Sustainable Building Systems and

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Lisa M. Tucker
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CONTENTS
EXTENDED TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 1
A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO BUILDING DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER 2
SITE CONSIDERATIONS AND THE BUILDING
ENCLOSURE

CHAPTER 3
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 4
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND LIGHTING
CHAPTER 6
PLUMBING SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 7
WALLS

CHAPTER 8
FLOORS

CHAPTER 9
CEILINGS

CHAPTER 10
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY:
ACOUSTICS AND INDOOR AIR

CHAPTER 11
INTERIOR BUILDING SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 12
REGULATIONS

CHAPTER 13
CASE STUDIES

BASIC METRIC CONVERSION TABLE

GLOSSARY
EXTENDED CONTENTS
Preface to Third Edition
Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 1
A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO BUILDING DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
OBJECTIVES
KEY TERMS
New Ways of Designing and Building
Team Approach
Other LEED Rating Systems
Other Green Building Rating Systems
Green Globes
AASHE STARS
Green Guidelines for Healthcare (GGHC)
Living Building Challenge
NZEB
SITES
WELL
International Sustainable Building Rating Systems
International Standard Organization (ISO) 14000
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
BEES
Theories of Sustainable Design
The Natural Step
Ecological Design
 Pattern Language
Hannover Principles
Biomimicry
Permaculture
National Park Service
Cradle to Cradle
Biophilia/Biophilic Design
Ecological Footprint
Product Oversight and Rating Systems
Third Party
Second Party
Team Members: Qualifications and Responsibilities
Purpose of this Book
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 2
SITE CONSIDERATIONS AND THE BUILDING
ENCLOSURE
Objectives
Key Terms
The Building Systems Overview
The Site
Overall Site Considerations
How the Site Impacts the Interior
Wind, Cold, and Rain
Views
Outdoor Rooms
Enclosure Systems
Exterior: Foundation
Exterior: Walls
Exterior Materials
Exterior: Roofs
 Roof Shapes
Roof Framing Materials
Other Framing Features
Roofing Materials
Sustainable Sites
Allowable Sites
The Living Building Challenge 4.0
Biophilic Design Approach
Living Machine
Water Basics
Sustainability and the Exterior Wall
Sustainability Issues and Roofing
Summary
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 3
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Objectives
Key Terms
Purpose of Structural Systems
Bearing Wall
Stud Wall
Structural Frame
Structural Basics
Loads
Structural Forms
Historic Systems
Systems in Use Today
Wood
Steel
Masonry and Concrete Bearing Wall Systems
Other Systems
Recycled Materials
Embodied Energy
Summary
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 4
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Objectives
Key Terms
Sources of Fuel
Fuel Considerations
Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Mechanical Systems
Human Comfort
Heating Systems
Hydronic Systems
Electric Systems
Wood Systems
Geothermal Systems
Cooling Systems
Types of Mechanical Cooling Systems
Commissioning
Impacts to Interior Design
LEED CI Rating System, Version 4.1
Living Building Challenge
International Green Construction Code 2018
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND LIGHTING
Objectives
Key Terms
Electricity
 Components of Electrical Systems
Energy-management Devices
Interior Design Implications
Lighting
Behavior of Lighting
Psychology of Lighting
Lamps and Their Appropriate Applications/ Energy Implications
Correlated Color Temperature (CCT)
Color-rendering Index
IES TM-30-15
Cut Sheets
Sustainability and Lighting Design
Green Seal’s Lighting Recommendations
Sensors
Lighting Metrics
Luminous Flux
Luminous Intensity
Illuminance
Luminance
Luminous Exitance
Calculations
Simple Lumen Method
Process of Calculation
Lumen Method
Point Light Calculations
Explanation of Computer Calculations
Designing with Light (Design Process)
The Lighting Design Packet for Each Phase
Lighting Plans
Conventions for Lighting Plans
Daylight
Sustainable Lighting Design Principles
LEED CI Green Building Rating System Version 4.1
Summary
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 6
PLUMBING SYSTEMS
Objectives
Key Terms
Overview of How Plumbing Works
Supply Options
Plumbing Systems
Fixtures and Water Conservation
High-efficiency Toilets
Low-flow Toilets
Dual-flushing Toilets
Waterless Urinals
Low-water Urinals
Automatic Faucets
Gray Water Re-use
Light-powered Faucets
Low-flow Shower Heads
Tankless Water Heater
Composting Toilet
Impacts on Interior Design
How to Place Plumbing Fixtures
Clearances Required and Recommended
Stacking of Plumbing
Chase Walls
Slope of Waste Pipes
Traps
Air Gaps
Bathroom Accessories: Hand Dryers versus Paper Towels
Ventilation
 Accessible Bathrooms
Individual Bathrooms
Other Plumbing Concerns
LEED CI Rating System V.4.1
Living Building Challenge
Summary of Strategies for Water-use Reduction
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 7
WALLS
Objectives
Key Terms
Framing Systems
Stud Walls
Concrete and Masonry Bearing Walls
Structural Frame Walls
Insulation
Vapor Retarders
Interior Substrate Materials
Wall Finish (Interior)
Paint
Tile
Wood
Brick/Stone
Wall Textiles
Green Walls
Moldings and Trim Work
Casework (Built-in Furniture)
Interior Design Considerations
Acoustical Partitions
Fire Walls
Bearing Walls
Curved Walls
Doors and Windows
Doors: Materials
Doors: Configuration
Doors: Operation
Windows: Materials
Windows: Operation
Parts of the Window
Energy Issues
Electrochromic Glass
Wall Schedules, Finish Schedules, and Finish Plans
LEED CI Rating System, V.4.1
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 8
FLOORS
Objectives
Key Terms
Framing Systems
Wood
Steel
Concrete
Insulation
Interior Floor-finish Materials
Hard Surfaces
Soft Surfaces
Wood
Resilient Flooring
Access Flooring
Eliminating Flooring
Interior Detailing
Base Boards/Base Molding
Interior Design Considerations
 Flooring Transitions
LEED CI Rating System, V.4.1
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 9
CEILINGS
Objectives
Key Terms
Cathedral Ceiling/Sloped Ceiling
Directly Applied Ceilings
Suspended Acoustical-panel Ceilings (SAPCs)
Dropped Ceiling Sections
Exposed Structure
Exposed Mechanical Ceiling
Ceiling Shapes
Interior Design Considerations
Reclamation Programs
Formaldehyde Free
Sustainability Options
LEED V4.1
Living Building Challenge
Summary
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 10
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL
QUALITY:ACOUSTICS AND INDOOR AIR
Objectives
Key Terms
Introduction
Acoustics
Principles of Sound: Control
 Reverberation Time
Principles of Room Design
Privacy
Noise
Sound-separation
Special Circumstances
An Approach to Green Acoustics
The International Green Construction Code 2018
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Effects
Treatment
Selections Criteria
Life-cycle Assessment
VOC Limits
Natural Ventilation
Living Building Challenge 3.1
Summary
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 11
INTERIOR BUILDING SYSTEMS
Objectives
Key Terms
Data, Voice, and Telecommunications
Signal Types
Teleconferencing
Audio-visual Systems
Projection Space Planning Requirements/Visual Sight Lines
Acoustics
Security
Overarching Building Security
Space-planning Issues and Visual Control
Security Control Systems
Conveying Systems: Vertical Circulation
Stairs
Elevators
Escalators
Ladders
Systems Furniture
Interface with Building Shell
Data and Voice for Systems Furniture
Signage and Wayfinding
Energy-management Systems
LEED ID + C Rating System Version 4.1
The Living Building Challenge
Summary
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 12
REGULATIONS
Objectives
Key Terms
Phases of a Design Project
Programming
Schematic Design
Design Development
Contract Documents
Construction Administration
Post-occupancy Evaluation
Building Codes
The International Green Construction Code
Purpose of the Building Codes
Safe Egress: Design Consideration for Fire Prevention and
Containment
Means of Egress
Exit Signs
Application of the Building Code
Compartmentalization
Fire Separation
Movement
Detection
Suppression
Sprinkler Heads
Non-water Suppression Methods
Fire Extinguishers
Smoke Removal and Control
System Complexity
Interior Finishes
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Industry-specific Regulations
Life Safety Code
Testing Agencies
ASHRAE 90.1-2016
Commonly Used Voluntary Measures
State and Local Guidelines
Assignments/Exercises

