LIFE SCIENCES

Grade 12

Endocrine System
and Homeostasis
THEORY

Compiled by
R Prigge
Introduction:

We have 2 types of glands in our bodies:

1. Exocrine glands
2. Endocrine glands
Exocrine glands Endocrine Glands
Glands that pour their secretions into ducts – they Glands that pour their secretions into blood
are also called duct glands capillaries – they have no ducts and are called
ductless glands
E.g. salivary glands produce saliva and ducts release E.g. Pituitary gland releases FSH which is carried via
it into the mouth cavity / sweat glands produce the blood to the ovaries
sweat and ducts release sweat onto the surface of
the skin
An exception is the pancreas which functions as an endocrine and exocrine gland:
Exocrine: pancreatic juice carried in pancreatic Endocrine: islets of Langerhans in pancreas secrete
duct to duodenum. hormones insulin or glucagon directly into blood.

Exocrine gland Endocrine gland

Hormones are:
• mostly protein in nature.
• organic chemical messengers.
• forming part of an integrated system that ensures co-ordination and homeostasis by the effect they
have on target organs – these are specific to the hormone.

Life Sciences Endocrine system and Homeostasis All Rights Reserved.

The endocrine system works together with the nervous system to bring about co-ordination and homeostasis
in the body.
Comparing nervous and chemical co-ordination:
The nervous system uses nerve impulses to bring The endocrine system uses hormones to bring about
about nervous co-ordination chemical co-ordination.

The nervous and endocrine systems influence each other and work together to co-ordinate the functioning
of the body as a whole.

Table of differences between functioning of Nervous and Endocrine system

Nervous co-ordination Chemical co-ordination

(Nervous System) (Endocrine System)
Message carried as a nerve impulse Message carried chemically by a hormone
(electrochemical)
Nerve impulse travels very fast/ rapidly Message carried slower
Impulse carried along nerve fibres (neurons) Message carried by blood
Message acts for a very short time Message acts for a long time
Targets a specific/ precise area i.e. effectors Acts on target organs and action can be over a
(muscles or glands) wider area/ general effect
Causes an immediate reaction / brief Results in a long-term reaction / delayed and
prolonged

• Example: When faced with danger, you run away. The following takes place in your body:
Your breathing rate increases
Your heart begins to beat faster
More blood with more oxygen and glucose is sent to your brain and leg muscles
Brain and legs receive more energy to enable you to think clearly and to run away
All these activities are co-ordinated by hormones secreted by endocrine system.
Important endocrine glands and their functions:

Very important
hormones/ glands
for Gr12
 GLAND PART OF GLAND HORMONES NORMAL FUNCTION OVERSECRETION / UNDERSECRETION /
THAT SECRETES IT HYPERSECRETION HYPOSECRETION

HYPOTHALAMUS Releases ADH which ADH Helps to control the water levels in the body:
Underside of brain is stored in the (anti-diuretic HOT DAYS: Increases the permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubule
posterior pituitary hormone) in the nephron of the kidney. Thus water is reabsorbed by the blood capillaries. Thus less water is lost
and released from as urine. (Over-secretion could lead to high blood pressure)
here COLD DAYS: Decreases the permeability of the walls of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting
tubules in the nephron of the kidney. Thus less water is reabsorbed by the blood capillaries and more
water is lost as urine. (Under-secretion could lead to daily excretion of large volumes of urine)
PITUITARY GLAND Secretions of GROWTH Regulates general body growth, especially In a child results in In child results in
(master gland) anterior pituitary HORMONE long bones and muscles giantism / gigantism dwarfism / midget
Small pea-shaped which has blood (GH) In an adult results in In adult – has little or no
gland situated in supply linking it to acromegaly – bones of effect
bony cavity at base hypothalamus of hands, legs and face
of brain brain become enlarged
THYROID Controls the development and functioning of the thyroid i.e. stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin
STIMULATING As TSH increases, the thyroid produces more thyroxin.
HORMONE As TSH decreases, the thyroid produces less thyroxin.
(TSH)

