Vehicle Science II PDF

KUMASI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
AUTOMOTIVE & AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Lecture Notes
on
VEHICLE ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND LAB
WORKS II
(AME 318)
HND AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
(LEVEL 300)
MAY, 2024
1
Professor Prince Owusu-Ansah (PhD. MGhIE. PE)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................................................5
FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION.........................................................................................................5
1.1 Newton's first law of motion.........................................................................................................5
1.2 Mass and Inertia............................................................................................................................5
1.3 Momentum............................................................................................................................6
1.4 Change of momentum - Newton's second law of motion......................................................7
2.5 Weight.................................................................................................................................11
2.6 Newton’s third law of motion.................................................................................................12
CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................................................................18
TRACTIVE EFFORT, TRACTIVE RESISTANCE, POWER AVAILABLE AND POWER AVAILABLE.....................18
2.1 Tractive effort and tractive resistance.................................................................................18
2.2 Rolling resistance.................................................................................................................18
2.3 Gradient resistance..............................................................................................................20
2.4 Air (or wind) resistance........................................................................................................25
2.5 Power available....................................................................................................................26
2.6 Power required....................................................................................................................27
2.7 Power curves........................................................................................................................29
2.8 Tractive effort and engine torque........................................................................................30
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................39
OVERTURNING AND SKIDDING OF.........................................................................................................39
VEHICLE ON A CURVED TRACK...............................................................................................................39
3.1 Overturning on a curved horizontal track............................................................................39
3.2 Skidding on a curved horizontal track..................................................................................40
3.3 Effect of banked track..........................................................................................................43
3.4 Overturning on a Curved banked track................................................................................45
3.5 Skidding on a curved banked track......................................................................................47
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................51
LOAD TRANSFER....................................................................................................................................51
4.1 Load transfer during braking................................................................................................51
4.2 Load transfer during acceleration........................................................................................55
4.3 Load transfer during maximum acceleration.......................................................................56
4.4 Load transfer when cornering..............................................................................................58
2
ASSIGNMENT 3......................................................................................................................................65
3
Ing. Professor. Prince Owusu-Ansah is an Associate Professor at the Automotive and
Agricultural Mechanization Engineering Department of the Faculty of Engineering is a
selfmotivated Mechanical Engineer with majors in Automobile and Mechatronics Engineering
and currently the Head of Automotive and Agricultural Mechanization Engineering Department
which created in 2021 under his dynamic leadership during his tenure when he headed the
Mechanical Engineering Department between September 2016- August 2021. Professor
OwusuAnsah attended Kumasi Polytechnic between 1992-1995 where I obtained the Motor
Vehicle Technician Part I & II Certificates awarded by Technical Examinations Units of the
Ghana Education Service. In September 1996 he again enrolled at Kumasi Polytechnic and
pursed HND in Mechanical Engineering Majoring Automobile Engineering and graduated in
June 1999. He served his national service at the department of Mechanical Engineering at
Kumasi Polytechnic between September 1999 to July 2000 as a Teaching Assistant and a
Practical Demonstrator at the Autotronic Laboratory of the Department. In September 2000 he
was employed at the Automobile Section of the Mechanical Engineering Department. He holds
B.Sc. and M.Sc. Degrees in Mechanical Engineering awarded by KNUST in June 2007 and
February 2011 respectively. He was the Head of the Automobile Section of the Mechanical
Engineering Department from 2011-2013 and also the co-Coordinator for Technical
Examinations Unit (TEU) for Kumasi Polytechnic between 2007-2013. Ing Prof. Prince Owusu-
Ansah in June 2016 was awarded PhD in Mechatronics Engineering at Wuhan University of
Technology, China with specialty in the field of Flywheel Energy Storage Systems Suspended by
Hybrid Magnetic Bearings
4
CHAPTER 1
FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION

1.1 Newton's first law of motion
The behavior of bodies under the action of forces was observed by Sir Isaac Newton in the late
seventeenth century, and his first law of motion may be Stated as follows:
A body continues in a state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by
an external resultant force’.
This law will be readily understood by considering some facts. If. for instance, a motor vehicle is
standing on a level road, it tends to remain at this standstill position unless an external force is
applied to make it move. If the vehicle is already moving, only friction and air resistance have to
be balanced to keep the vehicle moving with the same velocity. When the propelling force
provided by the engine exceeds the forces opposing motion, the vehicle will accelerate steadily
along the road. This is due to a resultant force acting in the direction of motion of the vehicle. On
the other hand, if the engine is switched off, the only forces acting will be the retarding forces
(air resistance and friction) causing the vehicle to slow down and stop.
It follows, therefore, that a body remains at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity only
as long as there is no resultant force acting on it. Whenever a body accelerates in a given
direction, there must be a resultant force acting in that direction. Conversely, whenever a
resultant force acts on a body, the body will accelerate in the direction of this force.
1.2 Mass and Inertia
The mass of a body may be defined as the quantity of matter which it contains. The SI unit of
mass is the kilogram (kg). Small masses are often measured in grams (g) and large masses are
usually measured in megagrams (Mg), where:
1kg = l000g and 1Mg =1000kg
The megagram is also called the tonne (t).
The tendency of a body to maintain a state of rest or of uniform motion is called its inertia, and
this property is found to be dependent upon the mass of the body. Hence. the larger the mass of a
body the greater is its inertia, i.e. the more difficult it would be to make it move when at rest, or
to stop it when in motion. it can also be said that the larger the mass of a body. the smaller the
acceleration produced by a given force, and the greater the time required for the velocity of the
body to change by a given amount.
5
1.3 Momentum
Momentum can be defined as the quantity of motion possessed by a moving body. it is measured
by the product of the mass m of the body and its velocity v. Thus:
Momentum¿ mv [2.1]
The unit of momentum is the kilogram metre per second (kgm/s). Momentum has magnitude,
and its direction and sense correspond to that of the velocity. Momentum is therefore a vector
quantity.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.1

Determine the momentum of a motor vehicle of mass 2 Mg which is travelling with a
uniform velocity of 72 km/h.
SOLUTION
Momentum = mv from equation [2.1]
where m = 2 Mg = 2000kg
72× 1000
v=72 km/h = =20 m/s
60 × 60
∴ Momentum = 2000 [kg] x 20 [m/s] = 40000 kg m/s
Answer: Momentum of vehicle = 40000 kg m/s
6
1.4 Change of momentum - Newton's second law of motion
Whenever the momentum of a body changes, there must always be a force causing the change.
The rate at which the momentum is changed will depend upon the size of this force. This is
expressed in Newton’s second law of motion which state that:
‘The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the externally applied force and
takes place in the direction in which the force acts.’
Suppose a resultant force f acts on a body of mass m for a time t and causes its velocity to
change from u to v . Then:
Change of momentum = mv−mu
mv−mu
Rate of change of momentum =
t
According to Newton's second law,
F ∝ Rate of change of momentum
mv−mu
i.e. F ∝( t
)
If the mass, m, of the body remains unchanged, this may be written:

v−u
F ∝ m( )
t
v−u
But ( )=¿ Rate of change of velocity = Acceleration a
t
∴ F ∝ma
This relationship can be turned into an equation by putting in a constant. Hence:
F = Constant × ma [2.2]
Now, the SI unit of force is the newton (N), and this is defined as the force which gives a mass of
1 kg an acceleration of l m/s2. Substituting F = 1N, m= 1 kg and a = l m/s2 in equation [2.2], we
get:
l N = Constant × 1 kg × 1 m/s2
Thus, the constant has a numerical value of unity and Newton's second . law of motion may be
written in the form:
Force = Mass x Acceleration
i.e. F = ma [2.3]
7
It should be pointed out that the unit of force can be expressed in terms of the units of mass,
length and time, e.g.
l N = 1 kg × 1 m/s2 = 1 kg m/s2

Calculate the force required to produce an acceleration of 3 m/s 2 on a motor vehicle
having a mas of 1100kg. If the initial velocity of the vehicle is 12 m/s, what will be the
final velocity if this force is applied for 5 s?
SOLUTION
Applying equation [2.3];
Acceleration force, F = ma
= 1100 [kg]× 3 [m/s2]
= 3300N = 3.3 kN
Now,
v=u+at
Where u=12 m/s; a=3 m/s2; t=5 s
Then v=12+ ( 3 ×5 )=27 m/s
Answer: Force producing acceleration of the vehicle = 3.3 kN
Final velocity attained in 5 s = 27 m/s

A valve and tappet assembly fitted to an overhead camshaft engine has a mass of 200g.
At a given engine speed, the force to open the valve is 250 N. Calculate the acceleration
of the valve under these conditions.
SOLUTION
Force = Mass x Acceleration
i.e. F = ma
F
Acceleration, a= where F = 250N and m = 200g = 0.2kg
m
8
[ ]
m
kg
Hence 250 N s2 m/s2
a= = = =1250
0.2 kg kg
Answer: Acceleration of valve = 1250 m/s2

Calculate the force required to accelerate a vehicle uniformly from 30 km/h to 75
km/h to 20 s. The mass of the vehicle is 2 Mg.
SOLUTION
Time taken = t = 20 s
30× 1000
initial velocity = u= 30 km/h = = 8.33
60× 60
75× 1000
Final velocity = v = 75 km/h= = 20.83 m/s
60× 60
Now,
v−u
Acceleration a = ( ) from equation [1.1]
t
20.83−8.33
¿ =0.625 m/s2
20
Applying equation [2.3]:
Acceleration force, F = ma
= 2000 [kg]× 0.625 [m/s2]
= 1250 N = 1.25 kN
Answer = Force required to accelerate vehicle = 1.25 Kn

A motor vehicle of mass 1250 kg is braked from a speed of 108 km/h and comes to rest
with uniform retardation after travelling a distance of l50 m. Determine:
(a) the magnitude of the braking force
(b) the time taken by the vehicle to come to rest.
SOLUTION
9
180× 1000
(a) u= 180 km/h = = 30m/s
60× 60
v=0 (the vehicle is brought to rest by the brakes)
s=150 m
Now , v 2=u t 2 +2 as from equation [1.4]
2 2
v −u
So that , a=
2s
2 2 2 2
0 −30 m /s
¿ =¿ [ ] = -3 m/s
2 ×150 m
This is negative; therefore, the retardation is 3 m/s. Applying equation [2.3]:
Braking force = Mass of vehicle × Retardation
= 120 [ kg ] ×3 [m/ s 2]
= 3750 N = 3.75 kN
(b) To find time taken by Vehicle to come to rest:
s=( u+2 v )× t from equation [ 1.2 ]
150=(
2 )
30+0
×t
∴ t=(
2 )
150 ×2
=10 s
Answer: (a) Braking force = 3.75 kN