CHAPTER 13
CASE STUDIES
LEED Green Building Rating System Case Studies
Case Study 1: United States Green Building Council Headquarters
Building—Envision Design (Washington, D.C.) LEED CI—
Platinum
Case Study 2: Telus House—Busby Perkins + Will (Vancouver,
British Columbia) LEED NC—Gold
Case Study 3: Newark Center for Health Sciences & Technology—
Perkins + Will (Ohlone College, Silicon Valley, California) LEED
NC—Platinum
 Case Study 4: Perkins + Will Offices—Perkins + Will (Seattle,
Washington) LEED CI—Platinum
Case Study 5: Haworth Showroom—Perkins + Will (Chicago,
Illinois) LEED CI Pilot Program
Case Study 6: Salvaggio Residence—studio27architecture
(Washington, D.C.)
Case Study 7: White Rock Operations Center—Busby Perkins + Will
Structure
Case Study 8: AHL Services—studio27architecture
Case Study 9: Unit Derwin—studio27architecture
Case Study 10: D.C. Navigator’s Building—RTKL
Lighting
Case Study 11: Haworth Showroom, NYC—Perkins + Will
Case Study 12: Haworth Showroom, Holland, Michigan—Perkins +
Will
Case Study 13: Wu and Burnett Residence—studio27architecture
Walls
Case Study 14: Haworth Showroom—Perkins + Will
Case Study 15: Design Army Building—studio27architecture
Case Study 16: Combination 1136 + 1167—studio27architecture
Case Study 17: D.C. Navigator’s Building—RTKL
Case Study 18: The Cofra Building—Perkins + Will
Flooring
Case Study 19: Haworth Santa Monica Showroom—Perkins + Will
Ceilings
Case Study 20: New York Office—Perkins + Will
Case Study 21: Haworth Showroom, Santa Monica, California—
Perkins + Will
Case Study 22: White Rock Operations Center, Vancouver—Busby,
Perkins + Will
Case Study 23: Cofra Building—Perkins + Will
Case Study 24: New York Office—Perkins + Will
 Acoustics
Case Study 25: The Charlotte Bank—Perkins + Will
Systems Furniture Integration
Case Study 26: The Cofra Offices—Perkins + Will
Case Study 27: The Haworth Showroom, Calgary, Alberta—Perkins
+ Will
Additional Sources for More Recent Case Studies
Bertschi School Science Wing by KMD Architects
Phipps Center for Sustainable Landscapes by The Design
Alliance Architects
Frick Environmental Center by Bohlin Cywinsky Jackson
Betty and Clint Josey Pavilion by Lake | Flato Architects
R. W. Kern Center by Bruner/Cott Architects and Planners
Hawaii Preparatory Academy Energy Lab by Flansburgh
Architects
Mosaic Centre for Conscious Community and Commerce by
Manasc Isaac Architects
VanDusen Botanical Visitor Centre by Perkins + Will
David and Lucile Packard Foundation by EHDD
Te Kura Whare by Jasmax
Glumac Shanghai Office by Gensler
Sustainable Buildings Research Centre by Cox Architecture
Bullitt Center by Miller Hull Architects
Google Chicago by VOA
Student Project Case Studies
Summary

