vegetation to
help the breakdown process. The activator
may just be a sprinkling of a chemical fertilis-
er or some mature compost. The heap is com-
pleted when about 60 em above ground level.
Figure 3.27 shows the construction of a com-
post heap.
The micro-organisms produce heat as they
make the compost. To be sure that the process
is working, the farmer can insert sticks into
the heap and leave for a few minutes. When
withdrawn the sticks will feel warm to the
touch. So that all the material is properly con-
 Soil and its management 37

roof for shade and shelter from rain

soil cover
/

layers
of
vegetation
and soil
1 m with fertiliser
and activator
spread on each
) layer,

Figure 3.27 A compost heap built in a pit

beans sweet potatoes

verted to compost the heap must be turned I
two or three times during the process.
Compost enriches the soil by adding nu-
trients, organic matter and micro-organisms, maize groundnuts
-----
and it also improves the structure by assisting Figure 3.28 A crop rotation - maize is grown on
drainage and aeration. soil enriched by legumes
Crop rotation
Crop rotation means growing crops in sequ-
ence to make the most beneficial use of the
land. The practice of crop rotation is not just
concerned with the soil. It is concerned with
the effects of different crops on the land and
the build-up of pests and diseases. Different
crops remove different amounts of nutrients
from the soil. Some crops enrich the soil, espe-
cially legumes (page 32). Knowledge of the
effect of each crop on the soil enables the far- mulch

mer to plan the most suitable crop rotation

(Figure 3.28). For example, if maize is grown
in a field which has been used for groundnuts
the previous years, the nitrogen residue left in
the soil by the groundnut crop reduces expend-
iture on nitrogen fertilisers.
Mulching
A layer of vegetation can be applied around
the base of a growing crop in order to conserve
moisture within the soil (Figure 3.29). Various
materials can be used, e.g. grass cuttings,
chopped maize stalks and leaves. Sometimes
black polythene sheeting is used. Mulching re- Figure 3.29 Crops can be mulched between the
duces evaporation and weed growth. Fruit rows and around individual plants
38 O-Level Agriculture
trees are suitable for mulching but for most
field crops the benefits would not be worth the
work in preparing and applying the mulch.
Soil temperature
The temperature of the soil affects the rate of
decomposition of organic matter. If the soil be-
comes too hot, soil bacteria may stop working.
The temperature can be reduced by the ap-
plication of water or by the use of shade trees.
A mulch of cut grass or crop residue can be
spread over the soil to reduce the effect of the
sun. A quick-growing crop can be grown to
protect seedlings from the sun.
Dark soils warm up quicker than light-
coloured soils because they absorb more heat.
Land sloping towards the sun at its highest
point warms up more quickly than land slop-
ing the other way. Generally, the topsoil dries
out more quickly than the sub-soil so it is
usually at a higher temperature.
••••••••wind ••••••••
...". blows sand ...".
clearing
crop residues
fire
early burning
exposes the soil
Figure 3.30 Factors contributing to soil erosion
Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of soil by running
water or wind. It occurs naturally and can also
be caused by careless agricultural methods or
by accidents, such as fire. The amount of soil
erosion taking place depends on the climate of
the area, the natural vegetation, the soil type,
the relief of the land and the methods of agri-
culture practised (Figure 3.30).
Causes and agents of erosion
Wind areas with strong prevailing winds
and sparse vegetational cover are most easily
eroded by wind. These include desert and
semi-arid areas.
Rain it is not the amount of rainfall that
is important but how the rain falls. A heavy
storm of 100 mm of rain can cause serious ero-
sion, while the same amount spread over 24
hours might have much less ~effect.
.._;. ..:. ::;~.
/
topsoil
/ washed awa'

Fire early burning of the bush can cause
the soil to be exposed for longer during the dry
season, giving a greater risk of erosion. Late
burning often results in quick new growth and
this reduces the danger of erosion (Figure
3.31).
Flooding serious erosion can occur when
rivers overflow their banks, taking with them
large quantities of soil from adjacent land.
Overgrazing by cattle or goats. This dimi-
nishes the grass cover, thus exposing the soil
and making it liable to erosion by wind.
Other factors influencing soil erosion in-
clude the following.
1 Slope of land - erosion is naturally greater
on a steep slope than a gentle slope.
2 Vegetation - forest areas and thick bush are
likely to suffer less from erosion than grass-
land or sparse bush because less of the soil
surface is exposed.
3 Soil type - soil texture is important. In
coarse sandy soils drainage is faster be-
tween the large soil particles thus reducing
the danger of surface erosion by water. But
on light sandy soils and silts, there is an in-
creased danger of wind erosion. Heavy soils
are less likely to be eroded by either wind or
water. Likewise, the soil structure is impor-
tant. A loose dry soil is more likely to be
eroded than a blocky or crumb structure.
'lay
Figure 3.31 Fire may increase the risk of erosion
Soil and its management 39
Types of erosion
Sheet erosion This occurs when wide
areas of soil are eroded by a layer of water.
For instance, after heavy rain or flooding the
soil removed from one area is deposited lower
down on plains.
Gully erosion Gullies are deep ravines in
the land surface caused by fast flowing water.
They occur mostly on sloping land and once
established are difficult to contain.
Wind erosion Light soils are blown by the
wind from one place and deposited in another.
Figure 3.32 shows an example of soil ero-
sion.
Prevention and control
The effects of soil erosion throughout the
world have been immense. Large areas have
become valueless for agriculture because of
the loss of topsoil. Soil conservation is con-
cerned with keeping the soil on the land and
reducing its loss through erosion. There are
many ways in which this can be achieved.
Contour ploughing The land is ploughed
so that the furrows run across the slope in-
stead of up and down. This stops water from
washing soil straight down the slope.
Figure 3.32 Gulley erosion
40 O-Level Agriculture
Terracing The land is cut into steps with affected by gully erosion, it may be necessary
wide flat areas for planting and short vertical to plant grass or shrubs.
cuts which can be sown with grass to make Mulching The soil cover protects the soil
them more stable. This prevents water run- from erosion by wind or water.
ning down the slope. Careful agricultural practice The farmer
Contour ridging A ridge or bund of soil must be aware of the problems of erosion and
is made across the slope and the crop is grown plan well to reduce the risks. For example,
behind this. Both the crop and the ridge help burning, clearing bush and ploughing can all
to stabilise the slope (Figure 3.33(a». cause erosion if not carried out with care and
Wind-breaks Trees or shrubs are planted forethought.
in a line to protect an exposed field from wind Prompt action Prevention is better than
erosion. cure, but if erosion begins, prompt action must
be taken to bring it under control at once.
(a)

Cultivation
Cultivation of the soil is an essential stage in
crop production. The soil must be prepared for
the crop for the following reasons (Figure
3.34).
1 To break up the soil and to improve the
structure so that plant roots can grow easily
(b)
through the soil and the root hairs can
absorb the soil water.
crops are 2 To provide a good tilth for planting and de-
planted velopment of the crop.
around the
slope with 3 To ensure a good circulation of air in the
grass strips soil.
in between
4 To enable water to enter easily and to drain
leaving just sufficient water to supply the
plant roots.
5 To dig in surface vegetation so that it will
decompose more easily and enrich the soil.
Figure 3.33 Methods of preventing soil erosion: 6 To control weeds.
ta) contour bunds; (b) strip cropping. 7 To control soil-borne pests and diseases.
Cultivation of the soil is carried out in differ-
Grass strips Strips of uncultivated land ent stages. The land is ploughed before plant-
are left to run across the slope at intervals. ing the crop then harrowed or hand-cultivated
They act as a break for water running over to break up clods of earth left by the plough.
the surface (Figure 3.33(b». Hand-hoeing is suitable for small gardens and
Intercropping Widely spaced crops, such vegetable plots, and in the nursery. Larger
as maize are interplanted with another crop fields require mechanisation using oxen or
such as pumpkins to protect the exposed soil tractors to pull the plough or harrow
between the main crop rows from erosion. (Figure 3.35). The ground may be fertilised or
Controlled grazing The number of anim- limed before planting depending on the re-
als grazed in an area is carefully controlled to quirements of the soil. Some equipment used
ensure that overgrazing and trampling do not for cultivation is detailed in Chapter 16.
occur. Fencing may be necessary to ensure The preparation of seed beds requires extra
good control. cultivation using hoes and rakes. The bed may
Vegetation cover In areas likely to be be raised to give better drainage. It must be
 Soil and its management 41

organic material
mixed into soil
improves drainage weeds buried

Figure 3.34 The effects of cultivation

cultivated to a depth suitable for the crop
which is to be planted. Shallow-rooting crops
require shallow seed beds whereas a crop
: whose roots grow deep will require a deeper
cultivation.
Care must be taken to avoid over-
cultivation which can accelerate soil-erosion.
extracted from a fixed depth. The core should
be placed in a polythene bag and labelled.
The soil sample can be analysed using any
of the tests detailed on the following pages. If
only a portion of the sample is to be used,
spread the soil out evenly in a circle. Take only
% or l/S of the sample for testing.

Practical work
Soil sampling
If some soil is to be taken for examination or
for an experiment it is important that the
sample is carefully selected. A small sample of
soil from a field is not representative of the
whole. Several samples should be taken, each
from a different part of the field (Figure 3.36).
The tool normally used for soil sampling is the
auger (Figure 3.37). This allows a core to be