(b) Time taken by vehicle to come to rest = 10 s

A force of 650N is applied to a body of mass 200 kg for a period of 12 s. If the only other
force acting on the body is a constant frictional force of 400 N in opposition to its
motion, find:
(a) the acceleration of the body
(b) the distance moved by the body in this time.
SOLUTION
(see Fig. 2.1)
10
Figure 2.1 Example 2.6
(a) Acceleration force, F = Resultant force in the direction of motion
= Applied force – friction force
= 650 N – 400 N = 250 N
But F = ma
F
Acceleration, a=
m
250 kg m/s 2
¿ [ ] = 1.25 m/s2
200 kg
(b) To find distance moved by the body.
Applying equation [1.3]:
1 2
s=ut+ at
2
Where u=0 ; t=12 s ; a=1.25m/s2
s=0+ ( 12 × 1.25× 12 )=90 m

2
Answer: (a) Acceleration of the body = 1.25 m/s2

(b) Distance moved in 12 s = 90 m
2.5 Weight
The force with which a body is attached towards the earth, knows as the force due to gravity is
called the weight of the body. This is determined by the product of the mass of the body and the
acceleration due to gravity.
If W is the weight of the body, m is mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity, then:
W = mg [2.4]
It must here be remarked that the magnitude of g varies with the distance from the centre of the
earth. Since the earth is not a perfect sphere, its radius being less at the pols than it is at the
equator, the weight of a body then varies slightly at different places on the earth’s surface.
However, an average value of g equal to 9.81 m/s 2 has been adopted which is sufficiently
11
accurate for most engineering purposes. (At sea-level near London area, g is almost exactly 9.81
m/s2.)

Determine the gravitational force acting on a body of mass 160 kg.
SOLUTION
Gravitational force, W = mg from equation [2.4]
Where m = 160 kg and g = 9.81 m/s2
Hence W = 160 [kg] ×9.81 [m/s2 ] = 1570 N
Answer: Gravitational force acting on the body (i.e. weight of body) = 1570 N
Note: for the purpose of simplifying calculations, g is frequently taken as 10 m/s 2. Hence, by
using this value in the above example, the gravitational force acting on the body becomes 1600
N. It will be observe that the error involved is less than 2 per cent.
2.6 Newton’s third law of motion

Newtons third law of motion tell us that forces always acts in pairs of equal and opposite forces.
It state that: ‘To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.’
This is sometimes stated as: ‘If a body A exerts a force on another body B, then B will exert on
A a force of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction.’
This law applies to both bodies at rest and bodies in motion and can best be explained by
considering the following cases.
(a) A body resting on a table exerts a force (action) equal to its eight downwards on the table.
The fact that the body is stationary indicates that the force system is in equilibrium, i.e. in
balance, and that the table exerts an equal and upward force (reaction) on the body.
12
(b) if a body is attached to a string and allowed to hang vertically. the weight of the body exerts a
downward pull (acting force) on the string. By Newton‘s third law, there is a reacting force in the
string supporting the body, acting vertically upwards.
(c) If a vehicle is towing a trailer and pulls on the tow-rope with a given force (action), it should
be appreciated that the tow-rope tends to pull the vehicle backwards with an equal force
(reaction).
13
A load of 200 kg is suspended stationary on the end of a wire rope. Determine the
tension in the rope.
SOLUTION
(see Fig. 2.2)
Figure 2.2
From equation [2.4],
Downward force exerted by load on the rope
= Weight of the load
= mg
= 200 [kg] × 9.81 [m/s2] = 1962 N
From Newton’s third law, the rope is exerting an equal and opposite force on the load. This force
is known as the tension in the rope. In Fig. 2.2, it is denoted by T. Hence:
Tension in the rope, T = Weight of the load = 1962N
Answer: Tension in the rope = 1962 N
Note: The tension in the rope would also have been equal to 1962N had the load been raised or
lowered by the rope with uniform velocity.
14
What would be the tension in the rope if the load in the previous example is raised by
the rope with a constant acceleration of 1.5 m/s2?
SOLUTION
Figure 2.3
Force to accelerate the load, F = ma from equation [2.3]
where m = 200 kg and a = 1.5 m/s2
Hence F = 200 [kg] × 1.5 [m/s2] = 300N
For accelerated motion upwards, the tension T in the rope is greater than the weight W, so that
Accelerating force, F = Resultant force (upwards)
= Tension T -Weight W
300 N = T – 1962 N
T = 1962 + 300 = 2262 N
It will therefore be noticed that the tension in the rope (for this particular case) is made up of two
parts:
l. The tension required to balance the weight of the load.
2. The tension required to accelerate the load.
Anwser: Tension in the rope = 2262 N
Note: for accelerated motion downwards, W will be greater than T, in which case,
F = W-T
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. State Newton’s first law of motion.
2. The resistance that a body has to motion or change of motion is called .........
3. The amount of ......... that a body possesses can be measured in terms of its mass.
4. The mass of a body is the ......... contained in the body.
5. A resultant force applied to a body produces .........
6. Define the term ‘momentum’.
7. A body of mass 5 kg, moving at 12 m/s, has a momentum of ……….
8. State Newton’s second law of motion. Force = ......... >< .........
9. Define the newton.
10. 1 N = 2kg x .........
11. The gravitational force acting on a body is called .........
12. A mass of 50 kg is suspended on the end of a rope. The tension in the rope is .........
13. State Newton's third law of motion.
14. The acceleration imparted to a mass of 250 kg by a force of 2 kN. (a) 0.125 m/s 2 (b) 0.5
m/s2 (c) 8 m/s2 (d) 500 m/s2
15. The tractive force required to accelerate a vehicle of mass 2 tonne at a rate of 0.75 m/s 2 is
(a) 750 N (b) 1500 N (c) 2000 N (d) 75 kN
16. A vehicle of mass 800 kg is being propelled along a level road by a force of 1.3 kN. If
the acceleration produced is 1.2 m/s2 the total resistance to motion is(a) 340 N (b) 960
N (c) 1040 N (d) 1540 N
A vehicle having a mass of 950 kg accelerates uniformly from 15 m/s to 25 m/s in 5 s.
Use this data to answer Problems 18 to 21, selecting the nearest correct solution from
those given below. (a)50 m (b) 9500 kg m/s 2 (c) 1900 N (d) 8 m/s 2 (e) 100 m (f)
9500 N (g) 2 m/s2 (h) 1900 kg m/s
17. Determine the acceleration of the vehicle.
18. Determine the distance travelled during the 5 s.
19. Determine the force producing the acceleration.
20. Determine the change in momentum of the vehicle.
A vehicle of mass 1800 kg is brought to rest from 72 km/h in 200m. Use this data to
answer Problems 21 to 23, selecting the nearest correct solution from those given below.
(a) 1 m/s2 (b) 1.8 kN (c) 36 s (d) 20 s (e) l m/s2 (f) 9 kN
16
21. Determine the retardation of the vehicle.
22. Determine the braking force required.
23. Determine the time taken by the vehicle to stop in this distance
TRY QUESTIONS
1. The inlet valve of a modern small car engine has a mass of 50 g and its maximum
acceleration during the opening period is 8000 m/s 2. Calculate the force necessary to
produce this acceleration.
2. A piston assembly has a mass of 0.5 kg and at a given instant the force on the gudgeon
pin is 500 N. Determine the acceleration of the piston. (EMEU)
3. A resultant force of 60 N acts on a body of mass 2. 4 kg for 0 3 s. Determine the change

in velocity.
4. At a given instant, a vehicle of mass 1000 kg has a speed of 18 km/h when it is subjected
to a uniform acceleration of 2 m/s 2 until its speed is 72 km/h. Determine: (a) the time
taken to increase the speed (b) the distance travelled during the acceleration (c) the
accelerating force.
5. A body of mass 20 kg is acted upon by two forces, one of 50 N and the other of 120 N in
the opposite direction. In which direction will the body accelerate and what will be the
value of the acceleration?
6. A box of mass 250 kg is pulled along a horizontal plane against a frictional resistance of
200 N. Calculate the force, exerted parallel to the plane, which will be required to
produce an acceleration of 3 m/s2.
7. A lorry of mass 10 Mg reaches a speed of 63 km/h in 20 s, starting from rest with

uniform acceleration. It travels 2 km at this speed and is then brought to rest in a distance
of 125 m. Determine: (a) the momentum at 63 km/h (b) the accelerating and braking
forces required.
17
8. The speed of a vehicle of mass 960 kg is increased from 18 km/h to 54 km/h. Determine
the change in momentum.
9. What propulsive force is required to produce the change in momentum of the vehicle in
Problem 12 above if the change takes place in 12 s?
10. A racing car has a. force of 10 kN acting on it due to the engine. and the frictional and
air resistance total 2 kN. 1f the acceleration is 2 m/s2, calculate the mass of the car.
11. A vehicle having a mass of 750 kg is being propelled along a level road by a force of 1.2
kN against a total resistance to motion of 300 N. Calculate: (a) the acceleration of the
vehicle (b) how far the vehicle will travel from rest in the first 15 s. (c) the velocity of
the vehicle at the end of this time.
12. A lift cage has a mass of 800 kg. Determine the tension in the lifting cable when the cage
is (a) ascending with uniform velocity (b) accelerating upwards at 1.5 m/s 2 (c)
accelerating downwards at 1.5 m/s2. Take g = 10 m/s2.
13. A caravan of mass 1000 kg is towed by means of a rope attached to a vehicle which is
accelerating steadily at 1.25 m/s2 along a level road. If the frictional resistances amount
to 500 N, what is the tension in the tow-rope?
18
CHAPTER 2
TRACTIVE EFFORT, TRACTIVE RESISTANCE, POWER

AVAILABLE AND POWER AVAILABLE
2.1 Tractive effort and tractive resistance
When a motor vehicle moves along a road at constant speed the only driving force or tractive
effort (Te) needed to be applied to the wheels is that required to maintain the motion against the
various opposing forces which would otherwise tend to decelerate the vehicle and bring it to rest.
The tractive effort at constant speed is therefore equal to the sum of all the forces opposing the
motion of the vehicle. These forces are all included in the term tractive resistance (T r) ’and can
be divided into three groups namely:
1) Rolling resistance (Rr)
2) Gradient resistance (Rg).
3) Air (or wind) resistance (Ra).
Hence, for constant speed,
Tractive effort required = Sum of all the resistances
i.e Te = Rr + Rg + Ra [4.1]
For a vehicle moving along a level road at constant speed becomes:
T e = Rr + Rg [4.2]
NOTE, If the vehicle is accelerated along the road the tractive effort must exceed all the
resistances and resistances and provide accelerating force.
2.2 Rolling resistance