Basic Metric Conversion Table

Glossary
PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION
For the third edition of this book, I wanted to focus on integrating more
of the Living Building Challenge approach as presented by the International
Living Future Institute (ILFI). This corresponds to William McDonough’s
call in Cradle to Cradle for a switch from doing less bad to being good. The
Living Building Challenge is aspirational and asks us to consider what this
world might look like if we learn to design in a way that contributes to the
planet. It challenges designers and the building industry to make a switch
from mitigating the negative impact of the built environment to actually
having a positive impact. When Cradle to Cradle first came out, we did not
know how to do that. In many ways, we still don’t, but this challenge, the
Living Building Challenge, asks us to try. We must approach design and
construction in a way we have not done in the past. By integrating this
content into this third edition, I hope today’s students will embrace this
approach and challenge the ways things have traditionally been done in
design and construction. Humans are on the precipice of either damaging
their own habitat leading to eventual extinction or learning how to live
within the ecosystems of the planet. It is my hope and belief that we can
learn to make the world a better place rather than taking from it and
polluting our own living habitats.
I had several goals in mind when I initiated this project. The first of these
goals was to gather in one place all the information an interior design
educator needs to provide an overview of construction and building systems
as it relates to interior design. Over the past ten years of teaching building
systems courses under a variety of different course names, I was
continuously struck by the need to use multiple books to really touch on all
the subjects that a student needs to learn within a CIDA-accredited interior
design program. Coupled with this was the need I felt to emphasize
sustainability.
Few books covered general building systems and construction, and none
of these addressed sustainable design directly. Those that do exist were
intended for architecture audiences specifically. Many of the books
addressing sustainable design were technically oriented and relied on
scientific and technological approaches to making buildings more energy
efficient, smarter, and more complex.
I believe it is important to show students that sustainability is not a
problem of science, but one of values and ethics first. Our way of building in
North America is fundamentally obsolete. We do not have the resources to
continue along this path: it is destined for failure. I have tried to include a
variety of approaches to sustainable design. Underlying this are some basic
assumptions. First, the most sustainable approach is not to build new
buildings in every case. Building re-use should always be considered before
new construction.
Second, less is more. In this case, what I intend is less square footage.
Smaller space that is optimized through excellent interior design far
outweighs throwing square footage at design problems. Finally, I come from
a historic preservation background. A sensibility for how we built in the past
can provide a simpler and more sustainable approach to building
construction—new methods and materials are not always the answer.
This book is formatted to include a wide variety of visual components. I
have sketched as many of the details as I could to encourage students (and
faculty members) to think graphically in the design process and about how
materials are assembled and shown in drawings. The designer must
communicate his/her design intent through drawing. The computer is a tool
that is relied upon heavily today. The skill to be able to sit down and think
through a connection using paper and pencil is disappearing. Despite this, I
have stressed this as a pedagogical tool of this book. I cannot ask students to
do that which I will not attempt. Mastery of the details of how one can have
what occurs first as an idea and later in actual form comes from knowing
materials and their tolerances, and through thinking through the
connections based on this knowing. Any good designer needs to practice
and master this. Hand sketches are supplemented by a wide variety of
interior photographs that demonstrate the application of the text in actual
project samples.
If I have been successful, this book will be used by interior design
educators charged with teaching building systems and construction, as well
as by new graduates who need to know how to do something for a project. It
is my hope that it will sit at the desks of students and practitioners and
inspire designers with the confidence to create beautiful and sustainable
interior spaces that enhance our health, safety, and overall welfare.
The book itself is divided into the building systems with which the
interior designer interacts directly and indirectly. Chapter 2 outlines the
enclosure system of a building. This exterior shell includes the foundation
upon which the building rests, the exterior walls, and the roof. Interior
designers need an awareness of all of these in order to converse intelligently
both with contractors and with other design professionals. Chapter 3
provides an overview of building structural types so that a designer has a
basic understanding of how buildings stand up and when to call in a
structural engineer or architect. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 cover mechanical,
electrical, and plumbing systems—all three of which directly impact interior
design solutions. Chapters 7, 8, and 9 present information on walls, floors,
and ceilings, including basic types of finishes and assemblies as well as
building code requirements and other concerns related to these interior
surfaces. Chapter 10 addresses acoustics and indoor air quality—of both of
which interior designers must have a command. Chapter 11 includes other
interior systems such as vertical circulation, data, voice, and security.
Chapter 12 outlines the building code regulations and ADA requirements
impacting interior design solutions and, finally, the color section captures
case study examples to show applications of all the earlier chapters in
projects by design professionals.
 Specifically, this book addresses accreditation criteria in Standards 6 and
11, and covers in detail Standards 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 of the 2020 CIDA
Standards. All of this has been underscored using a sustainability approach.
To use this book effectively, I would encourage you to create a building-
detail sketchbook, and to actively sketch building details and components
throughout the process until it becomes second nature to dissect what you
see and create what you intend when detailing any aspect of an interior
space.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As it turns out, writing a book is a much bigger undertaking than I could
have ever imagined. It is also the product of the efforts of many people, not
just the author. First, I would like to thank Olga Kontzias for always
believing in this project and me. I would also like to give a special thanks to
Joe Miranda, my editor, for always cheerfully answering a lot of questions
about the process and for allowing me to make changes as the project
developed.
I would like to give a special thanks to Tama Duffy Day, a principal at
Perkins + Will for sharing my request for images and case studies with all of
the Perkins + Will offices. Thanks to Tama, I heard from her colleagues
around North America and was able to include an amazing collection of
case studies that illustrate the green design principles of this book. Thank
you to J.D. McKibbon, AIA, AMA, LEED AP in the Chicago office; Lora
Ingram in the Seattle office; Howard Weiss, principal in the San Francisco
office; Joan Blumenfeld and Abigail Carlen, LEED AP in the NYC office;
Melissa Radatz in the Vancouver, British Columbia office; Cathy Falwell in
the D.C. office; and John Morris, project manager in the Charlotte, North
Carolina office.
Thank you to Todd Ray, a principal of studio27architecture, for sharing
information about their projects.
Thank you to Linda Segerson (OTJ) and Steven Sorrells (RTKL), two
former students of mine at Virginia Tech, for providing case studies from
the offices where they work. Thank you to the marketing department at
RTKL and Laura Knox at OTJ Architects.
 I also want to thank current students Amrita Raja, Hyun-Jun (Steve)
Chang, Lauren Shaw, Katherine Johnson, and Britney Bishop for their
generosity in sharing current projects with me to inspire future students
along the path of sustainable design. A special thanks to Dana Ricci, my
graduate student assistant, who has spent an entire semester scanning and
working with the hundreds of images for this book.
I would like to acknowledge the valuable feedback from the following
reviewers who provided much useful advice for this revision: Russell Gagg,
University of Bournemouth; Jonathan Forster, University of Plymouth; John
Linn, High Point University; Sheila Cordova, Santa Monica College; Elena
Douvlou, Boston Architectural College; and Ellen Fisher, New York School
of Interior Design.
I would like to add my thanks to Matthew Duncan (a graduate student in
Architecture) and Lyndsay Digman (an undergraduate interior design
student) for their assistance in helping me to pull together this second
edition. I would also like to thank Joe Miranda, my main contact at
Bloomsbury, for his consistent support and encouragement throughout this
edition.