Figure 3.35 A tractor being used in cultivation Figure 3.36 Collecting several samples from
different parts of a field
42 O-Level Agriculture
soil auger
extracts soil dry the soil in
sample sample in the sun or
polythene bag - label in an oven

~~~~~ -~.':'/;""
~
sieve into t
different
particle ';'''~
or:

spread out grind into

into a circle small particles
in a mortar

-
Figure 3.37 Soil sampling

To describe a soil nic matter. It has blocky structure, clay

The description of a soil is based on close
observation using the information about soils
contained in this chapter. The soil under ex-
amination should be fresh and not dried. The
following points are used as a guide,
Colour Observe the predominant colour:
red, black, white, grey, dark brown, fawn.
Organic matter Look for small pieces of
decaying vegetation in the sample and record
how plentiful it is.
Texture Look for the most obvious particle
size. Feel the soil with the fingers, add mois-
ture if necessary. Use Table 3.2 on page 24 to
help you.
Structure Use Table 3.3 on page 25 to de-
scribe the structure of the sample. A magnify-
ing lens could be helpful.
texture and is slow draining.
Observation of soil particles
To separate the particles place about 50 ml of
fresh soil into a 250 ml measuring cylinder
almost full of water and shake the mixture
thoroughly. The heaviest particles sink to the
bottom at once but the lighter clay particles
take a long time to settle. Any organic mat-
ter present floats on the surface. Once the wa-
ter has become clear and all the soil particles
have settled, observe the different layers and
measure their depth (Figure 3.38). Repeat the
humus
floating

From these observations see if you can form

any conclusions about the soil with regard to:
1 parent material;
2 drainage potential;
3 general fertility and condition;
4 present use, i.e. the crops or type of vegeta-
tion last grown in it.

Write a brief description of the soil as a con-

clusion to your observations. For example:
The soil is dark brown and rich in orga- Figure 3.38 To separate the soil particles

experiment using different soils and compare
your observations.
To determine particle size Dry the soil
sample thoroughly and grind it in a mortar.
This removes lumps and makes this experi-
ment more accurate. Use a series of sieves
with holes of decreasing size. The first sieve
should have holes 2 mm in diameter and the
last one 0·002 m diameter. Put all of the sam-
ple into the first sieve and shake it gently over
a sheet of paper. Any particles smaller than
2 mm across will pass through. Place the
particles left in the sieve in a jar. Repeat until
all the sieves are used (Figure 3.39).
Notice which size of particle predominates.
Figure 3.39 The soil sample is sieved to collect
particles of a particular size range
To find out the volume of air present in soil
Measure out 100 ml of fresh soil in a measur-
ing cylinder. Take another measuring cylinder
of 250 ml and pour 100 ml of water into it ..
Add the 100'ml of soil to the water. Shake the
mixture and note the volume of the mixture.
As the soil is added, the air is driven out of it
by the water. The total volume, therefore, is
less than the 200 ml expected. The volume of
air present in the soil is the number of ml less
than 200 as indicated by the reading. For ex-
ample, if the total volume is 160 ml:
200-160 = 40 ml therefore, the volume of air
present in the soil is 40 ml. This can be ex-
pressed as a percentage of the original soil
sample:
original soil sample 100 ml
air present
40ml
percentage of air 40%
To find the true volume of a soil The true
volume is the volume of soil particles without
the air. In the above example, the true volume
of the soil is 100-40 = 60 ml or 60 per cent.
Soil and its management 43
The mass of water in soil
Weigh out 100 g offresh soil and spread it out
in the sun to dry, or dry it artificially on the
side of a stove. Weigh the sample again and
record the mass. The difference between this
figure and the original mass is the amount of
water which was present. This can be express-
ed as a percentage. For example:
before drying 100 g
after drying 80 g
difference 20 g
The mass of water in the sample is 20 g or 20
per cent of the soil, by mass.
Carry out this experiment using different
types of soil, soil from different depths and soil
during different seasons, and compare your
results.
Soil stability
Take samples of soil from two or three differ-
ent places and roll them into balls of equal
diameter, adding water if necessary. Make the
balls as compact as possible by pressing and
moulding between the fingers. Place each ball
on a wire gauze and secure a burette 60 em
above the ball. Drip water from the burette on
to the ball of soil and count the drops
6
,
{) 6
i~
:) ;~
•
loose friable solid
Figure 3.40 Stability of different soils
(Figure 3.40). As soon as the ball begins to
break up and starts washing through the
gauze, stop the water dripping. Record the
number of drops required to reach this point.
Repeat the experiment for each soil type and
compare the recordings.
This experiment gives an indication of the
stability of the soil and how it reacts to rain.
Try to compare the stability of sand and clay
soils by this method.
44 O-Level Agriculture
Water retention in soils
Take two different soil types and place about
50 ml of each into two filter funnels plugged at
the neck with cotton wool. Place the funnels in
measuring cylinders. Then carefully add 50 ml
of water to each funnel over a period of 5 min-
utes (Figure 3.41). Note the amount of water
which has drained through into each cylinder.
The difference between this figure and the ori-
ginal 50 ml is the amount of water retained
by the soil.
Figure 3.41 Water drains more quickly through
sand than through clay
This experiment compares the drainage and
water retention properties of the soils. Sandy
soils drain water more quickly and retain less
water than clay soils because of their larger
particles and larger air spaces. For crop pro-
duction they will require more water from
rain or irrigation.
Capillarity
Capillarity is the ability of water to rise up be-
tween the narrow pores in the soil, against the
force of gravity. Take two glass tubes and fill
them with two different soil types. Plug the
tubes at the base with cotton wool to prevent
the soil falling out. Then place the base of
each tube in a bowl of water and observe the
extent to which water rises up each tube (Fig-
ure 3.42). Record the level at regular inter-
vals. Note which type of soil shows the
greatest capillarity. The tiny pores of clay
soils are able to hold more water by capillarity
and lose less water through drainage than
sandy soils.
Soil bacteria
Colonies of soil bacteria can be observed by
preparing a culture. For this, agar jelly is
used. To prevent bacteria from other sources
entering the experiment sterilised apparatus
is necessary: A minute sample of soil is placed
into a sterilised petri dish using the point of a
needle. The liquid agar is poured over the
sample and the dish is immediately covered by
another sterilised petri dish and sealed with
sellotape. The agar is allowed to set into jelly
form and the sample is left at a temperature of
20-25°C for one week. It is then taken out
and examined. A hand lens may be used to
observe any bacterial colonies or growths
which have developed in the agar.
This experiment demonstrates the presence
of bacteria in soil. The bacteria can be iden-
tified if necessary. Different soil types can be
compared, and samples can be taken during
rainy and dry seasons and from cultivated and
non-cultivated plots.
Soil pH
The usual way of finding out the pH of a soil is
to use universal indicator. This is a solution
which when mixed with an acid or alkali solu-
tion changes colour. By noting the colour pro-
duced and comparing it with the indicator col-
our chart the pH of the substance being tested
can be determined. As soil is a coloured mix-
ture any colour change is hard to observe. For
this reason the test should be carried out
against a white background.
sand clay
--dry soil
;l level to which
water soaks up
Figure 3.42 To compare the capillarity of sand
and clay

Take a clean white tile and place a little of
the soil in the middle. Then add a few drops of
universal soil indicator to the soil. Use a clean
glass rod to mix the soil with the indicator.
Then allow some of the mixture to run across
the tile so that its colour can be observed
against the white tile. Take the indicator col-
our chart and compare the colour obtained
with the nearest colour on the chart. This
shows the approximate pH of the soil.
below: 5-6 7 8-9:
pH 5 I
I
I
I I
strong I acid : neutral: alkaline: very
acid I I I I alkaline I
I I I I
Figure 3.43 The colour scale for a pH indicator
A similar test can be carried out using in-
dicator paper. Shake a small quantity of soil
in a boiling tube with some distilled water.
Place a piece of indicator paper in the mixture
and observe the colour change. Compare this
with the nearest colour on the chart to find the
pH of the soil (Figure 3.43).
Soil erosion
Construct two wooden troughs making them
as water-tight as possible. Fill one trough
with loose soil and the other with compacted
soil. Lift up one end of each trough and place a
bowl at the other end. Then pour water on to
-.
unprotected soil
Figure 3.44 Experiment to demonstrate the
erosion effect of rainfall on sloping soils
Soil and its management 45
each sample and observe the effects of running
water on loose compared with compacted soil.
Repeat the experiment using a trough of
uncovered soil and a trough whose soil is cov-
ered with growing vegetation. Observe the
difference in soil loss between the two. This
demonstrates the value of a vegetation cover
in preventing soil erosion (Figure 3.44).
Questions
1 a How is soil formed from bare rock?
over 9 b Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate
I
I I a soil profile. How do the various parts
: you have labelled differ in composition?
I c Describe three ways in which the soil you
have illustrated could be improved and
the effects these measures would have on
the composition and structure ofthe soil.
2 a In what ways, other than by erosion, are
nutrients removed or lost from the soil?
b What steps can a farmer take to prevent
such losses and maintain nutrient levels
in the soil?
c Why is the texture of a soil important in
relation to its nutrient status?
3 a What are the factors which govern the
rate at which water drains through a
soil? How can a farmer improve the
drainage properties of a heavy soil?
b Under what conditions can water be
drawn upwards through the soil? How
. could this be shown in the laboratory?
.
c What are the soil conditions which cause
wilting in a crop?
4 a Make a large fully labelled diagram to
illustrate the nitrogen cycle in nature.
b What do you understand by the term 'ni-
trogen fixation'? By what natural means is
the level of nitrogen in soils maintained?
c What conditions must be present for a
soil to be described as fertile?
5 a Name the three major elements essential
for plant growth and derived through the
roots. Name an artificial fertilizer which
can be used to supply each of the ele-
ments you have named.
b Describe two ways in which fertilizers
may be applied to soils.
4
Plant growth and
development

To grow, plants need oxygen and carbon diox-
ide from the air and a supply of water and dis-
solved mineral nutrients from the soil. The
energy needed for growth comes from the sun,
as heat and light energy.
In warm conditions with plenty of moisture,
plants grow normally, but when it is cold or
during a dry season, growth slows down or
even stops. During severe conditions, such as
a drought the plant may even die, though
some plants have methods of surviving very
dry periods.
Each part of a plant has a particular job to
do so that the plant grows normally.
to the rest of the plant;
4 carry food materials made in the leaves to
the rest of the plant;
5 carry out photosynthesis in green plants
(page 50).
If a section is taken across a stem and it is
examined under the microscope, individual
cells and tissues can be seen (Figure 4.2).
male flower
} (tassel)

Plant structure

Figure 4.1 shows the structure of a maize

plant.
Stems
The stem of a plant is the green part of it
growing above ground, from which the leaves
and flowers develop. Most stems grow upright,
but some grow along the ground as runners.
Some plants produce specialised stems which
grow underground, e.g. the tubers of the Irish
potato.
The main functions of the stem are to:
1 support the leaves and flowers;
2 space out the leaves so that they can all re-
ceive sufficient sunlight;
3 carry water and nutrients up from the roots Figure 4.1 The structure of a maize plant
 Plant growth and development 47

Xylem The xylem vessels are very long

and narrow. They carry water up the stem from
the roots.
Phloem The long sieve tubes carry food
made in the leaves to other parts of the plant.
There are small living cells associated with
the sieve tubes which assist in translocation
(page 55).
~----F=If--,;4-- hollow Cambium These are living, actively di-
centre viding cells between the xylem and phloem.
Leaves
The leaves of a plant are the flat, green struc-
tures which grow from the stem; their mainjob
is to make the plant's food. They are adapted
(a) for this job by the following features.
1 They are well spaced out on the stem so
that they receive as much light as possible
for photosynthesis (page 50).
2 They are very thin so that gases do not have
far to pass to reach the cells where photo-
synthesis takes place.
3 They provide a large surface area for cool-
ing the plant by the evaporation of water
during transpiration (page 53).
The shape and arrangement of leaves dif-
fers for the different kinds of plants. Maize
has long, narrow leaves which grow fairly
close to the stem. Bananas have very large
leaves enabling plenty of water to pass out
(Figure 4.3). Some plants have reduced leaves
so that less water is lost, e.g. Euphorbia.
These grow well in desert regions. The surface
of most leaves is covered with a thin film of
wax called the cuticle which helps to reduce
water loss.
If a thin section is taken through a leaf
from top to bottom, the arrangement of the
cells and tissues can be seen (Figure 4.4 and
4.8).
Epidermis This forms a layer around the
b) leaf, one cell thick. The epidermis helps to pro-
Figure 4.2 Transverse section of the stem of tect the leaf from damage and infection and
sunflower reduces water loss. The cells are transparent
and sunlight can pass through them into the
Epidermis The outer layer of cells which food-making cells beneath.
surrounds the stem and encloses the rest of Palisade This is a layer of cylindrical cells
the stem tissues. beneath the epidermis. The palisade cells have
Cortex and pith cells These are large chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. Most of
plant cells with vacuoles. They form the body the plant's food is made in these cells, by the
of the stem and allow circulation of air. process of photosynthesis (page 50). The cells
48 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 4.3 Banana plants have large leaves
increasing transpiration
have air spaces between them so that carbon
dioxide and oxygen can enter and leave the
cells readily.
Spongy layer Beneath the palisade layer
are groups of loose-fitting cells called sponge
cells. These have large vacuoles and air spaces
between them. They enable air to circulate
freely through the leaf and reduce its weight.
Vascular bundles The xylem vessels and
the sieve tubes of the phloem are situated in
vascular bundles inside the midrib and veins
of the leaf.
Stomata These are the small openings, or
pores, on the surface of the leaf through which
Figure 4.4 Transverse section of leaf
open
side view
Figure 4.5 Stomata - the guard cells are shaped
so that when they are turgid the pore is open and
when they are flaccid the pore is closed
water can pass out. There are more stomata
on the lower surface of a leaf than on the up-
per surface. Each stoma is enclosed by two
guard cells which shrink to allow more water
vapour to pass out and swell to close the pore
and reduce water loss (Figure 4.5).
Roots
The roots of a plant are the parts growing be-
low the ground surface in most plants. There
are several different types of root but they all
have the same basic functions.
1 They hold the plant firmly in the soil.
2 They extract water and dissolved nutrients
from the soil for use by the plant.
3 They help to retain moisture in the soil as a
protection against dry conditions.
4 Some roots act as storage organs for the
plant's food reserves.
Tap roots A root system made up of one
main root with several side roots attached to it
(Figure 4.6(a».
Fibrous roots Several roots grow down-
wards from the seed, or growing point, and
each of these develop side roots or lateral
roots. It is called a fibrous root system because
there is no single main root (Figure 4.6(b».
The structure of a root is similar to that of a
stem since it has many of the same jobs to do.
However, the arrangement of the tissues with-

(a)
Figure 4.6 (a) The tap root of mustard (b) The
fibrous root system of a grass
in the root is slightly different (Figure 4.7).
Epidermis This is the outer layer of cells
and provides some protection. The epidermis
cells produce the root hairs whose job is to
take in water. Root hairs grow between the
soil particles so that moisture is easily ex-
tracted (page 53).
Cortex These cells form the main portion
of the root between the epidermis and the
vascular tissues. They have air spaces be-
Plant growth and development 49
la)
endodermis
loem
(b)
I-- piliferous layer
Figure 4.7 Transverse section of the root of maize
tween them and help to control the rate at
which water is taken up the plant.
Vascular tissues The structure of the tis-
sues responsible for carrying water and solu-
tions along the root is different from that of
the stem where they are arranged in groups or
bundles. In the root the vascular tissue is
found in the centre with xylem vessels form-
ing the central portion and phloem cells
arranged around the outside, separated from
the xylem by a cambium layer. This makes
the root more compact and the important
transport cells less liable to damage as the
root grows down through the soil.
 50 O-Level Agriculture
The growth of a root takes place by con-
tinual division of cells just behind the root tip. Water enters - E ~-==-'::1-.J::
As the new cells grow the root extends further
from the xylem "E-=
into the soil. The growing tip of the root is pro-
bon dioxide enters fro
tected by a root cap, whose cells are con-
the cells of the spongy
tinually replaced as they wear away due to
are in the cytoplasm ~; - .
contact wIth thesOIJ particles. easiif passes throughthe epJae~ ~
the /e8/8et?' .IS 8}S{)/,}t>tllzy /At' t'.Dk/'qtJk~z"
De eh'e~ ./5 use/ d7 ceruse &7eefc.derh'srec7/
Plants can build up complex organic molecules electrons in a long series ofjumps which leads
~ ~~hP.&7 ~,4//'.tJ_,j'6' _,j'/.jfd./: .7'.lJ./5./5 .then

~om the simple chemicals carbon cIfoxI'f/{an/ converted to starch (Figure 4.8').
water. The process of photosynthesis m~kes
carbohydrates which are then converted mt.o
proteins and fats in the plant's cells. In ad?l-
tion to these basic foodstuffs plants reqUlre
mineral nutrients. The nutrients are dissolved
in the water taken in by plant roots.
Photosynthesis takes place in leaves and
the sugars made there are transported all over
the plant, in the sieve tubes of the phloem, by
the process of translocation. A continuous
stream of water travels from the roots to the
leaves through xylem vessels. This is the
transpiration stream.
The organic and mineral nutrients are used
in each cell of the plant to provide raw mate-
rial and energy for growth and reproduction. Figure 4.8 Photosynthesis takes place mainly in
the palisade cells of the leaf
The energy is derived by the breakdown of
foodstuffs in the process of respiration. The oxygen produced is released into the
Photosynthesis air spaces and may be used for respiration or
passed out through the stomata to the atmos-
Photosynthesis is the production of sugars phere. The glucose sugar formed during photo-
from carbon dioxide and water using solar synthesis may be:
energy captured by the green pigment chlor-
ophyll. Oxygen is produced during the pro- 1 translocated to other plant cells;
cess. 2 broken down for respiration;
Photosynthesis can be summarised by a 3 converted to other sugars, e.g. sucrose found
simplified chemical equation: in sugar cane;
energy from 4 converted to larger carbohydrates such as
sunlight starch stored as tiny granules in cells where
-----~ C6H1206 + it can be readily converted back to sugar for
water carbon glucose translocation if required. Starch is also
dioxide sugar stored, for example, in yarn tubers, and cel-
lulose which is used to make plant cell
602
walls;
oxygen 5 converted to proteins needed to make en-
Photosynthesis goes on in any plant cell zymes and stored in some seeds, e.g. rice
that contains chloroplasts which hold the grains and beans, and fats which are impor-
chlorophyll. The palisade cells in leaves con- tant for many metabolic reactions in cells

and stored in some seeds, e.g. groundnuts,
and fruits, e.g. avocado pears;
n 6 converted to vitamins, hormones and nu-
cleic acids (the genetic material).
The importance of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis supplies the plant's needs for
f the major foodstuffs. The foods produced are
eaten by animals and humans. Grains, pulses,
_1 vegetables and fruits can supply a complete
and balanced diet containing all the protein,
carbohydrate, fat, vitamins and minerals
needed for good health.
The oxygen produced as a by-product en-
riches the atmosphere. The oxygen in the
atmosphere is used for respiration in plants
and animals. Photosynthesis taking place in
the forest and grassland regions of the world
replaces this oxygen. Without the continual
replacement the oxygen would become used
up.
To test a leaf for starch
A practical demonstration that the process of
photosynthesis occurs in the leaves can be car-
ried out by examining a leaf to see if starch is
present. The characteristic of starch is that it
will turn a dark blue colour when treated with
iodine solution. As the starch is not readily
available but is enclosed within the chloro-
plasts the following procedure is necessary.
1 Boil the leaf in a beaker of boiling water
for half a minute. This kills the leaf and
breaks down the chemicals of the cell walls.
2 Boil the leaf in alcohol, e.g. methylated
spirit. This causes the chlorophyll to dis-
solve out of the chloroplasts and eventually
turns the leaf white, making it easier to see
the colour change with iodine. Place a boil-
ing tube containing the alcohol within a
beaker of boiling water. Do not attempt to
heat the alcohol directly as it may easily
catch fire.
3 Dip the leaf into the boiling water again to
soften it.
4 Spread the leaf out flat on a tile and add a
few drops of iodine solution. A dark blue
colour indicates the presence of starch in
the leaf.
This experiment demonstrates that starch
may be found in leaves as a product of photo-
Plant growth and development 51
synthesis. However, it is necessary to carry
out further experiments to show that the
starch is not formed if the conditions for
photosynthesis are not correct.
Respiration
Respiration can be defined as the process by
which energy is released in cells by the oxida-
tion of carbohydrates. Carbon dioxide and wa-
ter are produced during respiration.
The process of respiration can be summa-
rised by the following chemical equation:
CsH120s + 602 -'> 6C02 +
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide
sugar
6H20 + energy
water
It will be seen that this equation is the re-
verse of that for photosynthesis. The process of
respiration goes on continually in the cells of
all animals, plants and micro-organisms.
The chemical process of respiration takes
place in all the tissues of the plant. Oxygen
diffuses into the cells from the air spaces. Re-
spiration takes place in the mitochondria.
These are smaller than chloroplasts and con-
sist of greatly infolded membranes. Complex
enzyme systems break down carbohydrates to
glucose which is then oxidised to carbon
dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide diffuses
through the plant cells and is released into the
atmosphere.
Minerals from the soil
Plants require some mineral ions for normal
growth and development (Table 4.1). These
ions are obtained from the soil water and are
taken into the plant through the roots.
Although only small amounts of the ions may
be needed, their absence may cause a nutri-
tional deficiency in the plant. In agriculture, it
sometimes happens that livestock suffer from
a nutritional disorder if the grass they eat
does not contain all the essential elements.
Farmers should be aware of any mineral de-
ficiencies in their soil so that they can be put
right.
The importance of the chief minerals
Boron (Bo) Where this element is absent
from the soil, a deficiency may show itself in
 52 O-Level Agriculture
Table 4.1
of water through the tissues. Magnesium also
Essential elements for crops
plays a part in the use of phosphates in the
Element Use
plant. Magnesium deficiency causes severe
yellowing of leaves and little growth occurs.
carbon elements obtained from air and water and Manganese (Mn) Where manganese is not
hydrogen essential for photosynthesis and respiration present the leaves turn yellow and poor
oxygen growth results.
nitrogen Molybdenum (Mb) This is essential for
major elements or macro-nutrients,
phosphorus essential for good crop production. They are
the use of nitrogen in plants. It is needed for
potassium needed in greater amounts than any other the fixation of nitrogen by bacteria in the root
nutrients and can be added to the soil as nodules of legumes and for the intake of
fertilisers and organic manures, to give nitrates in all plants.
higher yields of the crop
Nitrogen (N) This is the most important
calcium three more macro-nutrients essential for of all minerals for plants. Nitrogen is essential
magnesium crop growth but not required in such great for protein formation and normal growth. Nit-
sulphur amounts rogen fertilisers promote crop growth and in-
crease yields. A deficiency of the element
boron micro-nutrients or trace elements needed in
chlorine causes yellowing of the leaves and poor
very small amounts but deficiencies in
copper growth can occur if they are absent from the
growth. ,
iron soil Phosphorus (P) This is essential for plant
manganese protein and enzyme formation. Phosphorus is
molybdenum
zinc
important during the early stages of growth
and hastens seed formation and ripening. A
deficiency causes the plants to grow thin and
the plant by a withering of the stem, browning
tall, root development is poor and the leaves
of the flower and curling and yellowing of the turn reddish.
leaves. Sometimes the growing tips of the
Potassium (K) This is an essential consti-
plants die. The chief crops affected by boron
tuent of all plant cells. Potassium helps to con-
deficiency are cotton and brassicas (especially
trol the rate of photosynthesis and respiration.
cauliflowers). For these crops a boron mixture
It also helps to stiffen the straw of cereals and
can be applied to the soil.
helps plants to withstand adverse conditions
Calcium (Ca) This is an essential require-
such as drought or attack by disease organ-
ment for the cell walls and plant leaves. Its
isms. Potassium is released slowly from soils.
availability to plants depends on the presence
A deficiency turns the leaves orange-brown
of phosphorus. A calcium deficiency causes and little growth occurs.
stunted growth.
Sulphur (S) This is an important element
Chlorine (Cl) This is one of the elements
in plant protein. A shortage of sulphur re-
present in chlorophyll in the leaves.
duces growth in the crop.
Copper (Cu) This is required by enzyme
Zinc (Zn) This is necessary in small
systems which convert nitrogen substances
amounts to maintain normal growth.
into plant proteins. A deficiency of copper re-
duces growth.
Toxic elements
Iron (Fe) Fortunately traces of iron com- Certain elements are toxic or poisonous to
pounds are present in nearly all soils but
plants. Although plants can tolerate a certain
where there is an iron deficiency the leaves amount of them, when the level present in the
turn yellow and growth is poor.
soil becomes too high, growth is affected. Exam-
Magnesium (Mg) This is a very important ples are: aluminium (Al), fluorine (F), nickel
element for plants as it is present in chlor- (Ni) and selenium (Se). Molybdenum and zinc
ophyll. It is also needed for many of the plant
can be toxic in quantity but are essential in
enzymes and helps to regulate the movement small amounts.

How minerals enter the plant
Minerals exist as ions, e.g. Na ", Ca" ", CI-,
804:-, in the soil water. The soil particles are
coated with a film of water. The root hairs of
plants are very fine and grow in between the
soil particles. The water, which is a solution of
minerals, enters the root hairs by osmosis
(Figure 4.9).
water goes
into xylem
vessels in
the root
soil particle
Figure 4.9 Water enters the root hair and travels
through the cells of the root to the xylem vessels
Osmosis This is the process whereby wa-
ter can pass through a semi-permeable mem-
brane from a weaker to a stronger solution.
Cell membranes are semi-permeable. The soil
water is a weak solution of minerals. The cyto-
plasm inside the root hair cell is a strong solu-
tion. Water carrying mineral ions passes into
the root hair.
This solution passes to neighbouring cells
in the same way. The concentration in the
epidermis of the root becomes weaker than
that of the cortex cells so the solution is drawn
into the root until it reaches the vascular tis-
sues.
To demonstrate osmosis
The cell membranes of a potato can be used as
a semi-permeable membrane. Cut a section of
potato, hollow out the middle. Place a little
salt in the hollow and stand the potato in a
dish of water (Figure 4.10). Control: boil a
similar piece of potato for a few minutes to kill
the tissues and prevent the cell walls acting as
a semi-permeable membrane. After a few
hours it can be observed that the water has
Plant growth and development 53
passed through the cells of the potato to reach
the concentrated mixture in the hollow. In the
control no water has entered the hollow.
W"~s~TO
water moves through the cell membranes
of the potato by osmosis
Figure 4.10 To demonstrate osmosis
Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from
the stomata of the leaves. The transpiration
stream is the constant movement of water
through the roots, stem and leaves of a plant
in the xylem vessels (Figure 4.11). When the
water reaches the leaf surface through the sto-
mata, evaporation occurs and the water
vapour enters the atmosphere.
The rate at which transpiration occurs
varies according to the conditions. Wind in-
creases the rate but a high relative humidity
in the air reduces the rate of transpiration
because the air is already saturated with wa-
ter vapour. Transpiration also increases on a
hot sunny day. Extreme heat may cause trans-
xylem vessel\
in leaf
xylem vessel in stem
soil
xylem vessel in root
water from
root hair
(Figure 4.17)
Figure 4.11 The transpiration stream: water
enters the plant through the root hairs and travels
through the xylem vessels to the cells of the leaf and
out into the air through the stomata.
54 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 4.12 To demonstrate transpiration
piration to occur at such a rate that water can-
not be replaced from the roots. The leaves curl
up and the plant wilts (page 28). At night, wa-
ter vapour passing out of the leaves condenses
in the cold night air and the water or dew re-
mains on the plant until morning. Dew quick-
ly evaporates in the sunshine.
To demonstrate transpiration
Place a polythene bag over the leaves of a
growing plant. Tie the bag in position and
keep it there for a few hours (Figure 4.12).
Observe drops of water inside the bag after
this period showing that water comes out of
the leaves. The water evaporates from the leaf
surface then condenses on the walls of the bag.
The same experiment can be carried out
using a plant growing in a shady place and one
growing in a sunny position. See if there is
any difference in the amount of water trans-
pired. The plants used should be of the same
kind and of equal size.
The transpiration stream ensures that all
parts of the plant are supplied with water and
mineral ions. Water is essential for photo-
synthesis and for all cellular processes. All
cells require mineral ions in order to carry out
their chemical functions. Water, and the dis-
solved ions, leaves the xylem vessels by osmo-
sis anywhere in the plant. The veins of a leaf
carry xylem vessels to all parts of the leaf.
It is estimated that hundreds of litres of wa-
ter pass into the atmosphere every day from
a single tree. Thus the process of transpiration
Figure 4.13 Euphorbia tree adapted to withstand
drought
is an essential part of the water cycle in na-
ture (page 13).
Wilting
This occurs when plants lose water by trans-
piration faster than they are able to take it in
through the roots. The pressure of fluid in the
vacuoles within the cells is reduced, so that in-
stead of pushing outwards the cell walls be-
come soft or limp. In this condition the plant is
said to be wilting and it droops over or the
leaves curl round.
Wilting is a common feature in newly
transplanted crops where the roots have not
had time to become fully established in the
new soil and are unable to take up enough wa-
ter for the plant. Very hot or dry conditions
also cause wilting.
Drought resistance
Some plants are able to withstand long dry
periods by special adaptations, which usually
reduce transpiration. Desert vegetation often
has the leaves reduced to a minimum. They
have thick cuticles and few stomata to help re-
tain water (Figure 4.13). Such plants also
have long roots to reach water deep in the soil.

bark and phloem
stripped off
leaving xylem
1 month later
Figure 4.14 Ringing experiment to show that
sugars are carried from the leaves in the phloem
Some plant roots penetrate to the water-table.
Some plants lose their leaves altogether dur-
ing the dry season. This stops transpiration
and conserves water.
Translocation and the storage of food
The movement of food materials within a
plant is called translocation. Movement is
needed in all directions, from the roots to the
leaves; from the leaves to the flower; from the
stem to the roots for storage. As the plant ma-
tures, reserves of food materials may be re-
quired for storage, in the seeds, e.g. maize cob,
or in the roots, e.g. sweet potato tubers.
During the active growth of a plant, food
material is made in the leaves by photosynth-
esis and is then removed from the leaves to
other parts of the plant for growth. This food
is carried in the sieve tubes of the phloem. Lit-
Plant growth and development 55
tIe is known about the transport of food stored
in the roots to other parts of the plant. Some
experiments indicate that this material is car-
ried in the transpiration stream.
To demonstrate that food is carried in the sieve
tubes
Find a shrub growing outside. Choose a small
healthy branch. Remove the bark and soft tis-
sue underneath in a ring around the branch.
After one month you can see that the stem be-
low the ring is withering. Roots may sprout
from the stem above the ring and the stem
will be swollen (Figure 4.14). The stem above
the ring is healthy because the transpiration
stream is still carrying water and mineral
ions through the central undamaged portion.
Storage organs
Some plants develop specialised storage
organs for the storage of translocated food re-
serves. Some examples are given below.
Sweet potato Swollen stem tubers are rich
in reserves of carbohydrates.
Cassava Swollen root tubers store starch.
Irish potato Stem tubers grow from its
underground stem to store starchy food re-
serves.
Cocoyam This is a corm or swollen under-
ground stem which stores food reserves for the
plant just below ground level.
Onion This is a bulb whose fleshy leaves
store sugars.
Plant reproduction
All species of plants reproduce naturally as a
means of ensuring their survival. A piece of
land left uncultivated soon becomes over-
grown. The strongest plants spread at the ex-
pense of the weaker and smaller ones. In agri-
culture the growth of plants is controlled in a
number of ways so that the crop gives a good
yield. Some ways in which a farmer can con-
trol the growth and propagation of crops are
as follows.
1 Choice of the right variety or cultivar - this
is the particular type of crop most suitable
for the area.
2 Planting at the correct depth - to give the
56 O-Level Agriculture
yams. Where seeds are produced the method of
Table 4.2
reproduction is said to be sexual, as the seeds
Plant reproduction
are the result of a sexual fusion within the
Sexual Asexual flower. Vegetative reproduction is asexual be-
cause it does not involve the flower or sexual
By means of seed By means of plant material reproduction organs. Plants may be grown
formation from flowers from the parent plant
from cuttings or grafts. This is an artificial
Examples: maize Examples: sweet potato (vines)
banana (suckers) method of vegetative propagation. Table 4.2
beans
groundnut sugar cane (setts) shows the ways in which crops can be propa-
sunflower Artificial gated.
By grafting or cuttings
Examples: citrus Sexual reproduction
apples
peaches The flower is the reproductive system of a
plant. It enables the plant to carry out sexual
reproduction and in most flowers, male and
seed or plant material the best chance. female organs are present. In some plants, e.g.
3 Correct spacing of the seeds or planting maize, the male flower part is separate from
material, so that when the crop is mature it the female flower part. In other plants, like
is not too crowded or too sparse on the land. the paw-paw, the male and female flowers
4 Planting at the right time - with regard to grow on different plants.
rainfall and temperature. The purpose of the flower is to form fertile
5 Protection of the crop against pests and dis- seeds so that a new plant generation can be
eases. produced. For this to happen pollination
6 Good cultivation practice and management, must take place, followed by fertilisation of
e.g. ensuring that weeds do not smother the the female cell by a male cell.
crop. There is a very wide variety of flowers.
Many crops are grown from seed, e.g. Some are large and brightly coloured. Some
maize, beans, groundnuts, but some crops are have a strong scent, or smell, and contain nec-
grown vegetatively by planting part of the pa- tar (a sugary mixture which attracts insects)
rent plant and establishing new growth from while other flowers are small and almost un-
this, e.g. sugar cane, sweet potatoes, cassava, noticed (Figure 4.15).

Figure 4.15 Flowers of (a) bean. (b) banana

 Plant growth and development 57

Flower structure
Flowers arise as structures attached to the
(al
stem of a plant. They are made up of several
different parts, each with a particular function
(Figure 4.16).

Figure 4.16 Section through a flower of sweet

potato
Male part The androecium is made up of
a group of long strands called filaments. At
the end of each filament in an anther which
produces the male sex cells or pollen grains.
Female part The gynoecium is composed
of the carpel, or often several carpels inside
which is the ovary which produces the female
sex cells within ovules. The style is a long
tube which starts at the carpel and ends in the
stigma. At pollination the pollen falls on the
stigma.
Calyx A ring of tiny leaf-like parts called
sepals which enclose the flower and protect it
before it opens up.
Corolla This is made up of the petals of
the flower, which are often coloured or scented
to attract insects which assist with pollination.
Perianth In most monocotyledons, e.g.
maize and grasses, the calyx and corolla are
not distinct. They form a joint structure
called the perianth.

Some examples of crop flowers are given be-

low.
Maize The male and female flowers of the
maize plant are separate. The male part is at
the tip of the plant and is called the tassel.
There are no petals or sepals but the anthers Figure 4.17 Maize flower (c) female inflorescence
are enclosed by bracts or small sheaths. The (b) male inflorescence
 58 O-Level Agriculture

petal

fused anther

I+-I!'I!---- style
calyx
rull.JY--_calyx

-f-__ ovary
'\\--,'---__ bract
II

Figure 4.18 A sunflower is made up of ray and disc florets. The disc florets are the flowers.

male flowers are arranged on the tassel in Pollination

pairs or spikelets. As the anthers become ripe Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the
they emerge from the spikelet and hang in the anthers to the stigma. It is a necessary stage
air so that pollen can be blown from them. before new fertile seeds can be produced. Self-
The female flower is the part known as the pollination occurs when pollen from the same
cob. It consists of a central stalk with a large stigma
number of small ovaries attached to it. Each
ovary has a long style leading from it which
extends out of the sheath enclosing the cob
(Figure 4.17).
Sunflower The sunflower bears very large
flower heads up to 35 em in diameter. There
are bright yellow petals on the rim but the fer-
tile flowers are in the central part. The female
ovaries are surrounded by bracts and there is
a second corolla on top of each ovary. The
styles are partly enclosed by the male anthers
(Figure 4.18),
Groundnut The flowers of the groundnut
plant are arranged on the side shoots and
have yellow petals. The male part has eight
anthers bearing pollen and beneath these is
the female carpel containing a group of ovar-
Figure 4.19 Groundnut flower
ies (Figure 4.19),
 Plant growth and development 59

flower or a flower on the same plant lands on Table 4.3

the stigma. Cross-pollination occurs when Differences between insect-pollinated and
pollen from a different plant lands on the stig- wind-pollinated fZowers
ma.
In the groundnut flower, pollination occurs Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
e.g. sunflower e.g. grasses
before the petals open to reveal the anthers so
it is self-pollinated. In the sunflower the large flowers small flowers
anthers and ovules are not usualy ripe at the brigh t petals no bright colours
same time so it is normally cross-pollinated. scented petals no scent

Cross-pollination can be brought about by nectar present no nectar

small. firm anthers large, loose anthers
wind or by insects. Wind blows the pollen not very much pollen; plenty of pollen;
grains from one flower to another. Insects are in clusters in fine grains
attracted to flowers with brightly coloured thicker stigmas inside fine, feathery style
petals or by scent. As they go from one flower the flower outside the flower
to another they carry pollen and some of this
brushes off on to the stigmas of other flowers. when the seeds are fully formed they begin to
Some of the differences between insect- and dry out and harden.
wind-pollinated flowers are shown in Table In some plants, the ovary surrounding the
4.3. seed becomes fleshy and develops into a fruit.
Mangoes and paw-paws are examples of fleshy
Fertilisation fruits. The fruits of other plants may not be
Fertilisation is the fusion of the male and
r'iHl'lr'it'>c-polien grain
female cells or gametes to form the zygote. In
plants, the male pollen grains fuse with the
female ovules. The zygote divides many times
to form the embryo (Figure 4.20).
Once pollination has occurred the pollen
grain absorbs nutrients from the stigma and
begins to swell up. The nucleus of the pollen
divides into two: the pollen tube nucleus and
the reproductive nucleus. The latter gives rise
to two male gametes or pollen grains.
Each pollen grain develops a pollen tube
which grows through the style towards the ov-
ary. When it reaches the ovary it enters the
small opening, called the micropyle to reach
the ovule. At this stage the pollen tube bursts
and the pollen tube nucleus degenerates. The
two male gametes pass into the embryo sac.
One of them fuses with the ovum to produce pollen tube
the zygote which divides to form the embryo.
The other fuses with the secondary nucleus to
form the endosperm, which serves as a food re- pollen tube
serve in some seeds, e.g. maize: In other seeds, nucleus

e.g. groundnut, the endosperm is used up be- reproductive

nucleus
fore the seed is fully formed.
micropyle secondary nucleus
Most flowers have many ovules which re- ovum
sult in several new seeds being produced, after
fertilisation. Food for the development of the
Figure 4.20 At pollination the pollen grains land
seeds travels through the plant's tissues from on the stigma. Some of them grow pollen tubes down
the leaves. Gradually the flower dies off and the style to the ovule where fertilisation takes place.
60 O-Level Agriculture
(a) (b)

(d)

seeds

Figure 4.21 Fruits o{(al mango (bl paw paw (e) pineapple (d) Crotolaria

fleshy or edible but contain seeds for the
growth of new plants (Figure 4.21).
Seed structure
Seeds are made up of the embryo together
with a store of food which will provide the
energy needed for germination and the early
stages of growth.
In some seeds the food is stored in the en-
dosperm, surrounding the embryo. These are
called endospermic seeds, e.g. maize, castor
oil. Other seeds have their food supply in the
form of cotyledons, which form the main part
of the seed but later become the first leaves of
the plant. These are called non-endospermic
seeds, e.g. groundnut, beans.
 Plant growth and development 61
Seeds vary in shape and colour and size (Fig-
ure 4.22). Figure 4.23 shows the structure of
the seeds of the maize and groundnut.
Flowering plants are classified according to
the cotyledon structure of their seed. Those
with one cotyledon are called monocotyledons
and those with two cotyledons are called
dicotyledons (Table 4.4). In monocotyledons,
the cotyledon is the endosperm or foodstore.

Germination
Germination is the process by which seeds be-
gin to develop into the new plant. Normally, cowpea
when seeds are formed, they have a high mois-
ture content (50-80 per cent). This gradually
declines (to as low as 12 per cent) without de-
terioration of the seed. Under natural condi-
tions, the flower sheds its seeds and these stay
on the soil surface until the rains come and
germination occurs. In agriculture, the seeds
are collected, stored and then planted careful-
ly to ensure a good crop. pea

The conditions necessary for germination to

take place are as follows.
Viable seed The seed must be living and
of good quality. For this reason farmers usual-
ly buy certified seed. This means it has been
grown specially as a seed crop and inspected to
make sure it is of good quality. The seeds may
be dressed with a pesticide formulation to pro-
tect them against insects, bacteria or fungi.
Water Before germination can occur wa-
ter must enter the seed. A supply of water is
necessary for the rest of the plant's life. In
some seeds the testa becomes porous after
soaking. In others the testa has to rot or split
before water can enter. Some seeds are
scratched with sand before planting to allow
water in.
Oxygen A germinating seed does not con-
tain chlorophyll and cannot carry out photo-
synthesis to make food. Instead the carbohy-
drates, proteins or fats stored in the
cotyledons or endosperm are broken down by
the. process of respiration using oxygen from
the air spaces in the soil surrounding the seed.
Suitable temperature Seeds will only ger-
minate when conditions are warm enough. In
the tropics there are very few days in the year maize
when it is too cold for germination, but when
the soil temperature is below 10°C the process Figure 4.22 Some seeds
 62 O-Level Agriculture
yielding about 50 000 plants per hectare.
Thus, if 1 kg maize seed contains approx-
imately 3000 seeds, 20 kg maize seed contains
cotyledon approximately 60 000 seeds.

plant population per hectare 50000

seeds planted 60000

The percentage germination is:

50000
x 100 83 per cent
60000
,cotyledons
Stages of germination When conditions in
the soil are favourable for germination water
enters the seed through the micropyle and
causes the seed to swell. This makes the testa
spilt open revealing the cotyledons or endo-
sperm. Soon the radicle begins to grow and
emerges from the testa. The radicle grows out
from the seed and then turns downwards as
the first root. Next, the plumule develops and
begins to grow upwards to become the shoot
(Figure 4.24).
II (b)
Poor soil conditions, such as capping where
a hard surface forms or waterlogging, will
Figure 4.23 (a) Maize seed (b) Groundnut seed adversely affect the rate of germination.
The energy needed for germination comes
Table 4.4 from the food stored in the seed. The main car-
Flowering plants bohydrate is starch which is converted to glu-
cose and used for respiration to release energy
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons in the cells. As the process of respiration con-
tinues, new cells are produced and the food re-
one cotyledon in the two -;:otyledons in the
serves of the seed are gradually used up. By
seed seed
long, narrow leaves broad leaves with a
this time the shoot is above ground and turns
with parallel veins network of veins green. The plant is then able to make its own
examples: maize, examples: groundnut, food, by photosynthesis.
millet, rice, sugar bean, pea, sunflower, Types of germination The two main types
cane, all grasses cotton, tobacco
of germination are as follows.
1 Hypogeal germination where the
cotyledons remain below ground throughout
of germination is slowed down. the stages of germination, e.g. maize.
For the farmer it is important that as many 2 Epigeal germination - in which the
seeds as possible grow into mature plants. cotyledons are lifted above the ground dur-
Thus favourable conditions for germination ing germination and act as the first leaves
are essential. The number of growing plants, of the newly emerged plant, e.g. groundnut.
compared with the number of seeds planted, The section of the stem just above the
when multiplied by 100 gives the germination cotyledons is called the epicotyl and as this
percentage. The farmer aims to have this grows it lifts the plumule above ground so
figure as high as possible. that the stem can develop, during hypogeal
For example, it requires about 20 kilograms germination. In epigeal germination it is the
of maize seed to plant one hectare of the crop, rapid growth of the hypocotyl, part of the stem
 Plant growth and development 63

(a)

•. eo- ••.•••• - •.•

•. - :': .4o: -'!. ":-r ; ", -, ~.' •..

-.-
E
-l
coleorhiza
-
-"
..;:

r (b) first foliage leaves

-;-.: ,_.,:-' . :. . -: -- ' .. '.- - .

Figure 4.24 Germination of(a) maize - hypogeal (b) groundnut - epigeal

below the cotyledons, which lifts the coty- during germination, which is therefore
ledons and plumule above the ground. hypogeal.
In maize the radicle sheath is called the Seed dormancy Seeds undergo a period of
coleorhiza and as germination takes place dormancy before germination. In most seeds
the radicle emerges through this. The shoot is dormancy can be broken by soaking the seeds.
protected by the coleoptile which prevents ~ When their moisture content rises high
damage occurring as it pushes through the enough, they begin to germinate. Other seeds
soil. Once it has emerged the leaves grow out have very tough seed-coats which. must be
from beneath the coleoptile. The endosperm pierced or scratched, e.g. by shaking the seeds
and cotyledon of maize remain below ground with sand.
 64 O-Level Agriculture

wind water
seeds or fruit blown away - when they land the fruit rots fruit floats away - when it lands the fruit rots and the seed
and seed can germinate can germinate

Combretum

explosion animals
as the pod dries one side contracts faster than the other - eat the flesh - seeds pass out with faeces
the pod splits and scatters the seeds

(tr ~.~
h.')' tomato

~~

the capsule splits open violently to scatter the seeds hooked seeds catch on fur
Q Q ~ 0('
C\ Q 0

/I Q J
balsam
,~
r~

Figure 4.25 Dispersal of seeds and fruit

Tropisms ground and demonstrates negative geotropism.

Under natural conditions, the different parts
of plants grow in a particular way in response
to an external factor, or stimulus. For exam-
ple, the stem and leaves of a plant grow up-
wards towards the light which they need for
photosynthesis. The light acts as the stimulus
and the plant responds by growing towards it.
This response is called a tropism. All growing
plants demonstrate tropisms and since germi-
nating seedlings respond quickly they provide
good material for experiment.
Plants respond most readily to the follow-
ing stimuli:
Gravity The root grows downwards in the
direction of the earth's gravitational pull. Re-
sponse to gravity is called geotropism. The
root, therefore, illustrates positive geotropism.
The shoot, however, grows upwards from the
Light Response to light is called photo-
tropism. The stem and leaves grow towards
the light (positive phototropism) and the root
grows away from the light (negative photo-
tropism).
Water As the root grows through the soil
it may change direction to obtain water. A re-
sponse of this kind is called hydrotropism. The
stem and leaves do not usually respond to wa-
ter as most of the plant's water enters through
the roots.
Dispersal of fruits and seeds
The seeds of a plant often grow in places far
away from where the parent plant was grow-
ing. They become dispersed or carried to a new
place by various means (Figure 4.25).

Wind dispersal Seeds which are dispersed
by the wind are usually small and light so
that they can be carried easily. Sometimes
seeds have 'wings' or hairs which help them to
be carried away, e.g. Combretum. Many weeds
are spread in this way.
Animal dispersal Plants producing fleshy
fruits may have their seeds dispersed by a
mammal or bird eating the fruit. The hard
seed remains undigested and when it is passed
out of the animal's faeces it may be far away
from the plant. Some fruits have tiny hooks on
them which catch on the fur of passing anim-
als, and drop off in a new place.
Water dispersal Very few seeds are dis-
persed by water but the coconut palm pro-
duces coconut fruits which float and may be
carried some distance before coming to rest.
The lily also produces seeds dispersed by wa-
ter.
Explosion Plants which produce seed pods
often rely on an 'explosion' for the dispersal of
their seeds. This is caused by the uneven heat-
ing and cooling of the edges of the pod so that
eventually it bursts open scattering its seeds
over the surrounding area. Most legume
plants disperse seeds in this way.
Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction is the formation of a
g new plant from the parent without the fusion
v" of male and' female gametes. The parent plant
3- grows a new part which eventually develops
~ into a new individual. The food needed for the
growth of the new plant is often stored in a
part of the parent plant.
Vegetative reproduction presents a number
of advantages over seed production. When tu-
bers, rhizomes or other vegetative organs are
divided up, each part is capable of growing
into a new plant. Vegetative organs are more
hardy than seedlings; they often have a food
reserve to help them to become established.
Planting material is readily available to the
farmer from the previous crop. The purchase
of good seed material can be expensive.
However, planting seeds has the advantage of
introducing variation into the crop. This can
give higher yields as well as better resistance
to disease.
Plant growth and development 65
Some examples of organs of vegetative
propagation follow (Figure 4.26).
Suckers
Suckers are new growths which occur at the
base of the parent plant. Although bananas
and plantains produce flowers, pollination and
fertilisation almost never occur and reproduc-
tion is entirely by means of suckers. The main
stem of the banana plant or pseudo stem de-
velops buds at its base. These grow in size un-
til they have formed a new stem with a new
set of roots round the base. In the natural
state a large cluster of banana plants de-
velops. In agriculture the suckers are cut off
and planted elsewhere.
Bulbs
The onion is the commonest example of a
bulb. Buds develop in the axils of the leaves
that make up the bulb. The new plants feed on
the fleshy leaves of the bulb. As the buds en-
large they become separated from the parent
plant growing new roots from the base.
Corms
A corm is a thickened underground stem
which serves as a storage organ. New growth
occurs when a bud develops on the side of the
parent corm and gradually a new individual
plant is formed. Food supplies in the old corm
feed the new plant. Cocoyam is an example of
a corm.
Root tubers
Sweet potatoes and cassava are common, ex-
amples of root tubers but in the natural state
they do not carry out vegetative reproduction.
Cassava can be propagated by cuttings (page
83).
Stem tubers
The Irish or European potato and the yam are
examples of stem tubers. The swollen portion
of the plant which acts as a storage organ is a
growth from the plant stem rather than the
root. These organs produce buds and can be
propagated by cutting the tuber into sections.
Each section must contain at least one bud.
When planted a root system and a new shoot
develop.
 66 O-Level Agriculture

sucker bulb

storage leaves

banana

corm rhizome

spear grass

;.
()"\·,\.~corm
'I
new corm~new shoot

~I
I root tuber

leaf

tuber
tuber

sweet potato

stem tuber

tuber
 Plant growth and development 67

Runners
A runner is a stem which grows along the
ground. Roots and a shoot develop at intervals
and the stem continues growing in different
directions. This type of vegetative reproduc-
tion is quite rapid and soon results in many
new plants being formed. Some grasses repro-
duce as runners.
softwood cutting
Rhizomes of sweet potato
A rhizome is a thick, underground stem grow-
ing horizontally. New shoots develop at inter-
vals from buds on the rhizome. At the same cutting
time a new root system develops. In this way
several plants grow from the same rhizome.
(b) ape binding
The ginger plant and a number of grasses

4 ~
rootstock bud to
spread by means of rhizomes. rootstock
cut in bark
Artificial propagation
In vegetative reproduction the plant produces
new growth and forms new individual plants,
naturally . ..Afarmer may make use of natural
vegetative reproduction to increase or to re-
place a crop, e.g. by using banana suckers. budding
However, there are several methods of arti-
ficial propagation in which the farmer is re-
sponsible for establishing the new growth
(Figure 4.27).

Budding r6
The practice of budding means artificially
securing a bud from one plant on to the stem
or stock of another. It is the normal method of
propagation of citrus fruits to enable good
varieties of fruit to be budded on to strong, re-
sistant root stock to produce a healthy, strong-
growing tree giving fruit of the desired var-
iety.
A bud is carefully removed by cutting it
from the stem leaving a good surround of bark (d) branch of coffee
including the xylem. Then a T-shaped cut is
made in the bark of the root stock and the bud
is carefully inserted (Figure 4.28). The objec-
tive of budding is to get the cambium of the
bud to touch the cambium of the stock so that
a union is obtained. Finally some binding
twine is tied round the bud to keep it in posi-
layering
tion until the joining is complete.
Figure 4.27 Methods of artificial propagation:
(a) cutting (b) budding (c) grafting
Figure 4.26 Methods of vegetative reproduction (d) layering
 68 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 4.28 The bud is inserted into aT-shaped
cut
Grafting
Grafting involves the uniting of two cambium
II layers to get a fusion of growth giving a plant
with the good qualities of two different parents.
Grafting is done with two matched sections of
stem. These are usually the same type of tree
and of the same thickness so as to match. The
cuts are made on the slant. A protective wax
or tape is used to cover the join to prevent it
becoming rotten. Tea plants are sometimes
propagated by grafting.
Layering
The practice of layering is to peg the branches
of a tree or shrub down to the ground. Contact
with the soil in this way causes the branch to
develop roots at that point and eventually a
new plant becomes established. Layering is
carried out with coffee, cocoa and some veget-
ables.
Cuttings
Taking stem cuttings is a common method of
artificial propagation. With sugar cane the
stem is cut into sections (setts) about 45 cm
long. These are placed horizontally in small
trenches in the ground. New growth develops
from the nodes on the cutting and new sugar
cane plants are eventually produced. Cassava
is also propagated by stem cuttings. These are
planted at an angle of 45° in the ground, or
upright to form a fence. Sweet potato stems
can be cut and planted to form rapid new
growth.
Plant genetics
Fertilisation (page 59) is the fusion of the
male and female sex cells. Sex cells differ from
other body cells. They contain only half the
number of chromosomes. For instance, human
body cells contain 46 chromosomes - the di-
ploid number, and human sex cells contain
23 - the haploid number.
Chromosomes contain the genetic material
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and some pro-
tein. The DNA is in the form of long threads,
two in each chromosome. Each small section of
these threads is a gene. The two threads of
DNA lie closely coiled together. Chromosomes
occur in homologous pairs. For each gene on
one chromosome there is a corresponding gene
on the other. Together these make a gene
pair; they are also called alleles (Figure
4.29). The genes determine the plant's charac-
teristics. In maize, for example, seed colour is
determined by one gene pair.
homologous chromosomes
gene pair
Figure 4.29 A pair of homologous chromosomes
In some varieties, the seed may be yellow
or white. Pure bred yellow-seeded maize con-
tains the gene pair YY. Pure bred white-
seeded maize contains the gene pair yy. These
are homozygous alleles because both genes
are the same. If pure bred yellow-seeded maize
plants are pollinated by pure bred white-
seeded maize, hybrid plants are produced.
 Plant growth and development 69

:lr purebred purebred maize has genotype Yy phenotypically ex-

yellow-seeded white-seeded pressed as yellow seeds.
first cross
X
Questions

1 a Name five elements needed for the satis-

factory growth of plants.
b For two of these elements only, describe
the likely appearance of plants suffering
from a deficiency of them.
c By reference to experiments you have
carried out, describe how elements are
taken into plants. (C)
2 a Give the names of the parts labelled A, B,
first filial
generation C, D, E, F and G in the diagram of a root
F, Yy Yy Yy Yy shown below (Figure 4.31).

second cross -A
G"
X

-8
F-

-c
E----

Figure 4.31 Transverse section of root

second filial
generation
F2 YY Yy Yy yy
~
yellow-
seeded
white-
seeded
Figure 4.30 Crosses between yellow and
white-seeded varieties of maize
These will have the gene pair Yy and will
have yellow seeds. This is a heterozygous
allele because the genes are different. The
gene for yellow seeds is dominant; the gene
for white seeds is recessive. In the mixed
gene pair Yy only the yellow gene will be ex-
pressed. If the hybrid offspring of this cross
are mated, they will produce yellow and white
seeded plants in the ratio 3:1 (Figure 4.30).
The genetic composition of a plant is called
the genotype. The expression of the gene
pairs is called the phenotype. The. hybrid
_I genotype 1 b Give an account of the main functions of
a root, pointing out how its structure is
-I phenotype I
.
related to these functions. (C)
3 a Using at least half a page, draw a cross-
section through a leaf and label it.
b How are these parts used in the processes
(i) photosynthesis, (ii) transpiration?
4 a Name five of the elements which are
essential for the satisfactory growth of
green plants, and briefly describe how
these elements are taken into plants.
b From what sources are the elements you
mention obtained?
c Explain how each of them is used. (C)
5 With the help of labelled drawings of (a) a
root system and (b) a cross-section of a root
to show its internal structure, explain how
root systems are adapted to carry out their
functions. (C)
 5
Principles of crop
production

The successful production of crops involves (al

many different factors (Figure fi.I). The land

must be properly cleared and cultivated and be plant the seeds use the
in good correct
of a soil type suited to the crop being grown. time spacing
The timing of operations is also important. and thin'
grow
Any delay in planting reduces the eventual varieties
out keep
'I yield. Weeding is an essential practice, other- suited to the the crop
area and climate free from weeds
wise there is competition for nutrients from the
soil.
However, certain practices cost money. For prepare the harvest the
instance, if fertilisers are applied or sprays are land in crop at
used against insect pests the cost of production good time the right
time
goes up. Therefore it is hoped that the yield use
will go up even more. Irrigation and crop a good apply
system animal
mechanisation by means of tractors, ploughs, of crop manure
cultivators and harvesters require consider- rotation
able capital outlay and are only used on com-
mercial farms.
(bl
Land reclamation
Where new land is being brought into use, apply control
fertilisers pests
bush clearing or swamp draining has to be
done. Sometimes the bush is burned and the
stumps are uprooted. On commercial farms,
mechanise irrigate
heavy machinery is used to bulldoze the trees
and the wood can then be used (Figure 5.2). It
is important to remove any roots or other
obstructions because they can cause damage to
cultivators used on the field. Figure 5.1 Factors involved in successful crop
The problem with reclaiming swamps is that production
the land may contain toxic substances. This fully drained so that water does not accumulate
needs to be investigated first. Swamps are once the crop is growing. It may be necessary to
usually rich in organic matter which can be of construct defences against flooding during the
benefit to the crop. The land should be care- rainy season.

Figure 5.2 Heavy machinery being used to clear
tree stumps
Soil preparation
Before the crop can be planted the soil must be
ploughed, then harrowed or cultivated to pro-
duce a good seedbed. The benefits of thorough
cultivation are dealt with on page 40. Land
being used for crops for the first time may need
much more attention than a well used field. If
there is plenty of crop residue from the pre-
vious season this should be properly buried to
allow it to decompose.
Crops grown from-seed, e.g. maize, beans
require a finer seedbed or tilth, than crops
grown from plant material, e.g. sugar cane or
bananas. Seedbeds cultivated to a very fine
tilth are more likely to be eroded by wind or
water. If the amount of cultivation can be re-
duced to the minimum while still enabling the
crop to get established, it is known as mini-
mum tillage.
The three main methods of seedbed prep-
aration are hand cultivation, ox cultivation and
mechanical cultivation.
Hand cultivation
Hand cultivation using hoes or mattocks only
enables small areas ofland to be cultivated and
is hard work for the people involved. Weeds do
not always get buried properly and the process
takes a long time which could mean a delay in
getting the crop planted.
Principles of crop production 71
Ox cultivation .
It is said that OX~Ult' a~ion provides a ten-fold
increase in outp over hand cultivation.
Heavy soils are uch more easily turned over
and cultivation can be to a greater depth. How-
ever, it should be remembered that the oxen
need training and feeding to give a good per-
formance. Also, the ox plough itself must be
kept in good working order.
Mechanical cultivation
The use of tractors with ploughs and cultiva-
tors means much greater areas of land can be
prepared for crops than is possible either by
hand or with oxen. The work is carried out
quickly and efficiently, weeds are properly
buried and all kinds of soil can be worked on.
However, the machinery costs a lot of money
and requires a skilled person to operate it and
maintain it in working order.
The use of fertilisers
It has been proved in countless field trials that
yields go up when fertilisers are applied to a
crop. However, this is only true up to a certain
point. If excessive amounts of fertilisers are
applied, the extra cost of the fertiliser is not
recovered by increased sales. This is known as
the law of diminishing returns.
The amount, type and method of application
of fertilisers depends on numerous factors,
such as the crop being grown that season and
the previous crop grown on the land. Gener-
ally, two main applications are made: one
before the crop is planted or at the same time,
and the other after the crop has become estab-
lished but before it has begun to shoot up.
Details of fertilisers and their application are
given in chapter 3 page 33.
Seed selection
A process of 'natural selection' has taken place
ever since plants have been found on the earth.
Those which are weak or easily affected by dis-
ease soon become eliminated. Selection by man
has also been practised for centuries. He has
kept those seeds or plants which he thought
would yield a good crop and discarded those
which looked poor specimens. Today, research
has enabled detailed information on the most
suitable varieties of crops to be available to

Figure 5.3 The bags of seeds have labels showing
that the seeds have been tested
farmers to help them to carry out seed selec-
tion. Only certified seed should be used as this
has been tested and proven (Figure 5.3).
Where plant material is used for propagation,
rather than seeds, strong healthy specimens
should be chosen.
Planting
If a crop is to achieve good results it must be
planted in good time and in the correct way.
Consideration needs to be given to the timing
of the rains and their duration. It is usual to
plant with the first rains but sometimes these
prove to be false and the crop fails to get estab-
lished. Some crops, e.g. cotton, maize, require
a dry period for harvesting so this should be
thought about when deciding on the planting
date.
Planting depth
If seeds are sown too deeply they may not have
sufficient energy to emerge. If they are sown
too near the surface they may dry up, become
scorched or even washed away. Large seeds,
e.g. maize, beans should be sown 2-4 em deep
while small seeds, e.g. wheat and some veg-
etables need only shallow drills, 1- 2 ern deep.
Spacing
The distance between the plants in the row and
between the rows varies for different crops.
The spacing should be such that the maturing
,,\.~'II"'~"'"
Figure 5.4 Seeds being sown broadcast
crop can receive sufficient sunlight and air to
grow efficiently, yet not leave wasted space in
the field. There should also be no competition
between the plants for water or nutrients. It
should be possible for field operations such as
weeding or spraying to be carried out without
damage to the crop.
There is thus an optimum or most efficient
spacing for each crop. The optimum spacing
can be used to calculate the plant population,
i.e. the number of plants per hectare. Most
crops are sown in straight lines or rows but
sometimes seeds are broadcast (Figure 5.4).
This means spreading the seeds at random
across the field, e.g. grasses and pasture
legumes.
Inter-cropping
If a field is used for the production of one type
of crop only, it is known as mono-cropping.
Sometimes a farmer grows a second or third
crop in the same field at the same time. This
is called inter-cropping because one crop is
grown in between the rows of another
(Figure 5.5). Pumpkins grown between maize
is another example of inter-cropping. The
main advantage is that a small growing crop
can use the space left by a tall growing crop,
making maximum use of the land available. If
a legume, such as groundnuts, is grown be-
tween the rows of maize there is also the be-
nefit of additional nitrogen being made avail-
able. However, operations like weeding and
spraying are not so easy with inter-cropped
plants.

:0
.n
n maturity over a period of several weeks and
It
3.S
Jt
st
Figure 5.5 Inter-cropping - groundnuts grown
between maize
Weeding
Competition from weeds must be reduced as
much as possible so that the crop can achieve
its potential. Weed control is discussed fully in
Chapter 7.
Care and maintenance
Besides weeding, the crop may need other
attention such as thinning out suckers or
unwanted plants. Spraying against insect
pests and diseases is also part of the care of a
crop. The farmer should inspect his crops regu-
larly for any signs of damage, pest or disease
and take the necessary steps to control it. Crop
protection is best carried out before the crop
has suffered greatly, rather than afterwards.
Information on the most suitable chemicals
to use on any crop can be obtained from the
local Department of Agriculture. Some exam-
ples and methods of crop protection are given
in Chapter 7.
Principles of crop production 73
Crop disposal
Once the crop reaches maturity there is still
some planning required to ensure that it is
used efficiently. It must be harvested at the
correct time and transported to the storage
area. All crops should be weighed so the yield
can be calculated. Any by-products are separ-
ated and processed. Finally, the marketing of
the crop requires special attention, in order to
obtain the best price.
Maturity
Experience tells the farmer when his crop is
mature. Some crops are ready when they are
fresh, e.g. fruit, green maize; others are left to
mature and dry in the field, e.g. maize for shell-
ing. The important point is not to miss the
right moment for harvesting. Some crops reach
this enables harvesting of a section at a time.
The maturing and harvesting of individual
crops is referred to in Chapter 6.
Harvesting
The hard work which goes into the production
of a crop is rewarded by a good harvest. The
method of harvesting depends on the type of
crop and the scale on which it is grown. Small
plots will be harvested by hand but on com-
mercial farms, special mechanical harvesters
may be used, e.g. a maize combine harvester
(Figure 5.6). Every effort should be made to
avoid damaging the crop while it is being
harvested.
Figure 5.6 A maize combine harvester
 74 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 5.7 Tobacco being cured in a barn
,. It,
Storage
III Losses during storage can be very considerable
if adequate precautions are not taken, to pre-
vent the crop being attacked by pests or dis-
eases. The storage bins should be sterilized by
washing or fumigating to kill all sources of
infection before the crop is put inside. During
storage, it may be necessary to spray or fumi-
gate again if there is any sign of pest damage.
It is vital to check that the crop for storage
is at the correct moisture content. If there
is only slightly excess moisture, respiration
occurs within the crop itself leading to the for-
mation of mould and other infection. Not all
crops are stored in a dry condition in bins.
Some may be left in the open, or stored on
racks during dry weather. Tobacco is 'cured' in
barns (Figure 5.7). Fruit may be required in a
fresh condition so can only be stored by means
of refrigeration.
Crop residues
The waste material left behind after a crop has
been harvested should be disposed of carefully.
Crop residues are a common source of infec-
tion. Cotton residues are required by law, to be
burned to prevent the following year's crop
being affected directly. Stalk borers of maize
often survive from one season to the next in the
stalks of harvested crops. Virus diseases are
carried readily on planting material unless it
is treated. Diseased plants should not be left in
the field but should be uprooted, carted away
and burned.
The best way of reducing the spread of dis-
ease through crop residues is by means of crop
rotation. If a different crop is grown on the land
it is likely that the pests of the old crop will not