The rolling resistance (Rr) of a vehicle is due mainly wheel bearing friction and to the
deformation of the tyres or road surface. Its value depends upon the nature of the road surface,
type and size of tyres used, and upon the normal load on the tyres. Its value is also found to
increase by too low an air pressure in the tyres.
The rolling resistance is generally assumed to be independent of the vehicle speed and is often
expressed in N/tonne of total mass of vehicle.
19
A vehicle of mass 2 tonnes is being propelled along a level road by a constant tractive
effort of 1.25kN. If the rolling resistance amounts to 100 N/tonne of total mass,
determine the acceleration of the vehicle. Neglect air resistance.
SOLUTION
Mass of vehicle, m = 2t = 2000kg
Tractive effort, Te = 1.25kN = 1250N
Rolling resistance, Rr = 100 N/t = 100¿] × 2 [t]
= 200 N
Now, since vehicle is accelerated on the level and air resistance is neglected, then:
Accelerating force, P = Tc - RR
= (1250 – 200) N = 1050 N
Accelerating force, P = ma
P 1050
Therefore acceleration, a = = = 0.525 m/s2
m 2000
(Remember that 1N = 1kg m/s2)

A car travelling on a level road rolls to rest from a speed of 72 km/h in a distance of
600 m. If the mass of the car is 900 kg, find the frictional resistance (which is assumed
constant) during the retardation. Assuming the same constant resistance, calculate
the tractive effort required when the car starts from rest and accelerates.
SOLUTION
During retardation:
Initial velocity, u = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Final velocity, v = 0 (the car has stoped)
Distance travelled, s = 600 m
Acceleration, a =?
Now since v2 – a2 = 2as
20
2 2
v −u
Then acceleration, a =
2s
2 2
0 −20 1
= = - ms2
2 ×600 3
1
i.e retardation = ms2
3
Frictional resistance = retardation force
1
= ma = 900 [kg] × ms2
3
= 300 N
Starting from rest:
Initial velocity, u = 0
Final velocity, v = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Time taken, t = 15 s
Acceleration, a =?
Since v = u + at
v−u
Then acceleration, a =
t
20−0 4
=
15
= 3
m/s2
Acceleration force = ma
4
= 900 [kg] × m/s2 = 1200 N
3
Hence, tractive effort required,
Te = Accelerating force + Friction resistance
= 1200 + 300 = 1500 N = 1.5 kN
Frictional resistance = 300
Tractive effort = 1.5 kN
2.3 Gradient resistance

When a vehicle is being propelled up an incline the tractive effort must also neutralize the effect
of the component of the weight of the vehicle down the slope. This is called the gradient
resistance (Rg) and depends entirely upon the steepness of the slope and upon the weight of the
21
vehicle. (Remember that the weight of the vehicle is the gravitational force exerted by the earth
on its mass).
Consider a vehicle of mass, m resting on an incline whose gradient is 1 in G. let θ be the angle of
the slope. Then:
Component of weight W down the slope} = W sin θ = mg sin θ
BC 1
But Sin θ = =
AC G
Hence,
mg
Gradient resistance, Rg = mg sin θ =
G
NOTE, When a gradient is specified as 1 in G, G actually refers to length AB, so that:
1 BC
= =tan θ
G AB
But since in most practical gradients θ is small, tan θ is approximately equal to sin θ .

A motor lorry has a mass of 4 Mg and is driven up a hill of gradient 1 in 20 at a
constant speed of 36 km/h. if the rolling resistance amount to 75 N/tonne, calculate
the tractive effort exerted by the vehicle. If the engine is switch off, how far will the
vehicle travel before coming to rest?
SOLUTION
mg 4 × 1000× 9.81
Gradient resistance, Rg = = [kg/m/s2]
G 20
= 1962N
N
Rolling resistance, Rr = 75 [ ] ×4 [t] = 300 N
t
To maintain a constant speed of 36 km/h up the hill (neglecting air resistance),

Tractive effort, Te = Rr + Rg = 1962 + 300 = 2262N
= 2.262kN
Now, if the engine is switched off,
22
Retarding force, P = tractive resistance
= 2262 N
But P = ma
P 2262 kg /ms 2
Therefore retardation, a = = [ ¿
m 4000 kg
= 0.5655 m/ s2
Now,
Initial velocity, u = 36 km/h = 10 m/ s2
Final velocity, v = 0
Acceleration, a = -0.5655 m/ s2
Distance travelled, s = ?
V2 – u2 = 2 as
i.e 0 – 102 = 2 ×(-0.5655) × s
2
10
So that s= = 88.42 m
2× 0.5655
Tractive effort for constant speed = 2.262kN
Distance travelled before coming to rest = 88.42 m
When a vehicle freewheels down an incline the accelerating force is the difference between the
component of the weight down the slope and the tractive resistance.
ILLUSTRAIVE EXAMPLE 2.4

A motor vehicle stands on the top of a hill of gradient 1 in 15 and the hand-brake fails.
If the total mass of the vehicle is 1.2 t and the total resistance to motion amounts to
200 N, calculate
a) The acceleration of the vehicle down the slope;
b) The distance the vehicle will travel in 25 s;
c) The speed of the vehicle after 25 s.
SOLUTION
mg 1.2× 1000× 9.81

Gradient resistance, Rg = = = 785 N
G 15
23
Acceleration force,
P = Gradient resistance - tractive resistance
i.e P = Rg - Tr
= 785 – 200 = 585 N
But P = ma
P
Therefore Acceleration, a =
m
2
585 kgm/s
= [ ]
1.2× 1000 kg
= 0.4875 m/s2
Now
Initial velocity, u = 0
Final velocity, v =?
Acceleration, a = 0.4875 m/s2
Distance travelled, s =?
1 2
Now, s = ut + at
2
0.4875 ×25 m
2
=0+( ) [ 2 × s2]
2 s
= 152.4 m
1
Also, v = u + at2
2
m
V = 0 + (0.4875 ×25 ¿ [ 2 × s] = 12.19 m/s
s

A motor vehicle of mass 1.6 Mg descends an incline of 1 in 16 at constant speed by the
application of the rear brakes. The wheels have a diameter of 680 mm. If the resistance
to motion is constant and equal to 30.N per kilonewton of weight of vehicle, determine
the braking torque at the rear axle.
24
SOLUTION
Mass of vehicle, m = 1.6 Mg = 1600 kg
680
Radius of wheels, R = = 0.34 m
2× 1000
Weight of vehicle, W = mg = 1600 x 9.81 N
Now,
W mg 1600× 9.81
Gradient resistance, Rg = = = = 981 N.
G G 16
Rolling resistance, Rr = 30 N/kN
N 1600× 9.81
= 30 [ ]× [kN] = 470.9 N
kN 1000
For constant Speed down the slope,
Gradient resistance = Rolling resistance + Braking force (F)
i.e R g = Rr + F
981 N = 470.9 N + F
so that F = 981 – 470.9 = 510.1 N
Now,
Braking torque at rear axle = Braking force x Radius of wheels
= F x R = 510.1 [N] x 0.34 [m] = 173.4 Nm
Braking torque at rear axle = 173.4 Nm

A modern touring car has a mass of 850 kg unloaded and carries 150 kg of luggage.
The car is being propelled up a hill of gradient 1 in 25 against a constant frictional
resistance of 250.N, and increases its speed uniformly from 45 km/h to 72 km/h in 12
s. Find the tractive effort exerted by the car.
If the car now descends a second hill of gradient 1 in 15 with the engine switched of,
what will its speed be 200 m downhill?
The resistance to motion may be assume to be the same as on the first hill.
SOLUTION
Total mass of car, m = 850 + 150 kg = 1000 kg
Up first hill:
25
Initial velocity, u = 45 km/h = 12.5 m/s
Final velocity, v = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Acceleration, 0 = ?
Since v = u + at
v−u 20−12.5
Then Acceleration, a = = = 0.625 m/s2
t 12
Hence,
Accelerating force uphill = ma = 1000 [kg] x 0.625
= 625N
mg 1000 x 9.81
Gradient resistance = = = 392.4 N
G 25
Now,
Tractive effort exerted by car up the hill,
= (Gradient resistance) + (frictional resistance) + (Accelerating force)
= 392.4 + 250 + 625 = 1267.4 N = 1.2674 kN
Down second hill;
Since car freewheels down second hill,
Accelerating force, P = (Gradient resistance) - (frictional resistance)

1000× 9.81
= N – 250 N = 404 N
15
But P = ma
P 404
a= = = 0.404 m/s2
m 1000
Final velocity, v =?
Acceleration, a = 0.404 m/s2
V2 = u2 + 2as
= 202 + (2 × 0.404 × 200) = 400 + 161.6 = 561.6 m2/s2
V = √ 561.6 = 23.7 m/s
26
Tractive effort up first hill = 1.2674kN
Speed 200 m down second hill = 23.7 m/s
2.4 Air (or wind) resistance

Air (or wind) resistance (Ra) depends upon many factors, such as the shape and the frontal area
of the vehicle as well as its Speed relative to the air. The air resistance, in newtons, is generally
given by the expression:
Ra = kAV2
where k is a constant depending on the shape of the vehicle, A the projected frontal area (m 2),
and V the speed of the vehicle relative to the air (km/h).
Calculate the tractive effort required to drive a vehicle up an incline of 1 in 8 at a constant speed
of 50 km/h. The mass of the vehicle is 1.25 Mg; the rolling resistance 160 N/t; and the air
resistance, in N, is given by the expression 0.1V2, V being the vehicle speed nn km/h.
Solution
Mass of vehicle, m = 1.25 Mg = 1.25 t =1250 kg
Weight of vehicle, W = mg = 1250 × 9.81= 12262.5 N
N
Rolling resistance, Rr = 160 × 1.25 [t] = 200 N
t
mg W 12262.6
Gradient resistance, Rg = = = N
G G 8
= 1532.6 N
Air resistance, Ra = 0.1v2 = 0.1 × 502 N = 250 N
For constant speed up the incline,
Tractive effort, Te = Rg + Rr + Ra
Te = 200 + 1532.6 + 250 = 1982.6 N
= 1.9826 kN
Therefore Tractive resistance = 1.9826 kN
2.5 Power available
27
The power at the driving wheels at given instant is equal to the power developed at the
crankshaft of the engine during that instant after, of course making allowance for the
transmission friction losses.
Hence, if b.p = brake power of the engine, in W
E = transmission efficiency
Then,
Power available at road wheels} = b.p × E watts
Also, if Te =tractive effort, in N
V = vehicle speed, in m/s
Then,
Power available at road wheels} = Te × v watts
From the two equations, the power developed at the crankshaft of the engine at a given road
speed can be determine by the following expression:
T e −v
b.p of engine = watts
E
2.6 Power required