Bloomsbury Publishing wishes to gratefully acknowledge and thank the

editorial team involved in the publication of this book:
Acquisitions Editor: Emily Samulski
Development Manager: Joseph Miranda
Editorial Assistant: Jenna Lefkowitz
Art Development Editor: Edie Weinberg
In-House Designer: Louise Dugdale
Production Manager: Ken Bruce
Project Manager: Molly Montanaro
CHAPTER 1
A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO
BUILDING DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION
Many species around the world are now threatened by climate
change, and some are becoming extinct—in part because of the
climate crisis and in part because of human encroachment into the
places where they once thrived. In fact, we are facing what
biologists are beginning to describe as a mass extinction crisis, with
a rate of extinctions now 1000 times higher than the normal
background rate.
—AL GORE, AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH

OBJECTIVES
• Discuss the different ethical, moral, and legal responsibilities of an
interior designer
• Identify the interior designer’s role in a sustainable building design
project
• Differentiate among green building rating systems, theoretical
approaches, and guidelines
• Describe how to apply an integrated approach to a design project
• Compare the roles of the architect and interior designer in a project
• Compare green product certifications and identify which ones are
first party, second party, and third party
KEY TERMS
architect
BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability)
Biomimcry
biophilic design
BIM (Building Information Modeling)
BOMA (Building Owners and Managers Association)
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment
Method)
Contractor
Declare label
embodied energy
engineers
EPD (Environmental Product Declaration)
Green Globes
interior designer
International Living Future Institute (ILFI)
International Well Building Institute (IWBI)
ISO 14025
ISO 14040
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment)
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Accredited
Professional
LEED Accredited Professional + specialty
LEED AP BD+C
LEED AP Homes
LEED AP ND
LEED AP O+M
LEED AP ID+C
LEED Certified Building/Project
LEED Fellow
LEED GA
LEED Green Building Rating System
Living Building Challenge
PassiveHaus
Red List
SCS Global Services
shop drawings
SITES
US Green Building Council (USGBC)
value engineering
WaterSense
WELL Accredited Professional
WELL Building Standard

The building design and construction industries are in the midst of great
and needed changes. As global warming and skyrocketing oil prices, global
pandemics, and catastrophic weather conditions have become everyday
topics of conversation, the way in which buildings are made has become
central to these important issues. As buildings are a major source of energy
use and material depletion, rethinking them may provide part of the
solution to the mounting resource and planetary issues caused by fossil fuel
emissions.
Combined with these global concerns are moral, ethical, and legal
ramifications for designers. Legal concerns are perhaps the easiest to address
in a general way. When charged with protecting the health, safety, and
welfare of the public, a licensed or registered interior designer cannot
knowingly endanger people. Thus, the use of toxins in the interior must be
avoided and all interiors must meet basic building code requirements.
Endangering man’s ecosystem and contributing to the decline and
elimination of the habitats of other species falls more into the ethical realm.
The field of environmental ethics was developed as a modern discipline in
the 1970s when humanity’s role in the world was first challenged along
ethical lines. A traditional Judeo-Christian viewpoint was interpreted as
humanity holding dominion over the natural world. Modern environmental
ethics challenges this view.
Rather than nature having value only as a potential resource for
humankind, perhaps it has its own intrinsic value.
Added to the ethical questions of humanity’s relationship to other species
and the natural world are moral questions of right and wrong. Kahlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development, for example, outlines three stages of moral
development in humans: preconventional (avoid punishment), conventional
(concern about community and peers), and post-conventional (concerned
with wider society and universal ethical principles). Thus, our moral
development ranges from focusing on “authority” to focusing on “approval,”
and ultimately results in a genuine interest in others. Legal regulations, for
example, address the avoidance of punishment, while ethical considerations
occur at the highest level of moral development. Thus, a designer must
address their decisions within all three arenas: moral, ethical, and legal.

NEW WAYS OF DESIGNING AND

BUILDING
The design and construction of a building is a complex process and involves
many different people. Traditionally, an architectural firm has overseen the
process and has coordinated other professionals (engineers, interior
designers, and specialists) to produce a complete set of drawings that are
then put out to bid by a collection of contractors. This linear process has
been the model for many years. The public bid process has several inherent
problems from a quality-control perspective: contractors bid only on what
they see, knowing they can later submit change orders to make up for
anything the architects left out of the drawings; the low bidder wins
regardless of quality; and in many situations, the people building the
building are not involved in its design. By its very nature, this leads to a
contentious and often litigious process.

a - PROGRAMMING
b - SCHEMATIC DESIGN
c - DESIGN DEVELOPMENT (engage consultants)
d - CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS (all consultant drawings coordinated by
architect)
e - PROJECT OUT FOR BID (low bid selected)
f - CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION (change orders)

Figure 1.1 Traditional design process.

A comparatively new method of building design is on the horizon.

Several firms have switched to a Building Information Modeling (BIM)
approach. This requires all stakeholders in the building to be involved earlier
in the process. Sustainable Building Ratings Systems often require this
approach. A three-dimensional computer model is constructed that includes
rich data from all subcontractors and suppliers early in the process. Because
this model incorporates structural, mechanical, electrical, plumbing,
lighting, and other information during the design process, interference
between systems can be discovered well before a building is under
construction. Corrections made on the computer model are far less costly
than those made in the field. Suppliers, such as the steel manufacturer, can
also provide detailed information. This means the actual shop drawings
come from the three-dimensional model, and waste is significantly reduced
during fabrication and building assembly.
 Not only does the BIM method help reduce errors, it also can be used to
generate materials take-offs, pricing information, energy modeling, and
many other services. Thus, the budget of a building is an integrated part of
the design and decision making occurs throughout the process, rather than
through the use of value engineering after the design is complete.
Ultimately, the BIM approach creates a building that has been carefully
designed from multiple perspectives, has involved all of the key players in a
building project, can be designed on budget, and significantly reduces waste.
This is a much more sustainable way of designing.
 a - CLIENT
b - INTERIOR DESIGNER
c - SPECIALIZED CONSULTANT
d - BUILDING CONTROLS REP
e - FABRICATORS
f - CONTRACTOR
g - LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT
h - ARCHITECT

Figure 1.2 BIM integrated design process.

 TEAM APPROACH
As with BIM, the US Green Building Council (USGBC)’s LEED
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building
Rating Systems rely on an integrated team approach to building design in
order to be successful. What makes LEED Rating Systems work is having
multiple stakeholders present in the decision-making process for a building
from the beginning. Various people assume the many different
documentation responsibilities associated with this type of building. A
LEED Accredited Professional participates in the process to help facilitate
it. As of 2020, there are four categories of LEED Accredited Professionals
with three different levels of engagement. While LEED APs without a
specialization are grandfathered in, new accredited professionals must take a
Green Associate’s exam (LEED GA) and then can sit a specialization exam
to become a LEED AP + specialty. The specialties include Building Design
and Construction (BD+C), Interior Design and Construction (ID+C),
Homes (Homes), Operations and Maintenance (O+M), and Neighborhood
Development (ND). The highest level an accredited professional can
achieve, LEED Fellow, is only awarded to those who have made significant
contributions to the industry over a sustained period of time. The building
that results and which has been reviewed to meet the LEED criteria is then a
LEED Certified Building. Ultimately the team will determine which level of
LEED Certification they hope to obtain for the project. The current levels of
compliance are, from highest to lowest: Platinum Certified, Gold Certified,
Silver Certified, and Certified. The number of points accumulated
determines the ultimate certification classification. The USGBC and most
LEED Accredited Professionals recommend that a project team try for more
points than it actually needs for the desired level of compliance in the event
some points are not awarded in the end. Although there are many other
green building rating systems and evaluation tools, the LEED Rating
Systems have been the most widely adopted in the United States.
 TABLE 1.1