affect the new crop to the same extent. Deep
cultivation also helps to bury crop residues so
that they can rot in the soil.
If a soil is found to be seriously infected by
a particular pest it may need to be left fallow
for a few seasons to break the life cycle of the
pest. In some cases soil sterilization is carried
out to cleanse the soil of all living organisms.
By-products
Some crops yield a valuable by-product in
addition to the main harvested commodity.
Cotton produces an oil-rich seed which is used
in animal feeds, soap and margarine manufac-
ture; sugar cane yields alcohol during the
refining process and this is a valuable pet-
roleum substitute. Allowance should be made,
when costing the crop, for any marketable by-
product.
Marketing
Marketing represents the final stage of crop
production. The farmer hopes to get a good
price for his crop. He may have to sell it at the
right time and not when the price is depressed.
He may have no choice when he sells his prod-
uct ifhe has limited storage. Reliable transport
is an important element in marketing the crop.
The price achieved may well depend upon the
grading and standard of the commodity. Natu-
rally, top grade products get the highest price
so this should be the farmer's aim.
~€
P
_12
e
.re

-.
.-
6
Crops

This chapter deals with the main features and

basic cultivation details of each of the crops
listed. For advice on the most suitable var-
ieties for your area, fertiliser recommenda-
tions, pest and disease control consult your
local Department of Agriculture.

Grain crops
The grain crops are a group of plants belong-
ing to the plant family called Gramineae. All
the plants in this group are monocotyledons
with long, narrow leaves. They are of great
agricultural importance because they provide
the staple food of a large proportion of the
world's population. Maize, millet, sorghum,
rice and wheat are the chief grain crops
grown. Grain crops produce seeds rich in car-
bohydrate and protein. They can be ground
into flour, processed into nutritious cereal food
or cooked whole.
Maize (Zae mays)
Maize originally came from Central America
and is now one of the most widely grown crops
in the world (Figure 6.1). It produces a rich
food which forms the basic diet of millions of
people in the form of nshima or ugaZi. In some
areas the whole plant is chopped up and used
as cattle fodder.
The maize plant is a tall annual grass
growing to a height of about 3 metres (see Fig-
ure 4.1 on page 46). It is quick growing, par-
Figure 6.1 A maize field
ticularly during good rains and with correct
fertiliser addition. Apart from the main ad-
ventitious roots which supply the water and
nutrients, the maize plant develops prop roots
from a node just above ground level. These
help to anchor the plant in the ground. As the
stem thickens and grows taller the flowers de-
velop.
The male and female flowers of maize grow
in two separate parts of the plant. This is
known as monoecy. The male flower or tassel
is at the top of the plant and the female flow-
er, which later develops into the cob, is lower
down. Although maize produces both male and
female flowers it is not usually self-pollinating
as the flowers mature at different times. The
pollen matures before the silk; this is the con-
dition ofprotandry.
In commercial maize production hybrid
 76 O-Level Agriculture
tassel removed tassel removed
to stop pollen forming to stop pollen forming

first
year

A B D C
pure pure pure pure
self-fertilised self-fertilised self-fertilised self-fertilised
seed seed seed seed

tassel removed
to stop pollen forming

It II. second~
year V
A x B C x D
seed seed
(single cross) (single cross)

hybrid maize
(double cross)

Figure 6.2 The production of hybrid maize. A, B, C and D are from different pure strains of maize.

seed is used (page 68). This is specially
selected seed from crosses of purebred plants
grown at a plant breeding station. Hybrid seed
gives higher yields than seed kept from the
previous year's crop. Purebred lines are ob-
tained by a series of crosses by self-pollina-
tion. These homozygous seeds are then cross-
pollinated with other homozygous strains.
These crosses produce single-cross hybrids.
When these plants are crossed the result
is a double-cross hybrid which is the hybrid
seed used for planting (Figure 6.2).
Careful breeding produces hybrid seed with
all the good characters of the crop; the poor
qualities are gradually lost. Hybrid seed may
produce yields 30 per cent higher than local
seed, depending on the local conditions. Maize
can be bred for resistance to disease, ability to
withstand dry periods, more protein in the cob
and earlier ripening. The Department of Agri-
culture will recommend varieties of hybrid
maize for your area. One disadvantage of
using hybrid maize is that the farmer must buy
new seed each year. The harvested maize can-
not be used for seeding because the crossing
was not controlled at pollination.
Various spacings are used when planting
maize and some farmers plant two, three or
four seeds per hole. The commonest spacing is
in rows 90 cm apart with 20 em between the
plants. This gives a plant population of about
40 000 per hectare. Maize crops require a base
dressing of a complete NPK fertiliser and a
side dressing of a nitrogen fertiliser when the
 Crops 77
plants are 50 em high. Maize exhausts the soil (a)
by taking large amounts of nitrogen. It is best
grown in a rotation after a legume when the
requirement for added nitrogen is less.
~- If maize is required for grain, the seed must
I be dried before storage to avoid infection by
) micro-organisms. When the cob is fully formed
it has a moisture content of about 35 per cent
but for storage this must be reduced to 20 per
cent or less. The crop is usually left standing
while the leaves wither and the cobs dry out.
Combine harvesters are used on commercial
farms so that large areas can be harvested
quickly. The maize is collected in a trailer
which runs alongside the harvester. Yields of
maize range from 2000 to 5000 kg per hectare,
on average. Figure 6.3 shows a maize sheller
used for stripping the grains off the maize cob.

(b)

Figure 6.3 A maize sheller

Millet
The millet plant is not so tall as maize and
has smaller leaves. The seeds are quite small
and the crop is not very high yielding. Al-
though millet is a widely grown crop it is not
often grown commercially. Its main use is in
ground flour for porridge.
The most common varieties of millet are
finger millet (Eleusine corocana) and bulrush
millet (Pennisetum typhoides). Both are an-
nual grasses but finger millet produces its
seeds in long strands which resemble fingers
while bulrush millet produces a single long
seed head which resembles a bulrush seed pod Figure 6.4 Seed heads of (a) finger and
(Figure 6.4). (b) bulrush millet
 78 O-Level Agriculture
Finger millet is usually self-pollinated while
bulrush millet is normally cross-pollinated.
Finger millet is sown by broadcasting the
seed by hand because the seeds are too small
for individual planting. It requires about 35
kg of seed per hectare. Bulrush millet can be
sown in rows 60 em apart with 15 em between
the planting holes and 2-3 seeds per hole
(Figures 6.5).
The crop does not need to be left to dry on
the stalk for very long and is ready for har-
vesting at about 4 months. Yields range from
500 to 1500 kg per hectare.
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)
Sorghum is a crop commonly grown in areas of
low or unreliable rainfall as it is able to with-
stand drought better than maize. It is an
annual grass but it develops a much stronger Figure 6.5 Millet growing
root system than other grain crops. The plant
grows to a height of 2 to 3 metres. The flower
is produced at the top of the plant and it is
nearly always self-pollinated. The seeds form
in a cluster around the seed head but there
are several different kinds of seed head
(Figure 6.6 and 6.7).
The usual spacing for sorghum is in 60 em
rows with 15 em between the planting holes
~I though it is often intercropped with maize or
some other crop. At harvest, the seed heads
are broken off and dried. Yields of sorghum
range from 500 kg to 1500 kg per hectare.
Like maize and millet, sorghum is ground into
flour and made into porridge. Figure 6.6 Sorghum crop
Rice (Oryza sativa)
plentiful supply of water is essential for rice
Although rice is the staple diet of large num- cultivation. The seeds are first sown in a seed
bers of the world's population, in Africa it is bed and after about a month they are ready
not very widely grown and most of the rice for transplanting to the paddy field. For
consumed is imported. Lowland or wetland transplanting rice the soil must be wet but not
rice is grown in swamps which retain water flooded. The usual spacing is 10 em by 10 em.
for most of the growing season. However, up- Once the plants have become established
land rice grows without waterlogging but water is run on to the paddy field and kept at
yields less than lowland rice.
a depth of 10 em until the crop is ready for
The rice plant grows to a height of about 1 harvesting (Figure 6.9).
metre and when mature has an open seed Upland rice is grown like other grain crops
head containing the rice grains (Figure 6.8). without flooding the land. The spacing is the
The flower is self-pollinated. same as for lowland rice but growth is slower
With lowland rice large flat areas of land and depends on the rains.
have to be prepared with surrouding ridges or Harvesting of the crop is by hand, the
bunds to retain the water. A reliable and plants being cut by sickle. Yields of rice are
 Crops 79

open panicle
Ib)

Figure 6.8 (a) Seed head and (b) grain of rice

_-

Figure 6.7 Seed heads of sorghum: (a) open

panicle (b) goose-necked Figure 6.9 A rice paddy
 80 O-Level Agriculture
about 5000 kg to 7000 kg per hectare.
Before rice can be used as a food the outer
sheath is removed by milling. Rice is often
polished to remove further sheaths but this
process removes valuable proteins and vita-
mins so that the resulting product is not as
nutritious as unpolished rice. To overcome
this to some extent the rice can be first soaked
in hot water, then steamed so that vitamins
become transferred into the grain. Polishing
then removes fewer nutrients. However, whole
grain or brown rice which is unpolished re- Figure 6.11 Wheat combine harvester
tains the protein layer and the vitamins. It is
season. The wheat flower is self-pollinated.
a nutritious and palatable food and the
A fine, well-prepared seed bed is required
polishing process is unnecessary.
for good yields of wheat. The crop is invariably
Wheat (Triticum spp.) grown as a commercial crop so planting and
harvesting are always by machine. Usually
Wheat is the most important grain crop of
the seed is drilled along with the basal dress-
temperate countries but it is not grown to any
ing of fertiliser from a machine called a com-
great extent in the tropics. Its main use is in
bined seed drill. Drilling in this way gives an
the production of flour for milling and baking
exact application of the seed and enables
into bread. Wheat is an annual cereal crop
straight rows to be made. The seed is sown
and the plants grow to a height of 90-150 ern
continuously along the seed drill in rows
(Figure 6.10). In temperate countries varieties
approximately 18 ern apart and at a depth of
known as winter wheat are grown with a rest about 3 em.
in the growing period during the cold winter.
The combine harvester separates the wheat
In the tropics only spring wheat varieties are
grain from the straw. The seed is collected in a
suitable because of the continuous growing
bin and the straw is chopped up and left in the
field (Figure 6.11). Yields of wheat range from
3000-5000 kg per hectare.

Leguminous crops

The legumes include several important tropi-

cal crops including groundnuts and beans. In
addition, legumes are essential animal feed-
stuffs often grown in mixed pastures with
grasses. Legumes are important components
of crop rotations because they enrich the soil.
Legumes produce small nodules on their roots
containing Rhizobium bacteria which convert
the nitrogen in the air to nitrates which the
plants can.uss. Leguminous plants are valu-
able in agriculture because they enrich the
soil and reduce the need for fertilisers.
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
Groundnuts are widely grown in the tropics
and the nuts may be eaten in the fresh condi-
Figure 6.10 Seed heads of wheat tion, crushed and roasted or cooked, or may be

processed into a rich cooking oil.
The groundnut plant is a low bushy annual
plant. It produces yellow flowers- which are
self-pollinating. Once the ovary has been fer-
tilised it grows downwards into the soil where
it develops into the groundnut pod containing
two or three seeds (Figure 6.12).
The plants are harvested by lifting with a
hoe and are left to dry for a few days. Shell-
ing may be done by hand or machine but
machines often produce a number of damaged
nuts. Yields are around 1000 kg per hectare.
Figure 6.12 Groundnut plant with pods
Beans iPheseolus vulgaris)
Beans are an important source of protein in
the diet and are extensively grown in the tro-
pics. There are many different kinds of beans
some of which produce long trailing stems.
The bush or dwarf type of bean is commonly
grown; it produces a plant about 50 ern in
height. Beans are self-pollinated and produce
flowers of various colours, but chiefly white.
The seeds are produced in pods which may be
cut for fresh consumption or left to dry in the
_- field. The dry harvested beans are boiled as a
vegetable, or eaten as a main dish. Bean
Crops 81
leaves are also used as a vegetable and as a
feed for livestock.
Spacing is the same as that of groundnuts,
60 ern rows and 10 cm within the row but this
varies with the variety of bean. Yields are
about 1000 kg per hectare.
Soya beans (Glycine soja)
Soya beans have the same characteristics and
cultivation requirements as other beans but
they are becoming increasingly important
worldwide because of their use in cooking oils
and animal feeding stuffs. Soya beans are thus
a valuable commercial crop though they are
also grown on a small scale as a vegetable
(Figure 6.13).
The seeds are planted in rows 60 em apart
with 10 em between the plants in the row. The
plants are left to dry in the field before har-
vesting. Yields are about 1000-3000 kg per
hectare.
Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata)
Cowpeas are less widely grown than other
legume crops but are useful in drier areas as
they are better able to resist drought.
They grow as spreading bushy plants
reaching about 50 cm in height (Figure 6.14).
They are annuals and almost entirely self-
pollinated.
Cowpeas are planted in rows 60 em apart
with 30 em between the seeds. The leaves of
the plant are just as valuable as a food as are
the seed pods so harvesting of young fresh
Figure 6.13 Mature soya beans
82 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 6.14 Cowpea pods and leaves
leaves is done over several weeks as required.
The seed pods are collected and allowed to dry.
The seeds can then be cooked as a vegetable.
Cowpeas yield about 750 kg per hectare.
Root crops
Some crops are cultivated for their roots which
provide a valuable source of energy, mainly as
starchy food material.
Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
The Irish or European potato is widely grown
as a staple food and also as a supplementary
food. The part of the plant which is eaten is
the tuber, which is a large, swollen part of the
plant stem, growing just beneath the surface
of the soil (Figure 6.15). Each potato plant
produces several tubers of varying sizes. The
tubers are rich in starch and need to be boiled
before being eaten.
Potatoes are grown vegetatively and the tu-
bers themselves are used as the planting
material (page 65). Each tuber develops buds
from small hollows called eyes. The buds pro-
duce stems which eventually form new plant
growth above ground. As the plant grows, its
leaves produce starch during photosynthesis
and this is stored in new tubers which develop
as offshoots from the original planted tuber.
When the plant reaches maturity it produces
flowers with white or coloured petals, depend-
Figure 6.15 Potato plant
ing on the variety. The flowers are self-
pollinating but the seeds are not reliable
enough to use for propagation.
Potatoes require well-cultivated land for
planting to allow the tubers to develop fully.
The tubers to be planted, or seed potatoes,
should be left in open trays for a few weeks to
encourage the eyes to sprout. Sometimes tu-
bers are cut in half to increase the amount of
planting material but this practice does not
greatly increase yields. The cut tubers should
be left overnight to dry out the cut surfaces.
The seed potatoes are planted 10 ern deep
and about 30 em apart within the row. The
rows should be 60 to 80 em apart. To get the
greatest yield the nodes on the lower part of
the stems should be covered with soil to en-
courage tuber development. This is achieved
either by planting in ridges or by earthing up
the soil around the base of the growing plants.
About 2 tonnes of seed potatoes are required
to plant out one hectare of land. The yield
from this amount ranges from 5 to 10 tonnes
per hectare. When the potatoes are ready for
harvesting they are dug up and stored. Sharp
tools should not be used for this to avoid
damaging the crop.
 Crops 83
The main problem encountered when grow-
ing potato crops is the fungus disease, potato
blight and this is best kept down by planting
certified seed of resistant varieties.
Sweet potato (Ipomaea batatas)
Sweet potatoes are a common food crop grown
throughout the tropics. They are formed as
swollen storage organs on the adventitious
roots of the plant. The sweet potato plant is a
vine or creeper which spreads over the ground
producing rich foliage. The crop is grown vege-
tatively to give good yields although the plant
does produce flowers (page 57).
Stem cuttings are used for planting; sec-
tions of the stem or creeper being cut into
45 em lengths and left to wilt for two days.
Part of each cutting is then buried in the
Figure 6.16 Cassava plant in its first year
ground. This planting material takes root very
easily. The method of planting varies, usually
earth ridges or mounds are prepared and the
cuttings are struck about 30 em apart. The
ridges are spaced about 120 ern apart.
As the plant develops, carbohydrates, main-
ly sugars, are carried to the roots for storage
in the root tubers. They are ready for harvest-
ing at 4 to 5 months after planting. The tubers
do not store very well so are usually dug up a
few at a. time. Sweet potatoes are a perennial
crop and can be left in the soil for several
years. Yields of the crop are variable (2-10 bud
tonnes per hectare). In some areas the vines
are fed to cattle, and the leaves used as a
vegetable.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

: Cassava is another important tropical root
crop. The plant develops into a bush which if
left unattended can grow into a tree some 5
metres high (Figure 6.16). The crop is grown
-- for its rich, starchy roots which have a high
fibre content. Cassava is well able to with-
stand drought condition which makes it ben-
eficial as a reserve food crop. The tubers are
swollen lateral or side roots. Cassava leaves are
rich in vitamin C and are sometimes cooked as
a food.
The crop is grown from stem cuttings (Fig-
ure 6.17). Sections of the stem are cut into
30 em lengths and planted upright in the
ground ensuring that the buds are above the
Figure 6.17 A stem cutting of cassava
leaf scars. Spacing of the cuttings varies but
about 1·5 m between the rows is needed to
allow the bushes space to develop.
When the crop is ready for harvesting, from
about 9 months onwards, it is often dug up
one plant at a time as the tubers do not store
very well. Cassava tubers contain a harmful
substance which converts to hydrocyanic acid
and the tubers must be processed before being
eaten. There are many ways of treating cas-
sava, including peeling, stripping, boiling,
pounding and roasting. Most cassava is dried
for storage, then pounded later.
84 O-Level Agriculture

Figure 6.18 Yam plant with tubers

Yams (Dioscorea spp.)

There are many different varieties of yams
which between them make up an important
staple food in many parts of the tropics. Yams
are creeping vines which may be allowed to
grow over the ground or may be trained to
grow upwards on frames.
Yams are swollen root tubers rich in starch.
fruit
The crop is cultivated from short cuttings
taken from the tubers. These are buried in the
soil and soon sprout shoots which can then be
trained on to a frame or pole. The tubers are
ready for harvesting at about 9 months (Fig-
ure 6.18). They are dug up and cooked when
required, forming the main carbohydrate por-
tion of the meal. They can be pounded, boiled,
roasted or fried.
remains of male
flowers
Fruit crops

The fruit crops are cultivated for their edible

fruits. Most of the cultivated fruits grown in
the tropics are tree crops. In some areas they
are grown in large commercial plantations
and the fruit is marketed. Fruit forms an im-
portant part of the diet, providing vitamins to
keep the body healthy and to give some resis-
tance to disease. Fruit growing is practised on
Figure 6.19 Banana plant and bunch
a small scale throughout the tropics and even
a single fruit tree can contribute to an im-
proved diet. The chief fruit crops cultivated
are bananas, plantains, paw-paws, mangoes,
citrus and pineapples.

Figure 6.20 Banana fruit and flower
Banana and plantain (Musa spp.)
Bananas and plantains are among the com-
monest fruit crops grown in the tropics (Fig-
ure 6.19). They are perennial herbaceous
monocotyledons and have no wood in their
structure. Bananas have a softer, sweeter fruit
which can be eaten fresh. Plantains are har-
der with more starch and are normally cooked
before being eaten.
The trunk of the plant is called a pseu-
dostem and consists of tightly packed rings
of fleshy leaves. These branch out from the
pseudostem producing large flat leaf blades,
often torn along the veins. The true stem of
the plant develops from the centre of the
-D pseudostem and gives rise to the flower which
eventually forms the fruit. The flower does not
produce seeds and fertilisation does not occur.
The fruits develop directly from the female
flower (Figure 6.20).
Crops 85
Bananas and plantains are grown vegeta-
tively by means of suckers (page 65). The
suckers are produced as offshoots from the rhi-
zome of the parent plant. The plants are not
deep rooted but suckers take root very easily
when separated and planted. They need plenty
of water in the early stages. Spacing is about
3-4 metres between planting holes. If the
suckers are not removed, banana plants
quickly develop into dense clumps.
The crop is ready for harvesting from about
one year after planting out the sucker. The
bunch of bananas takes about 4 months to ma-
ture after the plant has flowered. Wind and
frost are frequent causes of crop losses. The
wind breaks off the trunk and frost kills the
plants. Each plant normally produces at least
one bunch of bananas each year of an average
weight of 10-20 kg. The yield per hectare can
be 20-40 tonnes, with irrigation. Supporting
poles are sometimes used to stop the trunk
being broken by the weight of fruit.
Paw-paw (Carica papaya)
The paw-paw is a large fleshy fruit produced
close to the trunk of a herbaceous perennial
tree. The plant grows quickly and is a heavy
yielder producing fruit within its first year. It
is a small-scale crop rather than a plantation
crop but it is widely distributed.
The main characteristic of the paw-paw is
that it is dioecious, that is the male and
female flowers are found on separate trees.
Only the female trees produce fruit but the
female flowers must first be fertilised. It is
necessary to have one male tree to every ten
female trees to ensure adequate pollination
Paw-paws are usually grown from seed but
sometimes from cuttings. The seeds can first
be sown in a seed bed and transplanted when
they have germinated into small seedlings at
1 to 2 months. Average spacing is 2·5 m x
2·5 m. The plants will continue to grow for
many years but the yield of fruit declines after
2 years. It is common practice to replace
stocks every 2-3 years. Yields are 10-15 ton-
nes of fruit per hectare. Paw-paw fruits also
produce a sticky latex substance which is
sometimes tapped and collected for conversion
into papain - a protein-digesting enzyme.
 86 O-Level Agriculture
I .
!I
!~I Ii
Figure 6.21 A mango tree
~IIII
I
Mangoes (Mangifera indica)
The mango is a fleshy fruit with a stone or
seed as its centre. The mango tree is an ever-
green perennial growing for many years and
reaching heights of up to 15 m. The tree pro-
duces dense foliage, and is useful as a shade
tree (Figure 6.21).
Flowering takes place during the dry sea-
son when a large number of flowers are pro-
duced. The flowers are insect-pollinated but
very few actually produce fruit. The fruit is
ripe about 5 months after flowering.
Mangoes are grown from seed. The seeds
are planted in holes about 5 em deep. When
'they have germinated they are transplanted
into polythene pots and left to grow in a shady
place for about 4 months. The seedlings are
then planted out at a spacing of 10 m x 10 m
to allow room for the spreading branches. The
first fruit is formed after about 5 years, and
Figure 6.22 Orange groves
the tree continues to produce fruit for many
years after this. Intercropping is common with
mangoes. Maize or other grain crops can be
grown.
Citrus fruits (Citrus spp.)
The citrus fruits are large juicy berries with a
thick leathery coat or exocarp. The juice is
contained in the segments of the inner part of
the fruit and is rich in vitamin C and sugars.
There are many varieties of citrus fruits in-
cluding naatjie. The chief cultivated varieties
are:
orange C. sinensis
lemon C. limon
lime C. aurantifolia
grapefruit C. paradisi
Citrus fruits require careful management
and are most commonly grown on plantations
(Figure 6.22). Citrus trees are grown from
buddings or cleft grafts (page 68). The usual
method of propagation is by budding the re-
quired variety of fruit on to a hardy root stock.
The root stock can be obtained by sowing
seeds or pips from mature fruit in a well-
watered seed bed. When the seedlings are
about 30 ern high, at about 6-8 months they
are transplanted into 30 em holes in a nursery
plot. Spacing at this stage is 1 m x 40 cm.
When the rootstock is well established bud-
ding can be carried out. Budwood from the
selected variety of citrus fruit is cut off and
the buds are inserted into carefully prepared

-y
h Vegetable crops
be
a Figure 6.23 Pineapple plant and fruit
•5
inverted T-cuts in the rootstock. These cuts
are made 3 em long and 20 em from the
ground. The bud is then closely bound with
raffia to hold it in place. The aim of budding is
to enable the bud containing a heel of earn-
bium to grow into the cambium layer of the
rootstock and establish itself as a branch.
Once the budding has become established
at about 18 months the whole plant can be
dug up and transplanted in the plantation.
Spacing of citrus trees should be about 6 m x
4 m and the planting holes are 1 m deep. The
zn
first fruit is available after about a year from
21
the final planting out.
Pineapples <Ananas comosus)
-?
Pineapples are formed as fleshy fruits arising
from the flower. They are perennial plants
which do not grow much more than 60 ern in
....,. height. The roots form a fibrous system not
very deep in the soil, but the crop requires
plenty of water for good fruit development.
The leaves are long, narrow and pointed and
arise from the short stem (Figure 6.23).
Propagation of pineapples is carried out
Crops 87
artificially using suckers, slips or crowns.
Suckers are leafy shoots from the base of the
plant; slips are shoots from beneath the fruit
and crowns are the fruit tops. The planting
material is left for a few days to harden and
become more resistant to disease. It is then
placed carefully in the soil about 8 cm deep.
The material slowly takes root and the plant
begins to develop. A common spacing is in a
double row with 150 em between the centre of
each double line, 30 cm between the plants
and 50 em between the rows themselves. This
provides sufficient room for the plants to de-
velop and enables irrigation and weeding to
take place. The first fruit is obtained at about
18 months to 2 years. Pineapples are eaten as
fresh fruit or marketed for canning.
Vegetables are an important source of vita-
mins and help to improve the diet. Some
vegetables are grown as agricultural field
crops. Green vegetables are particularly rich
in vitamins and minerals .
Cabbages tBressice spp.)
Cabbages (B. oleraceai are always grown from
seed. They are sown in seed beds and the
young plants are transplanted at about 1
month. The spacing is usually 60 em apart
and 60 cm between the rows. Chinese cabbage,
rape and kale are grown as green vegetables,
in the same way as cabbages, but the spacing
is closer. They are annuals and are ready for
harvesting about 2-3 months after sowing.
Pumpkins (Cucurbita maxima)
These belong to the plant family Cucurbi-
taceae, together with squashes, marrows and
gourds. They are herbaceous annuals with
large leaves and trailing stems. The fruit pro-
duced from the flower is among the largest
formed on any plant. It is yellow skinned with
soft, white flesh and seeds in the centre.
Pumpkins are sown in well-prepared holes,
widely spaced out at 2-3 metres apart. They
are often grown intercropped with maize or
other crops. In some areas the plants are culti-
vated on mounds of earth.
 88 O-Level Agriculture
,
~'~I
III
Figure 6.24 A tomato plant
Tomatoes (Lycopersicum esculenta)
Together with potatoes and egg plants,
':
tomatoes are members of the plant family
Solonaceae. They are annuals which require
careful management if they are to give a good
yield. They are sown in seed beds and the
young plants are transplanted at 3-4 weeks
into rows 1 m apart, allowing 50 em between
the plants in the row. Tomatoes are tall grow-
ing plants and their herbaceous stems need
supporting by stakes or a frame with wires.
They are usually self-pollinated and fertilisa-
tion is necessary for fruit to be formed. The
fruit develops into trusses or groups at inter-
vals and several trusses are formed on each
plant (Figure 6.24).
The plants remain in production for 3-4
months but require a regular water supply
throughout this time. Tomatoes go a deep red
colour when ripe but are often harvested while
still green or yellow for ripening later. Yields
of tomatoes can be very heavy - over 50
tonnes per hectare.
Figure 6.25
behind
Onion field with millet growing
Onions (Allium cepa)
These are a commonly grown vegetable used
for flavouring. The onion is a bulb which con-
sists of layers of white fleshy leaves tightly
packed together (page 66). Under natural
conditions, onions reproduce vegetatively by
growing buds at the side which develop into
new bulbs. When cultivated, onions are grown
from seed. The seeds are normally sown in
seed beds and transplanted at 6 weeks to
allow 10 em between the plants and 30 em be-
tween the rows (Figure 6.25). They are ready
for harvesting at 6-8 months and can yield 20
-30 tonnes per hectare.
Oil crops
Some crops store food in the form of oils and
fats instead of starch. The storage organs are

Figure 6,26 Sunflowers
Figure 6.27 Oil palm
usually fruits or seeds. The oil is used in mak-
ing a number of oil products, such as cooking
oil and margarine.
Sunflower (Helianthus ann us)
Sunflowers are tall annual plants with broad
_,
leaves and large flowers of 20-30 em diameter
Figure 6.26). Their seeds are rich in oils and
are crushed and processed to extract the oil.
They are grown from seeds planted 2 em deep,
30 ern apart and with 75 em between the rows.
They are ready for harvesting at 3-4 months.
The heads are cut off and threshed to remove
the seeds. Sunflowers yield about 2000 kg per
hectare.
Crops 89
Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)
The oil palm is a tall upright perennial tree
growing up to 10 m in height (Figure 6.27). It
is one of the highest yielding oil crops in the
tropics. It is grown from seed in a seedbed and
transplanted to a nursery bed after about 5
months. After a further 12 months the young
trees are ready for planting out in the field
8 m apart in rows 9-10 m apart. The first
flowers are produced after about 5 years and it
may be a further 2- 3 years before the first
palm fruits are formed. A good yielding tree
can produce over 500 palm fruits. The oil is
used for cooking and in the manufacture of
margarine and soap.
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
The coconut palm is widely distributed
throughout the tropics, especially areas of
high rainfall (Figure 6.28). It is an important
source of food and also produces a drink rich in
sugars and vitamins. Coconut oil is extracted
from the white fleshy part of the fruit, called
copra. The oil is used in margarine, and in the
manufacture of soap, candles and body lotion.
The coconut seeds are slow to germinate and
are reared in nursery beds. After about 7 years
the young trees come into flower and mature
coconuts are formed about a year after ferti-
lisation.
Fibre crops
Fibre crops are those where part of the plant
is used to produce material for cloth or rope
manufacture. It may be the leaves or stems
which contain fibre or part of the seed or fruit.
Fibre crops are of great importance economi-
cally throughout the tropics. However, in re-
cent years artificial fibres made from chemi-
cals have become increasingly used.
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
Of all the fibre crops used for making cloth,
cotton is the most important being used
throughout the world in the manufacture of
clothes. Cotton is a herbaceous perennial crop
but it is cultivated as an annual, from new
seed each year. The part processed for cloth is
the lint or white fibres inside the cotton boll or

Figure 6.29 Sisal crop
fruit. This becomes exposed when the flower
petals drop off. Important by-products are the
cotton seed, found within the lint, which is
used in stockfeeds and vegetable oil manufac-
ture, and the fuzz or linters - short hairs
attached to the seed, sometimes used in mak-
ing carpets (page 61).
The seeds are planted 2 em deep, 4 or 5 to a
hole and 20 em apart in the row. The rows are
90 em apart. The plant grows quickly and
reaches a height of 1·5 m in 3-4 months. Har-
vesting of the cotton bolls is done when they
are fully open to expose the lint. As they open
at different times, harvesting is spread over
several weeks. Most harvesting is carried out
by hand but cotton harvesting machines are
now used on larger farms. Yields of between
200 and 1000 kg per hectare can be achieved.
The crop residue should be destroyed after the
first growing season to avoid the spreading of
pests.
Cotton is processed in a ginnery where the
lint is separated from the seed. It is carefully
graded before marketing to get lint of similar
quality in the same batch.
Sisal (Agave spp.)
Sisal is a fibre crop used for making string,
ropes, sacking and baler twine. The fibre is
obtained from the leaves of the plant which
are long and spiky. The leaves often extend to
ever 150 em and arise from the short thick
stern. The leaves are being constantly renewed
and each sisal plant can produce 200-300
teaves during its life. The sisal plant flowers
every 7 years by sending up a tall pole (Figure
3 29),
Crops 91
Figure 6.30 Sugar cane plantation
The crop is cultivated vegetatively from
suckers or from bulbils - small flowers taken
from the pole. These take root easily and are
planted in beds at a spacing of 30 em apart.
Carefully managed plants are ready for the
first leaves to be cut at about 18 months. Cut-
ting then continues every year for several
years, but only a proportion of the leaves are
cut at a time. Yields are about 10 tonnes per
hectare. During processing the long fibres are
separated from the leaves and then left to dry,
laid over wires. The sisal is compressed to pro-
duce a strong product which is then baled.
Other crops
There are some crops which are important
commercially in many parts of the tropics but
which do not fit into any of the groups of crops
already mentioned. The ones included here
are sugar cane, tea, coffee and tobacco.
Sugar cane (Saccharum spp.)
The sugar cane plant is the source of about
half of the world's sugar. The remainder is
produced from the sugar beet grown in
temperate countries. Sugar cane belongs to
the Gramineae plant family which includes
maize, other cereals and grasses. It has a thick
hard stem when fully grown and can reach a
height of 3-4 m. It develops a dense fibrous
root system. Although the sugar cane plant
produces flowers, called arrows, seeds are
rarely formed. Under natural conditions sugar
cane sends up new shoots vegetatively. It is
 92 O-Level Agriculture
cultivated in the field and in plantations by
means of stem cuttings, called setts (Figure
6.30).
Sections of the stem about 45 em long are
placed end to end in well prepared trenches
6 -7 em deep and with 170 em between rows.
Each sett has 3-4 nodes on it and new shoots
develop from each node. Sugar cane is a quick-
growing crop but it is not cut for harvesting
for 18 months. The total water requirement
during its period of growth is 1900 mm so
irrigation is essential to maintain the supply.
Once established, the crop remains in the
ground for about 7 years and is cut each year.
Harvesting is done by hand with the aid of
sharp knives. The cane is heavy and is carried
by machines to the sugar refinery. It requires
9 tonnes of cane to produce 1 tonne of sugar
and the average yield per hectare is 100 ton-
nes. The refining process is complex; several
by-products are of value, e.g. molasses for
stock feed, and methanol for a petrol-sub-
stitute fuel. The cane waste is used as fuel for
the refinery boilers.
Tea (Camellia sinensis)
The worldwide demand for tea has meant that
it has remained an important commercial crop
in areas of the tropics suited to its growth. The
tea plant is a dicotyledonous shrub or small
tree and there are many different varieties.
Figure 6.31 A leaf cutting of tea
The tea bush produces flowers which are
cross-pollinated and the small fruits formed
contain the seeds. There are several methods
of propagating tea but commercially single-
Figure 6.32 Picking tea
leaf cuttings are used, these are taken from
the stem but each have one well-formed leaf
(Figure 6.31). The cuttings are first raised in a
shaded nursery bed to take root. Planting out
is done when the cuttings are about 20 em
high at 6-10 months. The field should be slop-
ing, well shaded and free draining. Tea prefers
acidic soils. Spacing between the bushes is
1·5 em x 75 cm.
The tea bush takes 2 - 3 years to become
established and it has to be pruned to form a
flat-topped table. Plucking of the leaves is
done every week or so and only fresh green
leaves from above the table level are plucked
(Figure 6.32). Yields vary from 700 to
1500 kg/ha.
Coffee (Coffea spp.)
The coffee bush is an evergreen shrub and re-
quires a hot moist climate for cultivation. Eco-
nomically, it is one of the most important
crops in the world. Nearly all the coffee manu-
factured is produced from C. arabica. Other
varieties are C. robusta and C. liberica
(Figure 6.33).
The flowers of the mature plant are insect
pollinated and the fruit which results takes
about 9 months to develop. At this stage it is
called a cherry. Harvesting of the cherries is
carried out by hand, every two weeks or so.
The quality of the cherries picked is very im-
portant for the quality of the coffee eventually
produced.
Propagation of coffee is by seeding in a
nursery. The seedlings are removed to seedl-
ing beds at about 2 months and are trans-
planted to the field at about 18 months. The
spacing is approximately 3 m x 2·5 m. The
 Crops 93

first cherries are produced at 3 years but the

bushes may remain productive for 20-30
years (Figure 6.34). Yields of coffee range
from 500 to 1500 kg/ha. The manufacturing
process is complex and involves many treat-
ments.
Tobacco(lVicotianatabacum)
Tobacco is a widely grown commercial crop. It
is grown for its leaf which is cured by careful
drying so that it can be processed into
cigarettes or some other form for smoking. It
m is a herbaceous annual plant reaching a
t:af height of 1·0-1·5 m. The plant produces flow-
.:.a ers which are normally self-pollinated and the
ilt seeds produced are extremely small (Figure
Figure 6.33 A coffee shrub bearing cherries 6.35). Tobacco is propagated by seed. The
_m
p- three main types of tobacco are Virginia - for
:ers the best quality, Oriental or Turkish - for a
IS more distinctive aroma and Burley - for poor-
er quality. All three types are similar in their
:::::1e method of cultivation but the chief differences
a lie in their curing.
IS Clean land is essential for tobacco cultiva-
"'!!?n tion so soil sterilisation is normally carried
"d out on the seedbed to control eelworms (page
. :0 111). The seeds are watered on to the soil and
covered with grass for protection. The seedl-
ings are ready for transplanting at 6-8 weeks
when 15 em high. Spacing is 50 em for Virgi-
nia, 45 em for Burley and 15 em for Oriental.

(b)

et
-s

Figure 6.34 (a) Cherries on a lateral branch of

robusta coffee (b) A single-stemmed coffee tree
with branches removed to show pruning for laterals Figure 6.35 Tobacco growing on a farm

j
94 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 6.36 Tobacco leaves hung up in a curing
barn
The plants are usually placed on ridges 60-
100 ern apart.
Harvesting begins at about 2 months when
the first leaves are ready for picking from the
base of the plant. Picking continues for sever-
al weeks until only poor quality leaves re-
main. Virginia tobacco is cured in large brick-
built barns where the temperature and humid-
ity are carefully controlled (Figure 6.36).
Oriental tobacco is sun-cured following a
period of drying in a barn. Burley tobacco is
cured slowly in thatched barns over a period of
several weeks. Yields are in the region of 1000
kg of cured leaf per hectare. The cured leaf is
packed into cases and sold at an auction.
Questions
1 Name a root crop or vegetable crop (for ex-
ample sweet potatoes, cassava, tomatoes,
beans or leaf vegetables) and describe its
cultivation under the following headings:
a season or time of planting, for example
beginning of rains or ends of rains,
b type of planting material, for example
seeds, stems, tubers,
c soil preparation before planting,
d cultivations or training carried out after
planting,
e pests or diseases and their control mea-
sures,
f state of the crop when harvesting can be-
gin. (C)
2 a Describe the growing of a named cereal
crop under the following headings:
(i) Place in rotation,
(ii) Preparation of the seedbed and
planting,
(iii) Use of manures and fertilisers,
(iv) Weeds and weed control,
(v) Harvesting and storage.
b Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate
the stage of plant growth when post-
emergence weed control measures are
taken. (C)
3 Choose one of the following
a a cereal crop,
b an edible fruit,
c a beverage crop,
and describe how you would plant, manure
and generally maintain and protect it, until
harvest time.
4 a With the aid of labelled drawings de-
scribe either a named biennial or a
named perennial crop plant.
b Outline the operations that take place in
preparing land for planting one of these
crops. State the method of propagation
and the planting distance employed.
c How does the farmer decide when the
crop plant you have chosen is ready for
harvest? (C)
5 a Describe the structure and appearance of
a named fruit.
b Give a full account of the cultivation of
the fruit when grown as a field crop.

ate
-st-
lre
C)
If a crop is to give a satisfactory yield it must
be protected from pests and diseases through-
out its growing period. In the hot, moist condi-
;.;.re tions of the tropical growing season, pests of
-:il all kinds multiply rapidly and if not checked
they can destroy much of the crop. It is a
waste of time, money and effort if a
:e-
flourishing crop is allowed to be eaten by in-
a
sect pests or other parasites.
_n Weeds represent one of the most serious
-=:5e
problems for a growing crop because they take
up valuable nutrients from the soil and often
grow more quickly than the crop itself, some-
times smothering it. Then insects, mites and
other pests may attack the crop, either direct-
ly by eating the plant material or indirectly
by transmitting bacteria, fungi or virus dis-
eases. Even when the crop is harvested it still
needs to be protected from pests which may
attack it during storage.
Crop protection is concerned with ensuring
that the right measures are used for keeping
pests and diseases in check. As with all dis-
eases the rule to follow is: prevention is bet-
ter than cure. Careful methods of crop protec-
tion can help to prevent attacks by pests or
diseases from the start (Figure 7.1).
Weeds
Weeds are often described as unwanted plants
and in most cases where weeds are allowed to
grow they cause a reduction in the yield of the
Crop protection
crop. In some instances, however, weeds can
be beneficial by providing ground cover to re-
duce soil erosion and by acting as a mulch for
the crop.
The effects of weeds
Effect on a crop
When weeds grow within a crop they can
sometimes have such a serious effect that
there is almost no crop to harvest. It is not un-
common for the potential yield of a crop to be
reduced by half because of weeds. The main
effects of weeds are as follows:
Taking nutrients from the soil Weeds com-
pete with the crop for nutrients in the soil.
Very often weeds can take up plant food more
quickly than the crop itself which suffers as a
result.
Taking moisture from the soil Weeds
spread out their roots among the roots of the
crop plants and extract moisture from the soil
which would otherwise be available to the
crop.
Harbouring diseases Bacterial, viral and
fungal diseases may become established on
weeds and can then become transmitted to the
crop.
Harbouring insects Weeds act as a shel-
tered place for insects which can multiply
there before invading the crop.
Shading the crop Tall weeds such as grass-
es may grow higher than the crop and shade
out the light. This slows down growth of the
crop.
96 O-Level Agriculture
insecticides
certified
seed
fungicides
Figure 7.1 Various crop pests and their control
Other effects
Apart from their effect on a growing crop
weeds can cause other problems. Water weeds
may spread rapidly and choke up irrigation
canals. Others may spread over paths and
loosen borders or even break up cement lin-
ings or tarred roads. The leaves of some weeds
are poisonous to grazing animals, e.g. Lantana.
Types of weeds
There are several ways of classifying weeds:
botanically, length of growing period, method
of dispersal, type of crop they affect
(Figure 7.2).
All weeds are either annual or perennial.
Annual weeds are those which complete their
life cycle in a single year, usually within the
space of a rainy season. Their seeds survive
until the following rainy season. Many of the
dicotyledons are annuals. Perennial weeds
live for many years, often reproducing vegeta-
tively, but sometimes by means of seeds.
Grasses are common perennials. Weeds can be
divided into four main plant types.
Monocotyledons Chiefly grasses which
grow and spread quickly within a crop.
fumigants
Dicotyledons Broad-leaved herbaceous
weeds which can often smother a crop and
may be hard to control, particularly if the crop
is also a dicotyledon and, therefore, suscepti-
ble to similar herbicides.
Woody weeds Small trees and woody
plants which grow up as bushes with a firm
anchorage in the soil. They make cultivation
and weed control difficult.
Water weeds These spread quickly over
the surface of open water, ditches and irriga-
tion channels making it difficult to extract wa-
ter.
Ways in which weeds are spread
There are many ways in which weeds can
spread from one place to another (page 64).
Some means of spreading are listed.
By wind Seeds which are very light or
have wings or parachutes in their structure
can be carried a long way and become estab-
lished in a new place.
By animals There are weeds whose seeds
have hooks or barbs which catch on to the fur
of passing animals. These drop off later when
the animal has moved away. Another way in
 Crop protection 97

Datura stramonium Thorn apple

Oxalis semiloba Oxalis 20 cm; 120 cm; large white funnel-shaped
flowers and thorny fruit;
perennial; herbaceous weed
having no stem; leaves and herbaceous annual weed; very
flowers arise from root poisonous leaves, flowers and fruit

So/anum incanum Sodom apple

up to 120 cm; herbaceous weed;
~_ i~'ffll>' spreads from rhizomes
onto pasture

Tagetes minuta Mexican

marigold up to 2 m; herbaceous
annual weed; yellow/white
flowers; affects most crops

Comme/ina bengha/ensis
Wandering Jew
30-60 cm; herbaceous weed; spreads over
low-growing crops such as groundnut
_-

/mperata cylindrica Spear grass

60-80 ern, perennial

Cynodon dacty/on Star

grass 20-80 cm; spreads
by rhizomes; perennial

Figure 7.2 Examples of common weeds

j
 98 O-Level Agriculture

Eleusine indica Wild

finger millet 30-45 cm;
annual; grass weed of
maize and other crops

Lantana camara Lantana

up to 2 m; a woody perennial
dicot weed; invades
pastures;
poisonous to stock

Bidens pifosa Blackjack 120 cm;

annual herbaceous weed; small
yellow flowers

Striga hermon theca

Witchweed 20-60 cm;
'I' annual parasitic herbaceous

.~lll! weed; affects maize and

other cereals; purple flowers
I

Digitaria scafarum Couch

grass 50 cm; spreads by
rhizomes; perennial;
~'~h...,....~~_~ found in many crops
Cyperus rotundus Nutgrass
20 cm; perennial herb;
spreads from underground
runners and produces tubers

Figure 7.2 (cont.) Examples of common weeds


which animals often spread weed seeds is by
grazing and browsing. The seeds are eaten
and may be undigested when they pass out
with the faeces. If the manure is used on a
field for crops the weed seeds can germinate.
Birds can spread seeds over longer distances.
By water Most tropical areas experience
flooding during the rainy season. When large
areas of land are under water much plant
material, including weed seeds, is carried
away. As the flood water goes down the seeds
become deposited elsewhere.
By explosion Some plants produce their
seeds in pods. As the pods dry in the sun their
surfaces expand, and at night they contract in
the cool air. Eventually this causes the seed
pods to split and the seeds are exploded out in
to the air. Legumes produce seed pods in this
way and although they may be valuable
plants for the soil, if they are growing within
a crop, they may be competitors for nutrients
and can be classed as weeds.
Vegetatively Many weeds, especially grass- The use of chemical weedkillers or herbicides
es, spread by means of runners or rhizomes.
These enable the plant to extend the area they very important contribution to the increase in
affect.
Weed control
The careful control of weeds in a crop is an
essential agricultural practice. There are
several ways in which this can be done.
Hand weeding
In this method the weeds are pulled up by
hand. It is tedious work and often the weeds
break up leaving the roots to send up a new
shoot.
Hoeing
This is the traditional way of weeding be-
tween the rows of a crop. The diadvantages
are that the roots of the crop may be damaged
by the hoe and the roots of the weeds are not
usually dug up completely.
Cultivation
Ploughing, harrowing and hand-cultivation of ~_3 Through the soil - herbicides which are
the soil help to bury the weeds. This method is
a useful preparation of the land before the
crop is planted but the weeds usually come up
again as the crop grows. If a crop is widely
Crop protection 99
spaced it may be possible to dig over the soil
between the rows, using a two-wheeled tractor
or cultivator. Inter-row weeding is a common
and useful practice. I
Biological control
There are some weeds which can be controlled
by introducing insects into the field so that
they will feed on the leaves and stems of the
weeds. The advantage of this method is that
chemicals are not used and it makes use of
natural processes. However, it requires careful
attention. The insects have to be bred special-
ly for the purpose and released at exactly the
right time. The farmer must also be sure that
the insects are not going to attack the crop or
have any secondary effects such as stimulat-
ing other insects to multiply. Prickly pears
and Lantana spp. are two weeds which have
been controlled by insects.
Chemical control
to control the growth of weeds has made a
yields of crops. The herbicides can be applied
to the soil to stop weeds coming up or they can
be sprayed on to the weeds to kill them direct-
ly. With chemical weed control it is important
to mix the herbicide properly and to apply it
at the correct rate and at the right time. Care
must be taken to ensure that the herbicide
does not harm the crop and that residual her-
bicide will not contaminate the produce.
TlJe ~f herbicides There are three
ways in which herbicides can attack weeds
(Figure 7.3). 1\
1 By contact,' itt the leaves and shoots of the
~eed aresprayed, the herbicide may enter
the plant by diffusion, mainly through the
leaves. Gradually-this kills the weeds off.
2 By translocation ~)_systemic herbicides get
into the weed through the leaves, stem or
roots and are carried throughout the plant
with its food supply. This soon poisons the
weed,r
sp;:ayea oIitOfu-e soil may have a lasting
effect on weeds by preventing their growth
for some time.
App!!_catio::_;f -4bic~des Herbicides are
 100 O-Level
, Agriculture
pre-emergence post-emergence Table 7.1
Some common herbicides "

Herbicide Type Use

Atrazine pre-emergence control of

Xl ~)
2.4·D selective systemic
post-emergence
broad-leaved
weeds in maize

control of
broad-leaved weeds
in maize and sugar
cane
contact - on the plant surface systemic - within the plant
pre-emergence control of
broad-leaved
~ ~ weeds in
groundnuts

It
selective - broad leaf
.
non-selective selective - narrow leaf
\
2,4,5-T

Dalapon
selective, contact

selective, systemic
post-emergence
control of woody
weeds

control of grass
weeds in most
crops

MCPA selecti ve, systemic control of

~ ~ _) ~ , vr broad-leaved

",.~ .'7" hb weeds in maize

and other grain

1*t*t*ttUt~·
crops

MCPB selective, systemic converted to

MCPA within the
plant; used for
control of legumes
Figure 7.3 Ways in which herbicides can affect
weeds f\ Paraquat non-selective,
contact
control of most
weeds before or
usually applied as sprays from handguns or after emergence of
knapsack sprayers. the crop

The timing of the applic~~n of a herbicide
is also important: _pre-emergence herbicides
are applied as soon as the crop has been
planted, while the soil is still clear of weeds. It
kills off youpg ~1eds before they can get a
hold. Pqst-emergence herbicides are applied
after the crop has emerged. It must be a che-
mical which will not harm the crop and the
weeds are killed in their early stages. .
Some herbicides are selective. This means
they kill only certain kinds of weeds, e.g. grass-
es/Others are non-selective and these affect
_...-<wide range of weeds. Sometimes killing off
the weeds by chemicals may have a harmful
effect on soil organisms which are beneficial
for the maintenance of soil fertility.
Sodium chlorate non-selective controls a wide
range of weeds in
crops or on paths
The success of a herbicide depends on mix-
ing it in exactly the correct proportions. If it is
too dilute it will not do the job. If it is too con-
centrated it may prove toxic to the crop. Some
weeds are resistant to a number of herbicides
and it is best to get advice from the local De-
partment of Agriculture to find out which her-
bicides are recommended. There are some her-
bicides which should not be used with particu-
lar crops because of their effects on the crop.
When deciding on the use of herbicides, a
 Crop protection 101

farmer usually considers the cost benefit first,

that is how an increased yield compares with
the cost of the herbicide and its application.
Any possible side effects of herbicides must be
taken into account.
Note: herbicides are poisonous chemicals and
must not come into contact with the
skin, eyes or face. All herbicides should
be used strictly In accordance with
manufacturer's instructions and govern-
ment decrees for the area.

Insect pests Figure 7.4 The external featues of an insect

Insects are invertebrate animals classified as

Arthropoda. There are thousands of different aphid sucks
species of insects, each species having its own from a leaf stylet
special characteristics and habitat. Insects are
lIE beneficial when they act as pollinators or work
the soil and they are harmful when spreading
disease or attacking crops.
Characteristics of insects
The main characteristics of insects are:
1 the body is divided into three distinct parts:
head, thorax and abdomen;
2 their mouthparts are adapted for a particu-
lar type of feeding;
3 they have one pair of antennae (sensory
organs) on the head;
4 they have three pairs of jointed legs,
attached to the thorax;
of 5 most insects have wings attached to the
thorax;
6 they have a simple digestive tract;
7 they breathe through small holes along the
body (spiracles);
8 their life history goes through several dis-
tinct changes, called metamorphosis.
z.x- The main external features of an insect are
IS
shown in Figure 7.4.
n-
e Mouthparts
.;.es The mouthparts of an insect are usually spe-
_.e- cialised to carry out a particular type of feed-
ing (Figure 7.5). locust cuts
Piercing mouthparts A sharp needle-like
proboscis penetrates the skin and pierces
down to a blood capillary so that blood can be
drawn out e.g. mosquito. Figure 7.5 Insect mouthparts
102 O-Level Agriculture
Sucking mouthparts Some insects remain
on a host for some time while they use their
proboscis to suck juices from plant or animal
tissues.
Chewing mouthparts Insects which attack
crops often have specially adapted mouthparts
called mandibles which are like sharp blades
to cut and chew the material.
Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis is the term given to the
changes which an insect undergoes from the
moment it is hatched until it is a mature adult
capable of reproduction. Metamorphosis may
be complete or incomplete.
Complete metamorphosis Four distinct
stages occur: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Each
stage is quite unlike the others and the adult
emerging at the end is totally different in
appearance from its previous three stages.
Most insects undergo complete metamorph-
osis.
Incomplete metamorphosis The insect pass-
es from the larval stage to a nymphal stage
which resembles the adult, e.g. locusts. Sever-
al nymphal instars may be necessary as the
insect grows to the adult. In some cases the
adult hatches live young, e.g. aphids.
Biting and chewing insects
The locust
The locust is a type of grasshopper. There are
over 5000 different species of grasshopper
throughout the world but only a few of these
are classified as locusts. They are responsible
for some of the most serious and widespread
damage to crops. When locusts occur in swarms
they eat all the vegetation in sight and often
leave the land bare.
Locusts carry out incomplete metamor-
phosis (Figure 7.6). The female which is about
-~t----~-~-CJ
adult nymph
Figure 7.6 Life cycle of a locust
10 cm long, digs a hole in the ground and lays
her eggs. The eggs are covered with a frothy
secretion which hardens to provide a protective
egg pod. After about two weeks, nymphs
emerge from the egg pod and reach the surface
of the soil. At this stage they are called
hoppers.
The nymphs undergo several moults as they
develop and grow. Growth occurs quickly as
soon as the cuticle or skin is shed and before
the new cuticle hardens, restricting growth.
Moults produce four or five instars over several
weeks before the adult locust emerges with
fully developed wings.
The adults flyaway, soon reach sexual
maturity and mate. Fertilisation takes place
inside the female locust and each adult female
is capable oflaying several batches of eggs dur-
ing her lifetime.
The desert locust and the migratory locust
are two of the most important species as they
occur in large numbers. A large swarm may
contain 40 000 million locusts, but they also
occur as solitary insects (Figure 7.7).
Termites
Termites are one of the most serious economic
pests of agriculture in the tropics. There is
hardly any crop which is not liable to damage
by one of the different species of termites.
Termites are 'social' insects and live in large
nests or colonies. Termite mounds can be sev-
eral metres in height, and within each colony
are several castes. The queen termite is much
larger than all the others and her job is to lay
the eggs for the colony. A king termite is pre-
sent to fertilise the queen. Termites undergo
incomplete metamorphosis. The eggs hatch
into young nymphs which resemble the adults.
These insects are the workers or 'white ants',
though they are not true ants. Their function is
to build and maintain the nest and transport
nymph egg ready egg
moult to hatch
 , ('
\J Crop protection 103
ays
thy "
•.
nve "-'" '
hs ,". ;-...;:

-
'" 'l. -,

:ace "
~ ~ ..•."
ed :"-.
.'
.. ,..,
~
ey
as
,;,re
-
.,,,,-:' ..... ..
. ..
+h.
-ral
.th
. . ...
_al
ce
:":ue '-
lr-

Figur,\ 7.7 Part of a swarm of desert locust

-r-, "-
..••...

the eg~ (Figure 7.8). destruction of plants such as maize, by eating

Two other castes of termite present in a col-
ony are the 'soldiers' which have sharp jaws
and protect the colony and winged termites or
'flying ants', These emerge from the nest dur-
ing the rainy season and set up new colonies.
The main damage associated with termites
is the eating of roots and stems of growing
crops and the eating of poles and other building
timbers. Control has to be by means of chemi-
cal insecticides. Termites are some benefit to
the agriculturalist, for example by enhancing
the drainage and aeration of soils. Flying ants
are a popular source of protein food.
Grasshoppers
These large insects are present nearly every-
where in Africa. They can cause the complete
the foliage and they also attack the cobs.
Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamor-
phosis with their eggs being laid in holes in the
ground. A young nymph or 'hopper' emerges
and it is at this stage that chemical control
should be applied because they eat continu-
ously between each moult,
Beetles
The number of species of beetle is considerable
and some cause widespread damage to crops
both in the field and in storage, Typically, bee-
tles carry out complete metamorphosis. Eggs
are laid, often on plant material so there is a
food supply for the emerging lavae. After sev-
eral moults, the insect pupates and can remain
in the dormant stage for several months. When
104 O-Level Agriculture

queen
reproductives

steriles

worker
soldier

Figure 7.8 Types of termite

conditions are favourable the adult insect

emerges.
Crop damage may be caused by the larvae
or the adult and a wide range of crops are
affected. Examples of beetles of economic
importance are:
Beetle Crop affected
lesser grain borer stored maize
cigarette beetle tobacco
saw-toothed grain beetle cereals; flour
confused flour beetle flour
white coffee borer coffee

Leaf miners
Leaf miners are tiny moths whose larvae can
cause serious damage to coffee bushes but are Figure 7.9 Types of beetle: (a) lesser grain borer
(b) cigarette beetle (c) confused flour beetle
not much of a problem on other crops. The
 Crop protection 105

adult lays her eggs on coffee leaves and when

the larvae hatch they feed on the leaf tissue
after burrowing inside. The pupae form on the
outside of the plant or on the ground. The pro-
cess of complete metamorphosis takes about
two months. Leaf miners are often eaten by
other parasites but where there is a heavy
attack, chemical control is necessary.
Piercing and sucking insects

The aphid
Aphids (greenfly or blackfly) are very wide-
spread insect pests, and there are many differ-
Figure 7.11 Cotton aphids on cotton flower
ent kinds. They are able to reproduce very
rapidly and form large colonies on plants. They
which the aphids are produced without fertil-
pierce the plant tissues with their mouthparts
isation, is called parthenogenesis. The pro-
then suck out the juices from the cells. Aphids
cess of laying nymphs rather than eggs is
also act as vectors of virus diseases. They
known as viviparity. This way the aphid popu-
undergo incomplete metamorphosis (Figure
lation can increase rapidly during the rainy
7.10).
season.
However, shortly before the rains die out,
some young males are born. These undergo a
series of moults and soon become sexually
mature. They then mate with the wingless
females. This time eggs are laid instead of
nymphs. These eggs have a hard protective
shell which enables them to survive the dry
~~
season They hatch out into wingless females
nymphal
stage when the next rains appear.
wingless female adult

Figure 7.10 Life cycle of the aphid Fruit flies

Some species of fruit fly are a serious economic
In warm humid conditions, aphids produce pest, chiefly of citrus fruits but also melons,
large numbers of young. The eggs develop into peaches, paw paws, apples and apricots. The
nymphs inside the body of the female and there
is no larval or pupal stage. The nymphs are
very similar to the adults when born and have
six legs, compound eyes and antennae.
The nymphs feed on juices extracted from
the plant where they are born and undergo a
series of moults when they shed their skins or
cuticles. After several days the aphids are
ready to begin producing their own young.
Only wingless female aphids are produced at
first, but as the host plant becomes over-
crowded and begins to die, some of the females
grow wings. These enable the aphids to fly to
another plant where they can set up a new col-
ony by laying more nymphs (Figure 7.11).
This method of asexual reproduction, in Figure 7.12 Fruit flies
106 O-Level Agriculture
Mediterranean fruit fly is one of the most
important. The adult female pierces the sur-
face of the fruit as it ripens from green to yel-
low, and lays several eggs inside it. The larvae
feed on the flesh of the fruit and bacteria pres-
ent cause the fruit to rot. When the rotten fruit
falls to the ground the larvae emerge and
pupate (Figure 7.12). The complete life cycle
(complete metamorphosis) takes about three
weeks in hot conditions and about three
months in the cold season. Fruit flies are often
controlled by parasitic wasps, though chemical
control is sometimes necessary.
Boring insects

The maize stalk borer

The common maize stalk borer iBusseola
fusca) is another serious pest of crops. The
insect undergoes complete metamorphosis and
it is the larval stage, or caterpillar, which
causes the chief damage by eating the stalks
of growing maize (Figure 7.13).
The adult stage of the insect is a moth. The
adults mate and the female lays her eggs in the
heart of young maize stalks. As the eggs hatch
into larvae they burrow into the maize stalks
and begin eating the plant tissue. They are
able to move throughout the plant and cause
considerable damage to the crop if not checked
(Figure 7.14).
Figure 7.14 Larva of the maize stalk borer

After a few weeks, and a series of moults, by

which time the larvae have grown in size, a
silky cocoon is produced. This is the pupal
stage and it enables the insect to survive the
dry season by forming a hard case. Many pupae
survive even when the maize is harvested.
eggs in young __ __B When conditions are favourable, usually
maize plant early in the new rainy season the adult moths
pupa ~
~ emerge from the pupal cases and continue the
J life cycle.

larva 1
ca:rr11Ib
U:"""~"""'I '"'lt~C~(Ib~
Weevils
Weevils are a kind of beetle but their damage
is caused by a boring action of their mouth-
parts rather than a chewing and cutting action
as with most beetles. There are many kinds of
weevils, each affecting different crops, e.g.
Figure 7.13 Life cycle ofthe maize stalk borer maize weevil, rice weevil, banana weevil.
 Crop protection 107

Table 7.2
Some important insect pests of tropical crops

Order Common name Damage

Orthoptera locusts, eat plant material

grasshoppers in large amounts
crickets

Isoptera termites eat plant roots

and sometimes
aerial parts

Thysanoptera thrips attack cotton,

cacoa and other
Figure 7.15 Maize weevil crops

The maize weevil is a common pest of grain Hemiptera bugs, caps ids, damage to a wide
stores where it can bore into the dry grain (different wings) cotton stainer, range or crops
whether shelled or not. It is also frequently shield bugs including rice,
found in milled mealie meal and flour. The cotton, coffee,
female lays one egg in a hole bored in the caeca, tea.

grain. The hole is plugged and the whole life Hemiptera jassids (leaf vectors of virus
cycle of egg, larva, pupa, adult takes place (similar wings) hoppers) gall fly, diseases on cotton,
within the single grain over a period of about whitefly citrus, tobacco,
four weeks. One female can lay up to 300 eggs green fly , aphis bananas, sugar
so infestation can be considerable. scale insects, cane, coffee, cacoa
mealy bugs and most other
Control of weevil in grain stores is by fine
crops.
spraying with malathion or lindane, or by
means of a smoke generator. Lepidoptera pink bollworm, direct damage by
(butterflies and American caterpillar eating
Bollworms moths - usually bollworm, rice the crop
the larva stage borer, sugar cane
Bollworms are the larval stage of particular causes the borer, spiny
moths. American bollworm, spiny bollworm damage) bollworm,
and red bollworm are three of the most impor- cutworm,
tant. The chief crops attacked by bollworms are armyworms, stalk
borer, false
cotton, tobacco, maize, sunflower and tomatoes.
a The damage is caused by the larvae which bore
coddling moth,
leaf roller, leaf
into the fruit or flowers (Figure 7.16). miner
The American bollworms emerge from eggs_
a few days after they have been laid on the Coleoptera weevils, coffee eating crops or
(beetles) stem borers, some stored products
leaves of the plant. They eat continuously,
ladybirds
having about six moulting stages. When fully
grown the caterpillars are about 4 em long and Hymenoptera ants, wasps can attack plants,
may be green, yellow or brown in colour. They also spread
can be distinguished by pale stripes running disease by
along their sides. They pupate in the soil, or carrying viruses

occasionally in the tip of a maize cob. Adult Diptera fruit flies, grubs eat fruit
moths emerge the following growing season. from inside,
Chemical control is the only effective method leathetjackets soil pests eat the
for bollworms. roots.
108 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 7.16 American bollworm
Methods of insect control
Insects form an important part of the ecosys-
tem of the tropics. They have a valuable part
to play in the process of natural decomposition
of organic matter by breaking it down for the
further action of bacteria and fungi. However,
where they occur in large numbers and attack
growing crops they become serious pests and
have to be controlled.
Control by insecticides can endanger the
ecosystem. Most insecticides are toxic chemic-
als and many persist in the environment for
long periods. Farmers must use insecticides
with care. Possible side-effects include the
killing of beneficial insects or the poisoning of
other animals along the food chain including
humans.
Careful attention must be paid to choosing
and applying the method of control. There are
three main types of insect control:
Avoidance
If a crop is grown on land which does not
favour particular pests, damage may be
avoided. Similarly, if crops are grown at a
different time of year, perhaps with the aid of
irrigation, the occurrence of a pest may be
avoided. Crop rotations .also help in reducing
insect pests by preventing the build up of
numbers over a period of time and by break-
ing their life cycles.
Biological control
The use of one type of insect to control another
is a natural or biological way of keeping a pest
in check. Some species of fruit fl'ies and beetles
are examples of pests which have been kept
under control by introducing other insects.
The species being introduced must be one
which will multiply quickly in order to pro-
vide effective control. In must also be one
which does not have harmful effects of its own.
Another consideration is that of the ecosys-
tem. Removal of a serious insect pest may re-
sult in the increase in numbers of a relatively
unimportant pest.
In recent years other methods of biological
insect control have been tried. These include
the use of bacteria and viruses which are
known to be harmful to certain insects, usual-
ly at the larval stage.
Sterilisation is another method used. Males
of a particular species of pest are made sterile
by radiation and are then released in large
numbers on to the crop. Their mating with the
females does not result in fertilisation and the
pest population dies out. Some fruit flies have
been controlled this way, where it is the larval
stage which is the pest and not the adult.
Insecticides
The use of chemicals to control insects is of
very great economic importance. In most cases
insecticides are used to kill pests rather than
prevent an outbreak. There are four ways in
which insects can be affected by insecticides
(Figure 7.17).
1 Direct contact - by entering through the
skin or cuticle.
2 Breathing system - by passing through the
insect's breathing pores.
3 Eating - when the insect eats some of the
toxic chemical and dies by poisoning.
4 Sucking - insecticides which pass through
the plant's food stream may be sucked in by
insects obtaining their food in this way.
 Crop protection 109
- of
(a) Table 7.3
be Some important insecticides used in crop
;ng protection
of
k- Insecticide Characteristics Insects
controlled
Aldrin used mainly on wireworms,
soil insects; kills boll weevils, cotton
by contact and thrips, lygus
er ingestion; is not
inseeticide spray taken up by
:est plants
les BHC (benzene used as a seed aphids,
pt hexachloride) e.g. dressing; kills by bollworms, thrips
lindane) contact and weevils,
rts. ingestion grasshoppers
one
Carbaryl (e.g. kills by contact bollworms,
.ro- sevin) bollweevils, pink
ne bollworm,
weevils,
11. caterpillars .
._:8- DDT persistent wireworms,
~e- (dichlorodiphenyl- chemical which bollworms,
trichloroethane) kills by contact or armyworms,
ely ingestion; does cutworms, ants,
not dissolve in termites.
water
al
.de Dieldrin persistent cutworms,
chemical; used on bollworms,
are soil pests and wireworms, bean
.al- (e) boring beetles; stem flies
kills by contact
and ingestion
_es Lebaycid kills by contact fruit flies, melon
Je flies
.ge Malathion kills by contact aphids, mites, *
:he mealybugs.
':-Ie Pyrethrum prepared from the pests of grain
_,.'t"e flowers of stores
pyrethrum; often
-al mixed with
chemicals; kills by
contact
\0;.'\.\.\'0 '0')' con\.ac.\:. a.:p"nl.o..s.~ass\ds.
acts witbm the whitefly, mites,"
plant affecting mealy bugs
(d)
of sucking pests
*Note: mites are not insects but are members of the spider family,
having eight legs. Chemicals used to control them are known as
~n
acaricides .
.n
-cs
Classification of insecticides Apart from
.ne grouping insecticides according to the way
they affect the pest, they can also be classified
.ae chemically as follows.
1 Organo-phosphorus - the most widely used
group or insecticides all of which contain
the element phosphorus, e.g. malathion.
Figure 7.17 Ways in which insecticides affect
insects: (a) by direct contact (b) pass in through
2 Chlorinated hydrocarbons - this group in-
breathing pores (c) ingestion of insecticide cludes DDT, dieldrin and aldrin and all con-
(d) sucked in with plant juices tain the element chlorine. .•
110 O-Level Agriculture
3 Carbamates - an effective group of insecti-
cides used against caterpillars; they are
organic chemicals containing nitrogen e.g.
sevin.
4 Inorganic - including compounds of sulphur
and arsenic.
5 Natural - compounds derived from plants
such as pyrethrum.
Some insecticides are accumulative, that
is their effects persist in plant and animal tis-