The power required at a given speed is that necessary to overcome the tractive resistance acting
on the vehicle at that speed.
Hence, if Tr = Tractive resistance, in N
V = vehicle speed, in m/s
Then,
Power available at road wheels} = Tr × v watts

A car of total mass 1.5 Mg is driven up an incline of 1 in 50 at a constant speed of 72
km/h while the engine is developing 16 kW. Calculate the power required to overcome
the road and wind resistance. Neglect frictional losses of the transmission.
SOLUTION
28
Speed of car at 72 km/h, v = 20 m/s
Engine power developed, b.p = 16 kW = 16000 W
Neglect friction losses, b.p = Te × v
b. p 16000 Nm s
Tractive effort, Te = = [ × ] = 800 N
v 20 s m
(Remember that 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 Nm/s)
mg 1500× 9.81
Gradient resistance, Rg = = = 294.3 N
G 50
At constant speed,
Tractive effort, Tr = [Gradient resistance road and wind resistance]
800 N = 294.3 N + (Rr + Ra)
Rr + Ra = 800 – 294.3 = 505.7 N
Now,
Power required to overcome the road and wind resistances
= (Rr + Ra) × v = 505.7 × 20 = 10114 Nm/s
= 10.114kW
Therefore power required = 10.114kW

The engine of a lorry develops 60 kW at a speed km/h. If the efficiency of the
transmission gear is 84% what is the tractive effort employed if the road is horizontal?
SOLUTION
63 ×5
Speed at 63 km/h, v = = 17.5 m/s
18
T e ×v
From b.p =
E
b . p × E 60000 ×84 Nm s
Tractive effort, T e= = [ × ]
v 17.5 ×100 s m
= 2880 N = 2.88 kN
Therefore tractive effort = 2.88 kN
29
A car having a total mass of 1-2 t is propelled by an engine which develops a maximum
power of 27 kW at the road wheels. The road and other resistances may be taken as
constant at 70 N/t. If the car starts from rest and ascends a gradient of 1 in 12,
determine:
(a) the acceleration when m0ving at a speed of 18 km/h;
(b) the maximum attainable speed.
SOLUTION
(a) Mass of car = m = 1.2 t = 1200 kg
Road speed = v = 18 km/h = 5 m/s
Maximum power at road wheels = 27 kW = 27 000 W
N
Road and other resistances = 70 [ ] × 1.2 t = 84 N
t
mg 1200× 9.81
Gradient resistance = = = 981 N
G 12
Total tractive resistance = 84 + 981 = 1065 N
Now, from eq. (8.6)
Power at road wheels = Te × v
Power at road wheels 27000 Nm s
Tractive effort, Tc = = ¿ × ¿
v 5 s m
= 5400 N
Accelerating force, P = Tractive effort - total resistances = 5400 -1065 = 4335 N
But P = ma
P 4335 Nm /s 2
Therefore Acceleration, a = = [ = 3.61 m/s2
m 1200 N
Maximum speed is attained when the tractive effort and the resistance to motion are in balance.
Tractive effort for maximum speed = 1065 N
2700 [Nm/s] = 1065 [N] × vmax
2700 Nm /s
Vmax =
1065
[ N = 25.35m/s
25.35× 18
m/s = = 91.26 km/h
5
30
Acceleration at 18 km/h = 3.61 m/s2
Max. Attainable speed = 25.35 m/s (91.26km/h)
2.7 Power curves

The figure shows the curves of the power available at the driving wheels and the power required
to overcome the resistances on level
The maximum power of the engine is the peak point of the power available curve.
The maximum speed of the vehicle is reached when the power available at the driving wheels is
exactly equal to the power required to overcome the resistances acting on the vehicle at that
speed. This is given by the intersection of the two power curves.
The greatest vertical distance between the two curves gives the maximum power available for
acceleration.
Figure 4.1 : Power curves
2.8 Tractive effort and engine torque

When a vehicle travels in top gear the rear-axle torque TA, newton metres, is given by:
TA = T × Gr × E
Where, Te = = tractive effort exerted by the driving wheels (N)
R = effective radius of driving wheels (m)
But the rear-axel torque TA, in newton meters, is also given by:
31
TA = Te × R
Hence, by substituting the value of TA from the two eqns, we get:

Te × R = T ×Gr × E
T ×Gr × E
So that Te =
R
NOTE; The engine torque T, in newton metres, can be obtained from the b.p. formula:
2 πNT
Engine brake power developed = watts
60
where N is the engine speed in rev/min

The combined road and air resistances acting on a vehicle of mass 1500 kg travelling
at 90 km/h, is equal to a force of 700 N. The efficiency with which the power from the
engine is transmitted to the driving wheels is 80°. The driving wheels are 660 mm
diameter and the gear ratio between engine and driving wheels is 4.25 to 1.
(a) What is the power required from the engine
i) along a level road,
ii) up a gradient of 1 in 60?
(b) What is the torque required from the engine when climbing the gradient?
SOLUTION
90 ×5
a) i) Road speed, v 90 km/h = = 25 m/s
18
At constant speed on the level,
Tractive effort, Te = combined road and wind resistances = 700 N
T e ×v 700× 25 ×100
Engine power required = = [N × m/s = W]
E 80
= 21875 W = 21. 875kW
32
mg 1500× 9.81
ii) Gradient resistance = = ¿ 245.25 N
G 60
At constant speed up the gradient,

Tractive effort, Te = Gradient resistance + Road and wind resistances
= 245.25 + 700 = 945.25 N
Again,
T e ×v 945.25 ×25 ×100
Engine power required = = [Nm/s = W]
E 80
= 29539 W = 29.539 kW
(b) Tractive effort for climbing the gradient, Te = 945.25 N

660
Radius of driving wheels, R = 3 = 0.33 m
2× 10
Rear-axle ratio, Gr = 4.25
Transmission efficiency, E = 80%
Engine torque required, T =?
NOW,
T ×Gr × E
Te =
R
Te×E 945.25 ×0.33 ×100
T= = = 91.75 Nm
Gr × R 4.25 ×80

A motor car having mass of 2 tonnes is being accelerated up a gradient of 1 in 25. At an
engine speed of 4000 rev/min, the b.p. is 67 kW. The effective tyre radius is 330 mm.
the rolling resistance is 180 N/tonne, and the rear-axle ratio is 4-5 to l. Assuming a
transmission efficiency of 90°/ and neglecting air resistance, determine the value of
the acceleration at the given engine speed.
SOLUTION
Mass of car, m = 2 tonnes = 2000 kg
Effective tyre radius, R = 330 mm = 033 m
33
Engine b.p. at 4000 rev/min = 57 kW = 57000 W
Now,
N
Rolling resistance, R =180 [ ] x 2 [t] = 360 N
t
mg 2000× 9.81
Gradient resistance, Rg = = =785 N
G 25
Since air resistance is neglected,
Tractive resistance, T, = Rr + Rg = 360 + 785 = 1145N
2 πNT
Engine b.p developed =
60
Engine b . p developed × 60 57000× 60 Nm
Enging torque, T =
2 πN
= 2 π × 4000 [ s × s ¿
= 136 Nm
Tractive effort, Te =
T ×Gr 136 × 4.5 ×90 Nm
R
=
0.33× 100 m [ ]
= 1669 N
Now,
Accelerating force, P = Te – Tr =l669 – 1145 = 524 N
But P = ma
P 524 kg m/s 2
Acceleration, a = = [ = 0.262 m/s2
m 2000 kg
Acceleration = 0.262 m/s2
34
35
TRY QUESTIONS
1) A motor vehicle coasting on a level road rolls to rest from a speed of 54 km/h in a
distance of 300 m. lf the mass of the vehicle is l tonne, find the frictional resistance
(which is assumed constant) during the retardation. Assuming the same constant
resistance, calculate the tractive effort required when the vehicle starts from rest and
accelerates uniformly to 54 km/h in 10 s on the level.
2) A car of mass 800 kg has a tractive effort of 1.2 kN applied to it.