FSH (follicle In females:

stimulating Stimulates the primary follicle to change to a Graafian follicle – thus controls the production of eggs / ova
hormone) Stimulates the Graafian follicle to produce oestrogen
In males:
Stimulates the development of sperms in the seminiferous tubules in the testes
LH (luteinizing In females:
hormone) Controls the release of the egg during ovulation
Changes the Graafian follicle into the corpus luteum
Stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone
In males (also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone – ICSH):
Stimulates the Leydig / interstitial cells in the testes to produce testosterone
PROLACTIN Stimulates the production of milk by the mother – called lactation

Life Sciences Endocrine system and Homeostasis All Rights Reserved.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms:

Homeostasis: refers to the stable state of tissue fluid i.e. the internal environment, despite any
environmental changes.
• If the hormone level in the blood is too high, this is fed back to the gland which then reduces its
production of that hormone until it reaches its normal range
• If the hormone level in the blood is too low, this is fed back to the gland which then increases its
production of that hormone until it reaches its normal range
• Therefore: HIGH hormone level à gland REDUCES hormone production
LOW hormone level à gland INCREASES hormone production
• Therefore, the gland works in the OPPOSITE / NEGATIVE direction to the level of the hormone. Thus it
is called NEGATIVE FEEDBACK.
The negative feedback that controls blood thyroxin concentrations

Blood Thyroxine
high thyroxin
oncentrations
levels in the
return to
blood
normal

thyroid gland is
stimulated by pituitary
TSH and secretes less
produces more TSH
thyroxin

Normal level of
thyroxin in the
blood

thyroid gland
pituitary
stimulated to
produces more
produce less
TSH
thyroxin

Thyroxine levels
low thyroxin
in the blood
concentrations
decrease to
in the blood
normal.

Thyroxin level in the blood drops below normal: Thyroxin level in the blood rises above normal:
• Pituitary gland is stimulated • Pituitary gland is stimulated
• Secretes more TSH • Secretes less TSH
• Stimulates thyroid gland to secrete more • Stimulates thyroid gland to secrete less
thyroxin thyroxin
• Thyroxin levels in blood rise to within normal • Thyroxin levels in blood drop to within normal
range. range.

Life Sciences Endocrine system and Homeostasis All Rights Reserved.

 The negative feedback that controls blood sugar levels – Grade 11!

Glucose is
Islets of
converted into
Langerhans glycogen in
secrete insulin
the liver

Glucose level
rises above
normal e.g. Blood glucose
after a meal level drops
rich in
carbohydrates

Blood sugar
homeostasis

Glucose level
Blood glucose drops below
level rises normal e.g.
after physical
exercise

Glycogen in
Islets of
the liver is
converted Langerhans
secrete
back into
glucose glucagon

After eating meal rich in carbohydrates: After / during exercise:

• Blood glucose levels increase
• Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin
• via blood to the liver
• stimulates the conversion of glucose to
glycogen for storage in the liver and in the
muscles
• blood glucose levels drop to normal
• Blood glucose levels decrease
• Islets of Langerhans secrete glucagon
• via blood to the liver
• stimulates the conversion of glycogen to
glucose
• blood glucose levels increase to normal

DIABETES: diabetes mellitus.

When insulin cannot be produced in the body the glucose level of the blood rises.
The kidneys secrete some of the extra glucose in the urine – this urine can be tested for.
There are two types of diabetes:

Type 1: The onset is rapid (all ages). The pancreas
stops producing insulin. People with this condition
have to inject themselves daily with insulin and
follow a specific diet and exercise program.
Type 2: Gradual onset in older people. The pancreas
does not produce enough insulin or the quality there
of is poor. People with this condition have most
probably led poor lifestyles. Often these people are
overweight and do not exercise. Medication can
treat this condition, but they have to watch their
diets (by controlling intake of carbohydrates.

Negative feedback control of Corbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the blood.