sue or in the soil for a prolonged period. The
chlorinated hydrocarbons fall into this categ-
ory. They do not easily decompose so that with
successive applications consumption of the
crop may result in a gradual build up of the
chemical in the body. A period of time should
elapse between the application of the insecti-
Figure 7.18 Hand-sprayer cide and the consumption of the crop.
Application of insecticides The method of
application of an insecticide depends on the in-
sect being controlled and the crop it affects
(Figures 7.18, 7.19 and 7.20).
1 Spraying - most insecticides are applied as a
spray which wets the foliage of the crop and
any insects which may be on it. The insecti-
cide is usually supplied in a concentrated
form and mixed with water to the correct
proportions. There is normally an ingre-
dient which helps to disperse the spray by
controlling the droplet size. If the droplets
are too large they roll off the leaves. If they
are too small they may be blown away as
spray drift. Hand-sprayers, knapsack
Figure 7.19 Insecticide being sprayed from a sprayers and tractor equipment can be used
helicopter to apply sprays. Insecticides can also be ap-
plied from helicopters or aeroplanes.
2 Dusting - insecticides in the form of pow-
ders are dusted on to the plant or into the
planting holes and usually kill the pests by
contact or ingestion, e.g. aldrin, DDT.
3 Fumigants - grain stores are often fumi-
gated by igniting tablets of insecticides so
that the smoke penetrates the stored grain
and kills the pests by entering their brea-
thing system. Care is needed to ensure that
the fumigant does not affect the flavour of
the food causing a taint. Weevils can be con-
trolled in this way.
4 Bait - substances which attract insect pests
Figure 7.20 . Knapsack sprayer are sometimes mixed with insecticides, e.g.
malathion, so that the insects are killed
 Crop protection 111
ti- when they feed on the plant.
are 5 Seed dressings - certified seed is usually
- g. treated with an insecticide which protects it
during storage and germination.
:Ir

:5 Nematodes

Eelworms are microscopic roundworms or

nematodes found in the soil. They are a se-
rious crop pest and are difficult to get rid of.
They attack the roots of many crops and some-
times the stems, leaves and seeds as well.
The females are round organisms and not
long or worm-like. They can lay up to a Figure 7.21 Seed bed covered with a polythene
thousand microscopic eggs, and fertilisation sheet before applying methylbromide gas
by males is not necessary for the reproductive
process. The eggs are laid in a yellowish jelly
substance either within the roots of a plant or
in the soil. After a few weeks the larvae hatch
out and penetrate the root hairs feeding on the
tissues. Sometimes root knots or swellings
are formed on the roots containing the larvae.
The larvae continue to eat and grow and even-
tually develop into mature eelworms.
The damage caused to a crop may not be no-
ticeable at first as most of the damage occurs
below ground, but yields are always poor. Root
crops such as potatoes are the most seriously
affected plants, but tobacco is also affected.
Because eelworms are able to survive for
Figure 7.22 Pressurised tin containing
many years, control of them is very difficult. methyl bromide gas
Chemicals called nematocides are used with-
in the soil to kill the pests. Sometimes, the few centimetres of soil and kills off the pests.
only effective way is not to grow potatoes or Injection In this method a nematocide
other crops likely to be affected on the field called EDB (ethylene dibromide or dibro-
containing eelworms for up to 10 years. moethene) is injected into the soil. The injec-
Soil sterilisation tor allows the chemical to spread throughout
the soil and eelworms are killed by contact.
Soil sterilisation is the process of killing off all Gas Bromomethane (methylbromide) is a
the harmful organisms present in the soil. highly toxic gas used as a nematocide in the
However, it also kills beneficial organisms soil. It is supplied in a pressurised tin. Be-
such as earthworms. The sterilisation process cause it is very poisonous to humans, the seed
can be achieved by using heat or chemicals. bed is first covered by a polythene sheet
Soil sterilisation is the only effective way of (Figure 7.21). The tin of bromomethane is
controlling eelworms. It is a necessary prac- then punctured using a special applicator
tice with tobacco seed beds and can be used on under the sheet. As the gas escapes from the
vegetable seed beds. tin it penetrates the soil killing eelworms and
Heat Dry grass, dambo reeds and firewood all other soil organisms. The gas is prevented
are heaped on the seed bed and set on fire. The from escaping into the air by the polythene
heat produced by the fire penetrates the top sheet, which is covered with soil round the
112 O-Level Agriculture
edges. Bromomethane is a dangerous chemical Table 7.4
and must not be allowed to come into contact Some important fungal diseases
with the skin or be breathed in (Figure 7.22).
Crop Disease Symptoms

Bananas panama disease yellow leaves; purple

Bacterial disease stem tissue; red uced yield

Not many of the diseases which affect crops Beans bean rust red patches under leaves;
anthracnose black splits on stems and
are caused by bacteria (Chapter 8).
pods

Bacterial wilt Coffee coffee berry dark patches on berries

Tobacco, potatoes and groundnuts are affected disease
by strains of bacteria which can live in the soil
Cotton fusarium wilt yellow leaves, brown
and in the crop indefinitely. The foliage begins
patches on leaves and
to wilt even when it is not short of water. The stem
only effective control against bacterial wilt is
to use resistant varieties, that is plants Groundnuts leaf spot dark spots on leaves
which have been specially bred to resist the
Maize rust red or brown patches on
bacterial infection.
leaves

Bacterial blight Potatoes blight brown patches on leaves;

The leaves and bolls of cotton turn brown and rotting of tubers
curl up. Seed dressings based on copper and
Rice blast brown spots on leaves;
bromine are useful in controlling the disease.
seed head wilts
Cotton can only be grown during restricted
times of the year to avoid bacterial diseases. Sugarcane smut false, thin flower head
forms in place of normal
flower head

Fungal disease red patches on the leaves

Sunflower rust

Most of the diseases which affect crops are Tea A rmillaria root black growths attached
caused by fungi. Spores are easily carried by rot to the roots
the wind from one point to another, and they
Tobacco frog-eye pale spots on the leaf
are also able to survive for long periods before
brown spot brown spots on leaf and
causing a new infection. Some of the more im- stems
portant fungal diseases are shown in Table
7.4. Wheat stem rust dark swellings and
pa tches on stems and leaf
Control of fungal disease sheaths

Several methods are used to control fungal yellow rust yellow stripes along
disease, but the first consideration is to use re- leaves
sistant varieties of a crop if they are available.
Certified seed dressed with fungicide may
prove resistant to some fungal attacks.
The most common method of control is the ple. Many other compounds are available. For
application of fungicides. These are chemic- example,
als which are sprayed on to the crop in the TMTD - is used as a fungicidal seed dressing;
same way as insecticides. They have the effect karathane - is applied as a spray for the con-
of killing off the spreading fungi on the leaves trol of powdery mildew;
and stems. Most fungicides are based on cop- maneb - is used to protect leaves from fungal
per compounds, Bordeaux mixture, for exam- attack;
 Crop protection 113
Table 7.5 through the plant material. Control of these
Some important virus diseases can be achieved by fumigating the store with
a fungicidal smoke.
Crop Disease Vector Symptoms Weevils are one of the most serious insect
Bananas bunchy top
pests in grain stores and the use of smoke
banana aphid diseased flower
-eld Cassava mosaic whitefly twisting of leaves
generators of insecticide helps to kill them.
Citrus tristeza hlackfly stunted growth Ants and termites can also attack crops, parti-
.-,; Cotton leaf curl whitefly curling leaves cularly fruit. DDT or other insecticides around
ad Groundnut rosette aphids leaf patches the store can act as a deterrent.
Maize mosaic leafhopper leaf patches
streak
Sometimes it is necessary to protect a
leafhopper leaf patches
Rice stunt leafhopper leaf patches
stored crop from birds or monkeys. A secure
Sugar cane mosaic aphids yellow leaf patches store to prevent them from getting in is the
rattoon spread by reduced yield most effective control. Poison baits are some-
stunting cutting times used to control rats and mice, but care is
knives
Tobacco mosaic
needed to ensure the poison does not come into
spread by yellow leaf patches
handling
contact with the crop.
rosette aphids stunted growth and
small leaf
-. bushy top aphids distorted plant Precautions when using pesticides
growth

Chemicals used for pest control are highly tox-

benlate is used against many fungal dis-
s:
eases.
Viral disease
Viruses are responsible for some of the most
serious crop losses in the tropics. They are
usually transmitted by insect vectors, chiefly
aphids and leaf hoppers. They can also be
transmitted by workers or animals (Table 7.5).
Control of viral diseases
Since most viruses are carried by insects, con-
trol begins with the use of insecticides. Effec-
tive protection of crops can be given against
••
af
many diseases by spraying with malathion or
some other systemic insecticide so that the
sucking vectors are killed. This reduces the
spread of the disease. However, certified seed,
resistant varieties and clean cultivation prac-
tices are also important.
:or
Losses in storage
g:
n- Even when a crop is harvested, serious losses
can still occur whilst it is in store. If the store
;al is damp, or the crop is not dry enough when
harvested, fungal diseases can quickly spread
ic and can kill animals for which they are not
intended. Some pesticides can kill humans if
they get inside the body. Thus it is essential
that the utmost care is taken when handling
and applying pesticides.
1 Make sure you are using the correct che-
mical for the pest being controlled. The
local Department of Agriculture can
advise on this.
2 Read the instructions for use very careful-
ly.
3 Mix them in the correct proportions.
4 Keep all pesticides in a locked store.
5 Never use pesticide containers for any
other purpose.
6 Make sure you label any container or ap-
plicator with the name of the pesticide .
7 When spraying with motorised equipment
use a face mask and protective clothing.
8 Always wash your hands thoroughly after
using any pesticide.
9 Avoid using pesticides if you have a cut or
sore on the skin.
10 Never allow pesticides to come into contact
with drinking water supplies for humans
or livestock.
11 Allow the correct time lapse between
spraying a crop and harvesting it for con-
sumption.
12 Keep a record of all pesticide applications
114 O-Level Agriculture
showing the amount used, the field and
crop it was applied to and the date.
Other causes of damage to plants
Frost
When the air temperature drops to freezing
point or below, any water particles present
turn to ice. This can be seen on numerous
occasions during the cold season in many trop-
ical and sub-tropical areas. Frost usually
occurs when the air is dry, skies are clear and
there is no wind. There is often a very wide
temperature range between day and night
with the coldest temperatures being reached in
the hours just before dawn. The effect on some
crops can be dramatic. Whole plantations of
bananas can be destroyed by frost because
their high moisture content turns to ice which
damages the plant tissues. Citrus and cotton
are other crops which can be affected by frost.
However, many crops can survive a period of
mild frost, particularly after the ripening
stage.
Frost protection is possible by lighting fires
in the plantation nearby. This causes the air
to circulate, raising the temperature slightly.
Wind
Light winds are beneficial to crops because
they encourage transpiration. However, very
strong winds can flatten a crop or cause local
damage. Maize, wheat and other cereal crops
can be affected in this way, though it may still
be possible to harvest the crop even when it has
been blown down. Banana plants are also
likely to suffer from wind damage because they
do not have very strong stems or root systems.
It is common practice to support banana plants
with poles to prevent damage either by wind
or by the weight of the crop.
Hail
This is rain which has frozen high in the
atmosphere and falls as hailstones. These may
be up to one or two centimetres in diameter
and can cause serious damage to a crop by
bruising it, particularly the fruit.
Fire
Fire is obviously a serious hazard if it spreads
from the bush onto a growing crop. Where
there is a risk of fire it is a useful practice to
plough around the crop leaving a gap which
may help to control the fire.
Drought
Periods of drought during the growing season
may cause a crop to wither and die as a supply
of water is essential for growth. In areas where
drought is a common problem, irrigation may
be a possibility or choosing a crop which is
more able to withstand drought, e.g. sorghum.
Waterlogging
This condition of the soil occurs when all the
air spaces between the soil particles become
filled with water. Most plants suffer under
these conditions because a healthy soil should
be well aerated. However, if drainage is still
taking place and the waterlogging is due to
fresh supplies of water entering the soil, this
in turn helps to replenish the oxygen needed
by the roots. Plants which do not grow well in
waterlogged soils are cotton and coffee.
Capping of soils
Where the soil type is such that a hard crust
forms on the soil surface - capping - a crop
may have difficulty in getting established.
Water penetration is also hindered, reducing
the growth potential. A hard soil pan beneath
the surface may be too dry or resistant to
enable root penetration.
Mineral deficiencies
Any soils which are deficient in certain
elements will affect the growing crop. Stunted
growth or poor flower formation may result
from a mineral deficiency. This topic is covered
in Chapter 3.
Animals and birds
Bird scaring devices are sometimes used to pre-
vent excessive damage by birds. In many vil-
lages it is the job of small boys to keep a look
out for wild animals. Although fencing is no
defence against elephants, it may help to keep
stray cattle from invading the crop.
The effects of pesticides
Althought pesticides are widely used in crop

e protection, some drop damage can occur if the
:0 wrong type of chemical is used or the wrong
n level of application is mixed. This is most
likely to be poor development of the roots or
foliage but some pesticides are carried within
the plant for several weeks making the product
potentially harmful to man. A knowledge of
the correct use of pesticides is essential for any
farmer.
Questions
1 a List and explain the various ways in
which weeds can reduce yields in crops.
b Describe two ways in which a perennial
weed differs from an annual weed (do not
give names of weeds.)
2 a By what different means can weeds be
spread or dispersed?
b How can weeds be controlled in a crop?
c What precautions should a farmer take
when applying herbicides to a crop?
3 a What do you understand by
(i) complete metamorphosis,
(ii) incomplete metamorphosis, In In-
sects?
b In what ways can insects damage a grow-
ing crop? Give examples of three insect
Crop protection 115
pests and state the type of crop commonly
affected.
c What is meant by the term 'biological
control'? Give examples to illustrate your
answer.
4 a Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the
life history of a named insect pest which
damages crops directly.
b What is the usual method of controlling
the insect you have named?
5 a Describe fully, with the aid of diagrams,
the life-history of a named insect pest
which spreads disease throughout a crop.
b How can this insect be controlled in the
field?
6 a Give three ways in which insects can be
affected by insecticides.
b List the different methods of application
of insecticides and state the advantages
and disadvantages of each.
c What safety measures should a farmer
observe when handling insecticides?
7 a What is the agricultural importance of
eelworms in the soil?
b Describe a method which can be used to
control the spead of eelworms.
c What are the three main types of organ-
ism responsible for causing diseases in
crops?
8
Throughout the environment countless mi-
nute organisms are to be found. These organ-
isms fall into one of the following groups: fun-
gi, bacteria or viruses. All three types of
organism are of considerable importance in
agriculture. Many crop and livestock diseases
are caused by the action of micro-organisms,
but they can also be beneficial to the farmer
since they help to break down organic matter
in the soil and are used in the processing of
some crops, e.g. silage.
Many micro-organisms are parasites. They
live on a host animal or plant from which they
derive their food and shelter. All viruses are
parasitic, they can only live inside living cells.
Some micro-organisms are saprophytic. They
live on dead organic matter. The bacteria
which help to form humus in the soil are
saprophytes.
Fungi
Probably one of the most familiar kinds of fun-
gus is the white silky thread-like formation of
the mould fungus, Rhizopus, which grows on
decaying fruit. Mushrooms are another com-
mon type of fungus. Fungi are plants but they
are not green in colour as they lack the pig-
ment chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise
their own food.
Structure
Most fungi consist of long hollow strands
Micro-organisms
called hyphae, sometimes divided by walls,
forming cell units. The hyphae are bounded by
chitin walls. A lining of cytoplasm encloses a
vacuole wall. The cell nuclei are very small
and are distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
The strands of hyphae divide many times to
form a network over the material upon which
they are feeding. The network is called a
mycelium (Figure 8.n
Feeding
Fungi are unable to manufacture their own
food as green plants do. Instead they absorb
nutrients from the material they are growing
on. Minute feeding hyphae develop from the
main hyphae and produce enzymes at their
growing tips. These enzymes act upon the
material with which they are in contact and
allow the feeding hyphae to penetrate. This
enables the diffusion of nutrients from the
material into the hyphae. The enzymes break
down the food material externally and the
simpler substances produced are absorbed
directly into the cytoplasm. Food substances
are stored within the hyphae in the form of
sugars and oils (Figure 8.2).
Fungi may be parasitic - living and feeding
on the surface or inside living plant or animal
tissue where they may cause disease or weak-
ness, or saprophytic - feeding on dead or de-
caying organic matter.
Reproduction
Fungi reproduce both by asexual means and
 Micro-organisms 117
(a)

hyphae

section of hypha

vacuole
cytoplasm
wa
(b) .

""t,.~"""'"'
enter digest potato
hypha

mycelium made up Figure 8.2 Rhizopus spp. feeding on potato

of hyphae

sexually. The commonest method is asexual,

surface mycelium by means of spores. Long strands called spor-
angiophores grow from the main hyphae and
produce swellings at their tips, called sporan-
gia, each of which contains a large number of
tiny spores. When the sporangium is ripe it
bursts, setting free the spores. The spores are
light and easily spread in the air or in water
(Figure 8.3).
haustoria in host-cells
The life history of Rhizopus
The common mould fungus, Rhizopus, carries
(d)
out both asexual and sexual reproduction (Fig-
ure 8.4).
Asexual reproduction Long sporan-
giophores grow from the hyphae, away from
fruiting bodies inside
the material on which they are feeding. Soon,
swollen maize grains however, the sporangiophores bend over and
penetrate this material. More hyphae branch-
es are formed so that additional food can be
obtained. At the same time new upright hy-
phae develop, each with a swollen tip contain-
ing the cytoplasm and numerous nuclei. This
Figure 8.1 Structures of some fungi:
structure is the sporangium and inside it sepa-
(a) mushroom, (b) mucor spp. on bread,
(c) Erysiphe spp. powdery mildew of cereals rates into a large number of spores. Each
(d) Ustilago spp. on maize spore contains several nuclei, surrounded by
 -------~~
118 O-Level Agriculture
sporangium Sexual reproduction Two short hyphae
grow towards each other and touch. Their tips
swell up and become separated from the rest
developing
sporangium
of the hyphae by cross-walls. The nuclei with-
spores
in each tip undergo numerous divisions and
o spores then the two touching walls break down,
sporangiophore
allowing the contents to mix. Fusion of ga-
metes occurs when the nuclei pair up. The
structure formed is called a zygospore and
this develops a thick wall around it. Soon it
separates from the two connecting hyphae.
When the zygospore eventually germinates it
grows a new upright hypha which develops its
own spores. When mature the spores are scat-
tered.

The agricultural importance of fungi

Figure 8.3 A sexual reproduction of Mucor spp Many diseases of animals (Chapter 13) and
plants (Chapter 7) are caused by fungi. The
spores are resistant to damage and are spread
easily by wind, water or humans.
Fungi cause decay of stored products. Fruits
sporanqiophore ~ and grains are particularly susceptible to the
growth of moulds. Seeds can be attacked by
fungi while stored or after planting. Fungal
asexual cycle 0 infection can prevent germination or cause the
oJ/'g growth of damaged seedlings. Seeds can be

L,", ~J._
hYPhae~ spores
dressed with fungicide to prevent infection.
Fungi are also beneficial. They are used in
fermentation processes, e.g. yeast is used in
brewing and wine-making. Milk is processed
material and germinate ; G\
into cheese using fungi.
/0 0°0

1
dividing spores

nuclei \

sexual cycle free

zygospore
fused nuclei
=f!Jli=", ~m'
Figure 8.4 Life history of Rhizopus spp
protoplasm. When it is ripe, the sporangium
wall splits open, scattering the spores, some of
which may be carried considerable distances
by the wind. If a spore lands in a suitable
warm moist place it germinates forming the
hyphae of a new fungal structure. Spores can
remain dormant for years before germination.
Bacteria
Bacteria are extremely small single-celled
structures. They are called micro-organisms
because they can only be seen by using a
microscope. Although they are invisible to the
naked eye, it is known that they are present
all around us - in the air, in water, in soil, in
food and in the animal body.
Bacteria are always found in large numbers
and they can multiply quickly in the right
conditions. There are a great many different
species of bacteria, but there are three basic
shapes of bacterial cell (Figure 8.5). They are
generally classified as plants but their cell
walls do not contain cellulose.
 Micro-organisms 119

three basic shapes

rae anaerobic bacteria
ips o CJ C H 1206
6
e",ymes 2C2HsOH + 2C02 + energy
est glucose sugar ethanol carbon
spherical rod- spiral dioxide
shaped
th- aerobic bacteria
nd C6H1206 + 602 ~ 6Hp + 6C02 + energy
glucose oxygen water carbon
m, specific examples sugar dioxide
ga-
be
Figure 8.7 Anaerobic and aerobic respiration
.nd
. it
ae .
. it Figure 8.5
anthrax

Types of bacteria
nitrifying bacteria
cell division 0
00
Its
at- _ cell wall

~-

d ~
/ \ / \
..•e
d
cytoplasm food granules 0000
Figure 8.6 A bacterial cell /\ /\ /\ /\
00000000
~e Structure
/\ /\ /\/\ /\/\/\/\
Bacteria consist of single cells. There is no
spore
nucleus; the genetic material lies in the cyto- formation
plasm. Food materials consisting of protein, 1
____ ~
-------0-- spore has tough
and resistant coat
glycogen and fats are present in the cytoplasm j and can survive
20 min severe conditions
and cell wall (Figure 8.6). Some bacteria have 2 for a long time
long strands called flagellae attached to them 120 min
to assist with movement. 4
I
Feeding 8
j
Like fungi, bacteria exist either as sap- 16
rophytes or parasites. Saprophytic bacteria I 6 hours
feed on dead or decaying organic matter. The I
over 1000000
cell walls of the bacteria produce enzymes
which break down the material on which they II 24 hours
about
are living. The externally digested food is then 1000 000 000 000 000 000 000
absorbed into the cell. Parasitic bacteria feed
by digesting nutrients inside living plant or Figure B.B Multiplication of bacteria
animal cells which act as their hosts.
Some bacteria are aerobic - they require tions. The two halves then separate forming
oxygen for respiration, while others are two new independent organisms. Bacteria are
anaerobic - they break down food material able to increase their numbers very rapidly
without using oxygen (Figure 8.7). in this way, which is one reason why bacterial
diseases spread quickly (Figure 8.8).
Reproduction Bacteria have the ability to survive for long
Bacteria reproduce asexually by simple cell- periods by forming spores. A hard wall de-
division. The dense nuclear material divides velops around the bacterial cell protecting it
and a thin wall develops between the two por- from damage. In this state it can be carried by
120 O-Level Agriculture
the wind to another place. When conditions
are suitable the spore wall disintegrates and
the bacterial cell divides to form millions of
bacteria in a very short time.
The agricultural importance of bacteria
Bacteria can have both harmful and beneficial
effects in nature, and many bacteria have no
noticeable effect at all. They are an essential
requirement in the soil for the maintenance of
fertility. They are equally vital within the
digestive system of livestock. Parasitic bacte-
ria cause disease in crops and animals; they
enter from the air, from water or from food.
Bacteria in the soil
Bacteria, along with other micro-organisms,
are responsible for the breakdown of organic
matter in the soil. This is a fundamental and
essential process. Without this breakdown,
waste vegetation would accumulate and the
soil would lose its fertility. Bacteria are pres-
ent in very large numbers chiefly in the top
few centimetres of soil, and around the roots of
plants. They live on decaying vegetation by
externally digesting it with enzymes which
they secrete. Although they are microscopic,
they are present in such quantities that the
breakdown of organic matter in tropical soils
occurs quickly, especially in hot, moist condi-
tions.
The breakdown process turns the organic
matter into the form of soluble salts which can
be taken in by the roots of a growing plant. A
supply of rich organic matter or humus within
the soil helps to maintain soil fertility.
Cultivation helps to aerate the soil and en-
able better drainage of water. This improves
conditions for bacterial growth and stimulates
bacterial activity.
Some types of free-living anaerobic bacteria
are able to use nitrogen from the air present
in the soil to produce nitrogenous substances
which can be used by plants, e.g. Azotobacter.
This process is carried out independently of
plant roots.
Bacteria in legumes
The nodules on the roots of leguminous plants
or legumes contain the Rhizobium bacteria
(Figure 8.9). These have the ability to fix ni-
Figure 8.9 Root nodules of bean root
trogen from the air. Nitrogen fixation is one of
the most important natural processes in agri-
culture. The nitrogen is used by these bacteria
and converted by a series of chemical process-
es into nitrogenous substances which the
plant is then able to take up. The relationship
between the bacteria and the legume is sym-
biotic in that it benefits both. The bacteria
live on nutrients from the root but in turn re-
lease nitrates which the plant can absorb and
make use of.
Leguminous crops, such as groundnuts or
beans, obtain most of the nitrogen they re-
quire for growth from the nitrogen-fixing bac-
teria in their roots. They rarely require added
nitrogenous fertilisers. Leguminous crops
leave a residue of nitrogenous substances in
the soil which are of value to the next crop
being grown. For this reason they are usually
included in crop rotations.
Pasture for cattle and other grazing stock
can also be greatly improved by the addition
of legume plants to the grassland. Many spe-
cies of pasture legume are available, e.g. sil-
ver leaf, Desmodium, in a planted pasture of
star grass. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria in pas-
ture legumes provide a surplus of nitrogenous
substances in the soil. This is used by the
grass which is enriched and livestock grazing
the pasture benefit from it.
Bacteria in manure and compost
Natural animal manure and the concentrated
organic waste present in compost provide a
rich environment for bacteria. They multiply
quickly in this material and assist with its
 Micro-organisms 121
rapid decomposition into a form which is
readily assimilated by the soil. Further de-
composition by soil bacteria provides soluble
substances which can be used by plants.

Bacteria in ruminant digestion

Cattle, sheep and goats are ruminants. Their
digestive systems are specially adapted to
digest the large quantities of cellulose present
in grass and other vegetation which forms the
bulk of their diet (page 140). Digestive enzymes
alone are unable to break down cellulose.
Figure 8.10 Many bacteria are present in milk
Breakdown is achieved by the action of bacte-
ria mainly in the rumen. Large numbers of
times the milk is required in the sour state
bacteria live within the rumen where condi-
but if the market is for liquid milk it must be
tions are continually warm and moist. They
cooled by passing it over a cooler as soon as
produce enzymes of their own which act possible, to reduce bacterial action.
directly on the plant material while it is being
It is possible to determine whether there
stored in the rumen for several hours.
is a high or low concentration of bacteria in
As the breakdown process continues, the the milk by using chemical dyes such as
partly digested material is regurgitated by the
methylene blue and resazurin. When these
animal and chewed in the mouth. By this
dyes are added to a small quantity of the milk,
time, much of the cellulose has been broken
the bacteria respond by decolorising the mix-
down and the chemical process of digestion be-
ture. Fast decolorisation indicates a high con-
gins. One of the by-products of bacterial action
centration of bacteria, slow decolorisation
in the rumen is methane gas and this is
indicates a low bacterial concentration.
belched out through the animal's mouth.
Bacteria multiply best at an optimum
Bacteria are also present in the large intes-
temperature; too much heat can kill them.
tine where they act upon the waste products.
Milk can be heat-treated to kill any bacteria
present. Two chief methods are used.
Bacteria in milk
Pasteurisation The milk is heated to ex-
No matter how hygienically milk is produced, actly 71·7°Cfor 15 seconds. This is sufficient to
bacteria are always present. In most cases the kill the bacteria responsible for causing tuber-
bacteria are harmless and merely cause the culosis in humans without spoiling the taste of
milk to go sour but sometimes harmful bacte- the milk.
ria are present and these can cause animal Sterilisation The milk is boiled for a short
diseases as well as tuberculosis in humans. time. This is known to kill off practically all
For this reason a knowledge of milk bacteria the bacteria and enables the milk to be kept
and their control is important.
for longer. However, the taste of the milk is
Cows, like all livestock, act as carriers of altered.
bacteria and their milk contains many active
bacteria. In addition to this, bacteria may get Bacteria and crop diseases
into the milk from the bucket or the udder, or
Infection may be due to the use of uncertified
from the person milking (Figure 8.10). The
seed or from residual bacteria in the field.
bacteria produce enzymes and within a short
Spores of the harmful bacteria may remain
space of time these enzymes build up within
dormant in the soil for a long time before
the milk causing chemical reactions to take
affecting a crop. A disease may spread
place turning the milk sour. The process of
throughout a crop when spores of the bacteria
souring takes only a few hours under normal
are carried by the wind. Examples of bacte-
conditions but can be delayed for several days
rial diseases and methods of control are cov-
if the milk is kept cold in a refrigerator. Some- ered in Chapter 7.
122 O-Level Agriculture
Bacteria and animal diseases
Bacteria can be found throughout the animal's
body. They enter with the food, through a
wound on the skin or they can be breathed in.
Once the harmful parasitic bacteria find the
right conditions in the animal's body they be-
gin to multiply. They feed on the living tissue
and eventually the animal begins to show
symptoms of the disease.
Some bacteria produce toxins or poisons
which may be carried by the blood to all parts
ofthe body. Although the animal's body has a
defence system against invading bacteria in
the form of white blood cells, if a species is
particularly active the body may be unable to
combat the bacteria and the disease spreads.
Examples of bacterial diseases in cattle are
pneumonia of calves and contagious abortion
in cows. Animal diseases are dealt with more
fully in Chapter 13.
Bacteria used for the control of pests
Much interest in biological pest control has
arisen in recent years. This is the use of living
organisms to control pests of crops, rather
than the use of chemicals. Only bacterial spe-
cies which do not affect the crop being pro-
tected, humans or any livestock as a side-
effect, are used for biological control, for ex-
ample Bacillus thuringiensis. Quantities of the
specific bacteria are bred under controlled con-
ditions and allowed to produce spores. The
spores are then released into the field where
they parasitise insect pests. Specific bacteria
affect specific insects usually at the larval
stage and either kill them or cause them to
stop feeding on the crop.
Bacteria and silage
Bacteria play an important part in the break-
down of the plant material used in silage -
chiefly maize or grass. The plant cells are par-
tially digested by the bacteria which work
rapidly under favourable conditions of mois-
ture and temperature. Silage is an important
feedstuff on commercial cattle farms.
Viruses
Viruses are the smallest of the micro-
organisms. They can only be seen by means of
the electron microscope. They are made up of
complex nucleic acid substances enclosed by
a protein coat - in a combination called nu-
cleoprotein. There are a great many different
kinds of virus, each with its own specific com-
position.
They live entirely within the tissues of liv-
ing organisms. They take over the genetic
apparatus of the host cells in order to multi-
ply. Viruses reproduce rapidly within the tis-
sues by splitting of the nucleoprotein sub-
stance.
The agricultural importance of viruses lies
in the fact that they cause many serious dis-
eases of crops and animals. For a disease to
occur, the virus must be transmitted from one
host to another. This may be by direct contact
or through air, water, food or waste products.
Viruses are also carried by animal vectors
mainly insects and nematodes (Figure 8.11).
For example, streak virus disease in maize is
carried by the leaf hopper insect.
Examples of viral diseases of crops and
their control are given in Chapter 8 and those
of animals in Chapter 13.
Practical work
Cultures
The growth of bacterial and fungal colonies
can be observed by means of cultures. A cul-
ture provides the right conditions for bacteria
or fungi to grow without damage or exposure
to the air.
Method A mixture is prepared containing
agar jelly and nutrient substances upon which
the micro-organisms will feed. The proportions
of a suitable mixture are as follows:
1 litre of distilled water
15 grams of agar flakes
5 grams of peptone
3 grams of meat extract
2 grams of yeast
Bring the distilled water to the boil, add the
dry substances and stir. It is necessary to ster-
ilise the mixture to kill off any unwanted bac-
teria before preparing the culture. The ster-
ilisation is done by boiling the mixture in a
pressure cooker for 15 minutes at a pressure of
1000 Nlm2.
 Micro-organisms 123

up of air-borne
ad by
i DUo ~
erent dust
_- .... ,.,. ';"

com-

If liv-
metic
~ulti-
e tis- ~ ~tiCkS
sub-

s lies
s dis-
se to
[lone
ntact
lucts.
'Ctors
3.11).
tze is food
... plant residues
in soil
and
those Figure 8.11 Transmission ofuiruses

The most suitable apparatus for growing
cultures is a petri dish. All the petri dishes to
be used must be sterilised in the same way as
for the mixture. This kills off any bacteria pres-
ent on the glass.
nies
Pour the sterilised mixture into a group of
cul-
petri dishes and expose each dish to a different
-eria
source of micro-organisms, e.g. a few grains of
sure
soil, some tap water, a few drops of milk, some
boiled milk, a smear of animal manure, a few
.::.mg
drops of urine, a cough, some animal food
aich
(Figure 8.12).
:ons
As soon as the mixture has been exposed to
each source, it should be covered over with
another sterilised petri dish and sealed com-
pletely with sellotape. The mixture of jelly
soon solidifies so that the culture can grow
easily. They should all be left in a warm place
for a few days and the cultures observed as
;ne they grow.
ar- Control: cover one petri dish containing the
c- mixture at once without exposure to any
r- source of micro-organism. No culture growth
- a should occur.
- of Comparisons can be made between the cul-
tures for each source of bacteria or fungi. The
densest growth should occur on those exposed
to the richest source of bacteria, e.g. the ani-
mal faeces.
Observations of fungal growth
Rotting fruit provides a valuable source of
food for colonies of fungi. Collect some samples
of over-ripe fruit, e.g. banana, paw-paw, man-
go or citrus. Leave the samples in a warm
place for a few days, making sure they do not
dry out. Observe any fungal growth that
occurs. See if the fungi are of the same type by
noting their structure, colour and appearance.
Fermentation
Fermentation is the process in which sugars
are chemically decomposed into other sub-
stances, chiefly alcohol and carbon dioxide. The
decomposition is brought about by the pre-
sence of micro-organisms, especially fungi.
Enzymes are produced by the fungi and these
speed up the chemical reaction in which the
sugars break down. The process of fermenta-
tion is an essential part of brewing and wine-
making.
Obtain some yeast (a kind of fungi, used in
124 O-Level Agriculture

yeast feeds on
the sugar and
yeast cells begins to grow
by budding -
-yeast bubbles of
bud carbon dioxide
are produced

sugar solution water at 37°C

Figure 8.12 The culture plate on which Alexander Figure 8.13 Yeast grows by budding
Fleming observed penicillin inhibiting the growth of
bacteria.

baking and brewing) and add a small quantity
of it to a mixture of sugar and water. A simi-
lar experiment can be carried out using fruit
juice, sugar and water. Control: add the yeast
to water alone (Figure 8.13).
Observe any reaction which takes place. As
the yeast begins to grow by feeding on the
sugar it reproduces and increases the rate of
conversion to alcohol. The carbon dioxide
given off forms bubbles or a froth on top of the
liquid. In the control there should be no action
as the yeast has no source of food.
Questions
1 a Give a fully illustrated account of the
structure and life cycle of a named mould
fungus.
b How does the method of nutrition of this
fungus differ from that of a green plant?
c What environmental conditions are most
favourable for fungal growth? (C)
2 a Describe the structure and method of
feeding of bacteria. How do bacteria re-
produce?
b In what ways are soil bacteria of benefit
to the farmer?
c Give two ways in which bacteria can be
controlled in milk.
3 a What are the chief differences between
bacteria and viruses? What is the agri-
cultural importance of viruses?
b What is meant by fermentation? Describe
the part played by bacteria in the diges-
tive system ofthe ruminant.
c Of what benefit to the farmer are the bac-
teria found in the root nodules of legumi-
nous plants?
son
and
grow
Ig -
f
,xide
ced 9
Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is the skill or craft of caring Animals as wealth

for farm livestock. It requires attending to the
feeding, housing, breeding and health of the Cattle represent wealth in many societies. A
animals together with other aspects of their man may gain useful cash by selling one of his
management. A knowledge of the internal cows. Some subsistence farmers are able to
this structure (anatomy and physiology) of the ani- make a living by buying young stock, fattening
It? mal is valuable in achieving good husbandry. them up and selling them at a profit. At
nost national level ranches are valuable capital
C) assets because of the market or export value of
i of their cattle.
The importance of animals to man
re- Animals for work
Man has lived in association with animals for
iefit thousands of years. Gradually, he learned to In Africa oxen are the main work or draft
domesticate animals so that he could exercise animals. They greatly ease the burden of
: be control over their lives. Animals have been labour involved in ploughing and transporta-
kept for many different reasons: dogs for hunt- tion. Oxen usually work in pairs or teams and
ing, cattle for meat and milk, oxen for work, have to be trained. To get the best results they
sheep for wool, chickens for eggs, horses for should be well fed and cared for. Horses and
transport. Today, it is recognised that animals donkeys are also used for carrying loads in
be some areas.
can make a very substantial contribution to
;es- the food of a nation and livestock husbandry is
an essential practice .
.:Jac-
tzm- Animals for social purposes
Cattle are involved in numerous traditional
ceremonies in Africa. A man may have to
present a number of cattle to the father of his
bride; a man's social status in the village may
be judged by the number of cattle he has; cattle
may be slaughtered in large numbers as a
mark of respect when a chief dies. However,
this social value attached to cattle often acts
against the interests of progressive farmers
who would like to see cattle slaughtered on a
regular basis for meat. Figure 9.1 Ploughing with oxen
126 O-Level Agriculture
Animals assist with the dispersal of seeds, and
Animals and the ecological balance
birds are valuable in keeping insect populations
All animals, whether domesticated or wild, in check.
mammals or insects, birds or even man, have On farms, animals are often kept in balance
a part to play in maintaining an ecological bal- with crops. They may eat crop residues, or sur-
ance on the earth. Animals breathe oxygen plus grain and in return provide valuable
released by plants but in return breathe out animal products.
the carbon dioxide plants require for photosyn-
thesis. Animal remains help to enrich the soil. :/0'~,\,\, 1,1,("1
:;.__ ~
energy from /_/, ,"'-
oxygen produced by green plants
~
animals breathe 1
carbon dioxide in the air
<,
the sun /
II'
1'/'(1 \ \ '\ "-

II breathe out carbon dioxide

green plants use carbon dioxide
and energy to make chemicals

~:'); ~.

goat droppings
1~;~~ (y
cat eats rat
rat eats rice energy stored
in plant
fertilise grass

Figure 9.2 All living things are important in maintaining an ecological balance

Types of Livestock
Non-Ruminants Animals which do not have a pigs
specialised ruminant stomach. rabbits
Although they may eat grass horses
and material rich in cellulose, donkeys
this is digested by other
adaptations.

Figure 9.3 (a) Pigs (b) Rabbits

 Animal husbandry 127

.nd Ruminants Animals possessing the four- cattle

ms chambered ruminant stomach sheep
which enables the breakdown of goats
ace large quantities of grass and
ur- other plant material
ble

Ie

Figure 9.4 (a) Bull (b) Goats and sheep

Poultry Birds kept for their eggs or meat chickens

ducks
geese
turkeys

Figure 9.5 (a) Ducks (b) Geese (c) Turkeys

128 O-Level Agriculture
Fish Sometimes reared as livestock in
lakes or ponds
Figure 9.6 (a) Tilapia (b) Carp (c) Brown trout
Livestock Management
Housing
On many farms, livestock are not kept in build-
ings at any stage of their life or at any time of
the year. Cattle may be kept in a kraal at night
but housing is not generally necessary. How-
ever, dairy cows may require housing, cer-
tainly when they are being milked. It is also
good practice to have a covered area for calves.
Sheep and goats are seldom, if ever housed.
Pigs are foragers by nature though if they
are kept outside all the time they may not put
on weight as quickly as housed pigs. Also, feed-
ing and health become more difficult to man-
age and breeding may not be controlled. Pigs
need shade so a corrugated iron roof is often
used. Thatch is even better but it must be high
enough to prevent the pigs eating it. The walls
tilapia
carp
trout
of a pig pen must also be substantial or the pigs
will knock them down. Cement blocks are the
most useful materials. The floor of the pen
should be concrete to allow cleaning and
reduce disease risk.
Poultry traditionally roam 'free range'
round villages but to ensure steady egg pro-
duction they must be housed in well designed
houses, adequately ventilated and providing
protection from predators such as dogs and
jackals.
Examples of the design and construction of
farm buildings are given in Chapter 14,
together with details of the various materials
used.
Handling
The handling of livestock should be kept to a
minimum to reduce stress and to stop the

animals getting tired or excited. When cattle
have to be dipped or sprayed they should be
moved quietly to the collecting pen not
stampeded or chased. Large, heavy animals
should be contained within a crush pen so their
movement is restricted. They can then be vac-
cinated or treated as necessary.
Pigs should not be made to run as they may
die of shock. Poultry should be handled care-
fully with their wings contained so they do not
keep trying to flyaway.
Stockmanship
Stockmanship is the skill of looking after live-
stock. A good stockman knows his animals
well. He can tell whenever one is sick; he
knows when to expect calving or farrowing; he
knows which hens are good layers and which
are not. His job is to be with the stock and
observe them and their surroundings. He
makes sure they have enough food, water and
shade. He checks the fences are not broken. He
looks for signs of pests and he establishes a
bond of 'trust' with his stock.
The two most important aspects of livestock
management are feeding and breeding and
both these topics are dealt with in separate
chapters. Farm records are outlined later in
Chapter 17.
Livestock Products
Meat
Meat consists of the lean muscle together with
fat and tissues of the animal's body. Cattle,
pigs, sheep, goats, chickens and turkeys are all
kept for the meat they provide when slaugh-
tered. The farmer's aim should be to produce
a heavy animal in as short a space of time as
possible. The live weight of an animal is its
weight before it is slaughtered. The dressed
weight is the weight of the carcase, i.e. the
body framework with the intestines, lungs,
heart, head and feet removed. If the carcase
weight is divided by the liveweight the killing
out percentage can be worked out.
On the commercial market, meat with a
high proportion of fat obtains a lower price
than 'lean' meat. In rural areas the fat is often
preferred.
Meat is a rich protein food containing cer-
tain amino acids essential for healthy growth.
Animal husbandry 129
Milk
Milk is the natural food fed by mammals to
their young. It is thus a very valuable food
item containing protein, fats, calcium and cer-
tain vitamins. Under the right conditions, good
quality dairy cows can yield large amounts of
milk throughout their lactation. However, if
they are not fed high quality feed, the milk
yield decreases. Goats also produce a rich sup-
ply of milk.
Dairy Foods
Butter, cheese and cream are products
obtained from the dairy by processing some of
the milk not sold in the liquid form. Being
derived from milk they are rich in protein but
they also have a high energy or carbohydrate
content. In some areas sour milk is popular, as
is yoghurt which is a manufactured dairy
product.
Farmers concerned with dairy cattle must
have an efficient means of marketing their
milk as the quality deteriorates very quickly
due to the presence of bacteria.
Eggs
These are a rich source of protein and provide
an easy way of improving the diet even in rural
areas. Chickens reared under good manage-
ment can layover 250 eggs per year.
Wool
In many parts of the world, sheep are kept for
the wool obtained from their fleece or outer
coat. This is sheared off once a year and the
wool used for making cloth. Most of the sheep
reared in Africa are hair sheep and yield a
thinner hair fibre. The Merino is one of the
most important wool breeds and is reared in
parts of Southern Africa. Sheep shearing is a
highly skilled job and the shearer has to hold
the sheep down while still being able to remove
the fleece (Figure 9.7). The wool is packed into
large bales called woolpacks.
Hides
Hides are the skins of cattle and their chief use
is in making leather. Hides are thus an impor-
tant by-product from the slaughterhouse. A
good hide is one which has not been bruised or
cut or affected by pests and diseases. In treat-
130 O-Level Agriculture

Figure 9.7 Sheep being sheared

ing the hide it is first washed, and the fat is

scraped off. It is then trimmed ready for
preserving. Hides are preserved either by
stretching and leaving to dry on racks,
or by compressing with wet salt (Figure 9.8).

Skins
The skins obtained from slaughtered sheep
provide a softer material suitable for good
quality coats. They are preserved in the same
way as hides.

Bristles
The bristles of pigs are used in brush manu-
facture.

Other by-products
The internal organs of slaughtered animals
Figure 9.8 Cattle hides stretched out to dry
may be used by chemical companies and drug
manufacturers. The poorer quality meat goes
for processing into other meat products such as Mohair
paste. Blood from the slaughter house is used Mohair is the fibre obtained from the angora
as a fertiliser and bones are crushed into bone goat. It consists of long white strong fibres and
meal for enriching the soil with phosphates. is used for fabrics and garments.
Itt
The living animal

The body of every animal is made up of a large
number of parts each with a particular func-
tion. The parts cannot exist on their own but
when formed together with every other compo-
nent of the body they enable the animal's life
processes to work.
Cells are the most basic unit in the struc-
ture of the animal and groups of similar cells
being made as others die. The material for the
new cells comes from the food which the anim-
al eats. Oxygen is vital for respiration. The
blood transports the food material and oxygen
to all parts of the body. Metabolism is the
(a) (b)

join together to form tissues (Figures 10.1 and

10.2). Each body cell has a specialised shape
and size depending on the function of the tis-
sue of which it is part. For example, muscle
cells are long and can stretch because muscle
tissue must stretch when the animal moves.
Organs are made up of different kinds of
tissues. The kidneys are organs whose tissues
contain specialised cells and tubes for the (c)
production of urine.
Throughout the animal's life, new cells are (d)

villus

blood vessels
nerves
lacteals

e> diP

J';£mOI',"'"
•• ~ Q, -

~
' muscle
longitudinal
nerve cells

muscle

Figure 10.2 Examples of tissues from an animal's

body: (a) cheek cells (b) adipose tissue (c) small
Figure 10.1 Brown adipose tissue intestine (d) nerve cells in the brain
-- - ------------------------
132 O-Level Agriculture
ANIMAL KINGDOM

Vertebrates Invertebrates

fish amphibia reptiles birds mammals

<'''.:'-,
~.,'-,'.....
'..
.. ::...~,:~.
'1" ~..".,
.I'~\:-
~-
Titepie ~ i.·
frog goat
gecko bush fowl

Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Mollusca Echinodermata

Protozoa Coelenterata

trypanosome 'i;[\'
tapeworm earthworm
snail

jelly fish
Crustacea Diplopoda Chilopoda Arachnida Insecta

~'~~~'~ ~
~" .. , ~~~~e" millipede '\' ~
woodlouse bee
tick

Figure 10.3 The animal kingdom

sum of all the living processes which occur The skeleton

within the animal's body.
Figure 10.4 shows the skeletons of some verte-
The whole body of an animal consists of a
group of organs working together to allow the brate animals. Notice that they are different
animal to live. The term organism is applied shapes because the animals move about in
different ways. Each kind of animal has its
to a whole animal such as a mosquito.
The animal kingdom is classified as shown own particular design which helps it to live
in the simplified scheme of Figure 10,3. Agri- according to its needs.
culturally the following kinds of organism are
important. Teeth
Mammals These are animals which feed
their young on milk. Cattle, sheep, goats and Teeth are specialised structures in the mouth
pigs are all farm livestock. whose function is to break up the food before it
Birds These are feathered animals which is swallowed. The teeth are secured in the up-
lay eggs instead of producing live young. per and lower jaws and when the jaw is closed
Domestic poultry are kept for eggs and meat. it brings the two rows together, crushing the
Insects Smaller organisms which may food in between.
cause harm to crops or livestock, e.g. tsetse The number and arrangement of teeth vary
fly, or may be useful, e.g. bees for pollination from one type of animal to another. This de-
of flowers. pends on the kind of diet the animal has.
Worms Both flatworms and roundworms Herbivores or grass eaters have some teeth
can be harmful to livestock, but earthworms with sharp surfaces to bite off the grass and
are beneficial in the soil. some with flat surfaces for chewing.
 The living animal 133

(a)
neck thoracic lumbar sacral
vertebrae vertebrae vertebrae vertebrae (fused)
/

tail

humerus

'elbow

hock-
radius

metacarpal
or shinbone

~.

(b)
lumbar thoracic
vertebrae vertebrae
sacrum neck
vertebrae
tail

e-
t femur
scapula
fibula humerus
l.D tarsal radius
bone _________
carpal bones
metatarsal metacarpal
bones bones

Figure 10.4 Skeleton of (a) cow (b) pig (c) chicken

Carnivores or meat eaters such as dogs need

teeth for tearing and chewing meat. Animals
whose diet is mixed, e.g. pigs, are called omni-
vores and these have a range of different
kinds of teeth. Figure 10.5 shows the jaws of a
pIg.

The blood system

canine lower jaw
The blood supply is essential for carrying ox-
ygen and digested food to all parts of the body
and to remove waste products. The blood is Figure 10.5 Jaws ofapig
134 O-Level Agriculture
tial part of an animal's diet.
no~nucleu.s
. .
White cells These are larger than the red
.•... •. ~. cells but there are fewer of them. Their func-
tion is to attack any harmful bacteria which
red blood cells
get into the bloodstream. They produce anti-
bodies which fight disease in the body's
nucleus
defence system (page 00).
> ~

Platelets These tiny cells are formed in

white blood cells
Figure 10.6 (a) Red blood cells (b) White blood
cells
pumped round the body by the heart. The com-
position changes as the blood moves through
the different parts of the body.
Composition of the blood
The blood cells are shown in Figure 10.6
Red cells These are very small round cells
found in considerable numbers. They contain
the red pigment haemoglobin which gives the
blood its red colour. They are formed in the
bone marrow and the haemoglobin carries the
oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Haemoglobin contains iron which is an essen-
the bone marrow. They help to stop the loss of
blood when an animal is cut or injured. They
cause the blood to clot, or stick round the
wound, forming a scab.
Plasma This is the liquid part of the blood
in which the blood cells are carried. Plasma
contains numerous dissolved salts and food
nutrients.
Functions of the blood
The blood system is the body's transport net-
work and the main functions of the blood are
to carry substances from one part of the body
to another (Table 10.1).
Apart from all the substances carried by
the blood there are other important functions.

Table 10.1
Functions of the blood

Carried from Taken to Purpose

Substance
carried by the
blood

lungs all the body for respiration

oxygen

all body tissues lungs to be breathed out

carbon dioxide

small intestines body tissues for respiration

glucose

small intestines body tissues to build and replace

amino acids
cells

body tissues kidneys to make into urine

waste products

endocrine glands body tissues various purposes

hormones
relating to
development

carried all round to help fight against

antibodies
disease
 The living animal 135

Healing of wounds The blood platelets

red gather round a cut and produce an enzyme
unc- which changes the fibrinogen of the blood
hich into fibrin. This forms a barrier in which red
mti - cells become caught. Further loss of blood is
dy's prevented and infection cannot enter.
Control of infection If harmful bacteria
1 in have already entered a wound, the white cells
rs of engulf the bacteria and prevent their action
'hey (Figure 10.7).
the
hiteblood

lood
sma
food
@
Figure 10.7 A white blood cell engulfs the
.
cell digests
bacteria
Figure 10.9 Vaccinating a cow

the antibodies can remove the micro-organism

bacteria and digests them before it can cause the disease (Figure 10.9).
Control of body temperature The circula-
net- Control of disease When a virus enters tion of the blood distributes beat around tbe
are the bloodstream the blood's natural defence body. The body is kept at a constant tempera-
ody system attempts to combat its action. The ture partly by the dilation or constriction of
white cells produce antibodies which im- blood vessels. To lose heat an animal's blood
by mobilise the virus and prevent it from causing vessels near the surface will expand.
ns. disease (Figure 10.8). The white cells can also
Respiration
produce antitoxins to prevent the action of
bacterial toxins. Respiration is the process whereby energy is
An animal can be protected from a disease released when food substances are.oxidised by
by vaccination. The vaccine is made from oxygen (page 136). The process takes place con-
bacteria or viruses either dead or alive. Their tinuously in all the body tissues and- is essen-
presence in the bloodstream stimulates the tial for life to be maintained.
white cells to produce antibodies against the
specific micro-organism injected. The presence Excretion
of antibodies in the blood before infection
gives the animal some immunity or protection Excretion is the process in which waste or
from a disease. As soon as an infection occurs, harmful products are expelled from the body.
surface of bacterium The animal's body is able to control the
antibodies produced amount of liquid present. Thus when it is very
by white cell antibodies hot, liquid is excreted to help cool the body.
_ ~ ..fj '23 catch
bacteria When it is cold, the amount of liquid removed
~ ~ is reduced so that heat can be retained.
antibodies
released by The lungs act as excretory organs as they
white cell
into blood

@! remove the waste gas carbon dioxide produced

during respiration and water vapour.
In some animals the sweat glands of the
white
engulfscell
clumps of
bacteria
C 'E3
skin act as excretory organs and water can be
lost from the body in the form of sweat. This
process also serves to cool the body by provid-
caught by
antibodies /l} ing a moist surface on the skin. As the mois-
ture evaporates, the surface cools. Sweat also
Figure 10.8 Antibodies are produced by white
cells to catch bacteria; once they are immobilised the contains salts.
clumps are engulfed and digested by white cells. The sweat glands are coiled tubes situated

J
136 O-Level Agriculture
sweat gland FOOD
pore
hair
ingestion
food is taken in
and swallowed

digestion
breakdown of
defaecation
food by enzymes
undigestible food
passes out as
I solid waste
subcutaneous nerve blood vessels
fat
Figure 10.10 Section through the skin of a
mammal

beneath the surface of the skin. They receive

nutrients are used
fluid from the blood capillaries and pass it out in the cells for excretion
of the skin along ducts. The structure of the respiration, growth ~ waste products removed
and development ~ - by kidneys as urine
skin is shown in Figure 10.10. - by skin as sweat
The main organs of excretion are the two - by lungs as water
kidneys which remove waste nitrogenous com- and carbon dioxide
pounds, water and salts. In this way the kid-
neys help to control the concentration of salts
in the blood.

Animal nutrition

All animals need food to keep them alive and

to enable them to grow. Farm animals need
food to enable them to grow and to achieve a
greater output such as more milk, better meat
or more eggs. The study of food and the way in
which it is used by an animal is called
nutrition.
Unlike plants which are able to take in
simple solutions from the soil and to manufac-
ture their food in leaves, animals take in more
complex substances which then have to be
broken down. Once the breakdown process is
complete, the valuable nutrients from the food
are absorbed into the animal and used for its
growth and development. A summary of the
processes of food breakdown in an animal is
given in Figure 10.11.
What animals need from their food
Energy The food taken in by an animal
provides it with the energy needed to keep it
alive. The food enables the animal to keep a
steady temperature. All body processes such
as blood circulation or movement need energy
Figure 10.11 The processes which transform load
into energy
and this only comes from the food. In addition
to this, animals need energy to be productive.
Nutrients for the repair of body tissues
The cells and tissues of the body are con-
stantly being replaced as the old ones become
worn out. The nutrients needed for this main-
tenance process come from food.
Nutrients for growth and development
The food must also provide extra nu-
trients to enable the animal to increase in size
and weight. This involves an increase in the
production of new tissues in the animal's body.
Nutrients for production Animals are
kept in order to yield a product. Additional
nutrients are required to give good yields of
meat, milk and eggs.
Nutrients for breeding Successful rearing
of animals requires the production of healthy
offspring. The mother requires nutrients not
only for herself but for her developing young.
 The living animal 137

The composition of food food substances are carbohydrates, proteins,

fats and oils, and vitamins.
The basic constituents of food are shown 10 Carbohydrates Chemical compounds made
Figure 10.12. up entirely of carbon, hydrogen and oxy-
gen, they provide the chief source of energy
I
-. in the animal's diet. There are many different
food

/ carbohydrate compounds found both in the

animal's body and in the food but they can be
water dry matter divided into three groups:
/
organic matter
~
minerals
1 Monosaccharides - simple sugars (C6H1206)
formed during photosynthesis in plants, and
into which carbohydrate food material is
carbohydrate protein lipid vitamins broken down during digestion, e.g. glucose,
ribose, fructose.
Figure 10.12 The constituents offood 2 Disaccharides - complex sugars (C12H220U)
formed in plants, e.g. sucrose, maltose, lac-
The two primary constituents of all food tose.
oved
'Ie
are water and dry matter or solids. The dry 3 Polysaccharides - more complex substances
matter of the food includes all the nutrients built up from simpler sugars, e.g. starch
Ie
needed by the animal. The importance of each (C5HlO05)n; cellulose, lignin fibre found in
type of nutrient is outlined below. wood, glycogen (animal starch)
Water Proteins These complex chemical sub-
stances contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
No animal can live without water. About half nitrogen as well as smaller amounts of other
the total weight of a fully grown animal is elements, cheifly phosphorus and sulphur.
made up of water, so the intake of water is an Each protein is made up of numerous amino
essential part of the animal's diet. Food sub- acids strung together in chains. The amount
stances can only be used by the body when they of nitrogen present in nearly all proteins is
d are in solution and water provides the solvent approximately 16 per cent. Proteins make up
for these solutions. Water is also a vital con- about 20 per cent of the animal's body so pro-
stituent of the body cells by enabling them to tein foods form an important part of their diet.
ion retain their shape and thus give the body its It is from protein foods that new animal tissue
·c. form. All the chemical processes of metabol- is derived and from which muscle or meat is
ues ism take place in water. built up.
n- Without water, food would not be able to Fats and oils These chemical substances
:ne flow along the digestive tract. Water is also are found in plants and animals and act as an
ill- important for the maintenance of body tempe- energy source and a store for energy. Fats are
rature. Loss. of water from the skin cools the essential constituents of cell membranes. They
body and water circulating in the blood- are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
lU- stream helps to spread heat around. Animals break down fats and oils in their food
ae Dry matter into simpler fatty acids and glycerol which the
e body is able to use. Groundnuts and sunflow-
;~-. The dry matter is the solid material of the ers are plants rich in oil; the residue remain-
.re food. It can be divided into two parts: organic ing after removal of the oils is often used in
Jal matter and inorganic matter or minerals. animal feedstuffs.
of Vitamins These form an essential part of
Organic matter the diet of all animals but are required in only
This is comprised of carbon compounds. Orga- minute quantites. They are complex chemical
nic substances contain basic chemical ele- substances necessary to maintain the health
oot ments: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as well and condition of the animal. The importance
as nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Organic of vitamins in the diet is shown in Table 10.2.
138 O-Level Agriculture
Table 10.2 Table 10.3
Important vitamins The importance of elements in the diet of an
animal
Name of vitamin Function Source
Element Use
Vitamin A helps the animal found in green
to resist disease plants, fish liver Calcium essential for formation of bones and teeth and
oils and animal also important in the blood and in muscle
products Phosphorus essential for bone formation; helps to keep body
fluids constant and enables energy to be
Vitamin Bt' helps to keep the found in leaves released in the tissues
(thiamine) animal's body and weatings, also Magnesium a requirement for bones and teeth and in
processes working liver and kidneys maintaining the animal's metabolism
Iron an essential part of haemoglobin in the red
Vitamin B2' is used by the found in legumes blood cells
(riboflavin) animal to promote and cereals Sodium found in blood plasma and helps with
its growth movement of the muscles; sodium is lost from
the animal's body through urine and sweat
Vitamin C animals make found in fresh Chlorine needed for blood cells and blood plasma and to
their own vitamin fruit and green make the acid in the stomach; important for
C which keeps leaves excretion in the kidneys
their skin in good Potassium needed for blood cells, muscle and other body
condition tissue
Copper needed to enable the animal's body to make full
Vitamin D helps the animal found in dry grass use of the iron, essential for the blood cells
to make full use of and in cod liver Cobalt helps to keep the animal in condition by
calcium salts for oil maintaining its metabolism
bone formation; Iodine essential for the thyroid gland in the neck; it
necessary for milk helps to ensure the animal grows normally
formation in cows; Sulphur needed to make amino acids for protein
animals can make formation in the tissues
their own vitamin Manganese needed to maintain normal growth and to
D in sunlight ensure sexual development
Zinc needed for skin and hair formation and also
Vitamin E is needed to found in wheat found in blood, bones and muscle
maintain the germ Molybdenum needed for enzyme formation
fertility of the Fluorine helps in the formation of bones and teeth
animal

• There are about ten B vitamins altogether

Inorganic matter which energy is released in the animal's body

This consists of the minerals found in small
quantities in most foods. Animals receive
minerals from plant and animal foods and in
the form of mineral licks and supplements.
Each element has a particular part to play in
the growth and development of the animal.
Table 10.3 shows the importance of each of
these elements.
How animals use their food
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates in the animal's food provide
the chief source of energy. The process in
is called tissue respiration. The carbohy-
drates are broken down into simple sugars
(mainly glucose), by the animal's digestive
system. These sugars pass into the bloodsteam
by absorption through the intestinal walls and
are carried to all parts ofthe body.
At the same time, oxygen which has been
breathed in reaches the bloodstream through
the alveoli in the lungs. The oxygen is carried
to all parts of the body by the haemoglobin of
the blood.
The process of tissue respiration takes place
in the mitochondria of all cells of the body
when the sugars are oxidised by the oxygen in
the presence of enzymes to form carbon

dioxide and water. The process is shown by the
equation:
C6H1206 + 602 ~ 6C02 + Protein feeds which can be given as supple-
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide
(from food) (breathed in) (breathed out)
6H20 + energy
illdy water (excreted)
The energy is released in the cells where it
is used for all the metabolic processes.
When an animal is very active, or if it is
cold, it uses up energy quickly. Glucose can be
stored in the body in the form of glycogen in
the liver. This represents an energy store.
When extra energy is needed, the glycogen is
converted back to glucose and is available for
respiration.
Farmers pen animals to care for them con-
veniently and to reduce their movement. This
stops them wasting the energy obtained from
their food and improves productivity.
When cattle have to walk long distances for
water or grazing, this is wasteful of their
body energy.
Note: the process of photosynthesis in green
plants is the reverse of the process of re-
spiration. The plant takes in carbon
dioxide from the air and water through
its roots in order to make its own sugars
and other carbohydrate foods. The
source of energy for this process is sun-
light. Photosynthesis provides the mate-
rial for respiration of animals. All car-
bohydrates and, therefore, proteins and
fats, derive from photosynthesis in
plants. Animals eat plants or other
animals that have eaten plants.
Proteins
Proteins form a major part of the animal's
cells. New cells are formed continually as tis-
sues and organs grow and are repaired. Ani-
mals can make proteins from amino acids (page
137) but they cannot make amino acids. Protein
from plants or animals must be included in
the animal's diet. When protein material is
eaten by the animal, the protein molecules are
broken down in the digestive system to amino
acids. These are absorbed into the blood-
stream through the intestinal walls. The blood
The living animal 139
carries amino acids to the cells where proteins
are made. Many chemical processes are necess-
ary to build proteins from amino acids.
ments include grain and groundnut meals,
fish meal and skimmed-milk powder.
Lipids
Fats and oils or lipids, are found in all cells
where they form an important part of the
membranes. Fats and oils are sometimes
stored in seeds, e.g. groundnut, sunflower, or
fruits, e.g. avocado, olive, and by animals
around the organs and under the skin. Lipids
are used by the animal as a reserve supply of
energy. They make a vital contribution to the
process of respiration because of their involve-
ment in the mitochondrial membranes.
Lipids are emulsified, or made into a form
which will mix with water, by the bile salts
secreted by the gall bladder.
About one-third of the emulsified lipid in
the intestine is broken down to fatty acids and
glycerol (page 137). These molecules are
absorbed through the villi of the intestinal
wall. The remaining two-thirds is absorbed by
lacteals in the intestinal wall into the lym-
phatic system (Figure 10.13). They enter the
bloodstream when the lymph pours into the
jugular vein in the neck. The lipids are carried
by the blood to the adipose or fatty tissue
where they are stored. When an animal is
blood
~~~capillaries
a4'i1lH---lacteal
- epithelium
Figure 10.13 A section through a villus to show
the lacteal
140 O-Level Agriculture
underfed the lipids move from the fatty cells
to the liver where they are converted to
glucose which is used for respiration.
The process of digestion
The chemical breakdown of food in the ani-
mal's body is known as digestion. The process
takes place in the alimentary canal which con-
sists of the whole length of tubes and intes-
tines through which the food passes between
the mouth and the anus.
The purpose of digestion is to turn the food
into a form which the animal can use for its
growth and development. Just as the natural
food eaten by cattle, pigs and poultry differs,
so the digestive systems of these animals
vanes.
Digestive systems
Ruminants
Cattle, sheep and goats are known as rumi-
nant animals because they possess a ruminant
stomach (Figure 10.14). The ruminant stomach
is specialised to help to break down the
cellulose in the cell walls of the plant material
which forms a large part of the diet. The smal-
ler stomachs of humans, pigs and chickens are
unable to break down cellulose.
When the cow eats grass it does not chew it
very much at first but swallows it together
with some saliva down the oesophagus and
into the first stomach or rumen. Here the food
is churned about and soaked in digestive
juices. Millions of bacteria (the rumen-flora)
Iive inside the rumen and these start to act on
anus
I rectum caecum
food is
regurgitated -
the cow chews
the cud and
swallows it again
small intestine
Figure 10.14 The digestive system of the cow
the plant material. The food stays in the sto-
mach for up to 3 days and during this time it
is passed between the rumen and the second
stomach or reticulum. This constant churning
helps to soften the food material. The reticu-
lum is where objects such as wire or nails be-
come lodged if they are unfortunately eaten by
the cow.
After a time, when the cow is resting, small
amounts of the partly digested food are
brought back or regurgitated to the mouth
where they are chewed thoroughly by the cow's
strong molar teeth. Chewing the cud breaks
down the food and ensures close mixing with
the bacteria and enzymes in the rumen juices.
When the food is swallowed for the second
time it passes straight into the third stomach
or omasum as the entrance to the rumen is
closed off. The omasum is made of a number of
layers or folds through which the food is
strained. The juice containing the broken
down food material then goes into the fourth
stomach or abomasum. This is the true sto-
mach where the normal process of digestion
begins. During rumination, gas, mostly
methane, builds up in the rumen and this is
belched out through the mouth. At the same
time, non-protein nitrogen in the food is used
to make proteins by micro-organisms present
in the rumen.
Pig
The pig is a non-ruminant animal and has a
simple digestive system (Figure 10.15). Pigs are
classified as omnivores because they have a
varied diet. Pigs usually eat their food quickly
and swallow it into the stomach together with
pancreas
large
liver
duodenum
Figure 10.15 The digestive system of the pig