a) Calculate the acceleration produced by this force
(i) on the level (ii) up an incline of l in 40, assuming in each case that the combined road
and wind resistances remain constant at 300 N/tonne.
b) Determine the speed of the car and the distance moved after 5 s on the level, assuming
the car starts from rest.
3) The brakes of a motor vehicle of mass 2 Mg are released on an incline of l in 15 and the
vehicle runs downhill against a total frictional resistance of 75 N/tonne. Calculate:
(a) the force accelerating the vehicle down the incline;
b) the acceleration of the vehicle;
(c) the Speed of the vehicle, in km/h, after 10 s
4) Calculate the maximum tractive effort necessary to accelerate a vehicle of mass 1200 kg
down an incline of l in 100 at 0.11 m/s2 if the total resistance to motion is 180 N.
5) A car of mass 1.2 t is moving on a level road at 12 km/h and 20 s later it is moving at 63
km/h. The frictional resistance to motion is 130 N/t. Find:
(a) the force required to propel the car during acceleration;
(b) the power required to time the car when the speed is 63 km/h.
6) A motor vehicle stands on a gradient of l in 8 and the hand-brake fails. If the total mass
of the vehicle is 1.6 Mg and the resistance to motion is 1.5% of the total load, calculate:
(a) the acceleration of the vehicle down the gradient;
(b) how far the vehicle will travel in 20 s;
36
c) the speed of the vehicle after 20 s. (Take g = 10 m/s2).
7) A motor has a mass of 1.2 Mg and is propelled by a constant force of 1.5 kN. The tractive
resistance can be assumed constant at 300 N. The car starts from rest and travels for 30 s
along the level, then climbs a gradient of 1 in 30 for 39 s. It then freewheels down a
gradient of 1 in 15 for a further 45 s. Taking g as 10 m/s2, calculate the speed:
(a) at the end of the first 30 s;
(b) at the top of the gradient.
8) A car having a mass of 1250 kg starts from rest to climb a gradient of 1 in 10 against a
frictional resistance of 200N. lf the tractive effort exerted by the car is 2Kn, find
a) the acceleration of the car:
b) the time taken to reach 54 km/h;
c) the total distance travelled .What would be the acceleration on the level if the frictional
resistance is unchanged? Take g = 10 m/s2
9) A vehicle having a mass of 2.4 Mg, descends in incline of 1 in 16 at a uniform speed with
engine switched off.
a) Taking g as 10 m/s2, what is the total resistance to motion in kilonewtons?
(b) What power would be required to drive the vehicle at 63 km/h against this resistance
on level?
10) A car has a mass of l.5 tonnes and starting from rest, is allowed to roll freelly down
incline of l in 15. What distance will it travel before reaching 45 km/h, assuming that the
resistance to motion during that period is 400 N? If the speed is maintained at 45 km/h by
applying the rear brakes, determine the brake torque at the rear axle if the wheels have a
diameter of 680 mm, the resistance now being stated at 500 N.
11) Given the following data calculate the tractive effort required to drive a vehicle up a
gradient of l in 7. State how much power is required. Total mass 1.4 Mg; road speed 60
km/h; rolling resistance 225 N/tonne of total mass resistance in N, is given by 0.08V 2
where V is the speed in km/h. (Take g = 10 m/s2 )
37
12) (a) if the road and wind resistances acting on a vehicle travelling along a level road at 99
km/h amount to 1.2 kN, caleulate the work done, in mega joules per minute, and the
power required in kilowatts, to propel the vehicle. (b) if the vehicle has to climb a
gradient of 1 in 40, determine the total power developed in watts, by the engine to
maintain a speed of 99 km/h the mass of the vehicle being 1.2 to and the road and wind
resistances remaining unaltered, and the overall efficiency of transmission system being
75%. (Take g = 10 m/s2)
13) Calculate the torque that a propeller shaft must exert in order to propel a vehicle of 2
tonnes up a gradient of in 10. The rear--axle ratio is 5 to l, the effective tyre radius 38m
and rolling resistance equivalent to I75 N/tonne. Assume a transmission efficiency of
90% in top gear and neglect air resistance.
14) The speed ratio between the engine shaft and rear axle of a motor which is 5 to l uniform
speed of 8l km/h in top gear the resistance to motion is 900 N. If the effective of the road
wheels is 760 mm and the mechanical efficiency of the transmission is 90% of the engine
torque and power developed.
15) A car of mass l.25 Mg is driven along a level road at a uniform speed of 72 km/h, while
the engine is developing 15 Kw .a) if the efficiency of the transmission system is 75%,
calculate the tractive resistance to motion of the car; b) What power would be required
from the engine to maintain the same road speed up an incline of l in 50 the other
conditions remaining the same as before? (Take g = l0 m/s2)
16) A motor car having a mass of 1 Mg develops a maximum output of 40 kW. The
efficiency of the transmission system is 75%, and the combined road and wind resistance
is constant at 1 kN. Calculate the maximum speed, in km/h, which can be attained:
a) on the level;
b) up an incline whose angle has a sine of 0.1 (Take g = 10 m/s2).
17) A car of mass l.25 Mg is driven along a level road at a uniform speed of 72 km/h, while
the engine is developing 15 kW.
38
a) if the efficiency of the transmission system is 75%, calculate the tractive resistance
to motion of the car;
b) What power would be required from the engine to maintain the same road speed up
an incline of l in 50 the other conditions remaining the same as before? (Take g = l0
m/s2).
18) The overall diameter of the driving wheels of a vehicle is 760 mm, whilst the gear ratio
between engine and driving wheels is 4 to l. Calculate the power and torque which the
engine must develop to maintain a uniform speed of 63 km/h if the total resistance to
motion of the vehicle at this speed is 1.12 kN, and 30% of the power developed is lost
between engine and driving wheels.
19) At a certain point while accelerating up a gradient of 1 in 50 in top gear, a motor car
engine develops 36 kW at an engine speed of 3000 rev/min. Calculate the value of the
acceleration at this point given that the mass of the vehicle is 1200 kg the rolling
resistance between tyres and road is 300 N, air resistance is 260 N, rear-axle ratio is 4 to
l, rolling radius of tyre is 350 mm, and transmission efficiency is 90%. (Take g = l0 m/s2)
20) The following values of the draw-bar pull F, in kilonewtons and the corresponding times
t, in seconds, were obtained for a commercial vehicle having a mass of l2 tonnes during a
series of road tests.
F 8 6.4 6.25 6 5.6 5 4.25 3.75 3.5
t 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Assume a constant tractive resistance of 2.5 kN and plot a graph of net tractive effort to a
base t. Hence, determine:
(a) the average value of the net tractive effort during the 16s period;
(b) the road speed at the end of the l6s period.
21) The following figures apply to a certain car running in top gear on a level road:
Road speed (km/h) 20 40 60 70 80
Power required to overcome resistance to motion (kW) 2.5 10 27 40 59
Power developed by engine (kW) 20 40 52 50 37
39
22) Draw the curves of power required and power developed on a km/h base and determine:
a) the maximum speed cm on the level
b) the maximum power available for acceleration:
c) the speed at which (b) occurs; .
d) the maximum power of the engine.
23) The following results were obtained for a vehicle during a series of road speed
Road speed (km/h) 15 30 45 60 75
Tractive resistance (N) 270 330 430 570 750
Tractive effort (N) 1200 1500 1625 1650 1600
Plot these values to a base of toad speeds and use the curves to determine
(a) the road speed at which the acceleration is a maximum.
(b) the value of this maximum acceleration if the total mass of the vehicle
40
CHAPTER THREE
OVERTURNING AND SKIDDING OF

VEHICLE ON A CURVED TRACK.
3.1 Overturning on a curved horizontal track

When a motor vehicle is rounding a curve there is a limiting speed at which overturning just
occurs.
The forces acting on the vehicle when it is turning left are shown in Fig 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Vehicle rounding a curve.
These are:
i) The gravitational force, i.e., its weight, W = mg, acting vertically downwards
through the e.g.
ii) The normal reactions of the track, R A, and RB, at the inner and outer pairs of
wheels, respectively.
iii) The inertia or centrifugal force (CF) acting radially outwards through the cg.
Let m = mass of vehicle (kg).

d = vehicle wheel track (m)
h = height of e.g. above ground level (m)
r = radius of curve (m)
v = speed at which vehicle will overturn (m/s)
41
When the vehicle is at rest,
(Normal reaction at inner wheels at A) = (Normal reaction at outer wheels at B)
W mg
R A = RB = =
2 2
On the point of 0verturning, the inner wheels at A just leave the ground and the vehicle starts to
rotate about the outer wheels at B Thus:
RA = 0, and RB = W = mg
Then, taking moments about an axis through the e.g at right angles to the wheel axles
Overturning moment = Stabilizing moment
d
C.F × h=R B ×
2
2
mv d
Or ×h=mg×
r 2
2 mgd r
So that v= ×
2 mh
Therefore, overturning speed, v =

√ dgr
2h
It will be noticed from the equation that the tendency of a vehicle to overturn when travelling
round a curved track of a given radius depends upon the dimensions of the vehicle. The
overturning speed may, however be increased by either lowering the height, h of the e.g above
the ground or by increasing the wheel track d.
3.2 Skidding on a curved horizontal track

Referring again to Fig 9.1
Let FA = frictional resistance to inner wheels at A
FB = frictional resistance to outer wheels at B
When the vehicle is about to skid, or slide ‘outwards‘ when rounding the curved track, the
limiting frictional force (FA+ FB) exerted by the road on the tyres is, for the unbanked curved
track, equal and opposite to the inertia or centrifugal force (C.F)
If n metres/second is the speed at which the vehicle will begin to slide outwards and µ the
limiting coefficient of sliding friction then, on the point of skidding,
(Inertia or centrifugal force) = (frictional resistance to skidding)
42
2
mv
i.e =F A + F B
r
= µR A + µR B=µ(R A + R B)
= µW=µmg
2 r
So that v =µmg ×
m
Therefore skidding speed, v = √ µgr
If this maximum speed is exceeded, the vehicle will skid.

A motor vehicle of mass 1 tonne travels round a curve of 50 m radius. The coefficient of
friction between tyres and road is 0.7, the track of the vehicle is 1.4 m and the centre of
gravity is 0.7 m above ground level. Calculate the maximum speed with which the
vehicle can travel round the curve,
(a) without skidding outwards, and
(b) without overturning.
SOLUTION
Height of e.g above ground level, h = 0.7 m
Vehicle wheel track, d= l.4 m
Coefficient of friction between tyres and road, µ = 0.7
Radius of curve, r = 50 m
a) Skidding Speed, v = √ µgr=√ ¿ ¿
= 18.53 m/s
18.53× 18
(18.53 m/s = ¿ 18.53 ×3.6=66.71 km/h ¿
5
b) Overturning speed, v =
√ √
dgr
2h
= (
1.4 ×9.81 ×50 m× m× m
2× 0.7
¿
s2
)¿
= 22.15 m/s
(22.15 m/s = 22.15 ×3.6=79.74 km/h¿
43
(a) Skidding speed = 18.53 m/s (66.71 km/h)
(b) Overturning speed = 22.15 m/s (79.74 km/h)
A car is coasting round a bend of 80 m radius at 50.4 km/h. If the road is horizontal.
find the minimum value of the coefficient of friction to prevent skidding and prove that
the car will not overturn. The height of the centre of gravity of the car is 0.61 m and the
track width of the wheels is 1.22 m.
SOLUTION
50.4 ×5
Skidding speed, v = =14 m/s
18
Radius of bend, r = 80 m
Height of e.g, h = 0.61 m
Wheel track, d = 1.22 m
When the car is on the point of skidding, the inertia or centrifugal force is balanced by the total
resistance to skidding. At this instant, however, the coefficient of friction µ between tyres and
road is a minimum.
If m is the mass of the car then for equilibrium,
2
mv
=µmg
r
So that
2 2 2 2
v 14 m × s ×1
µ= = =0.25
gr 9.81 ×80 s 2 × m× m
We will now proceed to show that the car will not overturn at 50.4 km/h.
Overturning Speed, v =
√ √
dgr
2h
= (
1.22× 9.81× 80
2× 0.61
¿ )¿ = 28 m/s
This speed is greater than 14 m/s, in fact it is twice as much; therefore the car will not overturn.
Coefficient of friction = 0.25
44
3.3 Effect of banked track
In order to allow a vehicle to travers safely at a higher speed round a curve, the track can be
suitable blanked as shown in fig 9.2. In this way, no lateral inward force is required to provide
the circular motion.
The forces acting on the vehicle are:
a) The gravitational force, i.e., its weight W = mg acting vertically downwards
through the e.g.
b) The inertia or centrifugal force (C.F) = mv 2/r, acting radially outwards through the
e.g.
c) The total reaction, R = RA + RB, exerted by the track on the vehicle.
Figure 5.2: Effect on a banked truck
Note that since there is no lateral support, R must be at right angles to the track.
From the force diagram (Fig. 9.2),
ob R
Sec θ= =
ab mg
mg sec θ=R=R A + RB
2
oa m v 1
tan θ= = ×
ab r mg
2
v
tan θ=
gr
where, v = speed at which vehicle may take the curve (m/s)
45
g = 9.81 m/s2
θ = angle of banking required to eliminate lateral force on the tyres (deg)