SUMMARY OF LEED ID+C RATING SYSTEM POINT

ALLOCATIONS

LEED Version 4.1: ID+C Possible points

Integrative Process (IP) Required Prerequisite

Location and Transportation (LT) 18

Water Efficiency (WE) 12

Energy and Atmosphere (EA) 38

Materials and Resources (MR) 13

Indoor Environmental Quality (EQ) 17

Innovation and Design (ID) 6

Regional Priority (RP) 4

TOTAL

40–49 Certified 110

50–59 Silver

60–79 Gold

80–110 Platinum

OTHER LEED RATING SYSTEMS

In addition to LEED for Building Design and Construction (BD+C), there
are several other LEED Rating Systems in place, including: Operations and
Maintenance (O+M), Interior Design and Construction (ID+C),
Residential, Cities and Communities, and Recertification. All LEED
Accredited Professionals must pass the LEED GA exam. Following this a
separate exam is taken to earn additional credentials in the following areas:
BD+C, O+M, ID+C, ND (Neighborhood Development), and Homes.

OTHER GREEN BUILDING RATING

SYSTEMS
Although many other green building rating systems have been developed,
few have gained the momentum of the LEED systems in the United States.
Thus, while a brief listing of other systems will be included here, a list of
other resources discussing these systems in more detail will be added for
further information.

Green Globes
Green Globes (www.greenglobes.com) provides a series of sustainable
building assessment and certification tools for buildings in the US and
Canada in an online format. In Canada, there are Green Globe modules for
Commercial Interiors and New Construction or Significant Renovation.
Green Globes uses a self-assessment process to achieve up to 1000 points
using an ANSI–approved consensus process.
Green Globes evolved out of BREEAM (Building Research
Establishment’s Environmental Assessment Method) and is used
predominantly in the US and Canada. While the program is run by the
Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) in Canada, it is
administered by the Green Building Initiative (GBI) in the US.

Comparison of Green Globes and LEED

While the LEED Rating Systems use a series of online templates which are
submitted, Green Globes uses an interactive platform. Green Globes is based
on a life-cycle assessment of multiple attributes (unlike LEED) and accepts
forest certifications from FSC, SFI, ATFS, and CAS (whereas LEED accepts
SFC).

AASHE STARS
Started in 2006, Sustainability, Tracking, Assessment, and Rating System
(STARS) is a self-reporting framework developed by the Association for the
Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE) to assist
universities and colleges in measuring their sustainability performance. The
current version, STARS 2.2, is available at https://stars.aashe.org. The
categories for self reporting include institutional characteristics, curriculum,
research, campus engagement, public engagement, air and climate,
buildings, energy, food and dining, grounds, waste, water, coordination and
planning, diversity and affordability, investment and finance, wellbeing and
work, and innovation and leadership. Institutions of higher learning can
achieve the following levels of certification from lowest to highest, indicating
their level of sustainability leadership: Reporter, Bronze, Silver, Gold, and
Platinum.

Green Guidelines for Healthcare (GGHC)

These guidelines outline best practices for sustainable design in healthcare,
including basic practices and principles, design, construction, and
operation. Points are used for self-improvement purposes only and are not
tied to level of achievement. While the guidelines can be used in
conjunction with LEED for Healthcare, it is not produced by the USGBC.
The document is constantly evolving to reflect changes in the healthcare
industry. The compilation of guidelines seeks to promote high-performance
healing environments. More information can be found at the GGHC
website: www.gghc.org which serves as the archival holder of publications
and resources.
Living Building Challenge
Composed of seven component areas called petals, the Living Building
Challenge (LBC) claims to be the most advanced measuring system for
sustainable buildings. The seven areas cover all aspects of a building and its
location and consist of Place, Water, Energy, Health + Happiness, Materials,
Equity and Beauty. Unlike the other rating systems, the LBC contends with
the aesthetics of green building. Version 4.0, issued in June 2019, outlines
the seven petals and their application to building design including net zero
water use and energy goals. Each petal includes an “intent” and “ideal
conditions and current limitations.” The challenge includes a core green
building certification program, a zero energy initiative, a zero carbon
initiative, a living community challenge, and a living food challenge (pilot
program). Certification is possible for entire projects or by petal for
products and communities. As an interactive process, the LBC relies on
actual projects to continue to develop the standard. The two guiding
principles are that certification be based on actual performance (versus
anticipated) and that all projects must be holistic including addressing all
petals and core imperatives. The ultimate goal is to go beyond measures that
mitigate negative impacts on the environment into the domain of creating
an overall positive environmental impact or a building that contributes to
the environment in which it is built.

NZEB
This certification by the ILFI focuses on Net Zero Energy use. One hundred
percent of the building’s energy needs must be supplied using on-site
renewable energy sources without combustion.

PassiveHaus Institute US
This multi-attribute rating system is focused on air tightness, source energy
limits, and space conditioning criteria. Overseen by PassiveHaus Institute
US, this third-party rating system meets IS DOE Zero Energy Home status.

SITES
Administered by GBCI, the SITES third-party rating system evaluates
performance criteria for Water, Wildlife Habitat, Energy, Air Quality,
Human Health, and Outdoor Recreation Opportunities. It can assess sites
with or without buildings.

WELL
Originally developed by DELOS and now administered by the International
Well Building Institute (IWBI), the WELL Building Standard (now in
version 2.0) focuses on human wellness. There are some overlaps with the
LEED Green Building Rating Systems, but WELL extends its focus to
human wellbeing—both physical and mental—within the built
environment. The standard measures performance in seven areas: Air,
Water, Nourishment, Light, Fitness, Comfort, and Mind.

International Sustainable Building Rating

Systems
(www.wbdg.org/resources/green-building-standards-and-certification-
systems retrieved 5/6/20)

BCA Green Mark Scheme

Overseen by the Building Construction Authority (BCA), the BCA Green
Mark Scheme is centered in Singapore and rated building according to their
performance in energy efficiency, water efficiency, environmental
protection, indoor environmental quality, and other green features that
improve building performance.
BEAM
Used primarily in Hong Kong, the Beam system, administered by the
Business Environment Council, assesses all building types’ performance in
site, materials, water and energy use, indoor environmental quality, and
innovation.

