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Demissie Belayneh
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MA THESIS BY
MAY, 2008
ADDIS ABABA
i
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
MA THESIS BY
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to my
advisor Dr. Debela Demeke for his constructive and invaluable comments in the course
of this thesis work. He spent a great deal of his precious time in reviewing and editing the
manuscript and the intellectual guidance he rendered me from the start to finish.
My sincere gratitude also extends to Haramaya University, my home base, and Addis
Ababa University, College of Development Studies. The former for giving me a study
leave, and the later, for covering the cost of my thesis work. I duly thank the two
institutions.
Words can not express my deepest gratitude to my intimate friends, Kumela Gudeta and
Ephrem Fufa for their unreserved co-operation and guidance during data processing from
data entry to analysis. Guys, your support and friendliness is a vital source of morale
backing to my overall effort to accomplish this study. I thank you both indiscriminately.
Last but not least, I extend special gratitude and appreciations to all staff of the
Geography and History department in Haramaya University for their kind support during
the course of my study. Above all, Mohammed Hassan of History department for his
never- to- be- mentioned encouragement and accommodation.
Above all, I extend special indebtedness and gratitude to my father, brothers and sisters,
all of them, for their morale and material support in my academic career as a whole.
iii
ACRONNYMS
Crescent Society
NS Not Significant
SD Standard Deviation
SE Standard Error
WC water conservation
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
ACRONNYMS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- v
LIST OF TABLES----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vii
LIST OF FIGURES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ix
LIST OF PLATES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ix
ABSTRACT ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------x
v
3.4.2 Hypothesis and Definition of variables ------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
vi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 5. 6 AVERAGE LAND UNDER IRRIGATION FOR GROUP ONE AND GROUP TWO FOR
THREE YEARS (I.E. 2005, 2006 AND 2007)................................................................... 62
TABLE 5. 9 T-TEST FOR THE MEAN DIFFERENCES IN PRODUCTION PER TIMAD FOR VARIOUS
CROPS OVER THREE YEARS (2005, 2006, AND 2007). .................................................. 68
TABLE 5. 10 TWO GROUP COMPARISON OF CROP PRODUCTION PER TIMAD FOR THREE YEARS
(2005, 2006 AND 2007). .............................................................................................. 70
vii
TABLE 5. 11 TRENDS IN HOUSEHOLD’S INCOME AS PERCEIVED BY HOUSEHOLD HEAD OVER
THE PAST THREE YEARS ............................................................................................... 72
TABLE 5. 12 CAUSES OF INCOME DECREASE OVER THE PAST THREE YEARS (2005, 2006 AND
2007) AS PERCEIVED BY THE HOUSEHOLD HEADS ....................................................... 72
TABLE 5. 13 PERCEIVED TRENDS OF INCOME BY GROUP OVER PAST THREE YEARS (I.E., 2005,
2006 AND 2007). ......................................................................................................... 73
TABLE 5. 14 PERCEIVED CAUSES OF DECLINE IN HOUSEHOLDS’ INCOME OVER THE PAST
THREE YEARS (I.E. 2005, 2006 AND 2007) BY GROUP .................................................. 75
TABLE 5. 20 CROSS- TABULATION OF CHILD LABOR USE AND SCHOOL DROPOUT IN 2007 .. 87
TABLE 5. 21 PARAMETER ESTIMATES OF A LOGISTIC MODEL OF FACTORS AFFECTING
HOUSEHOLDS’ PARTICIPATION IN WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES......................... 91
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
5.1 The wilted chat farm near the shore of former lake
5.2 Irrigation farming using underground water.
5.3 A vast field that once comprised Lake Haramaya.
5.4 Underground water bore hole.
ix
ABSTRACT
The way human actions reshape the environment pose a new cycle of mutual determination
between the way people create and re-create their livelihoods against changes in their
environment. This must be analyzed interms of changes not only in their ecology but also in
the emerging new social dynamics. In line with this assertion, this study examines the socio-
economic and livelihood impacts of the disappearance of Lake Haramaya on the
surrounding rural households and the households’ responses to such environmental
catastrophe. Thus, the basic data used for the analysis were generated from 159 sample
households through interviews and focus group discussions. Descriptive and bivariate
methods of analysis were employed over time series data (i.e. 2005, 2006 and 2007).
Result of the impact analysis revealed that the disappearance of the lake had resulted in the
loss of direct utilities the households used to generate from the lake. These include loss of
water for livestock feeding, water for domestic consumption, irrigation and recreation.
Besides, two direct livelihood sources, fishing and ferry renting, were lost along with the
lake. The indirect impacts of the dry-up of the lake were manifested in conflict over water
use, decrease in land under irrigation, and thus decline in production of chat and vegetables
which were cultivated by irrigation. All these ultimately caused decrease in household’s
income.