A motor vehicle is travelling at a speed 0f 72 km/h round a curved track of 150 m
radius: At what angle should the track be banked in order to eliminate side friction?
SOLUTION
Concerning speed, v = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Radius of curve, r = 150 m
Angle of banking required, θ =?
The tangent of the angle of banking required to eliminate side force on the tyres is given by
2 2
v 20
tan θ= = = 0.2719
gr 9.81× 150
θ=15° 13
A motor cycle travels round a bend of 50 m radius at 72km/h on a flat road. The total
mass of the motor cycle and rider is 180 kg. Find the angle which the motor cycle
makes with the vertical and the resultant forge exerted on the road.
SOLUTION
Total mass of motor cycle and rider, m 180 kg
Speed of motor cycle round the bend, v = 72 km/h [= 20 m/s
Radius of bend, r == 50 m
From the force diagram,
46
Figure 5.3:
2 2
oa m v 1 v
tan θ= = × =
ab r mg gr
2
20
tan θ= =¿ 0.8155
9.81×50
θ=39° 12 '
Also, from the same force diagram
ob R
Sec θ= =
ab mg
R = mg sec θ = 180 × 9.81× sec 39 ° 13 '
= 180 × 9.81× 1.2904=2278.6 N
= 2.2278 kN
Angle of motor cycle with the vertical = 39° 12'
Resultant force exerted on the road = 2.279 kN
3.4 Overturning on a Curved banked track

The forces acting on the vehicle when it is turning left on a track banked at an angle θ are as
shown in Fig. 5.4.
With reference to this diagram,

Component of weight, W along the track} = mg sin θ
Component of weight W at right angles to the track} = mg cos θ
47
Figure 5.4: Overturning on a Curved banked track
2
mv
Component of inertia or centrifugal force (C. F.) along the track} = C.F cos θ= cos θ
r
Component of inertia or centrifugal force (C.F) at right angles to the track} = C.F sin
2
mv
θ= sin θ
r
Now,
Resolving at right angles to the track, we get:
2
mv
mg cos θ+ sin θ=R A + RB …….. 1
r
Taking moments about an axis through the e.g at right angles to the wheel axles, we get:
2
mv d d
( cos θ−mgcosθ ¿ h+(R A × )=R B ×
r 2 2
2mh
Or ¿
d
Subtracting equation 1 from 2
2mh
¿
d
But on the point of overturning, RA = 0, so that eq. becomcs:
2h
¿
d
Or
2 2
2v h v 2 gh
cos θ− sin θ= sin θ + g cos θ
dr r d
48
d
Multiplying throughout by we get;
2cos θ
( )
2
v d
h− tan θ =g ¿)
r 2
d
h tan θ+
2
So that v 2=gr ( )
d
h− tanθ
2
√
d
h tanθ+
Therefore Overturning speed, v = {gr ( 2
¿ )}¿
d
h− tan θ
2
3.5 Skidding on a curved banked track

Let refer again to fig. above and let µ be the limiting coefficient of friction between tyres and
road.
Now,
2
mv
Resolving along the track we get: cos θ – mg sin θ = FA + FB = µ(RA + RB)
r
Substituting RA + RB from the equation we get:
2 2
v v
M( cos θ – g sin θ ¿ = µm (g cos θ + sin θ )
r r
2 2
v v
Or cos θ− µsinθ=µ g cos θ+¿ g sin θ ¿
r r
Dividing throughout by cosθ , we get:
2
v
¿
r
So that
2 µ+ tanθ
v =gr ( )
1−µ tanθ
Therefore Skidding speed, v = gr (

√ µ+ tan θ
1−µ tan θ
)
49
The wheel track width of a vehicle is 1.5 m and the centre of gravity is situated at a
height of 0.9 m above road level.
(a) If the coefficient of friction between tyres and road is 0.6, calculate the maximum
speed, in km/h, at which the vehicle can traverse round a curve of 70 m radius which is
banked at an angle of 20° to the horizontal without skidding.
(b) Assuming that friction is sufficient to prevent skidding, calculate the maximum
speed, in km/h at which the vehicle can traverse round the curved banked road
without overturning.
SOLUTION
Vehicle wheel track width, d = 1.5 m
Height of e.g. above road level, h = 0.9 m
Radius of curved road, r = 70 m
Coefficient of friction between tyres and road, µ = 0.6
Angle of banking, θ = 20°
and from table tan 20° = 0.364
(a) From the equation
√
Skidding speed, v = gr (
µ+ tan θ
1−µ tan θ
)
√
= 9.81 ×70(
0.6+0.364
1−(0.6 × 0.364)
)=
√
9.81× 70× 0.964
0.7816
= √ 847 = 29.1m/s
29.1× 18
29.1 m/s = =29.1× 3.6 km/h
5
b) From the equation
√
d
h tanθ+
Overturning speed, v = {gr ( 2
¿ )}¿
d
h− tan θ
2
√
= {9.81 ×70 (
(0.9 ×0.364)+0.75
0.9−(0.75 ×0.364)
¿ )}¿
50
√
= 9.81× 70× 1.078 = √ 1181 = 34. 36 m/s
0.627
34. 36 m/s = 34. 36 × 3.6 = 123.7 km/h
TRY QUESTIONS
1) A motor car of mass 2 tonnes is approaching a curve of 35 m radius. The vehicle in l.35
m and the height of the centre of gravity is l.2 m above the ground. The coefficient
friction between the wheels and the road is 0.3. Find.
(a) the greatest speed at which the corner can be taken without skidding;
(b) neglecting skidding, the speed at which the road would exert no friction on the
inner wheels. Take g = 10 m/s2
2) Calculate the minimum radius of an unbanked curved track which a motor vehicle may
traverse without skidding outwards at 108 km/h. The coefficient of friction between tyres
and road is 0.6.(Take g = l0 m/s2 ) .
3) Explain, with the aid of sketches how to determine the angle of ‘banking' of a bend on a
road so that the reaction is normal at a particular speed. Calculate the necessary angle in
the case of a curve of 170 m radius for a speed of 80 km/h.
4) A four-wheeled vehicle is coasting with a velocity of 63 km/h round a bend of 75 m
radius. The height of the centre of gravity of the vehicle is 0.7 m and the width between
the wheels is l.25 m. (a) If the road is horizontal, determine the least value of the
51
coefficient of friction to prevent skidding and check that the vehicle will not overturn. (b)
At what angle should the road be banked in order to eliminate side friction?
5) A motor cyclist rounds a curve of 150 m radius at a speed of 54 km/h.
a) At what angle must he lean?
b) What is the least coefficient of friction between the wheels and ground required to
prevent side-slip?
6) (a) A motor cycle travelling round a bend on an unbanked road of 300 m radius leans
over at an angle of 6° from the vertical. Calculate the speed of the motor cycle in km/h .
(b) If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is 0.7, calculate the maximum
speed at which the motor cycle can travel round the bend without skidding outwards.
7) Determine the maximum speed at which a vehicle would overturn on a level road when
turning a curve of 20 m radius. The vehicle track is 1.3m and the centre of gravity is 0.6
m above the ground. If the curve was banked at an angle of 20 ° what would then be the
overturning speed?
8) A motor vehicle is travelling round a horizontal circular track of 50 m radius at 54 km/h

and is just on the point of skidding. What is the coefficient of friction between the tyres
and road? At what speed in km/h would the vehicle have taken the curve if the track were
banked at an angle of 22° ? (Take g=10 m/s2.)
52
CHAPTER FOUR
LOAD TRANSFER
4.1 Load transfer during braking

When a vehicle is braked a retarding force (F A + FB) is immediately introduced between the tyres
and road. But the inertia of the vehicle introduces an equal force F (= ma) through the centre of
gravity in the opposite direction (see Fig 10.1). These two equal and opposite forces constitute an
overturning couple of magnitude Fh tending to lift the rear of the vehicle. Consequently, a
proportion of the total load of the vehicle is transferred from the rear to the front wheels so that if
w is the magnitude of the load transferred, the static front axle reaction R A will be increased by a
small amount w, whilst the static rear axle reaction R B will be decreased by an equal amount w.
Since, however, the rear wheels actually remain on the road, this load transfer provides the
balancing couple during braking. The magnitude of the balancing couple is wb.
Hence equating the two couples, we get:
wb = Fh
53
h
Load transfer, w=Fx
b
Where, h = height of e.g above road level
b = wheel base.
If the brakes are applied to their maximum capacity to all four wheels without skidding, then;
Maximum retarding force, F = FA + FB = µ (RA + w) + µ (RB – w)
= µ (RA + RB) = µW = µmg
Where, m = total mass of vehicle
µ = coefficient of friction (0r of adhesive) between tyres and road.
If the front wheels only are fully braked, then:
Maximum retarding force, F = FA= µ (RA + w)

If the braking is confined to the rear wheels only, then:
maximum retarding force, F = FB = µ (RB – w)