to- some saliva, without chewing it very much.
:it Inside the stomach the food is made acidic
nd
by secretions of hydrochloric acid from gastric
ng glands in the stomach walls. Enzymes are sec-
eu- reted on to the food and these begin the diges-
)e- tive process (page 142). The mixture inside the
by stomach is called chyme and it is churned
about by the strong muscular walls. The mix-
all ture is prevented from leaving the stomach
lre until it is ready, ~ a sphincter muscle be-
lth tween the stomach and the duodenum. This
v's circular band of muscle is relaxed at intervals
\ks
when the food is sufficiently digested in the
th stomach.
s. After a few hours the mixture passes into
nd the duodenum which leads to the small intes-
ch tines. Bile, secreted by the gall bladder is
1S alkaline and neutralises the acidic mixture.
of Bile is a watery green substance containing
1S alkaline salts produced in the liver and stored
en in the gall bladder. It reaches the duodenum
lh along the bile duct. Pancreatic juice contain-
ing more enzymes is also secreted on to the
m food as it passes along the duodenum. These
enzymes break down the food into simpler
substances.
Finally, the digestive process is completed by
the secretion of further enzymes in the small
intestine or ileum. By the time the food
reaches the lower portion of the small intes-
tine it has been converted into soluble sub-
stances ready for absorption. Any food mal-e-
a rial not broken down passes to the large intes-
tine where excess water is absorbed. The solid
waste products are passed out of the anus as
the faeces.
Chicken
The digestive system in birds differs from that
of mammals (Figure 10.16). Chickens do not
have teeth and the beak serves only to pick the
food up. When the food is swallowed it is first
stored in a pouch called the crop, just above
the breast. Small amounts of food are forced
from the crop into a long muscular organ, the
proventriculus, which acts as a kind of sto-
mach where enzymes begin to act. When the
food leaves the proventriculus it passes into
the gizzard. This large, round, solid organ con-
tains pieces of grit which grind the food mate-
The living animal 141
oesophagus
crop
liver
proventriculus
duodenum
Figure 10.16 The digestive system of a chicken
rial into smaller particles, carrying out a simi-
lar function to the teeth of other animals.
From the gizzard, the food goes into the
duodenum where bile and pancreatic juice are
secreted. Breakdown by enzymes continues in
the small intestine and the soluble substances
produced are absorbed into the bloodstream.
Waste products in the chicken collect in the
caeca and pass out through the vent.
Digestive enzymes
Enzymes are proteins which act as catalysts for
all the chemical processes which make up the
animal's metabolism. Every living cell con-
tains hundreds of enzymes and their chief job
is to speed up the chemical reactions in the
tissues so that the living processes can take
place.
Digestive enzymes are secreted from glands
situated along the digestive tract. Their job is
to speed up the rate at which the food is
broken down into simpler substances. Each
enzyme is specific to one type of food. Figure
10.17 shows the main digestive enzymes,
where they act and the substances produced
by the breakdown of food.
The liver
The liver is the largest gland in the animal's
body and although it is not part of the diges-
tive system it has a number of functions
related to digestion.
142 O-Level Agriculture
blood to the liver where they are converted
to harmless products which can be excreted
mouth: neutral to slightly alkaline from the body.
I ptyalin from salivary glands )
amylase: starch --+ maltose
I
stomach: acidic

