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its much greater reliability under all working conditions. The
overhead wire is not one continuous cable, but is divided into
sections of about half a mile in length, each section being supplied
with current from a separate main. At each point where the current is
fed to the trolley wire a sort of metal box may be seen at the side of
the street. These boxes are called “feeder pillars,” and each contains
a switch by means of which the current can be cut off from that
particular section, for repairing or other purposes. Above the car is
fixed an arm provided with a trolley wheel which runs along the wire,
and this wheel takes the current from the wire. From the wheel the
current passes down the trolley arm to the controller, which is
operated by the driver, and from there to the motors beneath the car.
Leaving the motors it passes to the wheels and then to the rails, from
which it is led off at intervals by cables and so returned to the
generating station. The current carried by the rails is at a pressure of
only a few volts, so that there is not the slightest danger of shock
from them. There are generally two electric motors beneath the car,
and the horse-power of each varies from about fifteen to twenty-five.
The controller consists mainly of a number of graduated
resistances. To start the car the driver moves a handle forward notch
by notch, thus gradually cutting out the resistance, and so the motors
receive more and more current until they are running at full speed.
The movement of the controller handle also alters the connexion of
the motors. When the car is started the motors are connected in
series, so that the full current passes through each, while the
pressure is divided between them; but when the car is well on the
move the controller connects the motors in parallel, so that each
receives the full pressure of the current.
The conduit and surface contact systems are much the same as
the trolley system except in the method of supplying the current to
the cars. In the conduit system two conductors conveying the current
are placed in an underground channel or conduit of concrete
strengthened by iron yokes. The top of the conduit is almost closed
in so as to leave only a narrow slot, through which passes the
current collector of the car. This current collector, or “plough” as it is
called, carries two slippers which make contact with the conductors,
and thus take current from them. In this system the current returns
along one of the conductors, so that no current passes along the
track rails. This is the most expensive of the three systems, both in
construction and maintenance.
The surface contact or stud system is like the conduit system in
having conductors placed in a sort of underground trough, but in this
case contact with the conductors is made by means of metal studs
fixed at intervals in the middle of the track. The studs are really the
tops of underground boxes each containing a switch, which, when
drawn up to a certain position, connects the stud to the conductors.
These switches are arranged to be moved by magnets fixed beneath
the car, and thus when the car passes over a stud the magnets work
the switch and connect the stud to the conductors, so that the stud is
then “alive.” The current is taken from the studs by means of sliding
brushes or skates which are carried by the car. The studs are thus
alive only when the car is passing over them, and at all other times
they are dead, and not in any way dangerous.
The weight and speed of electric cars make it important to have
a thoroughly reliable system of brakes. First of all there are ordinary
mechanical brakes, which press against the wheels. Then there are
electro-magnetic slipper brakes which press on the rails instead of
on the wheels of the car. These brakes are operated by electro-
magnets of great power, the current necessary to excite the magnets
being taken from the motors. Finally there is a most interesting and
ingenious method of regenerative control. Before a car can be
stopped after it has attained considerable speed a certain amount of
energy has to be got rid of in some way. With the ordinary
mechanical or electro-magnetic brakes this energy is wasted, but in
the regenerative method it is turned into electric current, which is
sent back into the circuit. If an electric motor is supplied with
mechanical power instead of electric current it becomes a dynamo,
and generates current instead of using it. In the regenerative system,
when a car is “coasting” down a hill it drives the wheels, and the
wheels drive the motors, so that the latter become dynamos and
generate current which is sent back to the power station. In this way
some of the abnormal amount of current taken by a car in climbing a
hill is returned when the car descends the hill. The regenerative
system limits the speed of the car, so that it cannot possibly get
beyond control.
PLATE VII.
1
In actual practice the positive carbon is made
double the thickness of the negative, so that the
two consume at about the same rate.