A motor vehicle has a total mass of 1.2 tonnes and a wheelbase of 3 m. The centre of
gravity is 0.75 m above road level. When at rest the load on the front axle is 540 kg. If
the coefficient of friction between tyres and road is 0.6, determine the normal road
reaction on the front wheels when:
(a) all four wheels are fully braked;
54
(b) the front wheels only are fully braked;
(c) the rear wheels only are fully braked
(Assume g=10 m/s2.)
SOLUTION
Total mass of vehicle, m = 1.2 t = 1200 kg
Static front axle reaction, RA = 540 [kg] x 10 [m/s2] = 5400 N.
Static rear axle reaction, RB: (1200 - 540) [kg] x 10[m/s2] = 6600 N
(Note that calculations are simplified by assuming, g == 10 m/s2.
The error involved is less than 2%
(a) When all four wheels are fully braked then, by eq.
Maximum retarding force, F = µmg = 0.6 ×1200 × 10
=7700 N
Now let w1 be the load transfer from rear to front wheels when all four wheels are fully braked.
h 7200× 0.75
Then, w1 = F × = = 1800 N
b 3
Hence, normal reaction on the front wheels} = RA – w1
= 5400 + 1800 = 7200 N = 7.2 kN
9) Let w2 be the load transfer from rear to front wheels when front wheels only are fully
braked. Then;
Maximum retarding force, F = µ (RA + w)
So that eq. becomes:
h
w2 = µ (RA + w2) ×
b
0.75
i.e w2 = 0.6 (5400 + w2) ×
3
= 810 + 0.15 w2
Or 0.85 w2 = 810
810
w2 = = 953 N
0.85
Hence, normal road reaction on the front wheels = RA + w2
= 5400 + 953 = 6353 N = 6.353 kN
55
(a) Let w3 be the load transfer from rear to front wheels when rear wheels only are fully
braked. Then:
Maximum retarding force, F = µ (RB - w3)
So that eq. becomes:
h
W3 = µ (RB – w3) ×
b
0.75
= 0.6 (6600 – w3) × = 990 – 0.15w3
3
1.15w3 = 990
990
Therefore, w3 = = 861 N
1.15
Hence,
Normal road reaction on the front wheels} = RA + w3 = 5400 + 861 = 6261 N = 6.261 kN

A motor car has a total mass of 1.8 t and its wheelbase is 3 m. The centre at gravity of
the air is situated in the central plane 0.9 m above the ground and l.7 m behind the
front axle. When moving on the level at 90 km/h the brakes are applied and the car
comes to rest in a distance of 50 m. Calculate the normal reactions at front and rear
wheels during the braking period and the least coefficient of friction required between
the tyres and road. (Assume g= 10 m/s2)
SOLUTION
Total mass of car, m = 1.8 t = I800 kg
Weight of car, W = mg = 1800 ×10 N = 18000 N = 18 kN
56
The static wheel reactions RA and RB are now calculated (see Fig, 10.2). Taking moments about
B, we get:
RA × b=w × y
W×y 18× 1.3
RA = = = 7.8 kN
b 3
Taking moments about A, we get:
RB ×W =W × x
W × x 18× 1.7
RB = = =10.2 kN
b 3
Check:
RA + RB = W = 18 kN
7.8 + 10.2 = 18 kN = W
Now,
Final velocity, v = o (car has stopped)
Acceleration, a =?
Since v2 – u2 = 2as
2 2 2 2
v −u 0 −25
Then a= = = - 6.25 m/s2
2s 2 ×50
i.e, the retardation is 6.25 m/s2
Retardation force, F = ma = 1800 ×6.25=11250 N =11.25kN
h 11.25×0.9
Now, load transfer, w = F × = = 3.375 kN
b 3
57
Hence,
Normal reactions during the braking period are:
Front wheels = RA + w =7.8 + 3.375=11.175kN
Rear wheels= RB - w =10.2 - 3.375 = 6.825 kN
Now let µ be the least coefficient of friction required between tyres and road.
Then:
Retarding force, F = µW
F 11.25
µ= = = 0.06525
W 18
4.2 Load transfer during acceleration

If vehicle is moving on the level with a constant acceleration a, and if the resistance‘s to motion
are neglected, then the load transfer during this constant acceleration can be determined as soon
as the inertia force P = ma has been put in. Notice that the inertia force P acts through the center
of gravity in the opposite direction to the tractive effort Te.
It should be appreciated that here we have a reversed case to that of braking for P and T e being
equal and opposite forces, they constitute a couple of magnitude T e x h tending to lift the front of
the vehicle. Consequently, the normal road reaction is increased at the rear wheels at B by a
small amount w and decreased at the front wheels at A by the same amount w. Since actually the
front wheels remain on the road, this load transfer from the front to the rear wheels provides the
balancing couple during acceleration.
Figure 6.1:
58
The magnitude of the balancing couple is W x b.
Hence, equating the two couples, we get:
w x b = Te x h,
h
Load transfer, w = Te x
b
Also, since Te = P = ma
then, eq (10.5) becomes:
h
Load transfer, w = ma ×
b
Where,
m = total mass of vehicle
h = height of e.g above road level
b = wheelbase.
4.3 Load transfer during maximum acceleration

The magnitude of the load transfer during maximum acceleration (without the occurrence of
wheel spin) can be determined from the eq. by making the tractive effort T e equal to its limiting
value. The limiting value of Te, however, depends upon the normal road reaction at the driving
wheels and the coefficient of friction, or of adhesion as it is called, between tyres and road.
Let m = total mass of vehicle
RA = static front axle reaction
RB = static rear axle reaction
w = load transfer
µ = coefficient of friction, or of adhesion
Then,
(i) When the vehicle is driven on all four wheels
Maximum tractive effort, Te = µmg
(ii) When the vehicle is driven on the front. wheels only,
Maximum tractive effort, Te = µ (RA – w)
(iii) When the vehicles driven on the rear wheels only,
Maximum tractive effort, Te = (RB + w)
59
A motor car of mass 1 tonne has a wheelbase of 2.5 m. The height of the centre of
gravity above ground level is 0.75 m and the load distribution when at rest is 40%
front axle, 60% rear axle. If the coefficient of friction between the tyres and road is 0.3,
determine the maximum acceleration when the drive is by:
(a) front axle, (b) rear axle, (c) both front and rear axle. (Assume g = 10 m/s 2)
SOLUTION
Mass of ear, m = 1 t = 1000 kg
40
Static front axle reaction, RA = ×1000 =4000N
100
60
Static rear axle reaction, RB = ×1000 = 6000N
100
(a) Let w1, be the load transfer from front to rear wheels when the drive is by front axle only.
Them from the eq.
Maximum tractive effort, Te = µ (RA – w1)
h
Load transfer, w1 = µ (RA – W1) ×
b
0.75
i.e w1 = 0.3 (4000 – w1) ×
2.5
or w1 = 360 – 0.09 w1
360
w1 = =330 N
1.09
Hence,
Maximum tractive effort = 0.3 (4000 -330) N = 1101 N
But Te = P = ma
P 1101
Maximum acceleration, a = = = 1.101 m/s2
m 1000
(b) Let w2 be the load transfer from front to rear wheels when the drive is by rear axle only.
Then, from eq. (10.9),
Maximum tractive effort, Te = µ (RA – w1)
60
h
Load transfer, w2 = µ (RA – W1) ×
b
0.75
i.e w2 = 0.3 (6000 + w2) ×
2.5
or w2 = 540 + 0.09 w2
540
w2 = = 593 N
0.91
Hence,
Maximum tractive effort, Te = 0.3 (6000 + 593) N
=1978 N
Again, since Te = P = ma
P 1978
Therefore Maximum acceleration, a = = = 1.978 m/s2
m 1000
(c) If the car is driven by both front and rear axles then, assuming that limiting friction occurs on
all four wheels simultaneously,
Maximum tractive effort, Te = µmg
But since Te = P =ma
Then ma = µmg
So that,
Maximum acceleration, a = µg = 0.3 x 10 =3 m/s2
4.4 Load transfer when cornering

It has been shown in section 9.2 that when a motor vehicle moves round a curved horizontal
track, the inertia or centrifugal force = mv 2/r acts radially outwards through the centre of gravity
of the vehicle, and that this centrifugal force is resisted (to prevent side slip) by the side forces F A
and FB at the tyres. The tendency of these forces however, is to constitute an overturning Couple,
of magnitude C.F. x h, see Fig. 104. For equilibrium, there must be an equal and opposite couple
to balance this overturning couple. The balancing couple is supplied by an increase of w in the
normal road reaction RB at the outer wheels at B, and by an equal decrease of w in normal road
reaction RA at the inner wheels at A. The magnitude of the balancing load transfer couple is w x
d.
Hence, equating the two couples, we get
w × d=C . F . ×h
61
2
mV
= ×h
r
2
mV h
Load transfer, w = ×
r d
Where,
m = total mass of vehicle (kg)
v = cornering speed (m/s)
h = height of e.g above road level (m)
d = wheel track (m)
When the vehicle is either at test or running straight, its total load is equally distributed between
the inner and outer wheels provided of course, that the centre of gravity lies in a central plane
along the track. Thus:
W mg
R A = RB = =
2 2
(Note that W is the total load or weight of the vehicle.)

A certain vehicle has a mass of 1.4 Mg. Its track is 1.3 m and the height of its centre of
gravity above ground level is 0.65 m. When running straight, the load is equally
distributed between near and offside wheels. What proportion of the load is carried by
the outside wheels when the vehicle is taking a corner, 70 m radius, at 54 km/h?
(Assume the road to be encumbered and take g = 10 m/s2.)
SOLUTION
Mass or vehicle, m = 1.4 Mg = 1400 kg
Cornering speed, v = 54 km/h = 15 m/s
Radius of corner. r = 70 m
Height of c.g., h = 0.65 m
Wheel track, d= I 3 m
When the vehicle is running straight, the load carried by the outside wheels at B
1 1
= mg = x 1400 [kg] x 10 [m/s2] =7000 N
2 2
62
When the vehicle is taking the corner, then from the e.g,
Load transfer from inner to outer wheels;
2 2
m v h 1400× 15 × 0.65
w= × = = 2250 N
r d 70 1.3
Now,
1
mg+ w
Proportion of load carried by outer wheels when cornering = 2
mg
7000+2250
= = 0.66 or 66%
14000
Load carried by outer wheels when cornering = 66% of total load of vehicle.
63
TRY QUESTIONS.
1) The centre of gravity of a motor car is situated in the central plane 0.9 m above the
ground and 1.2 m in front of the rear axle. The distance between the front and the rear
wheel and the mass of the car is l.26 Mg. When moving on a horizontal road at 81 km/h
the brakes are applied and the car comes to rest in a distance of 30 m. Calculate the
vertical reactions at front and rear wheels during the braking period at least coefficient of
friction required between the tyres and the road. If the braking is confined to the front
wheels only, and the coefficient of friction remained changed, calculate the distance
required for the car to come to rest from the same speed. (Assuming =10 m/s2)
2) The wheelbase of a vehicle is 3.6 m. Its centre of gravity is vertically above the
intersection, lines joining the centres of diagonally opposite wheels and is 1.2 m above
road it coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road is 0.2, find the minimum
stopping from a speed of 36 km/h when:
(a) all four wheels are fully braked;
(b) the rear wheels only are fully braked. (Take g= 10 m/s2)
3) A motor car has a wheelbase of 2.5 m. The height of the centre of gravity above is 0.75 m
and the distribution of the load when at rest is front axle 400 kg; rear axle 600 kg. If the
coefficient of friction between the rear driving w heels and the road is 0.3, find the main
acceleration of the car. (Take g= l0 m/s.)
4) A motor vehicle has a mass of 2.5 tonnes and is being accelerated on a level road by a
constant tractive effort of 4 kN. The wheelbase of the vehicle is 3 m and the centre of
gravity 0.75 above road level. The rear axle carries 60% of the total load when the
vehicle is at rest. Determine: (a) the acceleration; (b) the load transfer from front to rear
axle; (c) the load on each axle
5) A motor car has a mass of l.2 Mg and its wheelbase Is 2.4 m. The centre of gravity of the
car is situated 0.6 m above ground level and 0.9 m in front of the rear axle. If the
coefficient of friction between tyres and road is 0.4 determine the maximum possible
64
acceleration when: (a) the front wheels are driven (b) the rear wheels are driven. (c) both
front and rear wheels are driven. (Take g = 10m/s2).
6) A car is cornering at a speed of 24 km/h in a radius of 10 m measured to its centre of