I gastric juices from stomach wall I

hydrochloric acid: i destroys ptyalin
ii complex sugars --+ simple sugars
pepsin: proteins --+ peptides
rennin: curdles milk (in young animals)

duodenum: neutral
I pancreatic juice from pancreas I
amylase: starch --+ maltose
lipase: lipids --+ fatty acids and glycerol
trypsin: proteins --+ peptides Figure 10.18 The villi of the small intestine seen
under the microscope
ileum: neutral to slightly alkaline Absorption
I intestinal juice from ileum wall I Once the food has been digested it is in a form

I
sucrase: sucrose
maltase: maltose
lactase: lactose
peptidase: peptides ~
Figure 10.17 The digestive enzymes
1 It acts as a store for energy. Glucose is con-
verted to the insoluble substance glycogen
which is stored in the liver and released for
conversion back to glucose when needed.
Some fat is stored in liver cells where it is
available for conversion to glucose when
required.
2 Bile is produced in the liver and stored in
the gall bladder. It is released along the bile
duct into the duodenum where it neutral-
ises the acidic contents leaving the stomach
and emulsifies lipids.
3 It acts as a storage for blood cells and iron.
4 When the animal is suffering from mal-
nutrition the liver converts proteins and
fats into carbohydrates for energy.
5 Vitamins A and D are stored in the liver.
6 The liver has an antitoxin effect on some
poisonous substances present in the food or
produced in the intestines by the break-
down of food. These substances travel in the
simple sugars which can be used by the animal's body. The
chief products of digestion are glucose and
amino acids amino acids and these are absorbed into the
blood.
Small intestine
The soluble products of digestion are able to
pass through the very thin walls of the small
intestine. The wall of the small intestine has a
large number of small projections called villi
(Figure 10.18). These greatly increase the sur-
face area through which diffusion can take
place. Inside each villus blood is supplied by
numerous capillaries. The soluble nutrients
from the food pass through the walls of the
villi into the capillaries which carry the nu-
trients into the main circulatory system for
transport to all parts of the body (Figure
10.13).
The large intestine
The mixture passes from the small intestine
into the caecum which is the first part of the
large intestine. Bacteria present here continue
to act on the mixture. From the caecum the
food passes into the colon which has a closed
tube at the end called the appendix. Further
action by bacteria may occur here. All along
the large intestine water re-absorption takes

•.
d
place. This process is prevented in the condi-
tion of diarrhoea and animals easily become
dehydrated when suffering from diarrhoea.
Finally the waste products collect in the
rectum and these are released at intervals
through the anus as the animal's faeces.
Feeding livestock
Utilisation of food
The animal's requirements
All animals require a regular supply of food
each day in order to grow and develop normal-
ly. The amount of food they require depends
on the age and size or weight of the animal.
Obviously larger animals will eat more food
than smaller animals. But the amount of food
needed also depends on the quality and type of
food given. For example, in the rainy season
when the grass is fresh, green and rich in nut-
rients cattle may obtain all they need in a
n short time of grazing. But in the dry season
e when the grass is dry, coarse and low in nut-
a rients, cattle may spend all day grazing and
still require supplementary feeds.
Different animals have different nutritional
needs. All animals are individuals and some-
times animals of the same age have different
food requirements.
An animal's appetite - the amount of food
which an animal will eat if it is not restrict-
ed - must be taken into consideration. It can be
measured by weighing a larger quantity of
food than needed, then weighing the food left
over. This is subtracted from the first total to
give the amount of food which satisfies the
animal's appetite (Figure 10.19).
Sometimes animals are fed ad lib. This
means the food is always available and is not
restricted. However, if an animal eats more
than it really needs for growth, this method of
feeding may be inefficient or wasteful. A farm-
er may then decide to feed three-quarters of
the appetite or 80 per cent of the appetite.
Malnutrition
If an animal is not given enough food or is
given incorrect kinds of food it can suffer from
malnutrition in the same way humans can.
Herds of cattle often lose weight during the
The living animal 143
Figure 10.19 Weighing a ration for pigs
dry season because there is not sufficient nu-
tritional value in the grass, or the grass may
be burned. If alternative food is not given to
the cattle they begin to suffer from malnutri-
tion. In times of drought cattle may die.
Livestock which are not properly fed be-
come weak and lose condition. They stop gain-
ing weight and their production or output goes
down. A shortage of carbohydrate in the food
reduces the energy of the animal while a short-
age of protein reduces growth, reproduction
or milk yield. Lack of protein can also reduce
the animal's appetite and slow down its meta-
bolism. Any reserves of fat in the body tissues
soon become used up. A shortage of minerals
or vitamins in the diet can also have a harm-
ful effect on the animal and cause poor
development.
Animals suffering from malnutrition are
uneconomic and become less resistant to
diseases.
Food values
Food values of feedstuffs vary. The farmer's
aim is maximum productivity with the least
expenditure and with the least wastage of
food. This aim can be expressed as efficiency.
The food conversion ratio (fer) is a mea-
sure of the ability of livestock to convert their
food into growth or production.
Example A A young pig eats 15 kg of food
in one week. During this time it increases in
weight by 5 kg. Thus its food conversion ratio
is: 15:5 or 3:1.
144 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 10.20 Mixing a ration for pigs
Example B A broiler chicken eats a total
of 6 kg offood during its 10-week life. When it
is killed it weighs 2 kg. Its food conversion
ratio is, therefore, 6:2 or 3:1.
The lower the food conversion ratio, the
more efficient the animal is at utilising its
food.
Characteristics of feedstuffs
Digestibility The degree to which the
animal is able to digest the food given to it.
Pigs cannot digest too much grass or fibre so
their food should not contain much of this
material.
Palatability The acceptability of the food
to the animal by taste or smell. Some feeds
contain ingredients which the animals do not
like.
Rations for livestock
A ration is a measured amount of food given to
an animal. As we have seen, the food must
provide the animal with nutrients for normal
growth and development and for production. A
balanced ration contains a carefully mea-
sured mixture of all the feed requirements of
the animal which will enable it to give valu-
able production.
Feeding for maintenance The food needed
to maintain the animal in good health and to
keep all its body processes, such as heartbeat,
respiration, digestion and energy production,
functioning properly.
Feeding for production The extra food
needed to enable the animal to achieve some
additional output or performance. There are
Figure 10.21 Hens feeding in battery system
several kinds of production for which an ani-
mal may need to be fed extra rations. Exam-
ples are given below.
1 Cattle - calves for an increase in weight;
beef cattle for an increase in weight; dairy
cattle for milk production and development
of unborn calves; bulls for breeding ability;
oxen for performing work.
2 Pigs - young pigs for an increase in weight
to become bacon or pork; sows for develop-
ment of unborn piglets; boars for breeding
ability (Figure 10.20),
3 Poultry - for egg production; for meat pro-
duction (Figure 10.21).
4 Sheep - for meat production; for the de-
velopment of a good fleece of wool.
5 Goats - for meat production; for milk pro-
duction.
Animal feedstuffs
A farmer must always consider the cost of
feedstuffs for livestock. During the rainy sea-
son fresh green grass provides all the nu-
trients needed to keep cattle productive.
However, in the dry season the farmer may
need to buy in commercial feeding stuffs. If
the available grass is not supplemented, the
stock may lose weight or stop production of
milk. The feedstuff provided must give the
correct balance of nutrients. Some of the
constituents of animal feed are:
1 protein - groundnut cake meal; fish meal,
meat and bone meal; blood meal; urea; soya
bean meal; cotton seed cake;
 The living animal 145
How the values are expressed
Energy It is more important to know the
meal or mash - cakes - energy value of a food than just the amount of
finely ground blocks carbohydrate or starch present. If the energy
value of all the ingredients are added to-
gether, this gives the gross energy value of
the feedstuff. This is expressed in megajoules

pellets -
\~I
nuts -
per kilogram (MJ/kg). The energy values of
the main food constituents are:
small cylindrical pieces
larger cylindrical pieces carbohydrate 17·5 MJlkg
protein 24·0 MJ/kg
fat 38·0 MJlkg
Not all the food eaten by the animal is con-
\~
cubes -
verted to energy or used up in other ways.
Some of it is passed out of the body as waste
mi- licks -
products. The figures most used when as-
chunks minerals in a block
un-
sessing a feed for its energy value are the
Figure 10.22 Different kinds of feedstuff digestible energy value (DE) and the meta-
rht; bolisable energy value (ME). These are ex-
lry pressed in kilojoules per gram (KJ/g).
2 carbohydrate - wheat meal; maize meal;
ent
sorghum; millet; cassava; molasses.
.ty; Protein
A commercial feeding stuff may contain up
to twenty different ingredients mixed together To express how much protein is present in the
~ht feedstuff the crude protein (CP) value is
in the correct proportions for the type of ani-
op-
mal concerned. Small quantities of salts and used. All protein substances contain approx-
Ing
other supplements are added to the feedstuff imately 16 per cent of the essential element
to provide minerals and vitamins. nitrogen. If the amount of nitrogen in the feed-
1'0-
ing stuff is determined and then multiplied by
Forms of feedstuff
:le- ~~o(or 6·25) this gives the crude protein value
Animal feeds can be manufactured in different
forms. A form suitable for cattle may not be of the feed. Again, not all the protein of the
ro- feed is used by the animal, so the value called
suitable for poultry. (Figure 10.22).
digestible crude protein (DCP) is used to
express the amount of protein available to the
Nutritional value of feedstuffs animal. For example, the figures for fish meal,
used in pig and poultry rations,are: CP, 61
of per cent,; DCP, 55 per cent.
Just as the values of human food can be mea-
!a-
u-: sured, so it is possible to find out the nutri-
tional value of each constituent of a livestock Oil
reo
feed and the value of the complete feed.
ay This is expressed as a percentage of oil in the
The information needed by the farmer is feedstuff after analysis.
If
1 How much protein is present?
he
2 How much carbohydrate is present? Fibre
of
3 How -much oil is present?
Je This is known as the crude fibre content of
4 How much fibre is present?
Je the feed and is expressed as a percentage.
5 How much of the feed can be utilised as
energy? When an animal feedstuff is analysed in
ll, the laboratory its content can be expressed in
To obtain this information, scientists are
fa the form of percentages of the basic materials
able to carry out a series of tests in the labora- present. These basic materials are:
tory on each food.
1 moisture - the amount of water present;
146 O-Level Agriculture
2 ash _ the mineral content left when the feed
has been burnt;
3 soluble carbohydrates - the sugars present;
4 crude protein - the protein in the feed;
5 crude fibre - the mainly indigestible fibre
content;
6 oil- the amount of oil present.
Thus when a feedstuff is sold, it should
have a label showing the percentage of each of
these basic items.
Questions
1 a Name the essential food materials re-
quired by animals. Give an account of the
part each one plays in maintaining body
processes.
b How would you recognise a deficiency of
protein in a farm animal?
c What are the sources of protein avail-
able to the farmer with which to feed his
animals?
d Under what circumstances would you use
the sources mentioned in (c) above? (C)
2 a Name, in order, the four compartments of
a ruminant stomach and briefly describe
the functions of the first compartment.
b How do (i) saliva, (ii) the pancreas and
(iii) the liver help in the digestion of the
food of such an animal?
c Explain how the end products of digestion
are made available for use by the tissues
of the animal body. (C)
3 a Proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and
minerals are all essential constituents of
animal diets. Briefly explain why each of
them is required.
b Describe the effects of a shortage of one
named vitamin in the diet of a farm
animal and name one source of this vita-
min in the animal's food supply.
c Describe the effects of a shortage of one
named mineral in the diet of a farm
animal and name one source of this
mineral in the animal's food supply. (C)
4 a What are the chief differences between
the digestive systems of ruminants and
non-ruminants?
b Describe, with the aid of a labelled dia-
gram, how food substances are absorbed
into the blood stream.
c What is the main role of the large intes-
tine?
5 a Explain what is meant by an enzyme.
Give three examples of enzymes and state
the part played by each, in the digestive
process.
b What are the principal functions of the
liver with regard to the digestive process?
c How does digestion in a chicken differ
from that in a mammal?
6 a What do you understand by a balanced
ration for livestock?
b Explain, by means of two separate exam-
ples, how a farmer can determine the food
conversion ratio of his animals.
c In what ways are (D the energy value and
(ii) the protein value of a feeding stuff
expressed?
 of
of

me
rm
ta-

me
rm 11
his
C)
len Grassland
nd
management
ia-
ed
Large areas of the tropics are covered by natu- considerable value in agriculture and in na-
es-
ral grassland or savanna. Some is grazing ture. In natural vegetation, a grass cover
land for cattle or goats, and some is grazed by helps to reduce soil erosion and to retain a bal-
'leo
game animals. Grasses are by far the most ance of nutrients in the soil. In agriculture.
rte
widespread plants in the world and they have grass is an important food for livestock.
ve

he
?
rer

ed

od

Figure 11.1 Pasture land in the rainy season

148 O-Level Agriculture
Management
For good levels of production, careful grass-
land management is necessary.
Problems
1 The uneven distribution of rainfall during
the year, into wet and dry seasons has a
strong effect on the growth of grass. The
grass grows profusely during the rainy sea-
son and it is of a high nutritional value, but
during the dry season the amount and nut-
ritional value of grass falls (Figure 11.1 and
11.2).
2 Once the rains cease, the grass dries quick- Figure 11.2 During the dry season cattle may
ly and its nutritional value gradually de- become malnourished
creases.
3 In many areas, grazing by livestock is not 4 Tropical soils dry out quickly in the hot con-
controlled so grassland may be overgrazed, ditions and as the grass matures its fibre
or undergrazed. Overgrazing injures grow- content increases, reducing its nutritional
ing plants and exposes the soil surface. quality.

Figure 11.3 Cattle grazing in a fenced paddock

,'.

5 Although the types of grass used in tropical
pasture grow quickly under the right condi-
tions, they do not remain at peak quality for
long, compared with temperate grasses,
because of variations in rainfall.
Aims
1 To maintain high production of good-quality
grass for as long as possible during the
year.
2 To use the grass available in the most
efficient way. This involves keeping the
optimum number of animals on the grass
for the correct length of time and resting
the grass so it can renew its reserve of
nutrients.
3 To achieve high productivity from the live-
stock being kept on the grassland. This is
measured in liveweight gain (kg) per hec-
tare, or for cows, in milk yield (litres) and
quality.
Methods of grazing
Continuous grazing
In this method the animals are allowed to
graze a piece of land for long periods of time.
It can be inefficient unless the stocking rate is
controlled, because the land is undergrazed
during the rainy season and overgrazed in the
dry season. Also, it encourages the build up of
disease organisms such as flatworms and ticks
because there is no resting period to break
their life cycle.
Carrying capacity
The term carrying capacity refers to the maxi-
mum number of cattle a particular area of
land is able to support or carry, without caus-
ing overgrazing. It is usually expressed as the
number of hectares per head of cattle.
Paddock grazing
Paddocks are areas of fenced land used for cat-
tle. In this system the cattle start grazing in
one paddock then move on to another leaving
the previous one to rest and recover (Figure 11.3).
Rotational grazing
In this method successive areas of land are
intensively grazed by cattle making sure ,all
the grass is removed. When grazing is com-
Grassland management 149
pleted in one area the cattle are moved to
another area allowing regrowth of the previous
land.
Zero grazing
As the name suggests in this method the cattle
are not allowed out to graze the paddocks at
all. Instead, fresh grass is cut daily and
brought in to the cattle in the kraal or yard.
This means all the grass can be used properly
and not trampled or spoiled by dung. It pre-
vents wastage of grass which may occur when
selected grazing is used.
'lQ Strip grazing
In this case the pasture is divided by an elec-
tric fence powered by a battery. The amount of
grazing required by the animals each day is
calculated and the fence is moved each morn-
ing to allow the correct area for grazing. In
this way the animals are allowed to graze the
paddock in strips. This is an efficient method
of grazing but is not in common use in the
tropics.
Making the best use of pasture
Most pastures are not used to the greatest
efficiency, so that production is lower than it
need be. The following methods can be used to
improve efficiency. .
The use of legumes These plants have the
ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through
bacteria in their root nodules (page 120). Their
foliage is richer in nitrogen than that of
grasses. The planting of legumes greatly in-
creases the nutritional value of pasture.
The use of fertilisers The fertiliser re-
places nutrients removed by grazing. This im-
proves the quality of the grass and increases
the liveweight gain of the animal.
Supplementary feeding Hay or silage can
be fed during the dry season to reduce over-
grazing. Concentrate feeds can be fed to pen-
ned animals.
Burning Controlled burning of old dry
grass late in the dry season enables new
growth of grasses as soon as the rains start.
Burning also helps to control encroaching
bush and is best carried out every 4 years, just
before the rains.
150 O-Level Agriculture
Bush control Trees can seriously reduce liveweight (a) poor untreated grass

the value of a pasture by preventing the grass g,,"~

from making a full cover. Trees can be control-
led by spraying with arboricides, ring barking,
chopping with axes, or by allowing goats to
browse on the vegetation. sea~~
Irrigation To enable the pasture to be
cultivated during the dry season irrigation
can be carried out. Overhead irrigation is
(b) planted grass with legumes
now widely used for grass.
Reseeding After a time it may be bene-
ficial to plough up grassland and replace it
with planted grass and legumes of a higher
quality.
Stocking rate .,*,-
The stocking rate is the number of cattle liveweight (c) improved pasture, legumes,
gain fenced, With supplementary
which can be kept on the pasture, in the most feeding
economical way, without any deterioration in r
their yield. Overstocking leads to soil erosion,
depletion of the grassland and a decline in
yield of the stock. Understocking means that
valuable grassland is not being utilised~ Some
examples of stocking rates are: . Figure 11.4 Liveweight gain varies considerably
1 Open pasture - untreated grassland - con- according to grass quality and the level of pasture
tinuous grazing throughout the year: one improvement.
(a) The animal reaches fullliveweight slowly and
animal to 10 hectares. loses weight during the dry season. (b) The animal
2 Untreated grassland - stock controlled by gains live weight during the rainy season and
herding: one animal to 5 hectares. maintains itself during the dry season with no
3 Planted pasture - fenced and controlled production. (c) The animal increases in liveweight
grazing: one animal to 3 hectares. even during the dry season but at a reduced rate.
4 Improved pasture, planted with legumes -
fenced, controlled grazing - supplementary
feeding: one animal to 1 hectare. The aim, under good conditions, is to
5 Irrigated pasture, use of fertilisers - fenced achieve a liveweight gain in the cattle of 2-3
_ legumes - controlled grazing - sup- kg per week, on average, throughout the year.
plementary feeding: one animal to 0·5 hec- The figure is likely to be higher during the
tare. rainy season and lower during the dry, season
Note: the figures quoted will vary according to (Figure 11.5, 11.6 and 11.7).
the type and size ofthe animal.
Milk production
Where the pasture is rich, during the rainy
Liveweight gain
The rate at which the cattle gain in weight season a milk yield of up to 4 litres may be
depends on the quality of the pasture and how maintained without feeding the cattle many
efficient the stocking level has been. Other supplements, but where a good yield is re-
factors also affect liveweight gain, such as quired, supplements are always fed. The
drought conditions during the rainy season, or amount of supplement required per litre of
the effect of parasites in the animal's body milk produced can be greatly reduced if the
(Figure 11.4). quality of the pasture is good.
 Grassland management 151

good practice

average liveweight of cow 450 kg

average calf weight 22 kg
average weaning weight 120 kg
average liveweight gain 100 kg
breeding weight of
heifers is 320 kg at 3 years Figure 11.6 A healthy herd of imported Friesian
slaughter weight is 400 kg at 4 years cattle
deaths in herd,
during dry season none

poor practice

average liveweight of cow 200 kg

average calf weight 15 kg
average weaning weight 60 kg Figure 11.7 A cattle weighing pen enabling
average liveweight gain 50 kg regular checks on liueweight gain
breeding weight of
-3 heifers is 320 kg at 5 years Pasture plants (Figure 11.8)
slaughter weight is 400 kg at 6 years
Grasses
deaths in herd,
during dry season several Grasses are herbaceous, monocotyledonous
plants with hollow stems and adventitious
Figure 11.5 Pasture management practice
roots. Many species of grass have rhizomes
and reproduce vegetatively. However, grass
Table 11.1 plants usually produce flowers from which
Examples offeed requirements seeds are produced (Figure 11.9).

Litres of milk Kilograms of concentrates required Natural grasses

produced good pasture poor pasture 1 Tall grasses growing up to 3 m high, found
on clay, stoney and plateau soils, e.g.
5 1·0
thatching grass (Hyparrhenia filipendulai
10 3·0 4·0
15 5·0 7·0
African golden Timothy (Setaria sphocela-
ta).