Oxygen is required for cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. Excess oxygen
to the cells steps up the respiration rate which could be harmful to the cells. A shortage of oxygen to the cells
lowers the metabolic rate which could lead to the death of cells

Excess carbon dioxide increases the acidity (i.e. lowers the pH) of tissue fluid. This will negatively affect
enzyme action as they function best at an optimum pH. This will negatively affect the functioning of the cells

CO2 levels increase e.g.

during exercising. Receptor
cells in the carotid artery (in
the neck) detect the lowered
pH (CO2) levels

A nerve impulse is sent to

The CO2 concentration
the MEDULLA OBLONGATA
decreases, increasing the pH
(the breathing control
to normal levels
centre)

The heart also beats faster

ensureing faster blood flow The medulla oblongata
with more O2 to the cells and sends impulses to the
more CO2 from the cells to breathing muscles
the lungs

Diaphragm and intercostal

More CO2 is exhaled. More muscles contract actively.
O2 is inhaled This increases the rate and
depth of breathing
Osmoregulation – the control of water levels in the body.
When a person is exposed to high temperatures or is exercising, the body will sweat a lot. Alternatively, if
fluids are ingested, the body needs get rid of the excess…
The diagram below shows the regulation of water in the blood.
More dilute urine is formed
and more urine is excreaeted
blood will become less dilute
as water levels in the blood will
return to normal levels
low ADH concentrations make
the renal tubules less
permiable to water and less
water is reabsorbed into the
capillaries in the kidney
osmoreceptors in teh
hypothalamus detect dilute
blood and send impulses to the
pituitary gland to secrete less
ADH
Water levels in the body drop
due to sweating (excessive
exercise)
Osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus detect the
change and send impulses to
the pituitary glad to secrete
more ADH
Negative feedback ADH increases the permiability
of the renal tubules to water
in Osmoregulation and more water is reabsrbed
into the blood capillaries of the
kidney
less urine is excreated, blood
becomes more dilute, and
urine more concentrated and
water levels return to normal
Water levels in the body rise
because of excessive drinking
(beer or tea)
Control of Sodium levels (salt) in the body.

the soduim (salt) Eating a salty

concentration in snack leads to
the blood increased salt
returns to concentrations
normal in the blood

less salt is
This stimulates
excreated in the
the adrenal
urine and it
cortex to secrete
become less
less aldosterone
concentrated.

the renal tubules this makes the

Sodium / salt
become more walls of the renal
permiable to salt tubules less
and more is permiable to salt
reabsorbed in to
the blood homeostasis and less is
absorbed

This stimulates more salt is

the adrenal excreated in the
cortex to secrete urine (becomes
more more
aldosterone concentrated)

not eating
sodium (salt)
enough salt in
concentration in
the diet leads to
the blood
decreased salt
returns to
concentrations
normal
in the blood
Thermoregulation (temperature control)

Humans are homeothermic and can control their temperature to maintain a temperature of 37oC.

On a hot day:

1. Heat receptors in the skin are stimulated

2. They convert the stimulus into an impulse and it is transmitted to the hypothalamus (the body
thermostat) blood can also stimulate the hypothalamus as increased blood temperature stimulates the
hypothalamus directly as it circulates.
3. The hypothalamus, send impulses to the muscles in the blood vessel and sweat glands in the skin.

Ø Blood vessels dilate (vasodilation)

Ø More warm blood flows through the surface of the skin
Ø More heat is lost through radiation
Ø Sweat glands produce more sweat
Ø Sweat evaporates from the skins surface cooling the skin surface (more heat is lost)

4. Body temperature drops and returns to normal.

On a cold day:

1. Cold receptors in the skin are stimulated

2. They convert the stimulus into an impulse and it is transmitted to the hypothalamus (the body
thermostat) blood can also stimulate the hypothalamus as increased blood temperature stimulates the
hypothalamus directly as it circulates.
3. The hypothalamus, send impulses to the muscles in the blood vessel and sweat glands in the skin.

Ø Blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction)

Ø Less warm blood flows through the surface of the skin
Ø Less heat is lost through radiation
Ø Sweat glands produce less sweat
Ø Less heat is lost through evaporation.

4. Body tries to conserve as much heat as possible. Should temperatures fall further, impulses are sent to
voluntary muscles and we start to shiver. This burns energy and generates heat.