gravity which is 0.63 m above ground. The wheel track is 1.4 m and the mass of the car is
2 tonnes. Calculate the total load transfer from the inner to the outer wheels during the
process. (Assume the road to be uncambered.)
7) A four wheeled vehicle having a total mass of 3 tonnes travels at 54 km/h round an
unbanked curve of 75 m radius. The Wheel track is l.8 m and the wine of gravity is l.5 m
above the road surface. Calculate the reactions on each of the outer and inner wheels.
(Assume g = 10 m/s2.)
8) A car having a mass of 845 kg travels round a curve of 65 m radius. The distance
between inner and outer wheels, i.e. the wheel track is 1.3 m and the height of the centre
of gravity of the car is 0.6 m above ground level. Calculate: (a) the load transfer from
inner to outer wheels when the vehicle speed is 72 km/h; (b) the maximum speed at
which the car can travel round the curve if the coefficient of friction between tyres and
road is 0.8. (Assume road to be uncambered and take g = 9.81 m/s2)
9) A four-wheeled, two-axled vehicle travels at a uniform speed of 72 km/h round a curve of

300 m radius. The distance between the wheel tracks is 1.68 m. the centre of gravity of
the which is on the vertical through the centre of the wheelbase and l.5 m above the
ground. The total mass of the vehicle is 21 tonnes. Determine, taking g as 10 m/s 2.(a) the
vertical force on each of the Inner and outer wheels: (b) the maximum speed at which
the vehicle can negotiate the curve without overturning.
10) A motor vehicle has a total mass of 1.5 Mg, a wheelbase of 3 m and a wheel track of l.5
m. The centre of gravity of the vehicle is 1.3 m in front of the rear axle and
65
ASSIGNMENT 1
NABPTEX NUMBER INDEX NUMBER
INSTRUCTIONS: Please write your Nabptex and index number in the space provided
above. Please do same on your answer sheet. Detach this question sheet from the
handout and attach it to your answer sheet for submission.
Answer all Questions [20 MARKS]

1) A disc has a diameter of 700 mm and is rotating at 150 rev/min. Determine:
(a) the angular velocity of the disc, in rad/s
(b) the tangential (linear) velocity of a point on the rim of the disc, in m/s.
2) A wheel starts from rest and accelerates uniformly with an angular acceleration of 3
rad/s2. What will be its angular velocity after 8s and the angle turned through in that
time?
3) A flywheel of diameter 360 mm increases its speed uniformly from 630 rev/min to
1050 rev/min in 11s. Calculate the:
(a) angular acceleration of the-wheel in rad/s2
(b) number of revolutions made during the speed change
(c) linear acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel, in m/s2
66
ASSIGNMENT 2
INSTRUCTIONS: Please write your Nabptex and index number in the space provided above.
Please do same on your answer sheet. Detach this question sheet from the handout and attach
it to your answer sheet for submission.
1) A vehicle has a force of 1.5 kN acting on it due to the engine and the acceleration
produced is l.2 m/s2. Calculate the mass of the vehicle.
2) A vehicle having a mass of l tonne and travelling at 54 km/h is brought to rest in a

distance of 30 m with uniform retardation. Determine the value of the retarding force
and the time taken by the vehicle to come to rest.
3) A commercial vehicle having a total mass of 8 tonne is accelerated uniformly from rest
at the rate of 0.75 m/s2. Determine. (a) the force producing the acceleration (b) the
velocity at the end of 16 s (c) the distance covered during this time.
4) The speed of a vehicle of mass 1 tonne is reduced from 81 km/h to 27 km/h by the action
of a mean retarding force of 3 kN. Find the distance covered during this reduction of
speed.
67
ASSIGNMENT 3
1) The energy expended in lifting an engine of mass 150 kg is 6 kJ. Calculate the height
through which it has been lifted. (Take g = 10 m/s2)
2) A metal box and its contents have a mass of 25 kg. The box is pulled 8 m along a
workshop floor by applying a force of 60 N, and is then lifted 3 m on to a bench.
Determine: (a) the total work done (b) the amount of energy that is transformed into
potential energy. (Take g = 10 m/s2 )
3) A motor vehicle of mass 1650 kg is travelling on the level at a speed of 72 km/h.

Determine its kinetic energy. If the engine is switched off, how far will the vehicle
travel before coming to rest? The resistance to motion may be assumed constant at 2.2
kN
68
ASSIGNMENT 4
1) A car having a mass of 1 tonne is propelled along a horizontal-road by a force of 450

N. If the resistance to motion is 150 N, find the cars acceleration. How far would the
car move in l0s from rest?
2) A car is travelling at a speed of 45 km/h when 400 m from a road intersection. The car
is then uniformly accelerated and reaches 90 km/h at the road intersection. Find the
time taken to cover the 400 m and the acceleration of the car. If the car has a mass of
1.5 Mg arid the frictional resistance is 220 N, find the tractive force exerted by the car.
3) A car of mass 1.2 t is moving on a level road at 12 km/h and 20 s later it is moving at
63 km/h. The frictional resistance to motion is 130 N/t. Find:
(a) the force required to propel the car during acceleration;
(b) the power required to time the car when the speed is 63 km/h.
69
ASSIGNMENT 5
1) The track of a car 5 1-35 m wide and the centre of gravity lies midway between the
road at a height of 0.6 m above the ground.
(a) If the coefficient of friction between tyre and road is 0.5, determine the
greatest speed in km/h, at which the car can negotiate a curve of 10 m radius
without skidding.
(b) Assuming that friction is sufficient to prevent skidding, determine the greatest
speed in km/h at which the car can go round the curve without overturning.
2) A casting having a base 1 m diameter is mounted on a lorry for transportation. If the

heigth of the centre of gravity of the casting above the floor of the lorry is l.25 m,
calculate the maximum speed, in km/h which the lorry can travel round a curve of
radius 30 m, without the falling over.
3) A motor car is travelling round a flat circular track of radius 10 m at 24 km/h and is
along the point of skidding. What is the coefficient of friction between the wheels and
the road?
4) Calculate the minimum radius of an unbanked curve which a at my traverse with

overturning at 90 km/h. The track of the car is l.5 m and its centre of gravity is 0.6 m
above the road level. Take g = 10 m/s2.
70
ASSIGNMENT 6
1) A car has a total mass of I200 kg and a wheelbase of 2.7 m, the centre of gravity of the
vehicle being 0.9 m above the road surface. Calculate the load on each axle of the car if
it is braked to the point of skidding coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
road is 0.65. The front axle carries 45% total load when the car is stationary. (Assume
g = 10 m/s)
2) A motor vehicle has a mass of l.5 tonnes its wheelbase is 3 m and the centre of gravity
above road level. When at rest the load on the front axle is 600 kg. Calculate the
normal reaction at the front wheel when the car brakes are applied so as to produce a
retardation 3 m/s2.
3) The mass of a car fully laden is 2 tonnes whilst the centre of gravity is 0.4 of the wheel
from rear axle and 1/4 of the wheelbase above ground level. If the inertia force whilst
braking is 14 kN and the rear wheels take 9/20 of the braking, calculate the coefficient
of friction between rear tyres and road whilst braking. Neglect resistance of vehicle
and take g as 10 m/s2.
71

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KUMASI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

AUTOMOTIVE & AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.1

If the mass, m, of the body remains unchanged, this may be written:

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1.1

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1.2

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1.3

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1.4

(b) To find time taken by Vehicle to come to rest:

s=( u+2 v )× t from equation [ 1.2 ]

Answer: (a) Braking force = 3.75 kN

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1.5

s=0+ ( 12 × 1.25× 12 )=90 m

Answer: (a) Acceleration of the body = 1.25 m/s2

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 1.6

2.6 Newton’s third law of motion

3. A resultant force of 60 N acts on a body of mass 2. 4 kg for 0 3 s. Determine the change

7. A lorry of mass 10 Mg reaches a speed of 63 km/h in 20 s, starting from rest with

TRACTIVE EFFORT, TRACTIVE RESISTANCE, POWER

2.2 Rolling resistance

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.2

2.3 Gradient resistance

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.3

To maintain a constant speed of 36 km/h up the hill (neglecting air resistance),

ILLUSTRAIVE EXAMPLE 2.4

mg 1.2× 1000× 9.81

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.5

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.6

Accelerating force, P = (Gradient resistance) - (frictional resistance)

2.4 Air (or wind) resistance

2.5 Power available

2.6 Power required

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.7

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.8

2.7 Power curves

Figure 4.1 : Power curves

2.8 Tractive effort and engine torque

Hence, by substituting the value of TA from the two eqns, we get:

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.10

At constant speed up the gradient,

(b) Tractive effort for climbing the gradient, Te = 945.25 N

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 2.11

2) A car of mass 800 kg has a tractive effort of 1.2 kN applied to it.

OVERTURNING AND SKIDDING OF

3.1 Overturning on a curved horizontal track

Figure 5.1: Vehicle rounding a curve.

Let m = mass of vehicle (kg).

Therefore, overturning speed, v =

3.2 Skidding on a curved horizontal track

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3.1

Figure 5.2: Effect on a banked truck

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3.3

3.4 Overturning on a Curved banked track

With reference to this diagram,

3.5 Skidding on a curved banked track

Therefore Skidding speed, v = gr (

8) A motor vehicle is travelling round a horizontal circular track of 50 m radius at 54 km/h

4.1 Load transfer during braking

Maximum retarding force, F = FA= µ (RA + w)

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 4.1

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 4.2

4.2 Load transfer during acceleration