2 Tall grasses of sandy soils, e.g. red oat grass
(Themeda triandra).
3 Short and medium grasses of valleys and
flood plains, e.g. Nile grass (Acroceras mac-
rum), torpodo grass (Panium rapens).
Introduced grasses
1 Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) -
a good quality pasture grass.
2 Napier grass or elephant grass (Pennisetum
purpureumi - a tall grass with a thick stem
and high nutritional value. It is usually
grown from stem cuttings.
3 Star grass (Cynodon oethiopicus) a short
grass of the veld, grown from runners.
Grassland management 153
legumes are deep rooting and grow through
the dry season extending the grazing. They
produce flowers with five sepals and seeds in
pods (Figure 11.10).
The chief characteristic of legumes is the
swellings or nodules on their roots. These con-
tain Rhizobium bacteria which are able to fix
atmospheric nitrogen. Some legumes require
inoculation before root nodules will form.
Thus, the value of legumes in pasture is to en-

Legumes

The legumes cover a wide range of plant spe-

cies including beans and groundnuts. Pasture

flowers

underground
rhizomes root nodules

roots ~

Figure 11.9 Digitaria scalarum or couch grass Figure 11.10 Crotolaria spp. - a legume
154 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 11.11 Siratro
rich the soil by increasing the nitrogen con-
tent, and this in turn improves the quality of
the grass. The legumes themselves improve
the quality of the grazing by their high nutri-
tive value.
1 Glycine _ a very valuable trailing legume
grown from seed.
2 Stylo _ a spreading legume of high nutri-
tional value.
3 Silverleaf (Desmodium spp.) - a trailing
legume, with a grey (silver) band running
the length of the leaf, and a sticky stem
enabling it to climb over other plants.
4 Siratro and Dolichos spp. - are found to be
very successful in the tropics (Figure 11.11).~) ay
5 Lucerne, sometimes called Alfalfa is one of
the most important forage legumes in the
world. It can be grown as a crop on its own
or mixed with grass seed as a pasture
legume. It makes good hay for cattle since it grass is sun-dried on supports to lift it clear of
has a very high protein content. It is also
converted into animal feeds.
It is common practice to mix legume and
grass seeds together when planting a pasture.
Planting and establishing a pasture
If pasture is not managed properly and, for
example, becomes overgrown by weeds, it is a
good practice to plough it up and start again
with planted grass. If bush is to be converted
into pasture it is necessary to cut down most
of the trees and to burn the unwanted mate-
rial.
For grass seed to take root the soil should
be ploughed, and a disc harrow used to pro-
duce a fine tilth. A firm, flat seedbed is pre-
pared. The seed, preferably a grass/legume
mixture, is then broadcast over the surface at
the correct rate. Sometimes cuttings are used
as the planting material for grasses.
The planting of new pasture should be done
during the rainy season so that the seedlings
quickly get established and the soil is not
exposed long enough to become eroded.
The legumes provide a source of nitrogen
for the grass. Some phosphate fertiliser is re-
quired during the early stages of pasture
establishment. This can be applied at a rate of
200 kg/ha.
Conservation
.•. of forage
The pasture can be cut and kept for use during
the dry season when the pasture grass is of
poor quality and yield. If there is too much
grass for the cattle to use during the rainy
season it is a sound practice to cut and store
this for use later. If it is left it dries up and is
of little value. The two chief methods of grass
conservation are to make hay and silage.
H
The grass is cut when it is leafy and the flow-
ers begin to emerge. The moisture content is
lower then so that it keeps better. It should be
cut quickly to conserve nutrients. The cut
the ground and ensure good circulation of air.
An open shelter is provided to protect it from
ram.
The hay produced is fed as bulk fodder to
cattle during the dry season.
~Si1age
In silage-making the grass is cut while still
green and fresh and before flowering. The
fresh grass is then piled into a pit or silo and
compressed. The principle of silage making is
to allow the breakdown of the grass by bacter-
ia which multiply rapidly within the silage.
Thus optimum conditions of temperature and
acidity are essential for bacterial activity. The
breakdown process takes about 4 months.
 Grassland management 155

Id The nutritive value of the silage produced c Why is grass such an important crop on a
0- depends on the growth stage of the grass when mixed farm? (C)
e- it was cut and the amount of compression - if 2 a Explain why many areas of tropical pas-
le it is not compressed enough it dries out. ture land are of low value to livestock.
at When mature the silage is yellow in colour b Give three examples of different methods
~d and sweet smelling. It is cut and fed to the cat- of grazing with which you are familiar.
tle in amounts of about 30 kg per cow per day c Describe briefly how you would prepare
for dairy cattle. Maize is the chief silage crop, and establish a new pasture.
5"s apart from grass.; 3 a In what ways can pasture be improved?
ot b How could a farmer decide on the most
suitable stocking level for his pasture.
Questions c How does the quality of the pasture re-
e- late to the live weight gain of the animal?
re 1 a What factors would you take into consid- 4 a Name three grasses and three legumes
of eration when deciding the species to in- suitable for establishing in a new pas-
clude in a grass seeds mixture for use ture. Give reasons for your choice.
over a number of years on a farm in your b Describe two methods whereby grass can
area? be conserved for use later.
b Describe the management and utilisation c What do you understand by continuous
of the crop during the first two years. grazing?
19
of
;h
iy
re
is
ps

v-
is
>e
It
Df

.0
12
Animal breeding

The ability of animals to reproduce is nature's

way of ensuring that the species continues to
live from one generation to the next. In live-
seminal
stock farming, the aim is to produce a regular vesicle
supply of young animals which can later be
sold for profit. However, to get the best re-
sults, the farmer must make sure that careful-
penis
ly selected stock breed at the correct time. To I
achieve this, a knowledge of the factors con-
cerned with reproduction and animal breeding
is necessary.

testis
I
Reproduction in mammals scrotum

The essential feature of sexual reproduction is Figure 12.1 Reproductive organs of a bull
the fusion of a male cell with a female cell to
form a new individual. The male and female
cells are called gametes. On fertilisation the
zygote is formed and this begins dividing im-
mediately to form a ball of cells and eventual- seminal
vesicle
ly develops into a new individual.
~.!-:- prostate
For the process of reproduction to take ~gland
place in livestock, male gametes called sper- ejaculatory
~duct
matozoa or sperms must be produced by ma- urethra
ture and fertile male stock. Likewise, female -~ epididymis
gametes called eggs or ova must be pro-
duced by the mature female. The age at which prepuce
an animal becomes sexually mature differs
from one type of stock to another. To some ex-
tent the age will depend on how well the
animal has been fed during its development
although the animal's size and weight may be
a better guide to its suitability for breeding. Figure 12.2 Reproductive organs of a boar
 Animal breeding 157

(aJ _/nucleus

head tail

(b) sperm -----

nucleus
Figure 12.4 Reproductive organs of the cow

body
of
"A+-~~'__"'.,---uterus
Figure 12.3 (a) Spermatozoan (b) Ovumjust
before fertilisation
ovary
cattle 9-20 months
sheep 9-15 months
goats 9-15 months
pigs 7-12 months -1-if--------- vagina
poultry 5- 7 months
Male reproductive system ---tt------ vestibule

In mammals, the male reproductive system clitoris

consists of two oval-shaped organs, the
testes, which produce the sperms and a mus-
cular organ, the penis, through which the
sperms are released. Figures 12.1 and 12.2
show the reproductive organs of a bull and a
boar.
The testes have a network of narrow tubes
inside them called seminiferous tubules.
Sperm cells are produced within these tubules
continuously once the animal has reached sex-
ual maturity. Sperms are extremely small and
can only be seen with the aid of a microscope
(Figure 12.3). As they develop the sperms
leave the tubules and move into the wider
tubes which surround the testes. These are
called the epididymis and it is here that the
sperms are stored until they are needed for
mating. Sperms are producd in very large
numbers and those not used in mating are
broken down and re-absorbed into the body.
Sperm cells have a large head which is the
nucleus and a long tail to enable them to swim
inside the female after mating. However,
sperms only become active when they are in
the correct fluid. This fluid is a mixture of con-
centrated solutions produced by the small acces-
-vulva
Figure 12.5 Reproductive organs of the sow
sory glands situated near the base of the blad-
der. When the sperms are released during
mating, fluid from the accessory glands is sec-
reted on to them making them active and able
to swim. The mixture of sperms and fluid is
called semen.
For mating to take place the penis must be-
come enlarged and extended so that it projects
from its sheath. To achieve this, muscles at the
base of the penis become stimulated making it
erect. The animal is then ready to mount the
female.
Female reproductive system
Figures 12.4 and 12.5 show the reproductive
systems of the cow and the sow respectively.
The female mammal has two small round
organs called ovaries which produce the eggs.
The egg cells are present at birth and grow
and develop inside the animal. When the
female becomes sexually mature, fertile eggs
158 O-Level Agriculture
Table 12.1
Oestrus and ovulation in livestock
Species Number of Length of When ovulation
days of heat period occurs
oestrus cycle
cow 21 days 18 hours 10-12 hours
after heat
period
sow 21 days 2-3 days halfway
through heat
period
ewe 161/2 days 26 hours at end of
heat period
are released from the ovaries at regular
intervals throughout its life.
As the eggs begin to grow inside the ovary,
other cells surrounding them become enlarged
and receive additional blood capillaries. This
region soon develops into a swelling on the
surface of the ovary, called a follicle. When it
is completely ripe it bursts and releases the egg
cell, or ovum, from the ovary into the oviduct
funnel and then into the oviduct.
The oviduct is the tube which leads from
the ovary to the womb, or uterus. The mature
egg moves slowly along the oviduct towards
the uterus. It is at this stage that fertilisation
can occur if the animal is mated. However, if
the egg cell reaches the uterus without being
fertilised it soon dies. The period when a cow
is receptive to the male is called oestrus when
. the cow is said to be on heat. Another egg cell
is released from the ovary during the next
oestrus (Table 12.1).
The release of the egg cell into the oviduct
is called ovulation and the process repeats it-
self regularly. It is thus known as the oestrous
cycle. The length of the heat period and the
number of days between each ovulation varies
according to the species of the animal.
The female passage where sperms are depo-
sited during mating is called the vagina. This
has a soft moist lining but has muscular tissue
in its walls. The opening to the vagina is
called the vulva.
Mating
•
Mating takes place when the male animal rec-
ognises that one of the females is on heat. This
is usually done by his sense of smell. As he
mounts her from behind, his erect penis
pushes through the vulva and forces its way
into the vagina. This action stimulates the
penis to release the semen which flows along
the urethra and becomes deposited in the
vagina. This is called ejaculation. In boars, a
large quantity of semen (200 ml) is produced
and mating takes several minutes. When mat-
ing is completed the male dismounts and the
penis relaxes.
Signs of Heat
1 The cow stands when mounted by other
cows.
2 Cows with mud on their backs, rough coats
or lick marks have been mounted.
3 Cows bellow or are restless.
4 Cow may try to mount other cows herself.
5 Reduced milk output.
6 Swollen and wet vulva.
Fertilisation
Fertilisation takes place if fertile male and
female sex cells meet together and fuse (Fig-
ure 12.7). After mating, the sperms swim
through the vagina and reach the opening to
the uterus. This narrow entrance is called the
cervix. In order to reach a receptive egg, the
sperms must swim up through the uterus and
uterus
cervix
Figure 12.7 Fertilisation takes place in the
oviduct
 Animal breeding 159
TIMING CHART FOR MATING
standing heat - approximately 18 hours
ovulation (release of egg) - approximately 12 hours after the end of standing heat
s
best time to breed - from the middle of standing heat until 6 hours after the end of heat
e
standing heat
s out of heat egg is fertile
y 16-18 hours
10 to 12 hours
e cow stands to be
cow quietens down
g ridden and
and becomes normal
is restless
e
3.

i
time
~ of
: ovulation
I

TIMETABLE
standing heat
first observed when to breed

in the morning late afternoon

of the same day

in the afternoon the next morning

Figure 12.6 Timing chart for mating

into the oviduct. The large number of sperms

present (several million) gives a better chance
of survival. Sperms only live for about 48
hours inside the female so fertilisation must
occur in this time if a new individual is to be
conceived.
When fertilisation does take place the head
of a single sperm cell forces its way into the
egg cell. This is the moment of conception and
the new individual produced begins to de-
velop. Cattle, sheep and goats normally pro-
duce only one offspring at a time. However,
pigs produce up to twenty piglets at each
birth, and ten is a good average. For this to
happen, more fertile eggs must be present in
the oviduct and each one must be fertilised by
a different sperm.
Gestation
The period between fertilisation and birth is
called the gestation period or pregnancy. The
length of gestation varies according to the spe-
cies:
cow 280 days
sheep 150 days
goat 151 days
pig 114 days
Immediately after fertilisation the fertilised
egg or zygote begins a series of rapid cell divi-
sions and forms a compact ball of cells. This
continues to move down the oviduct and into
the uterus where it becomes firmly attached to
the walls of the uterus. At the same time, the
uterus becomes enlarged and develops a great-
ly increased blood supply in its wall.
As the new individual, now called an
embryo begins to grow it produces small pro-
jections, villi, which reach into the uterus
wall. This is its link with the mother and all
the embryo's food and oxygen must pass
through these villi. Soon the villi form an
organ called the placenta in which exchange
160 O-Level Agriculture
of substances between the mother and the
embryo takes place. It is important to note
that the blood supply of the mother does not
go into the embryo as the blood pressure of the
adult would damage it. Instead all the nu-
trients and oxygen needed by the embryo dif-
fuse from the mother's blood capillaries,
through the placenta and into the embryo.
Waste products including nitrogenous waste,
salts, water and carbon dioxide diffuse from
the embryo through the placenta and into the
mother's blood supply. The artery and vein
carrying these substances enter the embryo in
its abdomen and are bound together in the
umbilical cord which is attached to the
placenta.
The embryo develops quickly and within a
few weeks all the main organs and features
are formed. During the gestation period it con-
tinues to grow and develop and theuterus en-
larges to allow for this. The embryo is sur-
rounded by a fluid-filled bag, called the
amnion and this helps to protect it and allows
some movement. The embryo grows at the
greatest rate during the last third of the preg-
nancy. The cow is given a rich diet at this
time to prepare her for milk production. This
is known as steaming up.
Birth
When the gestation period is complete the
mother begins to prepare for birth of the
young. A cow will often separate h;rself from
the herd ready to give birth away from the
other animals. A farmer should keep careful
breeding records so that the expected time of
Figure 12.8 A foetal calf just before birth
birth is known. In this way the farmer can
keep an eye on birth and give help if there are
any difficulties.
Inside the body the uterus begins to relax
and contract. The ring of muscle at the cervix
becomes loose and the unborn animal becomes
more active. As the movements of the uterus
become stronger, part of the offspring begins
to force a way through the cervix. The sur-
faces of the uterus, cervix and vagina are wet
and this makes the birth much easier. Even-
tually, the fluid bag surrounding the offspring
bursts releasing the fluid, and the young
animal quickly passes from the uterus to the
vagina.
In a normal birth the animal comes out
head first. In cows, a good calving is when the
head is held between the front feet and these
appear first (Figure 12.8). The animal then
drops to the ground. At this point the umbilic-
al cord breaks away from the placenta. The
animal then becomes an independent indi-
vidual and takes its first breath. The lungs
and blood supply are fully formed so it is able
to make the change in its method of obtaining
oxygen without difficulty. The umbilical cord
has been the lifeline for the embryo through-
out its development and it remains attached to
the new-born animal for a day or two before it
drops off, leaving a mark called the navel.
Calves and lambs are born in a well-
developed state and are able to stand and
walk almost at once. Piglets are blind for the
first 2 days after birth. The size and weight of
the offspring vary for each species. A new-
born calf is about 10 per cent of the mother's
weight, while a piglet is only about 1 per cent.
However, ten piglets or more may be born
each time. The new-born animal may still
have the amniotic membrane round it and the
mother quickly bites this off to free her
offspring. When birth is complete, the
placenta breaks away from the uterus and
passes out through the vagina as the after-
birth. Difficulties may arise during the birth
of the animal if it has turned the wrong way
round inside the uterus. It may be necessary
to turn it round before the birth can occur.
Sometimes a developing embyro dies in the
uterus due to a disease. If this occurs early in

the gestation it may be re-absorbed. If it
occurs when the embryo is quite large, this
leads to an abortion in which the dead
embryo is passed out of the mother. The death
may be due to an injury or to a poisonous sub-
stance present in the mother's blood supply,
strong enough to kill the embryo but not the
mother.
Hormones in reproduction
Hormones are chemical substances which are
produced in the animal's body by the endoc-
rine glands. They are produced in extremely
small amounts and pass into the bloodstream.
They are carried by the blood to all parts of
the body but they have an effect on only one
part of the body or on a particular body
activity.
Hormones are sometimes known as chemi-
cal messengers because their effect may be
some distance from where they were released.
Many hormones are produced by the body
and most of them affect growth and develop-
ment or the metabolism of the animal. Some
hormones are concerned with sexual maturity
and mating.
The chief male sex hormone is called tes-
tosterone and is produced in the testes in the
cells between the seminiferous tubules. This
hormone is secreted directly into the blood-
stream and has the following effects on the
male.
1 It causes the mature male to grow to a
larger size than the female.
2 It helps the male features or secondary sex
characters to develop, e.g. the body shape;
the large comb of the cock in poultry.
3 It helps the accessory glands to develop and
ensures that the testes produce sperm.
4 It encourages the male sex urge.
5 It enables mating to take place.
The release of testosterone and the effect it
has on the animal is controlled by the nervous
system. For example, when a bull smells a cow
on heat the nerves relay the message via the
brain to stimulate the release of testosterone.
This causes the bull to prepare for mating and
to mount the cow.
In the female, the sex hormones playa great-
er part in sexual development and in ensur-
Animal breeding 161
ing that the animal remains fertile.
The chief female sex hormone is called oes-
trogen. It is produced by the ovaries and it
has the following effects on the female body.
1 It keeps the oestrous cycle working.
2 It helps to produce female features', such as
body shape.
3 It helps the oviduct and uterus to carry out
their functions easily.
4 It develops the female sex urge and makes
her more receptive to the male.
Progesterone This is produced by the rup-
tured follicle. It helps to prepare the uterus for
an embryo and stops any more eggs being re-
leased during pregnancy. It also develops the
udder during pregnancy.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) This
is produced by the pituitary gland situated be-
neath the brain. The hormone is responsible
for developing the follicle which is to be re-
leased from the ovary.
Luteinising hormone (LH) Also produced
by the pituitary gland, the hormone is neces-
sary for ovulation to occur.
Artificial insemination
It is known that sperms can be kept alive in
fluid for many years providing the semen is
deep frozen, usually in containers of liquid ni-
trogen. Animal Breeding Stations often keep
specially selected male animals in order that
they can collect semen from them. The semen
is then placed in small tubes called straws,
and stored at a very low temperature. Only
the best and proven animals are kept for this
purpose.
The advantage of this practice is that any
farmer who has only poor male stock for
breeding may use sperms from a good quality
male to fertilise the female stock. The semen
is transferred by the process of artificial in-
semination (AI) into the vagina of the female.
Most pedigree herds of cows are fertilised by
AI. This has the advantage that the farmer is
not obliged to keep a bull and this cuts costs;
At the Breeding Station, the bull is stimu-
lated by a teaser animal which it mounts. The
penis is diverted into an artificial vagina by
the stockman and the semen is collected.
162 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 12.9 Collecting semen from a bull. When
the bull mounts the teaser animal his erect penis is
diverted into an artificial vagina held by the
stockman. Semen is collected in the tube.
uterus catheter
\ (inseminating
tube)
ova
Figure 12.10 Artificial insemination of a cow. The
catheter containing the semen is put into the vagina.
The inseminator's hand in the rectum makes sure
that the semen is released in the uterus just beyond
the cervix.
When the semen is required it is taken from
its cold storage and released into the vagina of
the cow on heat. This is done by a trained
inseminator (Figures 12.9 and 12.10).
The use of AI has been of great importance
in agriculture since it has helped to improve
the quality of livestock by careful breeding. It
is of most use with cattle but can also be used
with pigs. It is rarely used with sheep or
goats. Farmers using AI with their herds must
make sure their stock do not mate with any
other animals. Good breeding records are
essential so that the farmer can choose cows
which are on heat at a convenient time for
insemination.
Cows normally come on to heat again 2-3
months after calving. A sow returns to heat
about 1 week after her piglets have been
weaned.
Lactation
All mammals depend on a supply of milk dur-
ing the earliest stage of their life. The milk is
produced in the mammary glands or udder.
situated on the underside ofthe animal's body.
The supply of milk must be available as
soon as the young animal is born. Thus, the
development of the udder takes place during
pregnancy, controlled by female hormones.
The period of milk production is known as
lactation.
The lactation period for a dairy cow con-
tinues long after the calf has been weaned and
the amount of milk produced depends on the
amount and nutritional value of the food
given to the cow. A sow completes her lacta-
tion about 2 months after the birth of the pig-
lets or as soon as they are weaned.
Structure of the udder
The udder is made up of a large number of
milk-secreting cells arranged into groups
around cavities called the alveoli (Figure
12.11). The udder receives a rich supply of
blood through the capillaries and it develops
in size during pregnancy. Nutrients diffuse
from the blood capillaries into the milk-
secreting cells and milk is produced there. The
milk collects in the alveoli which lead to
larger chambers called udder cisterns. These
in turn lead to the ducts which carry the milk
to the teat cisterns. Inside each teat is a teat
canal. Cows have four teats on the udder
which is divided into four quarters, each of
which is independent of the other. Goats and
sheep have two teats and a sow has six or
seven pairs of teats.
The first milk produced by the mother im-
mediately after the birth is a rich mixture call-
ed colostrum. Besides being rich in protein
and milk fats, colostrum also contains anti-
 Animal breeding 163

Ir bodies derived from the mother (page 135).

These help to give the newborn animal extra
3 protection against disease while it is very
It young (Figure 12.12).
r A hormone called oxytocin is responsible
for stimulating the udder to release milk
when required, sometimes called let down of
milk.

r- Breeding management
is
r, Where it is possible to do so, a farmer tries to
regulate breeding so that young animals are
IS born at the best time for good development
and to the best advantage for marketing.
Cattle Where the rainfall is seasonal, as
in most tropical areas, it is a disadvantage for
calves to be born early in the dry season. At
this time the grass is poor and the mother is
unable to make enough milk for the calf. A
--t\---- teat
cistern
Figure 12.11 Section through a cow's udder
good plan is for the farmer to have his cows
mated so that the calves will drop in dry
weather just before the rains are due to start.
This ensures that the calves will soon benefit
from fresh and plentiful grass and this will
give them a good start in life (Figure 12.13).
As the cow is -re--aay for mating about 3
months after the previous calving, this can be

Figure 12.12 A sow suckling her litter

164 O-Level Agriculture
done at about the same time each year. A cow
does not remain in lactation for the whole
year. There is a natural dry period just before
calving.
birth l
of calv s
mating
season
birth
of calves
Ola.+-'
::J OJ
« (/) 0
Figure 12.13 Cattle breeding schedule
Pigs The gestation period of a sow is just
under 4 months and weaning of the piglets
may take place at 6 to 8 weeks. If the sow
cemes on heat 1 week after this and is success-
fully mated, it is possible to regulate the
breeding of the sow to once every 6 months.
Some commercial pig farmers have a target of
producing 10 piglets every 6 months from
their sows, or 20 piglets a year.
Management of young animals
Young animals are usually housed in special
pens with their mothers. Where the cow's milk
is needed for sale, the calves are separated
from their mothers at an early age. Once
weaning has taken place young animals are
often allowed to run with their mothers in en-
closed pastures.
Special feeding stalls can be provided for
young animals such as the creep feeder which
prevents the adults from eating the food.
Young animals require special veterinary
services such as vaccination against diseases
and examination for parasites.
Weaning
Weaning is the transition of the young animal
from a diet of milk to a diet of solid food. The
age at which this is done varies according to
the breed and species of the animal and also to
the farming system being practised. Piglets
can be weaned as early as 3 weeks but this is
not normally done until 6 to 8 weeks.
>
U 0
Z
Figure 12.14 A strong box like this can be put in
the farrowing pen to stop the sow accidentally
crushing the piglets when she lies down.
For cattle, if milk from the cow is needed
for sale, the calf should be bucket fed when
separated from the mother, usually at night.
Gradually some concentrate ration can be fed
and after a few weeks the calf will begin to
take in small quantities of grass. Sudden
weaning may cause intestinal disorders such as
scours in which the animal suffers diarrhoea.
The ruminant stomach is not fully formed in
the young calf.
Reproduction in poultry
Poultry do not give birth to live young. In-
stead the chick develops inside an egg, and
when it is fully developed it breaks out of the
egg as a newly hatched individual.
The female bird or hen has a large single
ovary which contains developing eggs at var-
ious stages. When the bird reaches maturity
(4-5 months) eggs with the yolk already
formed are released one at a time from the
ovary into the oviduct. As they pass down the
oviduct further secretions take place from
glands situated along the passage. First, the
white or albumen is secreted and then a dou-
ble membrane forms round the soft egg. Final-
 Animal breeding 165
(a) (b)
ripe
yolk

-(-ovary
testis

kidney

vas
deferens
ureter

//---- vagina large

intestine
I,,-._)---- vent

Figure 12.15 (a) Reproductive system of hen (b) Reproductive system of cock

ly, the shell is secreted from the shell gland takes at least 26 hours for an egg to be pro-
and the complete egg is passed out through duced.
the vent (Figure 12.15). Development does not begin at once. A fer-
Egg production continues in domestic poul- tile egg may be stored in a cool place for sever-
try throughout the hen's life and the process is al weeks.
controlled by female sex hormones which
stimulate egg production. The number of eggs Incubation
laid depends on the level of feeding carried The process of development of a fertile egg is
out. called incubation and it begins when the
It is important to note that egg production temperature reaches 39°e. Incubating eggs
by a hen will continue whether or not a cock also need moist air and good ventilation. The
bird is present, but if no cock bird is present, eggs must be turned over regularly to prevent
the eggs laid will be infertile and cannot the contents becoming stuck to one side. Natu-
hatch. ral incubation is done by a broody hen sitting
on the eggs. Artificial incubation can be done
Mating in an incubator heated by electricity or by
For poultry to reproduce, mating is necessary paraffin (Figure 12.16).
between a cock bird and a hen. The cock has
two testes which produce sperm (Figure
12.15(b». When stimulated to mate by the
male sex hormones the sperms pass along the
air holes
sperm ducts in a fluid. There is no penis in a
cock bird and for mating to take place the vent
of the male must be pressed up against the
vent of the female. When the sperms are re-
leased they begin to swim up the oviduct to-
wards the ovary. If a ripe yolk is present in
the oviduct, it may be fertilised by a sperm
cell. This forms a fertile blastodisc attached water tray inside
to the yolk. The egg laid is thus a fertile egg,
capable of developing into a new individual. It Figure 12.16 An incubator
166 O-Level Agriculture

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 12.17 Stages in the development of the chick: (a) 36 hours (b) 7 days (c) 10 days (d) 15 days
 Animal breeding 167

chalaza embryo yolk

air space

albumen or white

(a) start of incubation

network of
blood vessels yolk
Figure 12.19 Preparing a young pig for castration
to stop it from breeding