CASBEE
The Japan Sustainable Building Consortium administers the CASBEE rating
system. The system evaluates both new and existing buildings in terms of
energy efficiency, resource efficiency, local environment, and indoor
environment.

EDGE
The International Finance Corporation (IFC), a division of World Bank,
oversees the EDGE program, which assesses Energy, Water, and Materials
for all building types.

Green Star SA
The Green Building Council of South Africa administers the Green Star SA
system evaluating multi-unit residential, office, and retail buildings in eight
categories: Management, Indoor Environmental Quality, Energy, Transport,
Water, Materials, Land Use and Ecology, Emissions, and Innovation.

Pearl Rating System for Estidama

Located in the UAE, the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council oversees the
Pearl Rating System and assesses building performance in Integrated
Development Process, Natural Systems, Livable Communities, Precious
Water, Resourceful Energy, Stewarding Materials, and Innovating Practice.
The project types included are community, buildings, villas, and temporary
villas and buildings.

International Standard Organization (ISO) 14000

This group of standards holds as its goal “to provide a framework for a
holistic strategic approach to the organization’s environmental policy, plans
and actions” (www.iso.org, retrieved 12/7/07). This framework, created in
2004, establishes a common reference point for a variety of customers and
companies.
ISO 14025 defines Product Rule Categories (PCR) and outlines what a
PCR should contain. It defines how to conduct a Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) for a given product, the criteria for inclusion for inputs and outputs
of the LCA, and how to report the data in the form of an Environmental
Product Declaration (EPD).
ISO 14040 provides the framework by which the LCA should be
conducted and defines the product lifespan, whether cradle to grave or
cradle to cradle. The LCA includes raw material selections and production,
manufacturing, packaging and distribution, use and disposal, reuse or
recycling. It details a product’s impact on climate change, ozone depletion,
eutrophication (water pollution due to high concentrations of phosphates
and nitrates), the formation of photochemical oxidants, the depletion of
fossil fuels and mineral resources, and hazardous and nonhazardous waste.
The LEED Green Building Rating Systems have started to include credits
that encourage EPDs.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

The US Environmental Protection Agency defines life cycle assessment
(LCA) as “a technique to assess the environmental aspect and potential
impacts associated with a product, process, or service by:
 Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and
environmental releases

Evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with

identified inputs and releases

Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision”

(WWW.EPA.GOV.NRMRL/LCACCEAA/, RETRIEVED 12/7/07).

Life cycle assessment is a critical component for selecting specific

materials in a building project. All parts of the life cycle contribute to the
overall sustainability of a product. The embodied energy of the product
includes its extraction, manufacture, transportation, and ultimately,
disposal.

BEES
Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES) is a
web-based energy software tool that allows the user to make decisions based
on life cycle information and consensus standards. The BEES model,
developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
focuses on an environmental performance score coupled with an economic
performance score. The environmental performance score computations
take global warming, acidification, fossil fuel depletion, indoor air quality,
habitat alteration, water intake, criteria air pollutants, human health, smog,
ozone depletion, and ecological toxicity into account. For the economic
score, both first costs and future costs are considered. BEES 2.0 (the most
current version) measures the performance of building products using the
life cycle approach outlined in the ISO 14040 series of standards. The
program was last updated in 2018 and can be found at
http://www.nist.gov/services-resources/software/bees. The system is
designed to be transparent and flexible.
THEORIES OF SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
Several groups and individuals have created theories with guiding principles
for sustainable design.

The Natural Step

“Since 1989, we (The Natural Step) have worked with thousands of
corporations, municipalities, academic institutions and not-for-profit
organizations that have proven that moving strategically toward
sustainability leads to new opportunities, reduced costs and
dramatically reduced ecological and social impacts. With almost
thirty years of experience helping organizations and individuals
understand and make meaningful progress towards sustainability,
the Natural Step has 12 offices with associates and strategic
partners in 54 countries.”
(WWW.NATURALSTEP.ORG, RETRIEVED 5/6/20).

The Natural Step Network is registered in Sweden, with the goal of providing
a uniform definition of sustainability and accelerating the transition to a
sustainable society worldwide. The framework helps convert theoretical
principles to application and involves looking at an organization’s
relationship to the biosphere. The Natural Step embodies science-based
knowledge to inform an approach that is universal, necessary,
comprehensive, concrete, and distinct to cut through the complexities that
that surround the topic of sustainability. Four rules define the Sustainability
Principles of the Natural Step:

“In a sustainable society, nature is not subjected to systematically

increasing (1) concentrations of substances from the earth’s crust
(such as fossil CO2, heavy metals and minerals), (2) concentrations
of substances produced by society (such as antibiotics and
endocrine disruptors), (3) degradation of physical means (such as
deforestation and draining of groundwater tables), and (4) and in that
society there are no structural obstacles to people’s health,
influence, competence, impartiality and meaning.”
(HTTP://THENATURALSTEP/APPROACH/ RETRIEVED 5/6/20)

The Natural Step currently has offices in Canada, China, Germany, Italy,
Israel, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Ecological Design
Ecological design can be defined as “any form of design that
minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself
with living processes.” This integration implies that the design
respects species diversity, minimizes resource depletion, preserves
nutrient and water cycles, maintains habitat quality, and attends to
all the other preconditions of human and ecosystem health.
—FROM ECOLOGICAL DESIGN BY SIM VAN DER RYN AND STUART COWAN

Ecological design—a term coined by Sim van der Ryn and Steward Cowan
in 1996 in a book by the same name—seeks to minimize impact to the
environment. By working with natural systems—water, habitat preservation,
and local resources—ecological designers try to integrate the built world
with the natural one. In their book, Cowan and van der Ryn argued for
humans to work alongside nature in their buildings, industries, agriculture,
and methods of production. The concept of ecological design rose to
prominence in architecture and design beginning in the 1960s.
The idea behind ecological design dates to the 19th century and to
ecologist Ernst Haeckel (Generelle Morphologie der Organism, 1866) and
writer/philosopher Henry David Thoreau (Walden; Life in the Woods,
1854). The early 20th century saw ecological design explored through the
works of Ian McHarg and others.