The arc lamp is largely used for the illumination of wide streets,
public squares, railway stations, and the exteriors of theatres, music-
halls, picture houses, and large shops. The intense brilliancy of the
light produced may be judged from the accompanying photographs
(Plate IX.), which were taken entirely by the light of the arc lamps.
Still more powerful arc lamps are constructed for use in lighthouses.
The illuminating power of some of these lamps is equal to that of
hundreds of thousands of candles, and the light, concentrated by
large reflectors, is visible at distances varying from thirty to one
hundred miles.
Arc lamps are also largely used for lighting interiors, such as
large showrooms, factories or workshops. For this kind of lighting the
dazzling glare of the outdoor lamp would be very objectionable and
harmful to the eyes, so methods of indirect lighting are employed to
give a soft and pleasant light. Most of the light in the arc lamp comes
from the positive carbon, and for ordinary outdoor lighting this carbon
is placed above the negative carbon. In lamps for interior lighting the
arrangement is frequently reversed, so that the positive carbon is
below. Most of the light is thus directed upwards, and if the ceiling is
fairly low and of a white colour the rays are reflected by it, and a soft
and evenly diffused lighting is the result. Some light comes also from
the negative carbon, and those downward rays are reflected to the
ceiling by a reflector placed beneath the lamp. Where the ceiling is
very high or of an unsuitable colour, a sort of artificial ceiling in the
shape of a large white reflector is placed above the lamp to produce
the same effect. Sometimes the lamp is arranged so that part of the
light is reflected to the ceiling, and part transmitted directly through a
semi-transparent reflector below the lamp. The composition of the
light of the arc lamp is very similar to that of sunlight, and by the use
of such lamps the well-known difficulty of judging and matching
colours by artificial light is greatly reduced. This fact is of great value
in drapery establishments, and the arc lamp has proved a great
success for lighting rooms used for night painting classes.
The powerful searchlights used by warships are arc lamps
provided with special arrangements for projecting the light in any
direction. A reflector behind the arc concentrates the light and sends
it out as a bundle of parallel rays, and the illuminating power is such
that a good searchlight has a working range of nearly two miles in
clear weather. According to the size of the projector, the illumination
varies from about 3000 to 30,000 or 40,000 candle-power. For some
purposes, such as the illuminating of narrow stretches of water, a
wider beam is required, and this is obtained by a diverging lens
placed in front of the arc. In passing through this lens the light is
dispersed or spread out to a greater or less extent according to the
nature of the lens. Searchlights are used in navigating the Suez
Canal by night, for lighting up the buoys along the sides of the canal.
The ordinary form of searchlight does this quite well, but at the same
time it illuminates equally an approaching vessel, so that the pilot on
this vessel is dazzled by the blinding glare. To avoid this dangerous
state of things a split reflector is used, which produces two separate
beams with a dark space between them. In this way the sides of the
canal are illuminated, but the light is not thrown upon oncoming
vessels, so that the pilots can see clearly.
Glass reflectors are much more efficient than metallic ones, but
they have the disadvantage of being easily put out of action by
gunfire. This defect is remedied by protecting the glass reflector by a
screen of wire netting. This is secured at the back of the reflector,
and even if the glass is shattered to a considerable extent, as by a
rifle bullet, the netting holds it together, and keeps it quite
serviceable. Reflectors protected in this way are not put out of action
by even two or three shots fired through them. Searchlight arcs and
reflectors are enclosed in metal cylinders, which can be moved in
any direction, vertically or horizontally.
In the arc lamps already described, a large proportion of the light
comes from the incandescent carbon electrodes. About the year
1901 an American electrician, Mr. P. C. Hewitt, brought out an arc
lamp in which the electrodes took no part in producing the light, the
whole of which came from a glowing stream of mercury vapour. This
lamp, under the name of the Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapour lamp,
has certain advantages over other electric illuminants, and it has
come into extensive use.
Fig. 22.—Sketch of Mercury Vapour Lamp.