air space mainder should be prevented from breeding,

developing chick allantois
(b) after 7 days
Figure 12.18 Development of the embryo in the
egg
Figures 12.17 and 12. 18 show the stages of
development of a chick inside the egg. The
process of incubation takes 21 days. When it is
fully formed, the chick pecks a hole in the
shell and breaks its way out. While it is inside
the egg the developing chick receives all its
nourishment from the food supply contained
in the yolk and the white, and it obtains its
1 oxygen through the permeable egg shell.
The newly emerged chick does not need
food or water for 24 hours. This makes it
possible for chicks to be transported from the
hatchery to distant farms.
Improvement of livestock
In order to get the best results from breeding
livestock, a farmer must ensure that only the
s best animals are used for breeding. The re-
either by castration or by separation
(Figure 12.19). The process of choosing the
best animals for breeding is known as selec-
tion and it involves the following considera-
tions.
1 Fertility - only fertile animals are of use.
2 Size - large, well-built stock are best.
3 Growth rate - it is best to select animals
which have developed quickly because they
are more efficient users of their food.
4 Conformation - the animals chosen must be
the right shape and be in the correct propor-
tion, particularly in the back and the hind
quarters, which carry a higher price in cuts
of meat.
5 Progeny - the best breeding animals are
those whose earlier recorded offspring have
grown quickly.
With cattle there are other considerations
such as milk yield, ease of calving, disease re-
sistance. If a bull is being selected, the per-
formance of his earlier offspring is noted with
regard to milk production, for instance.
With pigs, a large, lean body is looked for.
Sows which have had large litters and have
reared them successfully are selected.
Good-quality breeding stock lay the founda-
tions for successful livestock production, but
accurate feeding and careful hygiene and
management are also important (Figure 12.20).
 Animal breeding 169
Inheritance cock produces sperm containing the haploid
To be sure that the offspring born from number of 18 chromosomes. The egg produced
selected matings will be satisfactory the far- by the hen contains 18 chromosomes. The zy-
mer must consider the inherited characteris- gote resulting from fusion of sperm and egg
tics of the parents. For example, in the mating contains the diploid number of 36 chromo-
of a white-faced bull with a black-faced cow, somes. When the zygote divides to form the
the offspring may be white faced. In this case embryo each new cell contains 36 chromo-
the white face inherited by the calf from its somes and thus every cell in the chick's body
father is dominant, while the black face of contains 36 chromosomes until the sex cells
the mother is recessive (see Figure 12.21, also develop. These will have the haploid number
page 69). of 18 chromosomes. In the same way a calf re-
ceives half its characteristics from the cow and
half from the bull.
purebred purebred
white-faced bull black-faced cow
Sex determination
x The sex chromosomes determine the sex of the
~omozY~OUS offspring. In mammals the male sperm con-
bb gene pairs
tains two kinds of sex chromosome called X
and Y. The female egg has two X chromo-
\
somes. Thus, the sex of the offspring is deter-
B
mined by the sperm which fertilises the egg.
A sperm carrying an X chromosome will pro-
heterozvqous
gene pairs duce an XX zygote and a female offspring. A
Bb Bb Bb Bb sperm carrying a Y chromosome will produce
an XY zygote and a male offspring (Figure
~~~
12.22).
V U lJ In poultry, the reverse of this is true and it is
the sex chromosome of the female which deter-
mines the sex of the chicks.

~ x ~
second
cross
~
Bb
U Bb

/ \ / \
sperm------<Xl ' ®-:::- ~® '® eggs

\ ~r-NV\XI ...
--------<ZX8) ~ fertilisation

,.
Bb Bb Bb bb

second filial
generation F2
V----:V-----
\
'\ r
~
T , r

Figure 12.21 Inheritance of simple dominant Figure 12.22 Sex inheritance

and recessive characteristics

At fertilisation the chromosomes In the
sperm nucleus join with the chromosomes in
the egg nucleus to form the full diploid num-
ber in the new individual. For example, the
Castration
This is the removal of the testes of a male
animal to prevent it from breeding. There are
several advantages of castrating stock:-
 170 O-Level Agriculture
1 There is no need for fencing or other struc-
tures to keep the animals from breeding.
2 It reduces the sex drive and energy.
3 Castrated animals grow larger and fatter
more quickly.
4 The meat of castrated animals is free from
taint (unwanted smell or flavour).
5 Work animals are easier to handle.
6 Wool and fleece quality is improved.
There are several methods of castration. In
cattle and sheep the testes are not usually
removed but the cords are squeezed. This stops
the blood supply and prevents the testes devel-
oping. In pigs the testes are cut out using a
sharp knife or scalpel. The wound soon heals
up.
Castration should only be carried out by a
trained person as injury to the animal could
result. This may lead to a reduction in growth
rate - the opposite of what is intended.
Inbreeding
This is the mating of closely related animals.
For example, a bull with its own daughter. By
this method it is possible to increase the num-
ber of individuals having the specific and
desired characteristics of the breed. However,
it can equally result in an accumulation of
undersirable characters in which case the
progeny may have to be culled.
Pedigree breeding
The term pedigree means the recorded ances-
tors of a particular animal. In pedigree breed-
ing, animals are selected for mating on the
basis of their pedigree records. The outstand-
ing features of their ancestors are looked for
and traced through to the recent progeny so
that breeding stock with the best potential can
be selected.
Cross breeding
Cross breeding is the practice whereby animals
of different breeds are mated or crossed. The
animals selected are purebred and the aim is
to produce progeny with the best character-
istics of both breeds. The progeny are known
as crossbreds and exhibit the quality of hybrid
vigour - characteristics stronger than both
parents; for example, superior fertility or
milk yield. Sometimes the male of a third
breed is used to introduce further improved
characteristics.
Note - cross breeding and hybrid vigour are
equally important breeding principles in crop
improvement.
Questions
1 a Make a large, fully labelled drawing of
the reproductive system of a named male
mammal.
b What is the role of the hormone testoste-
rone in the reproductive process?
c What are the qualities a farmer looks for
in selecting a bull for breeding?
2 a By means of a large, fully labelled draw-
ing, describe the female reproductive
system of a named mammal you have
studied.
b What is the importance of the hormone
oestrogen in the reproductive system?
c Why do farmers try to regulate the period
of the year when calving takes place?
3 a How does a cow or goat produce milk?
Illustrate your answer with a diagram to
show the structure of the udder.
b What causes milk to go sour?
c What measures could be taken to im-
prove the keeping quality of milk after it
leaves the animal? (C)
4 a Describe the characteristics of a named
breed of one type of farm animal you
have studied.
b In what ways is this breed particularly
suited to the conditions of the area in
which it is found?
c What methods of livestock improvement
can be used to raise the value of the pro-
ducts obtained from this breed of animal?
5 a What are the main advantages of arti-
ficial insemination compared with natu-
ral service in cattle?
b What do you understand by the term
weaning? With reference to named live-
stock with which you are familiar, show
how weaning can be brought about.
13
The control of pests and diseases in livestock
is of vital importance if the animals are to
grow and develop properly. Diseased stock can
be a problem on a farm and they are unecono-
mic to keep if their productivity is low.
There are numerous causes of disease and
ill-health in livestock and it is the farmer's re-
sponsibility to ensure that livestock are well
cared for. Diseases may be spread by insects or
other organisms which may go from one anim-
al to another. Some diseases are caused by pa-
rasites which live inside the animal or on its
skin. There are other diseases caused by poor
nutrition, or poor management of the animals.
Whatever the cause of the disease there is an
important rule which applies to livestock: pre-
vention is better than cure.
If a disease can be prevented in the first
place, this is preferable to curing the disease
later. Even if a disease is noticed early on, it
has still had time to have a harmful effect on
the animal. Thus animal health is the key to
disease prevention.
Keeping livestock healthy
To keep animals in good condition attention
should be paid to the following.
Correct feeding
Livestock must be given the right amount of
food and it must be of the correct nutritional
value. To achieve this it is necessary to know
Animal pests and
diseases
the nutritional requirements of the stock at
their various ages. Cattle on open grazing
may have all they require during the rainy
season but may be underfed during the dry
season. Supplementary rations can be given to
ensure continuing health.
Pigs need a carefully balanced diet for
efficient growth. Incorrect feeding can lead to
ill-health.
Sheep and goats are capable of surviving in
times of drought or poor feeding. Poultry are
much more healthy when fed correctly rather
than being left to eat domestic scraps.
Good land
The land provides forage and often forms the
animal's whole environment. Cattle kept on
the same area continuously may suffer as a re-
sult of a build up of pests and diseases. Mov-
ing the cattle around and resting the land for
a period of time reduces the risk of disease and
helps to keep the cattle healthy. Swamps and
wet areas often harbour diseases, e.g. bilhar-
zia-carrying snails. Livestock need good,
clean, dry land with access to clean drinking
water, if they are to remain healthy.
Clean housing
Livestock, such as pigs and poultry, which are
kept in pens or houses soon pick up diseases if
their quarters are not kept clean. Harmful
organisms can remain on dirty floors and walls
and pass from one animal to another. Livestock
housing should be cleaned out regularly and
172 O-Level Agriculture
disinfected from time to time to maintain Poor management This includes all
animal health. aspects of caring for the stock, particularly
hygiene, feeding, housing. Insufficient atten-
Protection tion to these matters can lead to disease.
If it is known that certain diseases are to be
found in the area, the livestock can be in- Types of disease
jected, sprayed or dipped to give them protec- Diseases of livestock can be divided into
tion against the disease. It is important that groups according to the way in which they
this treatment is given at the right time to be affect the animal.
most effective and that repeated treatment is
given when required. Diseases caused by infection
Signs of health Where a germ (bacterium, fungus or virus)
gets into the animal and causes an illness.
Careful observation of livestock tells the far- The disease organism multiplies very quickly
mer which animals are healthy and which are when it is in the right conditions and the
not. The main points which show that an animal soon begins to show the symptoms of
animal is healthy are: the disease, e.g. tuberculosis in cattle.
1 a good upright stance and a steady walk;
2 a good appetite;
Diseases caused by parasites
3 head held upright;
These are organisms which depend on the
4 eyes clean and bright;
livestock, the host animal, for their food. Para-
5 nose cold and wet;
sites do not kill their host because they need
6 ears warm and alert;
to live on it. They may be inside or on the out-
7 skin in good condition, without patches;
side of the host. Sometimes it is the parasite
8 dung of the right consistency and colour;
itself which is the problem, e.g. roundworm,
9 urine a normal colour and passed without
and sometimes the parasite passes a disease
difficulty;
into the host when it bites it or becomes
10 correct body temperature.
established inside it, e.g. ticks pass various
The average body temperature of the chief
diseases to cattle when they bite the skin and
types of livestock are:
draw blood.
cattle 38·6°C
pigs 39·2°C Diseases caused by poor nutrition
'sheep 39·4°C If there is an imbalance in the diet, such as a
goats 39·4°C vitamin or mineral shortage, this can lead
poultry 41·0°C directly to a disease, e.g. anaemia (shortage of
iron) in piglets.

Diseases of livestock Diseases caused by poor metabolism

Causes of disease
Infection This is the spread of disease
from one animal to another or from a dirty or
infected place. The infection may spread
throughout the herd or it may just affect one
animal. An infectious disease spreads quickly
from one animal to another, e.g. foot and
mouth disease.
Failure to protect the stock If vaccinations
are not given, or dipping is not done, this
could be a direct cause of disease.
As a result of poor management, livestock
may lose condition and suffer from a disease.
Sometimes stress leads to disease. This can be
caused by letting the animals get too excited
or depriving them of water. Over-exposure to
sunshine and overcrowding can also cause dis-
ease. An animal under stress is more likely to
get a metabolic disease, i.e. a disease which
occurs because of some internal malfunction
and reduces the efficient way the body works.
An example of a metabolic disease is milk
fever in cows.

Poisoning
Certain substances are poisonous or toxic to
livestock and if plants containing these sub-
stances are eaten, a disease or even death may
occur. Lantana is a weed whose leaves are
toxic to cattle.
Symptoms of disease
The symptoms of a disease are the signs which
the animal displays when it is suffering from
a particular disease. Each disease has some
specific feature which makes it different from
every other disease, but some symptoms are
not easily seen and may go unnoticed for some
time, occasionally until it is too late. Usually
there are several symptoms and often symp-
toms are similar for several diseases, e.g. a
rise in the animal's temperature, or a fever.
The most common symptoms of disease in
livestock are listed below.
High body temperature This is often a
sign that the animal's bloodstream is working
hard to fight off an infection. A veterinary
thermometer is used to find the animal's body
temperature and this is placed carefully in the
anus.
Note: animals on heat and young stock often
have a slightly higher temperature
even when healthy.
Variation in the pulse rate The rate at
which the heart pumps blood round the body.
This can be determined by placing the fingers
on an artery near the surface of the skin and
counting the beats. Normal pulse rates are:
cattle 50-60 beats per minute
pigs 70-80 beats per minute
sheep 70-90 beats per minute
Irregular breathing A common symptom
of lung diseases. Animals with a fever may
also be observed to be short of breath.
Unusual behaviour The animal may be
unusually active and running round or it may
be listless and unable to get up. This is a sure
indication that something is wrong.
Poor appetite This is often the first notice-
able symptom that the animal is unwell. Lack
of appetite is easy to observe in a pig in a pen
of its own but is more difficult to establish in
grazing stock or where many animals feed
together.
Unhealthy coat Bald patches in the coat of
Animal pests and diseases 173
livestock indicate the presence of some disease
organism.
Poor skin
Patches of sore or coloured skin
also indicate that the animal is suffering from
a disease - particularly noticeable in pigs.
Diarrhoea If the animal's dung is not
solid but is wet, possibly stained with blood,
this indicates that there is an internal dis-
order which may be due to a disease
organism.
Dull eyes Eyes which become glazed over
or cloudy or show a discharge are a sign of ill-
health.
Poor stance When an animal keeps its
head down and fails to stand upright this indi-
cates discomfort and suggests that it is suffer-
ing from a disease.
The farmer or the stockman should be the
first to recognise the symptoms of a disease
but if in doubt the livestock officer should be
called. A veterinary surgeon is called to diag-
nose the disease and to provide treatment.
How diseases spread
Bacteria and viruses are the main organisms
responsible for the spread of animal diseases.
They can be carried by the wind or picked up
in the food, or they may be passed from one
animal to another by contact. Sometimes in-
sects or other pests act as disease carriers. Fig-
ure 13.1 shows some of the ways diseases can
spread.
Control of disease
The measures taken to control the spread of
a disease should be largely preventative.
Routine work with livestock should include
action to reduce the risk of disease. Where an
outbreak occurs, urgent action is needed to
help the affected animals recover and to stop
the disease spreading.
The chief ways in which diseases can be
prevented or controlled are shown in Table
13.1.
It is important to know the main diseases
occurring in your area and to be able to recog-
nise the symptoms (Table 13.2 on page 176).
Certain diseases are dangerous or infectious
and it is necessary to report them or to notify
the Department of Agriculture. These are cal-
led notifiable diseases.
174 O-Level Agriculture

sore patches on the

ticks bite the skin skin leave an open
and pass disease wound for flies to carry
organisms into the blood infection into the blood

diseases transmitted by

j~
mating (venereal diseases)

air-borne bacterial,
. fungal or VIral
disease organisms
1) ~
IJ
J) J
<:.,.»
'99' of p,,,,i", ""0
from grass or food
7 diseases of the feet
movement of stock
from one area to another
can spread disease

caused by wet conditions

or poor foot care

Figure 13.1 How diseases can spread

When moving livestock from one area to their destination. This helps to control the
another it is necessary to obtain a permit from disease.
the Department of Agriculture. The animals
may have to remain in one place for a period Vaccines
of time - in quarantine - before moving to Vaccines are substances capable of producing

Table 13.1
Control of disease

Method Control measures Method Control measures

immunity natural immunity occurs when an animal spraying cattle need to be sprayed regularly to
has some of the disease organisms in its control the spread of tick-borne diseases,
blood supply; this stimulates the production but care needs to be taken to ensure all
of antibodies which protect it from disease parts of the animal are treated

injection of an injection of a vaccine can give an animal
vaccines artificial Immunity to a disease; antibodies
are produced when the vaccine, containing a
controlled amount of the disease organism,
enters the bloodstream (Figure 13.2)
injection of drugs when the animal already has a disease,
drugs may be injected to help combat the
disease; the drugs may be antibiotics or
sulphonamides
dipping dipping enables the whole animal to be
immersed in the fluid being used to control
the spread of tick-borne diseases; the fluid
must be kept at the correct strength
dusting external parasites which cling to the skin
can sometimes be controlled by dusting
powder on the animal, e.g. control of lice in
pigs

drenching forcing a liquid dose of medicine down the

animal's throat is a way of controlling pests
in the intestines; the horn from a cow is
often used for this purpose (Figure 13.3)

antibodies in the blood stream to combat
specific disease. They are usually made up of
killed disease organims suspended in serum
and are injected into the animal being treated
(Figure 13.2). They gradually produce a reac-
tion in the animal by causing it to produce
anitbodies, eventually bringing the disease
under control.
The agglutination test
This is a test carried out by veterinary officers
to help them to diagnose a disease in livestock.
It makes use of the fact that serum from an
animal carrying disease organisms when
mixed with a suspension of bacteria will cause
the bacteria to agglutinate or bind together,
whereas serum from a healthy animal will not
readily do this.
Antibiotics
These are drugs obtained from living organ-
isms such as moulds or bacteria. When they are
taken into the body they inhibit the growth and
e spread of disease organisms within the ani-
,1
Figure 13.2 Injecting a chicken against disease
Animal pests and diseases 175
mal's body thereby bringing the disease under
control. Penicillin is an example of an anti-
biotic. They are, however, of no value in com-
batting disease caused by viruses.
Serum
This is the colourless liquid extracted from the
blood of an animal. Thus it does not contain
any red or white blood cells. Serum is used in
the preparation of vaccines.
Antiseptics
These are chemical substances used to kill dis-
ease organisms. They are normally used exter-
nally on the wounds or the skin of an animal
but may be used in the mouth to counteract
sores. (
Disinfectants
These chemicals are used in animal housing to
kill disease organisms. They may be washed
over the concrete floor of a pig pen or painted
on the woodwork of pig or poultry housing.
\
176 O-Level Agriculture
Table 13.2
Some diseases of livestock

Animal Diseases

cattle anthrax lumpy skin

blackquarter disease
calf pneumonia mastitis
calf scour milk fever
contagious redwater
abortion rinderpest
contagious bovine tetanus
pleuro-pneumonia trypanosomiasis
East Coast fever tuberculosis
foot and mouth wooden tongue
disease
heartwater
Figure 13.3 A dosing gun for worming cattle
sheep and goats anthrax pleuro-pneumonia
bluetongue sheep pox
foot and mouth sheep scab Lameness
disease tetanus Injury to the feet or limbs can be due to a
foot rot trypanosomiasis sprain, the pulling of tendons, ligaments or
heartwater muscles, or could be a symptom of another dis-
swine influenza
ease. Some diseases of the foot lead to lame-
pigs anthrax
foot and mouth tetanus ness, e.g. foot rot. Where possible local treat-
disease tuberculosis ment of the affected leg should be carried out
swine fever by a vet. Lame animals are unable to compete
with the other stock for food, grazing or water.
poultry coccidiosis fowI typhoid
Newcastle disease
The use of foot baths can help to protect cattle
fowl cholera
fowl pox salmonellosis against foot infection.

Some important livestock diseases

Some health problems of livestock
Mineral deficiencies
An animal may become ill when some mineral
is missing from the diet. This often happens
with cattle during the dry season and can be
rectified by giving the animals mineral licks.
Calcium, sodium, magnesium, cobalt, iron,
phosphorus, copper and manganese are the
chief minerals which may need to be fed as
supplements.
Anthrax
This is one of the most serious of all livestock
diseases. Often there are no symptoms, the
animals just being found dead. The disease is
caused by a bacterium which may enter the
animal in various ways. The organisms mul-
tiply very rapidly in the blood stream. Animals
dying from anthrax must be burned and buried
deep down. Very great care must be taken as
the disease can spread to humans.

Infertility
Infertile animals are unable to breed; this can
lead to serious economic loss if it is not rec-
tified. There are many causes of infertility -
mineral or vitamin deficiency, hereditary
causes, poor gland functioning, sexual dis-
eases or a side-effect of another disease. Infer-
tility may be temporary but usually it is
necessary to breed from other stock.
Blackquarter
This is another fatal disease of cattle caused by
bacteria usually from the soil. Infected animals
go lame with swellings in the hip or shoulder.
Death follows after a few days.
Coccidiosis
The disease organism of this is a protozoan par-
asite called Eimeria which attacks the intes-

tines. It is quite common in calves but with
treatment they usually recover. In poultry, a
different species of coccidia is the cause. It is
common in all kinds of poultry unless preven-
tative medicine is used. This is usually an
ingredient added to the drinking water.
Contagious abortion
This disease causes a cow to abort her calf dur-
ing the pregnancy, usually between the fifth
and seventh month. It is caused by the bacter-
ium Brucella abortus which can enter the cow
in various ways. Protection is possible by vac-
cination but herds should first be tested to see
if they react to the agglutination test (extract-
ing samples of blood). Animals which do react
must be separated from the main herd.
Foot and mouth disease
As its name suggests, this disease affects the
feet and mouth of infected animals, mainly cat-
tle. Blisters are formed round the mouth and
on the hoof. It is caused by a virus and is
extremely contagious. It is a notifiable disease
and infected animals may have to be slaugh-
tered by law. However, local breeds of cattle
have in-built resistance to the disease and it is
the imported breeds which suffer most.
Fowl pox
This is a virus disease of chickens, transmitted
by mosquitoes. There are two forms of infec-
tion: one causing lumps on the comb and wat-
tles and the other causing swellings in the
mouth. The birds soon lose condition and may
have to fight for breath. Egg production
declines. Fowl pox can be prevented by means
of vaccination.
Mastitis
This is a common complaint of dairy cows. The
udder becomes hard and infected and the milk
yield is reduced. Lumps and sometimes blood
are found in the milk. The usual cause is a bac-
terium but mastitis can also beorought on by
injury. Drugs are available for treatment and
the problem soon clears up. Hygiene in the
dairy is the chief way of reducing mastitis.
Milk from an infected cow must not be sold or
used.
A nimal pests and diseases 177
Newcastle disease
Sometimes called 'Fowl Pest', this disease of
chickens causes birds to eat less food and drink
more water than usual; they may have diffi-
culty breathing and egg production falls. Vac-
cination should be used to protect chickens, as
the mortality (death rate) is very high.
Rabies
This is one of the most serious disease known
to man because it is almost always fatal.
Rabies is caused by a virus which lives in the
salivary glands and affects the brain. Dogs and
wild carnivores are the most common carriers
o~rabies. Infectio~ is caused wh~ a rabid dog
bites another animal. Infected animals get
excited and appear to go mad. There is no
treatment, and any animal with the disease
must be killed and buried (with extreme care).
Rinderpest
This disease (also known as cattle plague) has
been responsible for more cattle deaths in
Africa than any other disease. It is caused by
a virus picked up from infected animals or pas-
tures and may be fatal for about fifty percent
of the herd. Animals with rinderpest become
weak and look for shade. They develop sores on
the mouth and skin. Vaccination is possible for
protection against rinderpest.
Swine Feuer
This is a highly contagious disease of pigs,
caused by a virus and transmitted by insects.
Infected pigs stop eating and lose strength in
their hind quarters. They pass blood with their
dung and have difficulty in breathing. There
is no treatment for swine fever, and a slaugh-
ter policy is usually applied for infected herds.
Vaccinations are available to give some pro-
tection against the disease.
Common pests of livestock
Most of the pests which affect livestock are
parasites, that is organisms which feed inside
or on the surface of an animal, called the host.
Parasites receive all their food from the host,
and thus affect its health. However, they do
not usually kill the host as this would affect
178 O-Level Agriculture
ground and after a period of time when suit-
their own means of support. Instead the host
able conditions of warmth and moisture pre-
is weakened, loses condition and becomes less
vail, the eggs hatch out into larvae. The lar-
resistant to other diseases.
Parasites which live on the skin of a host vae look like small ticks but have only six
are called ectoparasites, and those which live legs. They are sometimes known as pepper
inside the host, either in the intestines or ticks. They crawl up stalks of grass and climb
in some other internal organs are called on to the legs of passing cattle.
The larvae then move over the animal's
endoparasites (Tables 13.3 and 13.4).
body until they reach a suitable place to be-
The life cycle of the tick come attached and to suck blood. This is often
in the ears, in the vulva or anus, round the
The tick undergoes four stages during its de-
eyes, on the udder or on the underside of the
velopment: egg, larva, nymph and adult, in a
animal where the hide is not so thick. They
process similar to insect metamorphosis. Hard
then feed heavily and become engorged with
ticks (Ixodidae), which are the more important
blood. In this condition they rest and their
type in agriculture, are grouped according to
body undergoes various changes in structure.
the number of hosts they have during the com-
Eventually they moult, i.e. shed their larval
pletion of their life cycle - one-, two- or three-
skin and emerge as nymphs. The nymphs then
host ticks. feed on blood, engorge, rest and moult into
A mature female hard tick lays eggs on the
adult ticks (Figure 13.4).
In the adult stage, mating takes place and
Table 13.3 the adults once again become engorged on
Some ectoparasites of livestock blood. The females drop off the host and lay
their eggs on the ground, thus completing the
Parasite Characteristics life cycle.
ticks These small organisms are widely found
throughout the tropics. They belong to the group
Arachnida. They have eight legs and do not have Table 13.4
the body divisions found in insects. There are two
Some endoparasites of livestock
kinds of tick affecting livestock, the hard tick and
the soft tick, but many different species. They feed
Parasite Characteristics
on the host's blood supply and may also pass
disease organisms into the host when piercing the
liver fluke This is a flatworm which lives in the liver of cattle,
skin. sheep and goats. It has a secondary host, the water
snail.
lice Lice are small biting insects which do not have
wings. There are several kinds of louse, and each
roundworm The roundworm is a common parasite of pigs but
kind is specific to a particular type of host, e.g.
affects other livestock as well. It lives in the
poultry louse, pig louse. They live on the skin of the
intestine and feeds on the food eaten by the host.
host and suck its blood.

tapeworm This is a serious internal parasite of pigs because it

mosquito The mosquito is a familiar domestic pest as it is
can be transmitted to humans through the meat. It
responsible for the spread of malaria in humans.
attaches itself to the intestinal wall of the human
Unlike ticks and lice, mosquitoes move from one
and absorbs the digested food nutrients in the
host to another to obtain their food. They pierce
the skin, suck blood and may inject disease intestine.

organisms.
bilharzia Bilharzia is a flatworm which can affect livestock
and humans. It travels through the host's body and
tsetse fly These insects are responsible for carrying
is associated mainly with the bladder, causing
trypanosomes the disease organisms which cause
discomfort when urinating. The urine may also
sleeping sickness in humans and trypanosomiasis
contain blood. Bilharzia has a secondary host,
in livestock. They draw blood from one host and
the water snail and the animal can become
then move on to another. Once they have the
infected by standing in water containing
trypanosomes in their saliva they can infect many
bilharzia snails.
host animals.
 Animal pests and diseases 179
eggs hatch into larvae
which crawl onto grass
engorged adult female tick
lays eggs on ground larvae crawl onto
in favourable conditions first host, become
attached and feed
on blood

1
engorged larvae
drop off onto ground

1
larvae moult
into nymphs

nymphs (young ticks) ./

crawl up grass ~
-, and onto second host

I
nymphs become attached
and feed on blood

engorged nymphs rest adults climb up grass

then drop onto ground
and onto third host
and moult into adult ticks

adult ticks become

attached then mate

1
adults feed on blood
and become engorged

engorged adult female tick

falls to gtound and lays eggs

Figure 13.4 The life cycle of the three-host cattle tick

The one-host tick For example, the blue ground. The adult tick then finds a second
tick completes the whole of its life cycle on one animal host to complete the life cycle.
animal.
The three-host tick For example, the bont
The two-host tick For example, the red- tick. In this case the larvae drop to the ground
legged tick drops off one host as an engorged and moult into nymphs which then climb on to
nymph and moults into an adult on the a second animal. The engorged nymphs drop
180 O-Level Agriculture
to the ground and moult into adults and these Table 13.5
in turn find a third host for the final stage of Tick-borne diseases
their life cycle.
Disease Tick Symptoms Interval
of dipping
Apart from causing an open sore or wound on
the skin of the host, ticks may also be carriers redwater blue tick quick 14 days
of a disease organism which gets into the breathing, no
blood and affects the health of the stock. This appetite, high
is the main harm done by ticks, and the temperature,
restless, blood
reason for their control. The period of incuba-
in urine
tion, which is the time taken for the disease
organism to become effective in the animal's heartwater bont tick twitching, 5 days
body, varies from 5 days to several weeks high
(Table 13.5). temperature,
walking in
When the animals are being dipped or
circles; water
sprayed it is essential to know which ticks are collects round
present so that the life cycle can be broken. In the heart
the case of the bont three-host tick, spraying
is necessary every 5 days in order to be sure of East Coast brown tick high 5 days
keeping the pe~nder control. fever temperature,
swollen lymph
glands, heavy
Treatment and control breathing
The only effective way of protecting cattle
against tick-borne diseases is for them to be gall sickness blue tick nervous 14 days
dipped or sprayed regularly. Various chemic- behaviour,
jaundice, an
als are used for the dip mixture; gammexane animal may
BHC is commonly used. It is important to become
keep the mixture at the right concentration if aggressive
the ticks are to be killed, and all parts of the

Figure 13.5 A spray race for cattle


animal must be treated, including under the
tail, underneath and in the ears.
The cattle are collected in a pen, then led
through a crush pen to the dip tank or spray
race. Then they wait in a kraal while the ticks
drop off. The animals can then be returned to
the pasture (Figure 13.5).
Tsetse fly
The tsetse fly is an insect belonging to the
order Diptera and the genus Glossina. It is one
of the most economically important insect
pests in the tropics and it inhabits large areas
of West, East and central Africa (Figure 13.6).
There are several different species of tsetse fly
and each one prefers a particular type of land,
usually a type of tree savanna.
Figure 13.6 Areas of Africa affected by tsetse fly
The t~ fly is important because it car-
ries microscopic organisms called trypano-
somes which are Protozoa (Figure 13.7). They
cause the disease sleeping sickness in hu-
mans and the disease trypanosomiasis in
cattle, both of which often cause death. Thus,
areas where tsetse flies are found are sparsely
populated and are unsuitable for cattle rear-
ing.
Tsetse flies feed on blood which they obtain
from animals by biting and piercing the skin
with their mouthparts and sucking in a small
quantity of blood. The trypanosomes are car-
Animal pests and diseases 181
Figure 13.7 A trypanosome - these microscopic
protozoans pass into the blood of an animal from the
saliva of the tsetse fly
ried in the salivary glands and when an anim-
al is bitten some of these disease organisms
are passed into the bloodstream where they
multiply and cause infection (Figure 13.8).
The chief symptoms of trypanosomiasis in
livestock are a fever, loss of appetite and
general weakness. It may take up to a year for
the animal to die but death is usually within a
few weeks.
Where livestock and humans are absent
from tsetse fly country, the insect is able to
survive by living on game animals which are
immune to the trypanosomes in their blood.
Tsetse flies carry out incomplete meta-
morphosis. The female lays one larva at a
time on vegetation. The larva feeds on the
plant material for a few days then moults into
a pupa which is able to withstand unfavour-
able conditions such as drought. When the
adult emerges it immediately flies off in
search of a bloodmeal. Compared to other in-
sects, their range is not very wide and they
usually stay within a small area of bush.
Treatment and control
Certain drugs are available for the treatment
of livestock which have been infected with try-
panosomiasis. Where cattle are kept near to
tsetse fly country or are to be moved through
it, protection can be given by injecting the
drugs.
Control of the spread of the tsetse fly has
been achieved by bush clearance followed by
putting up fences to prevent game animals
from carrying the flies on to farm land. Final-
ly insecticides sprayed over the land help to
produce a tsetse-free zone beyond which it is
possible to rear cattle. Cattle rustling and
moving cattle without a permit or without
proper precautions have led to an increase in
tsetse infested areas. Many countries have a
182 O-Level Agriculture
a tsetse fly bites a
domestic animal and trypanosomes become lodged
passes trypanosomes inside salivary glands
into its blood of tsetse fly
tsetse fly carriers
move from one
animal to another
•
Figure 13.8 How trypanosomiasis is passed on
Tsetse Fly Control Department whose respon-
sibilities include manning control barriers
along roads leading from tsetse areas.
Vehicles are sprayed with insecticide to prevent
tsetse flies being carried into other areas.
The life cycle of the liver fluke
The liver fluke is a flatworm (Figure 13.10)
which is a harmful parasite in cattle, sheep,
goats and other animals. It requires two hosts
for the completion of its life cycle: the primary
host, usually cattle, and the secondary host, a
water snail. Livestock suffer liver fluke infec-
tion most often when grazing on wet land.
The fluke is shaped like a leaf and it be-
comes attached in the liver of its host. It ob-
tains all its food from the liver by sucking
through its mouth which is specially adapted
as a sucker. In the liver fluke, the sexes are not
separate so each individual is able to fertilise
itself. Organisms which have both male and
l0r--a-tse-tse -fly b-ites-an ---.
infected animal and
sucks up the blood
containing trypanosomes
wild animals such as
bush pigs and wart hogs
carry trypanosomes in their
blood but may be immune
to their effects - they do not
suffer trypanosomiasis
female sex organs in them are called her-
maphrodites. When fertilisation has taken
place, eggs are formed and these pass out of
the liver into the intestines by way of the gall
bladder and duodenum. Eventually the eggs
pass out of the host with its faeces.
Under the right conditions of moisture and
warmth the eggs hatch into larvae which
swim through the water in search of a water
snail. When they reach a snail they burrow in-
side it and undergo several changes. If they do
not find a snail they soon die. After a few days
new larvae called miracidia emerge from the
snail and swim through the water. When
these reach some grass or reeds they form
hard cysts which are able to survive dry condi-
tions.
If these cysts are eaten by grazing cattle or
sheep they deve op inside the host. The larvae
which emerge bu ow through the animal's
intestines and enter e liver where they
develop into mature liver s.
 Animal pests and diseases 183

Figure 13.9 A cattle crush pen. It enables the animals to be inspected or treated.

larvae climb
on to grass and
form cysts .1

secondary larvae (cercaria)

pass out of snail and larva develops
larva enters
swim through water inside snail
water snail

Figure 13.10 The life cycle of the liver fluke

184 O-Level Agriculture

undercooked meat
containing cysts
eaten by man
pig killed for meat I

I
cysts break down
bladderworm develops
in muscles of pig

and tapeworm
becomes attached to the t"t---' ---
intestine wall by its
hooked head

eggs pass out

with faeces

"'"
"
,----------,
in poor sanitation
eggs are picked up by pigs
- eggs hatch out
in pig's intestine
and pass into
the bloodstream

Figure 13.11 The life cycle of the tapeworm in the pig

Treatment and control male and female sex organs. Self-fertilisation

In areas where liver fluke is a problem cattle
and other stock affected should be dosed with
a suitable drug. This kills the flukes inside
the animal's body. Other ways of reducing the
spread of liver fluke are to keep livestock off
wet pasture by fencing or to provide drainage
ditches. Sometimes the open water is treated
with a molluscicide (a chemical for killing
snails or molluscs).
Tapeworm
The tapeworm is a parasitic flatworm found in
several species of domestic animals and lives-
tock. It is a serious pest in cattle and pigs be-
cause it can pass to humans through meat
which has not been properly cooked.
The adult tapeworm can grow to several
metres in length and secures itself to the in-
testinal wall of the first host (humans). The
body is made up of a series of segments or
proglottids each of which produces its own
takes place and eggs are formed. These pass
out with the faeces of the host.
If a pig (the second host) picks up the soft
eggs while rooting for its food, the soft shells
dissolve and small larvae emerge. These pass
through the pig's bloodstream and into muscle
tissue. In the pig's muscles the larvae form
cysts surrounded by a fluid. At this stage they
are called bladder worms and they remain in
the muscle without 'growing any more. If the
pig is slaughtered and cut up for meat, the
cysts are still able to infect another host. They
may be killed by thorough cooking, but in
poorly cooked meat they pass into the intes-
tines where they continue their life cycle (Fig-
ure 13.11),
The pork and beef tapeworms are quite
distinct but they both use humans as an
intermediate host, Sometimes a host can be in-
fected by a tapeworm without showing symp-
toms, In humans, the tapeworm uses the food

embryos burrow into
heart and lungs and
pass into the
small intestine
pig eats
embryonated
eggs
Figure 13.12 The life cycle of the roundworm in the pig
eaten and digested by the host. The host is
thus unable to absorb sufficient nutrients.
Tapeworms in livestock may damage the liver,
lungs or brain before reaching the muscle.
Treatment and control
Drugs can be used to protect livestock against
the tapeworm and dosing should be carried
out regularly. There is no specific treatment of
infected animals.
Careful meat inspection has reduced the
spread of tapeworms. Good domestic sanitation
also prevents the spread of eggs through the
faeces. Pigs should be kept in clean pens to en-
sure that they do not pick up the infection.
Roundworm
Roundworms require only a single host to
complete their life cycle. Most animals are li-
able to become infected by one of the species of
roundworms at some stage of their lives, parti-
cularly young animals. The roundworm of pigs
(Ascaris suum) is a common parasitic pest.
Many of the adult roundworms live in the
intestine of the host where they mature and
reproduce. Unlike the liver fluke and tape-
worm, the sexes of the roundworm are sepa-
rate. A fertilised female produces many
Animal pests and diseases 185
adult worms
mate in small
intestine
thousands of eggs which pass along the intes-
tine and leave the body of the host with the
faeces. Roundworms are about 30 em long and
have a hard skin to prevent them from being
digested by the host's enzymes.
The eggs may survive for several months
but in warm moist conditions they develop
into embryonated eggs which are ripe for
further infection. If a pig eats an embryonated
egg with its food this passes into the pig's in-
testine where the embryo emerges. Although
they are present in the intestine the embryos
are not yet ready to develop into adult round-
worms. To do this they must burrow through
the host feeding and growing as they move.
The tiny embryos first burrow through the
walls of the intestine and into the heart. They
then move along the blood vessel walls to the
lungs, where they burrow into the air pas-
sages. Next they pass up the trachea and
reach the throat of the host animal. As food is
swallowed, the developing embryos are carried
along with it into the stomach and finally
back into the intestine. This journey takes
several weeks and causes the animal to lose
condition and become weak and often irrit-
able. The worms then develop into mature
adults completing the life cycle (Figure 13.12).
186 O-Level Agriculture
mature warble flies mate

I
lumps formed on back
with larvae inside

warble fly maggots

hatch from eggs, burrow
under skin of animal and
reach its back
tI
adult warble fly
hatches out of pupa

larvae fall to ground and pupate

then wait for suitable conditions

Figure 13.13 The life cycle of the warble fly

Treatment and control

Treatment and control
It is possible to squeeze the maggots out of the
All livestock should be dosed against intestin-
swellings on the animal's back so that they
al worms and the treatment should be re-
can be killed. Medication is then applied to
peated at regular intervals. Clean husbandry
the wounds. Where warble flies are a serious
practices also help to reduce infection,
pest, the coats of the animals can be painted
together with careful meat inspection.
with a substance to kill the maggots under the
Warble fly skin. It is also possible to apply insect repel-
lant to the legs of cattle to stop the warble fly
The warble fly is a small insect which lays its
eggs on cattle. The pest is of agricultural im- from laying its eggs.
portance because it causes holes in the
skins and hides, thus reducing their value. An
infected animal suffers discomfort and there Questions
may be some loss of production.
The eggs are laid on hairs on the legs of cat- 1 a Name an insect that is a carrier of a
tle. Small larvae emerge from these eggs and named disease of a named farm animal.
these burrow into the animal's skin. They b (i) Give a brief account of the life-
crawl under the skin, eating flesh and grow- history of the carrier of the disease
ing in size as they go. Eventually the larvae you have named.
reach the animal's back where they rest and (ii) What measures can the farmer take
form swellings. At this stage the larvae are to control the disease (C)
called maggots and each maggot makes a hole 2 a What general precautionary or preventa-
in the swelling through which it crawls and tive measures can be taken to prevent in-
falls to the ground. fection with, or spread of, diseases of
The maggot then pupates and finally adult animals?
warble flies emerge to continue the life cycle. b Give an account of the life history of one
Cattle are infected by the warble fly larvae for named pest of farm animals.
about 9 months before the maggots emerge c Why is knowledge of the life history of
(Figure 13.13). such organisms important in determining
 Animal pests and diseases 187
the methods of prevention or control that b Name two diseases caused by ecto-
should be adopted? (C)
parasites and describe the symptoms of
3 a What are the chief signs of health in a the diseases.
named type of farm livestock?
c What preventative measures can be
b What are the most common symptoms of taken to protect livestock from the two
disease in a named type of livestock you diseases you have mentioned?
have studied?
5 a Describe the life-cycle of a named inter-
c What do you understand by the term pa-
nal parasite of cattle, sheep or goats.
rasite? Give two examples of parasites on
b What treatment and control measures
livestock and state the method of control
used for them. can be taken with regard to this parasite?
c Why should a farmer try to ensure 'clean'
4 a Describe the life-cycle of a named ecto-
land for his livestock?
parasite of cattle.
,~e;.." ey 'Q9~_ _ ~ _ ~ G~ .~~&.::\.c(\.{
.-\\.. \.b ~ \'--'- 'vc~~~ '\ ~~ ~
-- AM
- ~\(
\~Q..6../~6::i \-b.~
\-0 ut;v=~<J-:-e' ,~~~\~
~-M
~
-'-f)
)
 14
The design and construction of any buildings,
fences, roads or other structures on a farm
requires careful attention and planning. The
) farmer should look to the future. He wants his
buildings to last a long time and he does not
want to have to move them because they have
been put in the wrong place. First of all, an
overall plan should be drawn up showing the
layout of the land and any existing buildings.
He may need to seek advice from the Depart-
ment of Agriculture about the siting of a new
building. Once the most suitable position has
been decided, the area is measured up and a
detailed plan is drawn.
The main purpose of a farm structure must
be to enable a farming operation to be carried
out more efficiently. Buildings are put up to
provide shelter and protection whether for
animals, grain or machinery. Fences are put
up so that the livestock can be kept under
control.
The materials used will depend on what is
available locally, and on the cost. Structures
should be strong and well built so they will do
their job properly and last a long time.
Building materials
Wood
This is one of the most natural and readily
available of the building materials, but not all
wood is suitable. Mopane and mubanga trees
make very strong resistant hardwood poles for
Farm Structures
fencing and buildings. Softwood poles, from
gum trees or pines are grown specially for
building purposes. They must be seasoned (left
outside for a time to dry out) and treated with
creosote or other chemicals to protect them
from attack by insects.
Sawn timber is used for more accurate con-
struction. It is available in various sizes and
lengths after it has been cut at the saw mill.
Planed timber has been finished by using a
plane to give a smooth surface. This is more
expensive and is only used where a high stan-
dard of work is required.
Mud
Soil suitable for use in building should have a
good mixture of sand and clay present. Too
much sand makes the structure weak and too
much clay causes cracking. Sometimes the
mixture of mud is smeared over the walls
made of wood, wattle, bamboo or other plant
material, as in many village houses.
Mud blocks or bricks are made by compress-
ing the mud mixture into moulds. They are
then left to dry for several days.
Soil cement blocks
Soil cement is made by mixing soil and cement
together with water. Blocks made from soil
cement are very hard and are cheaper than
cement blocks. The quality of the block made
will depend on what soil you use. Gravel soils
and coarse sandy soils are best. Fine sand, clay
and soils rich in humus are not so good because

Figure 14.1 Screening sand and gravel
the cement does not bind the particles together
C properly.
__)l
First, dry the soil being used by spreading
l
it out in the sun. Then pass the soil through a
10 mm screen to remove the stones and big
lumps (Figure 14.1). Only use particles less
than 10 mm. Spread the soil on a clean surface,
then add cement powder at a ratio of
Figure 14.2 Making soil cement blocks
Farm structures 189
1 bucket of cement powder
to
10 buckets of soil
Mix the soil and cement thoroughly, heap it
into a cone, then slowly add water to the
centre. Turn the mixture over thoroughly
while the water is being added.
Finally, put the mixture into a mould. The
size of a standard mould is 29 em x 14 em x
9·4 em (Figure 14.2). The blocks must be com-
pressed heavily, to remove any air spaces, as
soon as the mixture has been put in the
mould. This is done by pounding them with a
heavy pole. When the blocks have set, the
mould is removed. The blocks should be 'cured'
before they are used for building. This makes
them less likely to break and is done by keep-
ing them watered and under shade for ten
days.
Burned bricks
These are made from clay soils containing iron
oxide and aluminium silicate. The clay is cut
into blocks and these are stacked into a frame
structure leaving a space inside for the fire.
The stack is plastered with mud to retain the
190 O-Level Agriculture
heat within the bricks, and the fire is kept
alight for several days, until the bricks are
fully burned. They are brittle but stronger
than mud bricks when bonded together in a
wall.

Concrete
Concrete is a very hard rock-like material,
often used for the floors of buildings. It is made
by mixing together sand, cement, aggregate
(small stones) and water. River sand is best for
concrete because it has large particles. The
sand should be as clean as possible, that is it
should have no weeds or soil in it. A local
builder will give advice about the best mixing
proportions for local materials. One suitable
mixing ratio is as follows:
4 buckets of sand
Figure 14.3 Mixing concrete
2 buckets of aggregate
1 bucket of cement (powder). These give the shape of the block. A common
Place the dry materials on a clean smooth size of block IS 45 em x 19 em x 15 em
surface, such as a large board or polythene (Figure 14.5).
sheet, and mix them thoroughly by turning
them over many times using a shovel Mortar
(Figure 14.3). Then add the water slowly and This is the mixture used in bricklaying or
keep on turning the mixture over until no dry blocklaying to bind the bricks together. It is
particles are seen. Do not make it too wet. made from a mixture of 4 parts sand to 1 part
The wet concrete is then applied using a cement. Bricks being mortared should be
shovel or trowel. The finished concrete must wetted first to give a better bind.
then be cured by keeping it damp under sacks
for fourteen days. Thatch
Grass is probably the best type of roofing
Concrete blocks material in many structures because it is
These are often made instead of 'burnt' clay cheap, easily renewable and has better prop-
bricks. Mix the concrete as before and when it erties of insulation than manufactured roofing
is ready put it into moulds (Figure 14.4). materials. However, there is always a fire risk

Figure 14.4 Moulds for concrete blocks Figure 14.5 Concrete blocks drying

Figure 14.6 Foundation for thatch
with thatched structures. The best thatching
grasses are generally well known locally.
Thatch must be laid on the roof thickly. The
slope must be steep to allow water to run off
quickly (Figure 14.6). A stronger frame for
thatching can be achieved by covering the
ridge with wire netting and cementing it over.
Corrugated iron sheets
These are now widely used as a strong roofing
material, not attacked by insects. The sheets
overlap giving full protection from the rain.
The problem with corrugated iron is that it
goes rusty and heats up quickly in the sun,
making the building very hot inside.
1
50 em
I
Figure 14.7 Fence posts
Farm structures 191
Asbestos
This hard wearing material is available in
sheets for roofing. It is secured to the timber
roof frame by special nails. The asbestos sheets
have to be drilled for the nails to prevent them
breaking up.
Floors
Concrete is the strongest and most hard wear-
ing material for floors. If it is finished properly
it provides a smooth surface which can be
easily washed and kept clean. The foundations
of the floor must be very firm and level (unless
a small slope is required to allow water to run
off). The thickness of the concrete laid depends
on the use of the building. For a feed store
50 mm is sufficient, but for animal housing
100 mm may be required. If tractors or
machinery are to be kept on it a thickness of
200 mm may be necessary.
Compacted mud floors are quite SU:itahlafur
smaller grain stores, e.g. for maize cobs.
Fencing
Once the position of the proposed kraal has
been decided, mark out the lines of the fence
with string. Place pegs along the string at each
point where a post is to be dug. The use of drop-
pers in a fence reduces the number of main
posts or standards needed. Droppers are thin
Figure 14.8 Supporting corners offences
192 O-Level Agriculture
poles which support the wire of the fence but
do not reach the ground. The spacing of the
standards depends on how big the kraal is and
whether the wire can be strained tight. Posts
at 8 m intervals with three droppers spaced
2 m apart in between is suitable for a kraal.
The post holes should be 50 cm deep and
30 em in diameter (Figure 14.7). The poles
should be 180 em in length and 15 ern in dia-
meter. When you put posts in, start with a cor-
ner post. Mix some concrete and put it down
each hole, pressing it firmly around the post.
Give the corners of the fence extra support by
putting an extra post 1 m each side of the cor-
ner (Figure 14.8). Then fit a cross piece of
wood across the top and secure crossed wires.
Barbed wire is then fixed, once the posts are
in place, starting in a corner with the top line
of wire. A wire straining apparatus is essential
for good results. This is secured at one end of
the fence (Figure 14.9). When the wire has
been pulled tight it is stapled to the posts.
Four rows of barbed wire 30 em apart is suf-
ficient. (Another method of wiring is to have
barbed wire at the top and bottom and three
rows of tightly pulled plain wire in between,
25 em apart.)
Lastly, the droppers are tied to the barbed
wire at regular intervals, using 'soft' wire.
Types of fence
The purpose of a fence is to act as a barrier to
keep stock within a controlled area. The type
of fence put up depends on the area of land
being controlled.
1 Post and rail fencing: This type consists of
posts fixed firmly into the ground usually
Figure 14.9 Stretching barbed wire
with concrete and the cross members being
made of poles or cut timber nailed into
place. This is strong fencing and is suitable
for kraals or crushes where there is heavy
use by cattle.
2 Barbed wire fencing: Strands of barbed wire
are pulled tight between the wooden postsg
Usually four strands are sufficient with
30 em between each strand.
3 Suspension fencing: This may make use of
plain wire for some of the strands instead
of barbed wire. Fewer posts are used and
instead 'droppers' are inserted into the sus-
pended wire.
4 Diamond mesh fencing: This is strong wire
mesh available in different widths. It is
nailed to strong posts sunk firmly in the
ground and placed fairly close together. The
bottom of the wire needs to be buried about
20 em to prevent animals burrowing under-
neath. It may serve to fence an area for
pigs.
5 Electric fencing: This method consists of a
power source, usually a battery, leading to
a single strand of wire stretching across a
field and supported by insulated stakes.
The purpose of the electric fence is to give
any animal touching it a mild electric shock
making it step back. The advantage of this
type of fencing is that it can be moved each
day, or whenever necessary, and no post
hole digging is needed. Strip grazing of cat-
tle is usually controlled in this way.
Hedges
Hedges are lines of small woody plant material
planted specially to form a barrier. Hedges can

Figure 14.10 A windbreak protecting a tobacco plot
form good stock barriers but they are always
at risk from fire and need careful maintenance.
Windbreaks
As the name suggests, windbreaks act as a
means of breaking or stopping the effect of
wind. They may be made of natural material
such as planted trees or shrubs or artificial
material such as plastic sheeting, or they may
be made from reeds woven together to form a
fence. Windbreaks are normally used to protect
gardens or nursery beds but where there is a
strong prevailing wind they can be used to give
cattle some shelter (Figure 14.10).
Gates
Room for gates should be left at the most con-
venient position in the fence. It is not necess-
ary to have a hinged gate. The gate should be
tied to the gate post with loops of wire, and ex-
Farm structures 193
tra supporting posts should be fixed 1 m either
side of the gate posts.
A stronger and safer gate can be made by
using double poles either side of the opening,
and sliding poles between them horizontally.
The gate is opened by sliding the horizontal
poles across (Figure 14.11).
Structures for cattle
The cattle crush
This is a corridor where cattle are sprayed or
given other treatment. The cattle crush is 9 m
long and the cattle enter through a 'funnel' 4 m
long. The inside width is only 60 em so the cat-
tle cannot turn round inside the crush. If the
crush is not built correctly the cattle cannot be
handled properly. A plan of the crush is shown
in Figure 14.12.
194 O-Level Agriculture
loops of wire joining posts
Inailed on) poles slide in from side

Figure 14.11 A gate using sliding poles

Treated gum poles make good posts because Make the floor of the crush by watering the
they have an even width. They should be 12 ern soil and compressing it, and then covering it
in diameter and 2 m long. Sink each post 60 cm with concrete.
into the ground and make it firm with concrete. The cattle dip
Then fix the rails onto the poles using bolts
pushed through drilled holes. Leave 25 em The dipping tank for cattle should be sited on
space between each rail. Use square cut tim- well drained land with access to a good water
ber, 5-8 cm across, for making the rails. supply. The base and walls must be made of
concrete to hold the fluid. A concrete footbath
along the entrance race helps to reduce the
amount of mud taken into the main tank. The
concrete surface should be rough cast or ridged
to enable the cattle to get a good grip with their
poles placed feet. The tank itself should be 5 metres long,
across for gate excluding the exit ramp (Figure 14.13).
The spray race
The cattle spray race consists of a section of
enclosed fenced corridor having walls and a
roof (see Figure 14.14). Internally it is fitted
9m with overhead or side-positioned nozzles which
spray the acaricide (tick control fluid). As the
cattle move along they have to pass through a
spray which wets them and provides the neces-
sary control against tick-borne diseases.
All that is required in its construction there-
fore is a wall either side of the corridor, a roof
poles placed
across for gate and a concrete base. The spray pump is driven
by a small engine mounted nearby and the
fluid is fed from an adjacent tank.
A calf pen
A plan of a calf pen is shown in Figure 14.15.
funnel It is big enough for six calves, allowing 2 m2
floor space per calf. There is a fenced paddock
in front of the pen.
The sides of the calf pen can be built of kim-
~ttlegOin berly bricks' or diamond mesh fencing. A brick
wall should be 130 em high with a space for
Figure 14.12 Cattle crush ventilation between the top of the wall and the
 Farm structures 195

footbath
_4m_

concrete _--8m--~-.
_--5m--_

Figure 14.13 Cattle dip

ready for use

in operation
(al
(bl

Figure 14.14 Spray race

roof. If there is a risk ofleopards or other pred-
ators they must be kept out by poles placed
_3 m ----.----- 6m ----_ on top of the wall. The roof should slope from
a height of 240 em at the front to 180 em at the
back. A thatched roof is most suitable because
1
4m
fenced paddock
it is a better insulator than corrugated iron.

j Pig housing
Pig housing should provide the following:
1 Enough space for the pigs to move about.
Figure 14.15 Plan of calfpen 2 Shade from the sun.
196 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 14.16 Pig housing made from concrete blocks
3 Protection from rain or cold winds.
4 A dry area for sleeping.
5 A strong floor.
6 Strong walls.
7 A door which the pigs cannot break through
on their own.
S A trough for food and water.
Pigs are easiest to manage if they are kept
in a building all the time, but if there is a
shortage of space they can be kept outside in
a field which has strong fencing and some trees
for shade.
Boars and sows, which may be kept for sev-
eral years, should be kept in a fenced paddock
and not on concrete /or long; or tbey mtiy get
foot infections.
Before building a pig unit you must decide
how many pigs are going to be kept. A twin
unit, of two separate pens, is suitable for a sow
and weaners but if a boar is kept another pen
is needed.
Fattening pigs require approximately 1·3 m2
of floor space each, while a sow needs about
6 m2• The size of a pen can be worked out by
multiplying the number of pigs to be kept by
the area needed for each pig. For example 10
2
fattening pigs require (10 x 1·3 m2) = 13 m
floor space. So a unit measuring 4 m x 3·5 m
would give approximately the right amount of
space, allowing for the trough (Figure 14.16).
The floor
This should be made of concrete or bricks
skimmed with cement. The floor should have
good iOlllJOatj01J3 apout ~o em deep, If it has
any weaknesses the pigs will soon dig it up. It
should slope slightly towards the door so that
the dung can be cleaned out easily. The surface
should not be slippery, either when dry or wet,
or a pig may slip and break a leg.

The walls
It is best to make the walls of bricks covered
with cement but this may be too expensive.
Pigs like to scratch themselves against a wall
so if there are any lumps or cracks in the sur-
face these will soon be made worse. Diamond
mesh fencing and poles are sometimes used for
walls but they do not last as long as brick walls
because it is easier for the pigs to put their
snouts in between the wire. Poles that are used
should be resistant, such as mubanga, or
treated with creosote or old engine oil to pro-
tect them against termites.
The door
A simple door for a pig pen is shown in
Figure 14.17. It is easy to remove and keeps
the pigs in. Doors on hinges easily get broken.
~80cm~
Figure 14.17 Pig pen door
The roof
This must protect the pigs from rain and sun.
It does not need to cover the whole of the pig
pen and need only be 170 em high. It can be
made of corrugated iron, asbestos or grass
thatch. It should slope to one side to let the
rainwater run off.
The trough
This is where the food is placed (Figure 14.18).
It is best if it is made of concrete and fixed to
the floor. There should be 30 em of trough
space for each pig. It should be about 15 em
deep and rounded at the bottom so that there
are no corners where dirt can collect. Some-
times food is given on the floor and the trough
is used for water. In some modern pig units
Farm structures 197
Figure 14.18 Pig trough
there is no trough at all. The food is put on the
floor and eaten dry, and water is fed through
nipples fixed to the wall. The floor must
always be very clean if food is placed on it.
The troughs should have outlet pipes fitted
so that they can be cleaned with a hosepipe.
Sheep and goats
A normal kraal is no good for keeping animals
that are smaller than cattle because they will
easily get out through the railings. A paddock
for sheep or goats should be made from dia-
mond mesh fencing which is supported by
tightly pulled barbed wire. The bottom edge of
the fencing roll must be buried 10 em under-
ground and fixed to tightly pulled barbed wire
so that the animals cannot dig underneath it.
The gate can be made of diamond mesh fencing
stapled to a frame of poles, bolted together. The
size of the paddock depends on how many
animals are kept in it.
Poultry
Poultry houses must protect the birds from
wind, rain, sun and predators like cats. They
can be constructed easily and cheaply. Brick
built houses are more expensive than pole
houses but they last much longer. Even treated
poles rot in the ground after a few years.
Work out the dimensions of a house for
layers allowing 1 m2 floor space for every three
198 O-Level Agriculture
(a)

_--------8m-------- ...•

4m
1
\
corrugated iron roof
brick and cement walls
wire netting windows

(b)

_--------8m---------

4m
1
\ corrugated iron roof
pole and wire netting walls
with sacking at ends
2 m high at front
1.6 m high at back

(c)

thatched roof
pole and mud walls
wire netting windows
3 m high at centre

Figure 14.19 Three different designs of poultry house


layers. A building 8 m X 4 m is big enough for
100 layers. Some examples of houses suitable
for 100 layers are shown in Figure 14.19.
House (a): This is the type of poultry house
recommended by the Department of Agricul-
ture. It is quite expensive to build but will last
many years.
House (b): This is the same length and width
as house (a), but it is much cheaper to build.
The walls are made of treated gum poles and
wire netting. Sacking is nailed round the ends
and part of the sides to give protection from the
wind. The front is 2 m high, and the corrugated
iron roof slopes down to 1'6 m at the back. Cut
timber is needed for the cross pieces to which
the roof is nailed. The corner posts are con-
creted in but the other posts are just embedded
in soil. The door is hinged and must be close-
Farm structures 199
fitting to stop cats entering.
House (c): This round type is made of local
poles, mud and thatch with wire netting round
the walls. It is cheap to build.
Broiler houses
These are constructed in the same way as
layers' houses, but broilers need less space
(1 m2 for 6-8 birds). Broilers only remain in
the house for a few weeks.
The brooder house
This is for chicks and should be built of brick
as this helps to keep the room at a fairly even
temperature and keeps out the wind. It needs
good ventilation but there must be no
draughts.
15
Water for agriculture

be lowered. Wells are sometimes lined with

Water supply bricks. A strong supporting wall is required at
the top to house the pulley. A slab may be used
Water can be obtained either from the land to cover the well to prevent objects falling in.
surface, e.g. streams, rivers, lakes or from Where the water has to be obtained from
beneath the surface as ground water, e.g. deep down, a borehole is sunk (Figure 15.2).
springs, wells and boreholes. This is usually drilled by machinery and the
Surface water pump mechanism is housed at the bottom of
the borehole because there is a limit to how
The problem of obtaining water from rivers is high water can be lifted but water can easily be
that there is often a considerable rise and fall
pumped up from below.
in water level during the year. In the rainy
season rivers may flood the surrounding land
and in the dry season they may even dry up
completely. The siting of a weir or dam has to
Water storage
be carefully planned to get the most value from
Metal tanks or concrete tanks are often used
it. Weirs may be made from timber or stones
to store water for farm use (Figure 15.3). The
and their purpose is to check the flow of a
water is pumped into them from a nearby
stream so that there is an available supply of
supply. Earth tanks or reservoirs may be lined
water behind the weir. Dams are major struc-
with plastic sheeting to prevent seepage.
tures built across valleys to hold back a river
or to collect water from the surrounding area. Lifting water
This water is then available for irrigation,
A centrifugal pump is the commonest kind of
domestic use or generating electricity.
water pump for lifting water and pushing it out
Ground Water to the field or pipeline. These pumps are
powered by diesel or electric engines and turn
A spring is formed where an underground
very rapidly enabling large quantities of water
stream reaches the surface. This is due to an
underlying layer of impermeable rock which to be pumped.
does not allow water to seep through. The Conveyance of water
water therefore flows to the surface. Wells are
Water can be conveyed by means of surface
the most common source of water in villages.
channels made of concrete or through pipes,
They are usually dug by hand to a depth of 5
made of metal or plastic. Pipes have to be
to 15 metres depending on the depth of the
joined together so a water tight join is neces-
water table. Water continually seeps into the
well leaving a pool into which the bucket can sary.
202 O-Level Agriculture

Figure 15.3 Water storage tanks

world is a common cause of crop failure. If wa-

ter is available from an alternative source
when the rains fail then crops are able to sur-
vive. Farmers have long realised that irriga-
tion during the dry season enables them to
grow crops throughout the year instead of just
during the rainy season.
The purpose of irrigation is to supply a crop
with sufficient water to enable it to grow prop-
erly. This means making sure that the soil re-
ceives the correct amount of water to support
the crop. Consideration must be given to the
climate of the area, the needs of the crop being
Figure 15.2 A borehole grown and the work or cost involved in irri-
gating. Some of the factors involved are now
listed.
Water treatment Rainfall The annual rainfall of the area
must be known and the season when it falls. It
Water for irrigation does not require any treat-
is useful to look at rainfall records of previous
ment unless it is found to have a high salt con-
years to see the variation in amount and dis-
tent. Water for domestic use or for livestock
tribution. This information may help to de-
may be treated simply by storage for a period of
cide when irrigation will be needed. i
two days or more. This enables sediment to set-
Soil type The texture and structure of the
tle and reduces the level of bacteria and other
soil is important. Sandy soils require more fre-
harmful organisms such as bilharzia. If clean
water is required, it can be obtained through a quent irrigation than clay soils.
Soil surface The tilth or surface layer of
sand filter. To make sure there are no disease
soil may be damaged by a heavy application of
organisms present for household water sup-
plies, a small quantity of chlorine is put into irrigation water.
Infiltration The rate at which the water
the supply at the water treatment plant.
enters the soil varies for different soil types.
Irrigation should ensure that a steady infiltra-
tion of water occurs. This avoids the accu-
Irrigation mulation of water on the surface or, if the soil
drains rapidly, the drying out of the soil.
Irrigation is the controlled application of
Root depth If insufficient water is applied
water to a particular area of land, by means
to the soil, the roots of a crop may not develop
of rivers, channels or pipes.
to their proper extent. Deep-rooting plants
Unreliable rainfall in many parts of the

require thorough irrigation.
Euapo-transpiration Crops lose water
through their leaves by transpiration. Water
t also evaporates from the soil surface. Evapo-
transpiration is the term given to the com-
bined effects of these two processes. Irrigation
helps to replace the water lost in this way.
Topography The slope of the land affects
water run-off. The extent of irrigation needed
on a slope differs from that needed on flat
ground.
How much water to apply
The extent of irrigation required is influenced
by factors such as the shortfall in rain, the in-
dividual requirements of different crops, and
the prevailing weather conditions which affect
water loss. Allowance should also be made for
the loss of water by evaporation from the soil
(Figure 15.4).
irrigation
~o<::-
.,:~ water
Water for agriculture 203
water to apply is the condition of the soil.
Irrigation must supply the soil with enough
water to prevent the condition of wilting
point. This is when there is insufficient water
present in the soil for the roots of plants (page
28). Wilting is easily observable in the crop as
the leaves become pale and curl round. This
shows that water is being lost through the
leaves by transpiration at a faster rate than it
is entering the plant through the roots.
At the same time, not so much water
should be added that the soil exceeds field
capacity, at which point the water is held in
the soil against the force of drainage. Further
addition of water fills the air spaces and re-
sults in waterlogging.
Thus, the amount of water in the soil
should enable it to remain between wilting
point and field capacity. This water is then
known as available soil water, because it is
available for the plant, i.e. not too deep for the
roots to reach and not held too tightly by the
soil particles for the roots to extract.
These factors indicate the amount of irriga-
tion water to apply to achieve optimum condi-

o
c,<:<'
~'1><:- transpiration d tions for the soil and the crop.
,,'1><:< from
<0 the crop~
The water requirements of crops
e7{°f~~~n . \)
If crops are to grow successfully under irriga-
U the soil tion it is necessary to know:
1 the total amount of water they will require;
2 the periods of their growth when water is
most important;
3 the amount which can be expected to be
supplied from rainfall, if any;
4 an estimate of the loss of water by evapora-
tion or run-off.
uptake of water The water requirements of crops vary as
by plant roots shown by the examples below.
drainage Maize If maize is to be grown throughout
the year and not just during the rainy season,
Figure 15.4 The utilisation of irrigation water its annual requirement of water is 600 mm
(rainfall equivalent). The amount needed to be
Irrigation water invariably contains salts applied can be worked out by subtracting the
and continuous application can cause a build actual rainfall. For green maize the water can
up of salts making the soil saline. Salinity can be applied throughout the year. For grain maize,
only be prevented by adding sufficient water irrigation should stop when the cobs are
to enable the salts to be washed down to the drying out. Nearly all the water is drawn from
lower horizons by leaching. the top 60 em of soil. The crop should never be
The most accurate guide to the amount of allowed to wilt or the yield will be reduced.
 204 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 15.5 A sugar cane crop watered by furrow
irrigation
Sugar cane This crop has a high water re-
quirement: 1250 mm spread evenly through-
out the year. The normal growing period is
18-24 months and irrigation should stop for
the last 6 weeks before harvest (Figure 15.5).
Bananas For the plants to keep produc-
tive a regular supply of water is needed
throughout the year: a total of 1300 mm per
annum or 25 mm per week.
Lowland rice is a crop for which irrigation
is an essential part of its cultivation. As the
land is flooded the amounts of water used are
more difficult to calculate. Cotton, tobacco, cof-
fee and tea are all crops which can be success-
fully grown under irrigation. Fruit trees, espe-
cially young ones, benefit from irrigation
which prevents set back by drying out. Vege-
table gardens also require some form of irriga-
tion to ensure that seedlings do not dry off or
that newly transplanted crops are not lost
Figure 15.6 A small irrigation pump suitable for
a vegetable garden
through wilting (Figure 15.6). Wheat is a crop
increasing in importance. It is often grown in
rotation with soya beans during the dry season
when it can be irrigated.
Moisture conservation
Any way which reduces the loss of irrigation
water through evaporation is of value to the
crop. Mulching is the most common method
used. Chopped up grass or leaves can be used
as a mulch and this is spread over the surface
of the soil. Sometimes grass is allowed to grow
between the crop to retain water in the soil.
The effects of a mulch on an irrigated crop are:
1 it cuts down the evaporation of water from
around the plant;
2 it keeps the roots cool because of the water
in the soil;
3 it softens the impact of water upon the soil.
Shade trees in a crop also help to reduce
evaporation from the soil.
Methods of irrigation
Figures 15.7 and 15.8 shows parts of an irriga-
tion unit.
Surface irrigation
In flood irrigation wide areas are flooded
when rivers are full and overflow their banks.
Gradually the water evaporates or drains back
to the river leaving the fields dry again. The
crops are then planted.
Figure 15.7 Engine and pump used in an
irrigation system
 Water for agriculture 205

spray irrigation. It requires water to be

nipple ~ pumped from a river or dam and this is sup-
plied to the crop by pipes laid across the land.
Sometimes there are holes in the pipes (Figures
15.9, 15.10 and 15.11).

the jet of water the spring on top pushes

hits the curved the swing arm back again
swing arm
forcing it to
move back

Figure 15.8 Parts of an irrigation unit: this pump
can supply six sprinklers desiffned to work at a
icater pressure of 2 kg per cm .
Basin irrigation is a type of flood irriga-
tion. In this case the water from the river is
diverted to a basin or low-lying area and after
flooding the land it is allowed to drain quickly
back into the river.
Advantages No work is required; the river
carries silt and deposits this on the soil, im-
proving fertility.
Disadvantages This method will only
work if the river reaches the required level.
Soils must be heavy or good water-holders - if
not they dry out before the crop is mature.
Only quick-growing crops can be planted.
Sub-surface irrigation
In furrow irrigation ditches are constructed
and these channel water from the supply to
the plant. It is a widely used method and is
more reliable than flooding or basin irriga-
tion.
Advantages The water goes exactly where
it is directed and furrows can be constructed
close to the growing crop. The amount of wa-
ter applied can be controlled.
Disadvantages It can cause soil erosion,
especially if the slope of the furrow is too
steep. Plants at the end of the row may get
less water because of seepage. Careful grading
of furrows is necessary for good results.
Overhead irrigation
This method is also known as sprinkler or
the opposite
_arm moves
when the
first swing
arm moves
---------- another jet
water comes out of water
comes out
of th is nozzle of this nozzle
in a fine jet
~ if the nozzle
becomes
clogged
with weeds
it can be
unscrewed
for cleaning
Figure 15.9 The sprinkler works on two
principles - the spring on top and the jet of water
coming out. Under normal pressure of water the
swing arm is 'bounced off' the jet of water coming
out of the nozzle. Then the spring forces the arm
back to a new position. Gradually the sprinkler
turns round so that a full circle of garden is
irrigated. If the water pressure is low it may not be
sufficient to force the swing arm round so the
sprinklers would not work.
Advantages The exact amount of water to
be used can be calculated. It works success-
fully on sloping or uneven land as well as flat
land. The water is evenly distributed. This
method has a similar effect to the fall of rain
and can be used all the year round. Erosion is
less likely than with other methods.
Disadvantages It is expensive and takes
many years of cropping to cover costs. It de-
pends on mechanical equipment which can
break down, causing crop failure. Tall-
growing crops may not be adequately reached
by the spray. The sprinkler pipes need to be
moved regularly and can be damaged easily.
Setting up an irrigation scheme
The advice of the Department of Agriculture
should always be sought when considering set-
ting up an irrigation scheme.

r
206 O-Level Agriculture

contain any toxic substances? Is there a high

salt content?
Silt If the water is from a river can the
silt be removed before it is applied? Con-
tinuous addition of silt alters the soil condi-
tions and can block irrigation equipment.
Economics How much will the scheme
cost? How much profit will the crops make? Is
the scheme going to be expensive to operate?
What capital investment is needed? Will the
market return justify the expenditure?

Questions
Figure 15.10 Overhead sprinkler irrigation
1 a Give three reasons why water is of im-
The following points should be considered portance to plants.
when setting up an irrigation scheme. b Why is the drainage condition of a soil of
The land What sort of land is it? Is there importance in crop production?
a slope to allow water to run? Is any levelling c What steps can be taken to ensure that
necessary? the growth of crops which are to be irri-
The soil What is the soil type? Is it suit- gated is not affected by poor drainage? (C)
able for irrigation? Is it suitable for the crops 2 a Describe an irrigation system that is
required? known to you.
The source of water Is there a reliable riv- b In what circumstances can irrigation be
er or other source of water available? Is it (i) beneficial and (ii) harmful?
readily accessible when required? c Explain why soils vary so much in their
Water quality Does the irrigation water ability to hold moisture.

further positions
for sprinkler-\ sprinklers

\
/ \
\
\\
\
\ overlapping

\ \ \
\ \ \
\ \ \
\ lateral
\ \ \ pipeline
\ \ \ \
\ \ \ \
\ \ \

\ \ \
\ \
\
\ \
\
\ \
\ \ \
\ \ \
\ \ \
\ ---_ \ \
\ " \
\ \
water inlet \ \
\ \
\ -', \
\ \
\
\ \

Figure 15.11 Field layout for sprinkler system


3 a What factors should a farmer take into
account when planning the irrigation of a
crop?
b How is it possible to judge the amount of
water needed for irrigation? What condi-
tions affect the amount of water re-
quired?
c How can a farmer reduce the amount of
water lost. through evaporation?
4 a Describe an irrigation system which
would be suitable for a named crop.
Water for agriculture 207
b What type of soil do you consider to be
most suitable for the application of irriga-
tion water?
c Why might water quality be an important
factor when irrigating?
5 a Describe fully two different methods of
irrigation.
b State the advantages and disadvantages
of each of the methods you have men-
tioned.
16
Energy and
agriculture

work by means of the moving mechanical

Energy can be defined as the capacity to do
work. Today, the term energy is widely inter- parts.
It is possible for energy to be converted
preted to include the fuel and chemicals used
from one form to another. Such processes are
in agriculture and industry. In nature, the sun
taking place all the time. For example, a man
is the basic source of energy in the form of so-
eats a meal to obtain the energy he needs to
lar energy. Heat and light from the sun enable
do work. An engine burns fuel which is a form
life on earth to be maintained.
of chemical energy so that it can perform work
There are numerous forms of energy. For
example, heat is a form of energy. The heat as mechanical energy.
from a fire enables a meal to be cooked, the Sources of energy
cooking of the meal is the work done. Diesel
Figure 16.1 shows some energy sources.
fuel is a form of energy. When it is burned in
Sun The sun not only provides the source
an engine, it enables the engine to perform

0; / \ \ solar energy
wind

water
A~

machine

animal waste

----- ~
-~.-- o 0 Q
o 0
---~ 0-

Figure 16.1 Sources of energy


Figure 16.2 Windpump being used to draw water on a cattle ranch
of energy for the earth and everything on it
but for the rest of the solar system as well. So-
lar energy enables plants and animals to live,
grow and develop. Solar energy is converted
into chemical energy during the process of
photosynthesis. The glucose and the subst-
ances derived from it store the energy and
make it available to animals when the plants
are eaten. About 55 per cent of the sun's ener-
gy is lost in the atmosphere before reaching
the earth. Solar energy can be made to heat
water by means of solar panels.
Wind Strong winds enable windmills to
operate. As the sails of the windmill turn
round, machinery can be driven. Wind can be
a useful source of energy but when there is no
wind the machinery cannot be used. Wind
power can be used to operate grinding machin-
ery, generate electricity and pump water for
irrigation (Figure 16.2).
Water Fast-flowing rivers are valuable
sources of energy for driving machinery. In
Energy and agriculture 209
the tropics many rivers dry up for most of the
year and the main rivers are slow moving.
The construction of dams and reservoirs has
enabled water to be stored and used as an
energy source.
Human power Humans have the capacity
to do work by virtue of the foods they eat. In
subsistence communities nearly all the work
is carried out by the people without any help
from animals or machines. The energy is
obtained from carbohydrate food during re-
spiration in the tissues ofthe body.
Animal power Animals produce energy in
the same way as humans, during respiration.
Some animals are larger and stronger than
humans and have the capacity for greater
work, e.g. oxen are used for ploughing. It is
important to remember that animals must be
fed a production ration if they are to perform
work, i.e. rations extra to those required for
main tenance.
Animal waste The waste products passed
out by an animal contain substances which
210 O-Level Agriculture
can be used as a source of energy. Sometimes
dried dung is burned as a fuel. If moist dung is
collected from a yard or pen it can be proces-
sed or digested to produce methane gas or
other chemicals for use as fuel. Animal waste
is also of value to the soil by improving its fer-
tility and thereby improving crop growth.
Wood During its growth as a living plant
the wood receives energy from the sun. This
stored energy can be released as heat energy
when the wood is burned as a fuel.
Coal Coal is formed over the centuries by
transformation of ancient forests which have
become covered up during the earth's evolu-
tion. As the wood was once a living source of
energy that energy becomes transferred to the
coal which can then be mined and used as an
important industrial fuel.
Oil Oil deposits are found beneath the
earth in many parts of the world. The oil is
formed by a further process of transformation
of carbon materials which were originally
growing vegetation. Oil has become the most
important energy source available because it
is used to drive engines for transportation,
agriculture and industry.
Crops Crops can also be regarded as valu-
able sources of energy. Whilst they are grow-
ing they use energy from the sun. They also
produce energy during respiration. Crops store
food materials valuable to animals and hu-
diesel fuel
inputs
irrigation
~ herbicide
E9§§~
Figure 16.3 Energy and agricultural production
mans. Crop residue will burn as a fuel. Che-
micals can be extracted from some crops for
use as a fuel or fuel supplement, e.g. ethanol
(alcohol) can be obtained from sugar cane and
used for mixing with petrol to drive a car ..
Energy in agricultural production
In any agricultural activity inputs and out-
puts of energy can be calculated (Figure 16.3).
Energy inputs involve the use of energy.
For example, growing maize requires labour,
machinery, chemical fertiliser, insecticides,
seeds for planting and herbicides. All of these
items use energy in one form or another. In
addition to these, it may be necessary to irri-
gate the crop or transport it to market.
In return, the crop produced represents an
important energy source or energy output. It
is possible to calculate the energy produced. A
farmer aims for a bigger return on a crop than
that needed to grow it. This does not mean
that energy has been created but that the sys-
tem of production has made efficient use of
available energy. Some possible systems have
proved too expensive in terms of energy. The
production of animals requires the energy in-
puts of food and labour but because the food
has to be grown first, the return is not as high
as with crop production. Animal production
can be regarded as too expensive in terms of
the environmental resources and energy.
solar C
,""9V~
U / I
insecticide
---;:./~
fertiliser ~malfeeds /
crop meat
outputs
 Energy and agriculture 211

hessian bags held paper sacks

by friction slide down plank

Figure 16.4 An example offriction

Friction 2 The grip on tractor wheels helps to increase

friction when the land is wet or slippery.
When two surfaces are in contact with each
3 The brakes of a vehicle work on a principle
other there is a degree of movement between
of applied friction.
them. Friction is the force which acts against
4 The engine of a tractor must be kept topped
the movement of these two surfaces.
up with oil to lubricate the pistons and mov-
To walk along the ground requires the force
ing parts and prevent it seizing up.
of friction between the foot and the ground to
5 The moving parts of all machinery must be
enable a person to move forwards. The extent
kept oiled or greased to reduce friction.
to which the force of friction applies depends
6 The floors of pig pens should not be too slip-
on the nature of the two surfaces. For example
pery or the pigs may slip and injure them-
hessian bags of meal stick to a surface more
selves due to insufficient friction of their
readily than paper sacks (Figure 16.4) and
feet on the surface.
they also stack more easily. In many instances
it is important to have good friction between
two surfaces, but if the surfaces are in con-
stant motion friction must be reduced.
Engines
Increased friction causes heat to be gener- The internal combustion engine
ated. This can be demonstrated easily by run- The internal combustion engine is a machine
ning a hand along a rope. The friction between which produces work as a result of burning
the two surfaces may even cause burning. If spark plug
the surfaces are metallic the friction between
them may cause them to fuse together. \
Lubrication
An oily substance may be used to coat the sur-
faces in contact with each other, this is known
inlet valve
as lubrication. The most common lubricant is
oil, graphite is also used. In the engine, the
moving parts must be coated with oil to reduce
friction and enable them to operate smoothly.
Grease is applied to bearings to lubricate
them. On some surfaces soap acts as a lubri-
cant. Friction can also be reduced by polishing
the surfaces or by particles of dust between
the two surfaces.
Some examples of how friction and lubrica-
tion are of importance in agriculture follow.
1 Large tractor wheels provide greater con- ~ crank shaft
tact between the tractor and the land which
increases friction. Figure 16.5 The internal combustion engine
212 O-Level Agriculture
exhaust spark inlet both valves
valve plug valve closed
closed
\ \
/
open
\ / \
, ©
induction compression
Figure 16.6 The sequence of a four-stroke petrol engine
fuel oil (energy) within enclosed chambers.
Cars, lorries, tractors and other machines
have internal combustion engines.
The main parts of the engine are shown in
Figure 16.5. The two chief types of fuel used
are petrol and diesel.
The petrol engine
The sequence of operations of the petrol en-
gine is shown in Figure 16.6. There are four
basic strokes within each cylinder to enable
one complete operation and the engine is
known as the four-stroke engine. The petrol
must be ignited to release the energy. It is
ignited as a mixture of air and petrol vapour
by means of a spark from the sparking plug.
The explosion which occurs internally forces
the piston downwards and this then transmits
the power to the crankshaft of the engine.
Valves in each cylinder allow the correct mix-
ture of gases to enter and also allow the waste
gases formed during the explosion to pass out
as exhauast.
The four-stroke cycle is commenced by
means of the electric starter motor which fires
when the ignition is switched on and the star-
ter is pressed (Figure 16.7). The cycle is con-
tinuous and is going on in each of the cylin-
ders. Most vehicles have between three and
both valves exhaust inlet
closed valve valve
open closed
-. /
power exhaust
six cylinders. The smooth operation of the
four-stroke engine depends on accurate tim-
ing of the opening and closing of the valves.
The diesel engine
This works on a different principle from the
petrol engine. It does not require a spark to
ignite the fuel mixture. Instead, the air in the
cylinder is compressed_to SlJ!;.Q an.extent that
it becomes very hot. At this.paint diesel.fuel, is
Infected into the system through_ a valve and
it ignites (Figure 16.9). This causes the piston
to be forced downwards through the cylinder
and the power of this stroke is transmitted
through to the crankshaft of the engine. This
system is also known as the compression -
ignition engine. Figure 16.8 shows the four-
stroke cycle of a diesel engine.
Compression ratio
The compression ratio is the ratio of the
volume of the cylinder space when the piston
is at the bottom of its stroke to that when it is
at the top of its stroke. The compression ratio
of a diesel engine is much higher than that of
a petrol engine so that the high temperature
to ignite the gas can be achieved.
Once the four-stroke cycle is in operation
 Energy and agriculture 213

- -
(a)

- plug leads _

+ +
battery +

+ + + +
sparking

plugs
11
~
1 i
rg rg tgJ
V V V V
engine

(bl
fiiler plugs
r

gasket to give
f---------j /gas-tight seat

separator
plates
screw thread
fits into
top of engine

gap where
--- spark jumps

Figure 16.7 (a) Electrical circuit (b) battery (c) spark plug

the power obtained is transmitted
wheels by means of the transmission
(Figure 16.10).
The fuel system
The fuel needed to make the engine work is
either petrol or diesel oil. Most cars and
smaller engines are petrol driven. Larger
to the engines such as tractors are usually diesel
system driven. The main difference is that in a diesel
engine the fuel mixture explodes by being
heated and there is no sparking plug. In a
petrol engine there must be a spark for the fuel
mixture to explode.
No engine burns fuel only. There must be air
(containing oxygen) present to mix with the
214 O-Level Agriculture
exhaust fuel inlet both valves both valves exhaust inlet
valve injector valve closed closed valve valve
closed
\
\ /
/
open
air
)\- / :\- open
'\
/- closed
/
i'
dl~F==only
~/

induction compression power exhaust

Figure 16.8 The sequence of a four-stroke diesel engine

fuel for it to burn. Although petrol is a liquid

it does not burn as a liquid, it burns as a gas.
The heat of the engine causes the petrol to
evaporate so a mixture of petrol gas and air
enters the cylinder.
The job of the carburettor is to make sure
the correct mixture of petrol and air goes to the
engine. This mixture must be clean so that no

Figure 16.9 A diesel injection pump from a

tractor

pistons flywheel gear box gear lever differential

connecting
or con rod
crankshaft
of engine
clutch clutch
pedal
propeller
shaft
I
axle

Figure 16.10 Transmission system of a tractor

 Energy and agriculture 215

fuel and air mixture If there is not enough oil in the engine the
goes to engine parts are not lubricated properly. When this

fuel from
fuel intake
needle valve /
••• happens they get hot because of the friction
(rubbing) and may break or become damaged.
jet for fuel Cooling the engine
L.-.~~
Although the engine is lubricated with oil it
level -4H---U1 still gets hot. So the engine must be cooled
of ••• air intake
•••from from the outside. Some engines are cooled by
fuel
/ ••• air cleaner
~=~=",j air and some by water.
a) Air cooled engines Small engines, e.g.
Figure 16.11 Carburettor motor cycles, water pumps and grinding mill
engines are usually cooled by air. A fan is
dirt gets into the engine and damages it. The attached to the engine and this pushes air
air goes through an air cleaner to remove the around the engine to cool it. The outside of the
dirt and only clean air goes into the carburet- engine has 'fins' on it. T~h'S ives it a bigger
tor. Only clean fuel should be put in the fuel surface area so it coolsmore e ily.
tank (Figure 16.11). b) Water cooled engines ractors and most
large engines are cooled by water. 'The water
Lubrication is put in a radiator and is pumped through a
Lubrication means keeping oil in the engine so 'sleeve' round the outside of the engine by a
that the parts move against each other easily. water pump. A fan driven by the engine fans
In the engine the pistons must have oil on air on to the radiator to cool the water in it.
them so that they move easily against the The water keeps going round through the
walls of the cylinders. The correct amount of radiator and over the engine. If there is not
engine oil is put into the engine and there is a enough water in the radiator the engine will
pump to force the oil to all the places where it overheat and become damaged gLigure 16.12).
is needed.

top hose

radiator cap

water water flows

circulates downwards
in sleeve inside these
around narrow pipes
engine to
cool it

~
air cools water
in radiator

fan draws air \

through radiator radiator
bottom hose

Figure 16.12 Cooling system

216 O-Level Agriculture
Agricultural machinery

Agricultural production has become in-

creasingly more efficient over the years due to
the introduction of machinery to the farm. A
,
tractor and plough enable far more land to be
cultivated than can be achieved using oxen.
~r~
\,
Machines on the farm enable energy to be har-
nessed so that work can be achieved.
The tractor
The tractor has revolutionised agricultural
practice. All kinds of equipment can be oper-
ated by a tractor using the power of the en-
gine. Ploughs may be pulled by the forward
movement of the tractor, or lifted by means of
the hydraulic draft system. Other machinery
may be operated by the power-take-off shaft
driven by the engine (Figure 16.13).
Most four-wheeled tractors are operated by
the internal combustion engine fuelled by
diesel. Some two-wheeled tractors use a petrol
mixture. Some large tractors have caterpillar
tracks which provide a better grip (friction) on
uneven and slippery ground (Figure 16.14).
Some of the equipment which is used with a Figure 16.13 Power-take-off shaft of tractor
tractor is listed in Figure 16.15. operating an irrigation pump

Figure 16.14 A powerful caterpillar tractor

 Energy and agriculture 217

disc harrow

rotary cultivator

plough

tined harrow

trailer pulling

irrigation pump
sprayer

seed drill

manure spreader
fertiliser spreader

grass mower

Figure 16.15 Some equipment used with a tractor

Tractor maintenance Cultivation equipment

Attention should be paid to the following
points.
1 Make sure the fuel tank is filled with the
correct fuel.
2 Top up the radiator with water.
3 Check that the fan belt is tight.
4 Clean the fuel filter bowl to remove dirt.
5 Check the level of oil in the engine, and
top up if necessary.
6 Check the oil level in the air cleaner and
top up if necessary.
7 Inspect the battery to see that the metal
plates are covered with the electrolyte. If
they are exposed add distilled water to
cover them.
8 Grease all the greasing points, using a
grease gun.
9 Make sure the tyres have the correct
pressure in them.
10 Check wheel nuts and other fittings to see
that they are tight.
11 Finally the tractor should be run to test
brakes and hydraulics before operating
any machinery.
This includes all the machinery which is used
to prepare the soil for the planting of crops
and includes the following.
1 Ploughs - mouldboard plough; disc plough.
2 Cultivators - rotary cultivator; tined culti-
vator; disc harrow.
3 Ridgers - mouldboard ridger; disc ridger.
Cultivation equipment may be used with a
tractor (Figure 16.16) or with oxen. The type
of equipment used will depend on the soil type
and how hard or compact it is; on the type of
crop to be grown and the soil tilth required;
and on the farmer's resources. Cultivation
equipment can sometimes be shared by a com-
munity or cooperative or is sometimes hired
out by government agencies.
Ploughs
The two main types of plough are the mould-
board plough and the disc plough
(Figure 16.17). The mouldboard plough has
the advantage of producing a more even sur-
face so that it may not be necessary to use a
harrow before planting. However, if the land
contains tree stumps or other obstructions, a
 218 O-Level Agriculture
Figure 16.16 A two wheeled tractor with a plough attached
disc plough is preferable as the rotating discs
roll over the obstruction instead of getting
caught up.
To achieve a good finish with a plough the
following points should be followed.
1 The plough shares should be equally spaced
to achieve even furrow widths.
2 The pitch should be checked so that the
Figure 16.17 A disc plough
plough does not go down too deeply.
3 The scrapers should be adjusted so that they
clean the discs.
4 Keep the plough level, by adjusting the
tractor linkage.
5 Plough at a steady controlled speed.
The ox plough is of the mouldboard type
and is controlled by the operator, the oxen
being used only for the power.
Ploughing breaks up the soil, and turns it
over. This allows air and water to enter more
easily. Vegetation is buried by ploughing and
this speeds its breakdown in the soil. Soil type
is of particular importance when ploughing.
Heavy compact soils require greater physical
contact with the cultivator than lighter, sandy
soils.
Cultivators
A cultivator is used as a follow up to the
plough in getting a field ready for planting. A
disc harrow is used to break down the soil
lumps (Figure 16.18). Tined cultivators are
used mainly for weeding between the rows of a

Figure 16.18 A disc harrow
crop as they do not go deeply into the soil. The
rotary cultivator is operated by the power
take-off shaft of the tractor. It has many tines
which rotate and break up the soil surface
leaving an even tilth.
Ridgers
A ridger is an implement used for leaving
ridges across a field so that crops can be
planted in them, e.g. potato ridger. It is pulled
behind a tractor or ox and pushes the soil into
ridges of the required height. The two main
types of ridger are the mouldboard and the
disc type.
Fertiliser distributors
The purpose of this machine is to achieve an
even distribution of the fertiliser across the
field. The fertiliser is placed in the container
and the machine is pulled behind a tractor. As
Energy and agriculture 219
it moves forwards a gear system on the
machine is driven by the wheels. Fertiliser is
carried past a slide inside the container and is
thrown out at an even rate. Some fertiliser
distributors are operated off the tractor's pow-
er-take-off. The speed of the tractor must be
controlled to get the correct distribution of fer-
tiliser.
Crop sprayers
Crop sprayers are machines consisting of a
tank, filled with the chemical being sprayed, a
pumping device, usually the tractor engine
and a series of jets or nozzles through which
the spray is applied. Crop sprayers are used
for applying herbicide, insecticide or fungicide.
It is important to operate the sprayer at the
correct rate of application. This means keep-
ing all the nozzles clean and the supply pipe
unblocked and moving the equipment forward
220 O-Level Agriculture
not allowed to rust. Garden tools such as mat-
tocks, hoes and rakes should be cleaned regu-
larly and oiled occasionally to prolong their
life (Figure 16.19).

Harvesting equipment
Equipment which cuts and removes the crop
when it is ready is called harvesting equip-
ment. Many crops are harvested by hand be-
cause the technique of using a machine to find
the product and collect it is often complex and
expensive.
Combine harvesters are sometimes used on
large commercial farms for collecting maize or
pliers screwdriver spanner wheat (Figure 16.20). The crop is cut just
above ground level and the stalks are sepa-
rated from the seed head. The grain goes one

U
lUJ
nut and bolt screw
way and the chopped up stalks pass out of the
harvester at the back. The grain may be col-
lected in bins in the harvester or in a trailer
pulled alongside.
Harvesting equipment greatly increases the
rate of harvesting and may result in a higher
Figure 16.19 Farm tools yield. However, some harvesting equipment
causes bruising or damage to the crop or crop
at the correct speed. Failure to observe these losses, e.g. groundnut lifters and potato lifters,
points may result in some parts of the field re- although the job of harvesting is speeded up.
ceiving too much of the chemical which is Machines like cotton harvesters or citrus
wasteful, and other areas not receiving pickers are highly complex items of equipment
enough to do the job. and can only be used where there is a very
large area of land being cropped.
Farm tools
The forage harvester is pulled by a tractor
Everyday tools like the hammer, screwdriver and cuts grass or maize chopping it into small
and saw should be kept in good condition and pieces for use as silage for cattle.
grain tank
straw walker
collecting plate grain elevator
threshing drum

Figure 16.20 A section through a combine harvester used for harvesting wheat

Some harvesting equipment is self-
propelled, e.g. a maize combine harvester. Sta-
tionary engines are used to pump irrigation
water or drive maize grinding mills. Ox equip-
ment uses the power of the animals to pull the
machine, e.g. plough.
Even hand-operated equipment uses ener-
gy-saving principles, e.g. a knapsack sprayer.
Whatever equipment is used on the farm it
is important to make sure it is properly main-
tained. This means checking that all the mov-
ing parts are clean and lubricated.
Safety
Machines can be dangerous so take care when
operating them. Always follow the maker's in-
structions when using machinery. In particu-
lar, pay attention to the following points.
1 Always keep the machine well maintained.
2 Switch off the engine when making adjust-
ments.
3 Do not wear loose clothing which could be-
come caught up in the machine.
4 Secure a guard over fast-moving belts and
pulleys.
5 When towing, use a low linkage point (cen-
tre of gravity) to increase stability.
6 Store fuel and chemicals in a cool safe place.
Energy and agriculture 221
Questions
1 a Describe in simple terms and with the aid
of diagrams, the working of a four-stroke
engine.
b Explain what is meant by the term com-
pression ratio.
c What are the advantages of a disc plough
compared with a mouldboard plough?
2 a What are the benefits of ploughing as a
method of cultivation?
b Name three more cultivation machines or
implements and briefly describe the ac-
tion of each of these on the soil. (C)
3 a Write an account of the ways in which a
farming system with which you are
familiar has been or could be improved by
mechanisation.
b What difficulties prevent the rapid intro-
duction of mechanisation in peasant
farming areas? (C)
4 'The mechanisation of crop production is of
little help because the machines and fuel
are very expensive and also the crops and
soil can be damaged by the machines.' Us-
ing local or regional examples, show that
this is not necessarily a true statement. (C)
17
Agricultural
•
eCOnOmICS

Principles on the crop no longer justify any more fertilis-

er being applied. The actual amount will vary.
The laws of supply and demand depending on soil type, previous crop, variety.
The quantities of a crop or other commodity etc. This is known as the point of diminishing
which are able to be supplied are generally returns. It can be drawn as a graph showing
linked to the price the item can command. If yield up the left hand axis and fertiliser ap-
a grower knows he can get a good price for his plied, on the bottom axis (Figure 17.1). The
crop he will supply as much as he can. As the line produced rises with the addition of ferti-
price falls, the supply falls with it. liser and then curves and begins to fall.
However, the supply of an item is also The law of diminishing returns can be sum-
dependent upon their being a demand for it
from the consumer or customer. Demand is
also linked to price. As the quantity demanded
goes up, so the price per unit falls. Thus the
law of demand can be stated: the lower the
price, the greater the quantity of the product
demanded.
Demonstrations of these effects can be seen
most years with agricultural products whose
quantities available vary with seasons and
harvests. If very little maize is harvested, the
price goes up, and when there is a surplus of
maize, the price falls.
The law of diminishing returns
To illustrate this principle we can take maize
production as an example. Production depends
on certain fixed inputs, such as the available
land and certain variable inputs, such as fer-
tiliser and labour. It is well known that the
application of fertiliser will increase the yield application of fertiliser kg/ha
of a crop. Thus the farmer will get an increased
return of his crop. But to what extent is this
true? There comes a point where the returns Figure 17.1 Law of diminishing returns

marised: if a variable input is increased while
all other inputs remain constant, a point is
eventually reached where the additional output
for each additional unit of input will decline.
This law, whilst linked to output, is obviously
linked to the actual price or return the farmer
gets for his product.
Opportunity cost
If a farmer has a choice before him as to which
crop to grow, he needs to consider which one
will give him the best return for his inputs. If,
for example, he decides that groundnuts will
give him a better return than sweet potatoes,
it is possible to assess the relative value of the
two crops. Assuming that he chooses to grow
groundnuts, the opportunity cost in this case
is the price which he would have got had he
decided to grow sweet potatoes. Thus, it is the
return which is foregone in order to produce
something else.
Security
This is a document lodged with a bank in order
to obtain a bank loan. It usually involves a
house or property, such as a vehicle, but may
involve a claim on income. Thus if the loan
cannot be repaid, the bank has claim to the
security lodged when the loan was taken out.
Interest rates
When a sum of money is borrowed it is usually
paid back together with an additional amount
known as interest. This is an agreed percent-
age and is known as the interest rate. The fix-
ing of the interest rate depends upon the time
over which repayment is to be made.
Farm records
A farmer must know how successful his crop
or livestock enterprises are. This means keep-
ing detailed and accurate records of every-
thing connected with the farm. The keeping of
records on the farm helps the farmer to main-
tain efficiency standards. Problem areas of the
enterprises can be noted easily. The two types
of records which need to be kept are as follows.
Production records These involve all the
details of the production of the crop or lives-
Agricultural economics 223
tock, e.g. the amount of seed and fertiliser
used, the area under cultivation and the yield.
Financial records Details of all purchases
and sales have to be recorded so that the cost
of the enterprise can be worked out, and then
the profit or loss.
Production records
Farm Diary
This is the day-to-day record of everything
that takes place on the farm, such as delivery
of orders, planting crops, spraying crops, dip-
ping cattle. The diary is a useful reference. It
acts as a reminder of when particular opera-
tions took place.
Crop records
For each crop grown it is important to record
the variety, spacing, area of land, fertiliser
use and yield. This information can then be
used when considering changes in the future.
An example is shown in Figure 17.2.
CROP: YEAR:
spacing seed rate:
date planted: date harvested:
yield:
remarks
Figure 17.2 An example of crop records
Poultry records
Each house containing laying birds should
have a chart pinned up on which the number
of eggs laid is recorded each day. This record
also shows the number of birds so that the per-
centage production can be worked out:
number of eggs .
num ber 0f biir d sx 100 = percentage production
When the percentage falls to an unecono-
mic level (below 60 per cent) the birds can be
culled and sold for meat. With broilers it is
useful to keep a check on the liveweight gain
of the birds. It is not convenient to weigh ev-
ery bird, but a random sample of ten broilers
taken each week will enable their growth to
 224 O-Level Agriculture
Machinery record
be monitored. All the machinery used on the farm should be
With both layers and broilers, food is the
listed, and a record kept of the purchase price,
largest item in the budget, so the amount of
fuel used (if any), repairs carried out, and
food used should be carefully recorded. It is
hours of use. This information is useful m
then possible to work out the food conversion
assessing the efficiency of the enterprise.
ratio by comparing the food eaten with the
weight of eggs produced or with the liveweight Financial records
gain over a given period. For example:
Fixed and variable costs
food eaten _ 60 kg 3 Fixed costs are the costs which are not going
liveweight gain - 20 kg -1 to change very much from year to year. Exam-
ples of fixed costs are: regular labour, fuel, de-
Food conversion ratio (fer) = 3:1
preciation on buildings or equipment, machin-
ery repair and maintenance, rent, financing
Pig records
The main aim of keeping pigs is to rear as charges.
Variable costs are the costs which occur
many pigs per sow as possible to produce meat
with a particular enterprise and which vary in
I for sale. Each sow should have her own record
proportion to any changes in the scale of pro-
to show her age, the boars she has been mated
duction. Examples of variable costs are: casual
\ with and the number of piglets per litter. If
labour, seed, fertiliser, insecticides, feeding

!
breeding is controlled then the date of service
should also be recorded. This enables the far- stuffs, stock purchases.
rowing date to be determined (114 days gesta-
tion period). Other records to be kept are food Assets and liabilities

I used, liveweight gain of the pigs, slaughter

and sales.

Cattle records
These two headings have to be included in the
farm account. Assets are items or possessions
which represent a value, e.g. livestock, crops,
buildings, machinery, or cash in hand. Liabili-
ties are items which have been delivered but
If dairy cattle are kept, a breeding record
are not yet paid for, e.g. fertiliser or feeding
should be maintained for each cow.
Milk records must also be kept, showing the stuff; they are amounts owing.
The difference between assets and liabili-
milk yield of each cow at each milking and
any supplements fed. The accumulated total of ties is the capital.
milk yield per month and per year, and the
average percentage butterfat content should Depreciation
Property such as farm buildings, tractors, or
be recorded. By keeping careful milk records it
machinery is a valuable asset and costs a lot
is possible to know which are the highest
of money to purchase. For this reason it is
yielding cows so that these can be used for
usual to spread the value over several years
breeding in order to improve the herd.
instead of including it as one figure in the
With beef cattle, liveweight gain should be
year's accounts. Also, these assets are ex-
recorded, which means weighing the cattle
pected to last for several years although their
regularly. Also any treatments should be
value will decrease. The rate at which the
noted, such as dipping or dosing.
value of the asset reduces is known as depre-
ciation.
Labour record To fix the rate of depreciation the number
The names of all the people employed should be
of years over which the value is to be reduced
kept and a record of all wages paid out. If possi-
must be decided. For example, a tractor may
ble labour costs should be allocated to particu-
be given a 5-year depreciation period. The
lar enterprises, e.g. a herdsman's wages should
value of the tractor is divided by five and the
be costed in the cattle account. Details of
result is the depreciation figure to be included
casual labour used for weeding and harvesting
in the accounts.
should also be kept.

A chicken house may be given to 10-year
depreciation period and the value spread over
10 years. It is of benefit if the building can re-
main in use for more than 10 years as its
value on paper has been written off.
Cash accounts
There are various ways in which the financial
side of the farm can be recorded. The main
rule is to ensure that every item is written
down so that the account can be kept as accu-
rate as possible.
In a balance sheet all the income is writ-
ten on one side and the expenditure on the
other side. The difference between the two tot-
als is the balance. If the income side is greater
the account is said to be in credit, or profit. If
the expenditure side is greater the account is
in debit, or loss. Figure 17.3 shows an exam-
ple of a balance sheet.
A trading account is a balance sheet which
shows all the items involved in getting the
produce ready for sale. Thus a value for the
stock in hand at the start of the trading period
must be included in the debit (expenditure)
side. Then the value of the stock in hand at
the end of the trading period must be included
on the credit (income) side. The difference be-
tween the two sides of the trading account is
the gross profit or gross loss.
The profit and loss account includes all
the costs involved in selling the produce as
well as every other item of expense. These
items go on the expenditure side. To complete
the picture, the gross profit figure (from the
trading account) is included on the credit side.
The difference between the two totals on the
profit and loss account is called the net profit
or net loss.
It is the net profit which is the cash-in-hand
at the closing of the accounts when all aspects
of the enterprise have been costed.
Risk and uncertainty
Whilst a farmer always tries to make correct
decisions there are some aspects which cannot
be controlled. For example the rains may fail
and give a poor harvest. The doubt about fu-
ture events concerning the enterprise is refer-
red to as uncertainty. However, if a particu-
lar return on the enterprise is planned for,
Agricultural economics 225
month:
year:
Date Income Date Expenditure
to balance B/F
total BID by balance C/D
to bring forward total C/D
Figure 17.3 A balance sheet
there is a risk that something may go wrong,
such as attack by insects. The yield may again
be down but this time the reduction can be
measured.
Because of the effects of risk and uncertain-
ty, farmers often diversify their enterprises,
for instance they may grow more than one
cash crop or keep more than one type of live-
stock. This helps to reduce the overall risk.
Farm budgeting
The exercise of budgeting involves planning
ahead and estimating the yield and income
from the crop or livestock. To do this, the
budget is based on current information about
yields and prices.
Gross margin
The term gross margin refers to the amount of
money remaining once the variable costs have
been deducted from the overall output of the
enterprise. It is usually expressed per hectare,
for crops and per head for livestock. The use of
the gross margin method is one of the most
convenient ways of finding out how successful
an enterprise is, because it includes all the
factors concerned in production.
With cattle and other grazing livestock, an
additional factor has to be taken into account-
the variable costs associated with the grass-
land, and any other crop grown as forage.
Having worked out the gross margin for
each enterprise it is possible then to combine
this information to work out the profit (or loss)
for the whole farm, by deducting the fixed
costs incurred on the farm. This is illustrated
in Figure 17.4.
 226 O-Level Agriculture
cash crops non·grazing livestock grazing livestock

output of each enterprise output of each enterprise output of enterprise

e.g. maize, cotton, vegetables e.g. pigs, poultry e.g. cattle, goats

less variable costs less variable costs less variable costs

less variable costs
of grass rd fodder
I
~ •••
gross margin gross margin gross margin

•••
total gross margin

less fixed costs

farm profit

Figure 17.4 A method of working out farm profit from gross margins

To find the gross margin for maize
1 Work out the yield per hectare.
2 Multiply this by the price per bag sold.
3 This gives the gross output of maize per
hectare (x).
II 4 List the variable costs incurred in growing
maize, e.g. seed, fertiliser, insecticides. Di-
!,
vide the total variable costs for maize by the
number of hectares produced (y).
5 Subtract the variable costs (y) from the
gross output (x) to get the gross margin:
x - y = gross margin per hectare maize
To find the gross margin for poultry.
1 Work out the total income from the sale of
eggs, and that from any sale of old layers.
2 Divide this figure by the number of chick-
ens in the unit, to get the gross output per
bird (x).
3 List the variable costs incurred in egg pro-
duction, e.g. feedstuffs, replacement chicks.
Divide the total variable costs for egg produc-
tion by the number of birds in the unit (or
the average number in lay during the year)
to give the variable costs per bird (y).
4 Subtract the variable costs per bird (y) from
the gross output per bird (x) to get the gross
margin:
x - y = gross margin per bird
The gross margin of an enterprise is worked
out over a fixed period of time, usually a year
or a season. In the case of livestock it could be
worked out for a particular batch or group.
The information obtained from the gross
margin for each enterprise can then be used
for forward planning or budgeting on the
farm. As a result of this information the far-
mer may decide to increase one enterprise if it
looks like being profitable and to decrease
another which looks more doubtful.
Sources of credit
Credit is money which the farmer has to re-
pay. It is available from various sources to en-
able a farmer to carry out a major item on the
farm, such as a new building or to purchase
some machinery. When the credit is repaid the
farmer also has to pay interest on the loan.
Banks Credit is available from banks if
the bank is satisfied that the farmer is likely
to be able to repay from increased income.
An agricultural finance company Orga-
nisations usually run as government agencies
to assist farmers with credit at a lower in-
terest rate than a bank.
Merchants' credit Firms may allow a far-
mer to purchase something on credit or by
hire purchase, i.e. to pay a deposit and to
agree to pay regular amounts to cover the
cost, plus the interest.
Private credit This is money obtained
from a moneylender and is usually repaid at a
high interest rate.

Types of credit
Seasonal credit This involves fairly small
amounts of money to purchase such items as
seed, fertiliser or feedstuffs and is to be repaid
within a year, or at the end of the season. It
must be repaid before a further seasonal loan
can be obtained.
Medium-term credit This is used for capit-
al investment such as installing an irrigation
system. It is repaid over 2-5 years.
Long -terrri credit This would be a loan
needed to purchase a farm or building and
could take up to 25 years for the farmer to
repay.
Before taking out a loan a farmer must
work out carefully how the loan can be re-
paid and what interest will be demanded.
Subsidies
To encourage farmers to improve their
methods, governments often place subsidies on
agricultural items. These subsidies take the
form of a cash reduction on the item, e.g. ferti-
lisers, (the government paying the balance).
Sometimes materials are made available to
the farmer, e.g. fencing.
The items on which subsidies are sometimes
available are: the construction of wells, bore-
holes, cattle crushes, kraal fencing, and soil-
conservation works. The amount of the sub-
sidy varies according to the funds available.
Another type of subsidy applies to the sale
of the product. If prices are very low, a govern-
ment may introduce a subsidy to make up the
price per bag of the crop to a minimum
guaranteed level. This is to help to support the
farmer during periods of depressed prices.
Marketing
The market for the crop or livestock product
must be considered before any large-scale pro-
duction is undertaken. Crops are seasonal so
there is a period in the year (from harvest on-
wards) when supplies are abundant and a
period when supplies may become scarce. A
farmer may have limited storage facilities and
have to sell most of the crop to a marketing
Agricultural economics' 227
board. These boards exist for all the major
cash crops and enable the central purchase of
crops from farmers and the distribution of the
crop to the people.
Some crops are sent for processing, e.g.
sugar cane, and the farmer has a contract to
supply the company with an agreed quantity
of the crop. Wholesalers are people who pur-
chase the crop or product from the farmer
and then distribute it to the retailer or shop-
keeper.
Co-operatives are organisations which
help the farmer in many ways in addition to
marketing the crops, for example, purchase of
seeds and other items, hire of large equip-
ment. When several farms producing small
amounts supply a co-operative, the transport
and distribution costs are shared and there-
fore reduced, resulting in considerable benefits
for the farmer.
Distance from the market is a major consid-
eration when working out the profitability of
an enterprise. Transport costs must be careful-
ly worked out for each enterprise. Transport
in the rural areas is often unreliable and can
be very expensive.
Questions
1 a Distinguish between fixed and variable
costs, giving examples of each.
b What do you understand by the term de-
preciation? Give an example of deprecia-
tion in a farming enterprise you have
studied.
c What factors have to be taken into
account for a farmer to work out the gross
margin on his crops?
2 a Name three sources of credit which are
available to a farmer. Give examples of
the use to which credit obtained from
these sources may be put.
b Why is marketing an essential considera-
tion when planning a commercial farm-
ing enterprise?
c What do you consider to be the advantages
and disadvantages of co-operatives?
 Glossary
Absorption - the passage of soluble food substances
from the digestive system into the blood stream.
Acid - a chemical substance containing hydrogen
ions which can be removed by reaction with a
metal.
Aerobic - respiration which requires oxygen.
A.1. (artificial insemination) - the introduction of
semen which has been collected from a male into
the uterus of a female for animal breeding
purposes.
Amino acids - chemicals which link together into
polypeptide chains to make proteins.
Anaerobic - the release of energy from food mate-
rial by a chemical process which does not require
oxygen ..
Annual - a plant which completes its life cycle in
) Depreciation - the reduction in value of an item
one year, or season.
Anti-bodies - a natural substance produced by the
body in response to the presence of a disease.
Asexual - reproduction which does not involve the
fusion of male and female gametes.
Atom - the smallest part of an element which can
take part in a chemical reaction.
Bacteria - very small organisms consisting of a
single cell, found in soil, air, water and living
organisms.
Base - a chemical substance containing hydroxyl
ions.
Capillary action - the rise of water within the
narrow spaces between soil particles.
Capital - the amout of money available for use on
the farm business.
Carbohydrates - compounds containing the
elements carbon, oxygen and hydrogen only;
formed in plants during photosynthesis; the main
form of food and energy storage in animals.
Carnivore - an animal whose diet consists largely
of meat or other animal matter.
Cell - the chief unit of which plants and animals
are made; consisting of protoplasm, and a nucleus;
surrounded by a cell wall in plants and a thin
membrane in animals.
Cellulose - a fibrous carbohydrate material, the
chief constituent of cell walls in plants.
Chlorophyll - the green pigment found in plants,
essential for photosynthesis.
Chromosomes - minute, thread-like structures
found within the nucleus of all plant and animal
cells and bearing the genes.
Colloids - particles dispersed in a liquid in a form
which is between that of a solution and a suspen-
sion, e.g. clay particles are colloidal in soil water.
Compound - a substance containing two or more
elements chemically combined together.
Condensation - the change of state from gas
or vapour to liquid due to a reduction in
temperature.
Conservation - the careful use of the natural
resources of the environment; the protection of
soil against erosion; the preservation of a crop for
use as fodder by livestock, e.g. maize silage.
Cull- the removal of an animal from the remainder
because of poor performance or quality.
Cultivar - a variety of a crop.
Culture - the production of bacteria on a substance
which provides food.
Cytoplasm - the material of a plant or animal cell,
excluding the nucleus.
Deficiency - when something is lacking in the
essential food requirement of plants or animals,
sometimes causing a disease.
over a period of time.
Dicot - (dicotyledonous) - the group of plants
having two cotyledons in their seed.
Dioecious - plants which have the male and female
flowers on separate plants.
Drainage - the removal of water from the land by
means of channels, ditches or underground pipes.
Ecosystem - a community of organisms interacting
with each other and with their environment, e.g.
a group of trees or a swamp.
Element - the simplest form of chemical substance
containing only one type of atom.
Energy - the capacity to perform work.
Enzyme - substances present in plants and animals
which help to speed up the rate of chemical reac-
tion while remaining unchanged themselves,
e.g. digestive enzymes speed up the process of
digestion.
Erosion - the wearing away of the land's surface,
rocks and soils, by the action of running water or
weathering agents.
Evaporation - the change of state of a substance
from liquid to vapour, due to an increase in
temperature.
Fermentation - the breakdown of organic material
by the action of enzymes produced by living
organisms, e.g. bacteria, yeast.
Fertile - the term used to describe the ability of
animals to reproduce eggs capable of hatching,
seeds capable of germinating and soil capable of
supporting a crop.
Fertilisation - the fusion of male and female
sex cells to form a new individual in sexual
reproduction.
Forage - crops eaten by animals.
Friction - the force which reacts against the move-
ment between two surfaces in contact.
Fungi - a large group of plants which do not contain

chlorophyll.
Fungicide - a chemical used to control fungi
responsible for the spread of certain diseases,
mainly of crops.
Gametes - reproductive cells, e.g. sperms of male
animals.
Genes - the material present in the cells of an
organism which are responsible for characters
inherited from one generation to the next.
Germination - the emergence of a shoot and root
from the seed when environmental conditions are
favourable.
Gestation - the period of time between fertilisation
and birth in animals.
Herbicide - a chemical pesticide used to kill weeds.
Herbivore - an animal which eats grass as the
major food in its diet.
Hormone - organic substances produced by plants
and animals. Sometimes called "chemical messen-
gers" because they are produced in one part of the
organism and carried to another part where they
have a marked effect.
Host - a plant or animal upon which a parasite is
dependent.
Humidity - or relative humidity - the amount of
water vapour present in the atmosphere.
Humus - dark coloured organic matter present in
soils as the result of the breakdown of plant and
animal remains.
Hybrid - a plant or animal produced as the result
of crossing one species or variety with another.
Immunity - the ability of a plant or animal to resist
a disease or infection.
Incubation - the period of development of a chicken
within an egg up to the moment of hatching. Also
the period between an animal becoming infected
by disease organisms and showing the symptoms
of the disease.
Indicator - a substance which changes colour dur-
ing a chemical reaction, usually to indicate the
presence of acid or alkali, e.g. in soil testing.
Infection - the presence of disease organisms in
plants or animals.
Infertile - an animal unable to breed because fertile
sex cells are not produced. A soil which is low in
plant nutrients and requires fertilisers to enable
good crop yields to be produced.
Inheritance - the receiving of characters in a newly
formed individual from one or both of its parents.
Insecticide - a chemical pesticide used to control
insects.
Intercropping - growing a different crop within
the rows of the main crop.
Investment - securing money, buildings or other
items so that they can be realised (sold or used)
in the future.
Ion - an electrically charged particle.
Irrigation - the application of water to the soil to
assist the growth of crops.
Lactation - the period during which a female ani-
mal is "in milk", i.e. producing milk from her
udder.
Glossary 231
Leaching - the removal of dissolved nutrients from
the soil, by downward drainage.
Legume - the plant family whose members produce
seed pods and have root nodules containing
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Lipids - substances present in the tissues of plants
or animals which contain fats or fatty acids.
Malnutrition - disease or weakness caused by
insufficient food materials being taken in by an
animal or plant, or by a shortage of the correct
food requirements.
Membrane - a very thin layer of skin.
Metabolism - chemical processes which occur in
living organisms where organic compounds are
broken down or built up. These processes are
usually controlled by enzymes, e.g. photosynthesis
involves the metabolism of various compounds
within the plant cells.
Metamorphosis - the change in form of an organ-
ism as it develops through a series of different
stages, e.g. larva - pupa - adult in some insects.
Molecule - the smallest particle of a substance
which is able to exist on its own.
Monocot - (monocotyledonous) - the group of
plants having only one cotyledon in their seed.
Monoecious - plants which have both male and
female flowers on the same plant.
Mulch - material supplied on the soil surface to
conserve moisture around a crop.
Nematodes - the group of worms (roundworms)
usually occurring as parasites in animals and
plants but also free-living in soil.
Neutral- the condition of a soil or a solution which
is neither acidic nor alkaline.
Neutralization - the reaction of an acid and an
alkali to produce a solution which is neutral.
Nodules - swellings or lumps on the roots of leg-
uminous plants. They contain bacteria which are
able to convert nitrogen from the air of the soil
into nitrogen compounds which can be used by
other plants grown on the same soil.
Nutrients - chemical substances which are taken
in by plants and animals (their food material) and
are essential for growth and development.
Omnivore - an animal which eats both vegetable
and animal foods.
Optimum - most suitable or best.
Organ - a functioning unit of a plant or animal
(e.g. heart).
Organic (substance) - contains carbon and hydro-
gen, usually combined with nitrogen and other
elements.
Organic (fertiliser) - made from natural plant and
animal products (e.g. bone meal).
Organic (matter) - plant and animal residues found
in the soil.
Organism - any free living plant or animal.
Osmosis - the passage of water from a weak to a
more concentrated solution through a semi-
permeable membrane (one which allows solvent
but not solute through it). It is the process by
which water enters the roots of plants.
232 O-Level Agriculture
Oxidation - the chemical process by which oxygen
combines with another element, or where hydrogen
is removed from a compound during the reaction.
Parasite - an organism which lives on or inside a
plant or animal (the host) and depends on it for
food. Most parasites are harmful pests.
Parturition - birth.
Perennial - a plant which continues its growth
from one year to the next.
Pesticide - a chemical substance used to kill pests.
Photosynthesis - the process by which green
plants make food from water and carbon dioxide
using energy derived from sunlight.
pH scale - a measure of the hydrogen ion concen-
tration of a solution which indicates its acidity or
alkalinity. The scale runs from 0-14. The mid
point (7) is the value of a neutral solution. Below
7 the values are acidic and higher than 7 the
values represent alkaline solutions.
Pollination - the transfer of pollen from the sta-
mens to the stigma during sexual reproduction in
the flowers of plants.
Power - the rate at which work is achieved, or
energy is transferred.
Progeny - offspring.
Proteins - chemical compounds (organic) which
contain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and other ele-
ments and are made up of a number of amino
acids.
Quarantine - keeping an animal in isolation to pre-
vent the spread of an infectious disease.
Reaction - a chemical change in which two or more
substances are converted into other substances.
Reduction - a reaction in which oxygen is removed
from a compound or where hydrogen is combined
with a compound.
Respiration z--: the process in animals and plants
whereby energy is produced in the tissues as a
result of the oxidation of carbohydrates.
Rotation - a system of growing crops in a regular
order of succession.
Ruminant - an animal with a complex (ruminant)
stomach consisting of four compartments to en-
able it to break down its food,which has a high cellu-
lose content, e.g. grass. Cattle are ruminants.
Salt - chemically, a substance formed by the reac-
tion of an acid and a metal in which the hydrogen
of the acid is replaced by the metal. Common salt,
used on food and as a salt lick for cattle is the sub-
stance sodium chloride.
Sediment - material settling on the bottom of a
liquid, e.g. a river valley or in a lake.
Semen - the liquid mixture containing sperms pro-
duced by the reproductive organs of male animals.
Sexual (reproduction) - the production of new indi-
viduals as a result of the fusing together of male
and female cells.
Silage - a feeding stuff for cattle produced by stor-
ing grass, maize or other forage crop in conditions
that enable bacteria to break it down into a
material for consumption later, e.g. during the
dry season.
Solution - a mixture containing a substance
dissolved in a liquid.
Spores - reproductive structures produced by bac-
teria, fungi and certain plants to give rise to new
individuals.
Sterilisation (of soil) - treating with chemicals so
that all living organisms are killed and plant dis-
eases within the soil can be controlled.
Sterilisation (of milk) - boiling for a period of time
to kill all the bacteria present, to enable the milk
to be kept longer.
Stocking Rate - the number of animals which are
allowed to graze a particular area, usually per
hectare.
Stress - a condition where animals are under press-
ure and unable to perform properly, e.g. due to
fighting.
Structure (of soil) - the form or way in which soil
particles are held together.
Subsidy - an amount of money, usually paid by the
Government, to support the price of a crop or
product.
Suspension - mixture made up of a liquid in which
minute particles are floating.
Symptoms - signs.
Terracing - steps cut across sloping land to enable
crops to be grown and reduce soil erosion.
Texture (of soil) - the 'feel' of the soil in relation to
the most abundant soil particle size present.
Tissues - a group of cells of the same kind.
Toxic - poisonous or dangerous.
Translocation - the movement ofsubstances within
the tissues of a plant.
Transpiration - the evaporation of water from the
leaves or stem of a plant.
Tropism - a change in direction of growth of a plant
because of a change in conditions.
Vaccine - a preparation containing dead or living
disease organisms used to inject or dose animals.
The presence of the vaccine stimulates the animal
to produce anti-bodies to give it protection against
the disease.
Variety - a group of plants of the same species but
with slightly different characteristics.
Vector - an animal which carries and transmits
parasites causing a disease in another animal,
e.g. tsetse fly.
Vegetative (reproduction) - the production of a new
plant by asexual means.
Viable (seeds) - able to germinate.
Virus - the group of sub-microscopic organisms
which cause disease or infection in plants and
animals.
Vitamins - a group of organic substances required
by animals in very small amounts for their
metabolism.
Weaning - the separation of a young animal from
its mother so that it no longer has access to the
mother's supply of milk and must receive food
from another source.
Wilting - the loss of water from the cells of a plant
so that it becomes soft and limp. It occurs on hot
days when the rate of transpiration exceeds the
rate of water intake.