Pattern Language
Christopher Alexander created a series of patterns that he says represent
different design conditions in the world that people prefer and published
these in a book of the same title in 1977. He draws the patterns from
examples in the vernacular and recommends their use in designed places
(www.patternlanguage.com). Alexander, an architect and academic,
published several additional books on the same topic. In Alexander’s latest
book, The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle Between
Two World Systems (2012), Alexander argues that while our buildings might
have recently become more energy efficient, they have also become more
sterile. The new way of designing buildings, according to Alexander, cannot
support basic human emotional needs. Thus while considered “sustainable”
on a technical level, they might not be truly sustainable. Several students of
Alexander have gone on to continue his work on Pattern Language and local
vernacular traditions in design and construction.
Books by Christopher Alexander include
Notes of the Synthesis of Form (1964)
A City Is Not a Tree (1965)
The Oregon Experiment (1975)
A Pattern Language (1977)
The Timeless Way of Building (1979)
The Nature of Order series (1981–2003)
The Production of Houses (1985)
The Battle for the Life and Beauty of Earth (2012)

Hannover Principles
Architect William McDonough wrote the Hannover Principles as guiding
principles for the EXPO 2000 at the World’s Fair in Hannover, Germany. The
complete document can be found at www.mcdonough.com.
 The Hannover Principles:
Insist on rights of humanity and nature to co-exist
Recognize interdependence
Respect relationships between spirit and matter
Accept responsibility for the consequences of design
Create safe objects of long-term value
Eliminate the concept of waste
Rely on natural energy flows
Understand the limitations of design
Seek constant improvement by the sharing of knowledge

Biomimicry
Biomimicry is the title of a book by biologist Janine Benyus. As adopted by
the design professions, it refers to the study of nature as a source and
inspiration for design problems.

Biomimicry is a relatively new discipline that studies nature’s best

ideas and then imitates these designs and processes to solve
human problems.
(WWW.BIOMIMICRY.NET, RETRIEVED 12/7/07).

Biomimicry (from bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning imitation) is a

new science that studies nature’s best ideas and then imitates these designs
and processes to solve human problems. Studying a leaf to invent a better
solar cell is an example of this innovation inspired by nature
(www.biomimicry.net). Biomimicry 3.8 (a combination of the Biomimicry
Guild and the Biomimicry Institute) has produced its first Biomimicry
Resource Handbook (2013) and has a series of educational webinars. They
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Wishing to use some 2¹⁄₄ by 3¹⁄₄-in. plates in a 6¹⁄₂ by 8¹⁄₂-in.
camera, I made kits that proved satisfactory, as follows, the method
being adaptable also to other sizes: A piece of cardboard the size of
the camera plate was procured. A rectangle, as at A, was cut in the
center, ¹⁄₁₆ in. larger each way than the plate. Paste, over the back of
the cut-out rectangle, a sheet of tough, thin paper, B, and glue two
small pieces of cardboard, as at C. Cut cardboard pieces D, E, F,
and G, proportioned as at H, and glue them into position, G being
over the others, the piece E sliding. If a dry plate is placed in the
rectangle and E is slid toward the plate, it will hold the latter in
position. The plate holder is loaded with the kit, and to prevent
warping, a couple of pins are driven into the plate holder, as at H.
Figures J and K indicate the open and closed positions. The ground
glass is marked to correspond with the rectangle, so that one can tell
where to focus the image.—L. L. Llewellyn, Piedmont, Calif.
 Photographic-Print Washing Machine
By HARRY MARCELLE

M any amateur photographers have occasion to make a

considerable number of prints and find the washing of them
tedious, by the ordinary methods. In order to overcome this difficulty
the print-washing machine shown in the sketch was made. It is
simple in construction and performs the work quite satisfactorily at a
saving of not a little time. Since the water in which the prints are
washed must be agitated, a pivoted tray is provided. A unique
feature is the water wheel through which the water supply passes, at
the same time developing power to operate the rocker arm, by
means of which the tray is agitated.
The frame for the large trough, which contains the tray and other
apparatus, is made of 2 by 4-in. uprights, braced with 2 by 2-in.
pieces. The trough is made of ⁷⁄₈-in. stock, joined at the ends with a
water-tight grooved, or dado, joint. The top is fitted to form a cover
and may be hinged or arranged as a lid, supported and held in place
by cleats, fixed on its under side with screws. The trough and its
fittings may be made of a size suited to individual requirements. The
device illustrated is 4 ft. long, and has a trough 18 in. wide and 13 in.
high. The interior of the trough is given a coat of tar to make it
waterproof, and the exterior may be painted thoroughly to preserve
the wood.
The rocking tray, in which the prints are placed, is made of ⁵⁄₈-in.
stock. It is 5 in. high, 15 in. wide, and 28 in. long. Splash boards are
fixed at its ends, as shown, and the bottom is made of muslin,
reinforced with wooden strips, ¹⁄₂ in. wide. The tray is supported on a
rod or pipe at its center, the ends of the support being set into the
sides of the trough. A crank arm of wood or metal is attached to the
center of one end of the tray, and operates through an opening in the
top of the trough. The crank arm engages a crank fixed to the shaft
of the water wheel, as shown in the sketch. The crank must be made
not longer than 2 in., or the resulting action on the tray will pour out
too much water, the prints being thus in danger of damage.

The Spray Forced from the Pipe Gives Power to the Water Wheel, Which in
Turn is Transferred to the Rocker Arm Attached to the Tray

The water wheel is made of two round disks of sheet metal, 9 in. in
diameter. Strips of wood are fitted between them so that the wheel is
3 in. wide on the face. Wooden blocks, grooved to fit the shaft of the
water wheel, are used as bearings. They are fixed to the top with
bolts. The water supply is provided through a pipe at one end. A cap
is fitted over the end of the extension on the pipe and a small hole
drilled through it. This forces the water against the blades of the
water wheel rather than permitting it to drop under normal pressure.
The flow of water is regulated by the valve on the supply pipe, and
the excess water is drained off at the opposite end of the trough. The
force of the water, as it leaves the water wheel, is lessened, and the
water carried gently to the tray, by means of a board set between the
top and the tray, at the wheel end of the trough.
A Washstand for the Baby
 To make this washstand, I mounted a cheese box on a frame 20
in. from the floor, and fitted a shelf between the legs 9 in. from the
floor. In the center of this shelf a hole was cut, with a compass saw,
to hold a wash basin. Rods between the legs are handy for towels,
washcloths, etc. Within the circular box are kept baby’s toilet and
bath articles. The inside of the box is padded with cotton and lined
with nainsook, the latter being used, also, for the cover. When the
cover is on the box, the stand is used as a small table. White enamel
gives the stand a neat finish.—F. E. Brimmer, Dalton, New York.
 Carrying Strap and Lock for Hand Cases

The illustration shows how to make a locking device for hand

cases or satchels, and providing, also, a strap for carrying. Cut two
pieces of ⁵⁄₈ by 2-in. strap iron, and two pieces, 2¹⁄₂ in. long. Bend
them, and fasten them with screws or rivets, as shown. When the
case is carried, the strap holds the crosspieces firmly.
 Disk Talking-Machine Records Played
Eccentrically
A hole was bored about an inch from the center of a disk talking-
machine record and the latter was placed on the machine with the
new hole over the center pin of the table. When the record was
played, the result was a reproduction extremely amusing and hardly
recognizable as compared with the original one.
 Safety Flue Stopper Made of Tin Pail

The usual method of covering stovepipe holes in chimneys with a

tin disk is not as safe as it should be, especially adjoining
nonfireproof material. A safer method is to fit a tin can, or a tin pail,
into the chimney hole, as shown. Cut it off the right length, with a pair
of tin shears, leaving projections as stops, and replace the disk
stopper.—J. A. Raught, Janesville, Wisconsin.
 Book Rest for Music Stand

The music-stand attachment shown in the illustration aids in the

handling of music books, and is easily made. Some stands are
provided with a supporting edge about 1 in. wide and will not
properly carry larger music books, and the device is attached to this
edge. The device is of wood, ³⁄₁₆ by 3¹⁄₄ in., and the length of the
stand. On the bottom, two wood strips are fastened. They are
beveled as shown in the sectional view, to wedge on the music rest.
—L. R. W. Allison, Newark, N. J.
 Uses for Worn Talking-Machine Needles
Among the uses made of discarded steel talking-machine needles
are the following: as glazier’s tacks; as brads, where a headless nail
or an inconspicuous one is desired; as pins for fastening papers
together; and for the tacking in of the backs on picture frames.—
William A. Martin. Jersey City, N. J.
 Automatic Photo-Print Washing

A photographers’ automatic print-washing device may readily be

made with the aid of an alarm clock, and a spool to which a piece of
thread is attached as shown. The spool is fixed to the alarm-clock
winder. An upright support, having a nail driven into the top and bent
over to form a hook, carries the thread, to which the print is attached
by a small clip. The alarm-clock mechanism is then set, and when
released draws the print from the dish, the bell warning the operator.
—George H. Holden, Chesterfield, England.
 Portable Sectional Poultry Fencing
Sectional poultry fencing has several advantages over stationary
fencing: It can be easily moved, the poultry yard being made larger,
smaller, or shifted; an area may be planted to a crop and gradually
included in the yard, furnishing greens for the poultry. Also, the
tenant who does not care to put down permanent equipment, will find
sectional fencing desirable.
 Poultry Fencing Made in Portable Sections Has Several Advantages over a
Stationary Barrier

Sections are practical to about 18 ft. long, and should be 7 ft. high
for the lighter breeds of poultry. If the fencing is to be used for grown
stock only, the fine-mesh wire below may be omitted, and 2-in. mesh
used. Some sections should be fitted with gates, and the top batten
should be set down about 1 ft., so as not to afford footing for the
poultry. The sections are lashed together with wire, and supported by
an occasional post, or guyed to buildings or supports.
Suitcase Holder for Running Board of Automobile

These Homemade Supports Are Adjustable to Suitcases of Varying Widths

Two metal strips, ³⁄₁₆ by 1¹⁄₂ by 20 in., were used to make a strong
and adjustable holder for suitcases carried on the running board of
an automobile. One-inch slots were cut near the top of the strips,
which were bent to form angles having an upright portion 12 in. long.
The angles are adjusted at the bolts, as shown, and the suitcase is
held in place by straps.—Lucien G. Baer, Los Angeles, Calif.
 Wheelbarrow for Large Cans

Milk Cans were Handled Easily by Means of This Homemade Cart

Large cans for milk are awkward to handle and transport in the
dairy or barn, and the cart shown in the sketch was made from an
old wheelbarrow and sections of pipe, to make this work easy. The
pipes were bent to the shape shown and strongly braced with iron
rods. A board bottom was provided, and the barrow wheel was
mounted between the forked ends of the frame. The cart may be
used for numerous other purposes, and is especially convenient in
that the load need only be lifted slightly.—Monroe Woolley, San
Francisco, Calif.
 Plain Butts Used as Double-Swing Hinge
By placing two ordinary plain butt hinges so that two of their wings
overlap completely, they may be made to serve as a double-swing
hinge. If the holes do not correspond in the adjoining wings, drill new
ones, disposing them to give the best hold in the wood. Allowance
must be made in applying the hinge, for the double thickness of the
center portion.

¶A rubber finger tip is convenient in counting sheets in that the paper

is not soiled, since moistening of the finger is unnecessary.
Portable Skylight for Home Portraiture
By W. W. IRVINE

P hotographers who wish to construct a part of their equipment may

be interested in a portable skylight, which I made and use with
thorough satisfaction, for home portraiture. Covered with imitation
leather, it is quite presentable in carrying it about. Figure 9 shows the
case closed, with stand, flash lamp, box of flash powder, and a
white-cloth reflector inside. The apparatus set up for work is shown
in Fig. 5, and the details of construction in the other sketches.
First make the frames for the top and bottom of the case, A, of ³⁄₈
by 2¹⁄₂-in. wood, and B, of ³⁄₈ by 1¹⁄₄-in. stock, lengths and
construction as shown in Fig. 3. Cut from extra-heavy mount board,
two 21 by 28-in. pieces, C, and tack one to one side of each of the
frames. Cut a similar piece, E, 15 by 26¹⁄₂ in., and hinge it with
strong cloth, or thin leather, to the inner side of the thicker frame, to
form the roof E, Fig. 5. Hinge the two frames with three butt hinges.
The frame is then ready for covering, and for this purpose imitation
leather is economical and practical. Two yards of 36-in. material is
needed. Use hot glue, first on the bottom half of the case, applying it
smoothly, and press the fabric into place. Then cover the sides, the
upper half, and the roof. The covering must be in one piece to
prevent the smoke from escaping at the joints. Glue down the edges
inside of the case, and set it aside for 24 hours to dry.
While waiting for the case to dry, the work on the bag can be done.
Two yards of close-woven white muslin, or one yard of 60-in.
sheeting, is required for the front. For the sides, closely woven black
material should be used. Figures 1 and 2 show the dimensions, the
white portions representing patterns, and the shaded portions
material for hems and seams. The material is folded over the