Investigation into households’ response to water scarcity that was induced by the
disappearance of the lake demonstrated that the main response to such shortfall was
reclamation of underground water from previous bed of the lake. In addition, rain water
harvesting is also a prevalent responsive measure among the households. However, as water
table is continuously dropping and subsequent surge in the cost of digging water borehole,
underground water is presently an option for those ‘resource rich’ households. On the other
hand, this situation forced some households to use child labor which in turn resulted in
school dropout.
x
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study
Although more than two-thirds of the planet is covered with water, less
than 0.01 percent is readily accessible for direct human use (United
freshwater now than what existed at the dawn of human civilization (ibid,
which it grows help determine the onset and severity of water scarcity.
nearly half a billion people are affected by water stress or serious water
scarcity. Besides, many countries that face water scarcity are low income
Nations, 2001)
1
Part of the water scarcity is explained by the very nature of the resource
and the technologies (T) by which the resources are used. At regional
al, 1996)
the other times disastrous for different people in different part of the
and adds more agricultural lands for countries located in those latitudes.
On the other hand, the same phenomenon increases heat and water
2
stress to substantially lower cropland yields and hamper the well being
of those countries located nearer to the equator. Thus, food supply crisis
and economic impacts tend to be severe for tropical countries who are
and standard of living (Meyer et al, 1996). A striking example for this is
the shrinkage by half of the large inland Aral Sea in central Asia due to
local people that eventually caused large out migration of people form the
The lessons from such studies imply that there exist large regions and
3
Haramaya on the surrounding people living in Haramaya Woreda1. The
study had two phases; (a) an impact analysis of the dead lake is
group discussions and review of secondary data; and (b), responses and
and rivers. Around the world, such water shortages have resulted in
economic and legal conflicts. At the local level, it has incurred social,
economic and livelihood costs, especially for most rural people living in
Lake Haramaya, which is now literally dead. It used to provide all the
4
some people were using it for irrigation and fishing. However, in the late
2005, the vast lake that comprised Haramaya (the main), Adele and
Langay suddenly dried up. The previous services and benefits they were
rendering to the people were also lost along with the lakes. For the
towns and institutions, the option has been confined to the underground
Aral Sea where the living conditions of the nearby population have been
destroyed (Meyer et al, 1996; postel, 1996). Lessons from these studies
environmental goods and services but also in its impact on the ability to
the overall adaptive capacity of societies. This problem, arising from the
5
Successful adaptation to natural resource depletion may be possible as
these could only be long term considerations while the short and
lake (e.g. Chalachew, 2004; Shibiru, 2002; Solomon, 2002). But none of
the point of view of livelihood frame work. The study exposes changes in
services of the lake. Besides, the study also investigates local responses
6
and identifies opportunities and challenges to such responses and
adaptation.
General objective
shock.
Specific objectives
“future without limits” and “future with limit”. In other words, the result
7
of this study brings to light how human activities influence the bio-
further remedy. On the other hand, the study discerns the unsustainable
both at the study site and elsewhere where there are identical problems.
development. Thus the outputs of this study would help in this regard.
Fourthly, the findings of this study can serve as a good input for
8
1.5 Delimitation of the study
the livelihood aspects of the rural households. Other aspects of the wider
impacts of the dryup of the lake are not considered in the study.
which was induced by the nature of the problem under investigation and
data sets.
Firstly, in line with the objectives of the study, time series data were
9
variables that were hypothesized to have profound influence upon
of the lake. Therefore the whole range of all determinant variables that
significance of the study .Presented in this part are also delimitation and
10
The fourth chapter provides description of the study area and the study
tables.
Chapter five provides results and discussion of the study. This is the
main body of the paper which presents results of data analysis and its
CHAPTER TWO
11
because no society or community so far has managed to be a fully self-
these components will induce changes with respect to the others. Within
scarcity of one or more of its key resources. This will induce adaptation
12
Changes in technology, organization and culture thus are seen as derived
flux is the normal sate of affairs with regard to the environment (Miller,
are interconnected and interdependent but each ecosystem has its own
13
own sources of change apart from being embedded in ecosystems.
of natural, human and cultural assets. In other words, resources are not
static but expand and contract in response to human wants and human
actions.
one type of environmental change there are gainers and losers. Thirdly,
14
system with biophysical system, degradation or depletion of
changes.
Janeiro that actions should not wait until scientific evidence is in place,
should not be an excuse for postponing actions that are justified in their
own light. The precautionary approach could provide a basis for policies
relating to complex systems that are not yet fully understood and whose
15
In the following section, a brief review of the human consequences of
The Aral region includes the Aal Sea Basin; the basins of the Syrdarya,
rivers running from the West Tien Shan and areas between the rivers
In the early 1960s, the former USSR government decided to begin large
productions, and boost meat and rice production to feed the growing
population. The new large scale irrigation and the application of chemical
(Postel, 1996).
The total area of the sea decreased from 67,000 to 41,000 Km2 while the
water levels in the rivers and in the sea have caused intensive
desertification of coastal and delta areas. Besides, the climate in the Aral
16
plant species were endangered. Because of the shrinkage of the water of
the sea, the former coastal port cities became inland, and a large number
child mortality rate, which in some areas exceeded 110 per 1000.
population and a significant decline in cotton crop yield and fishing, was
perception and response and, in one way or another, they all address
social and political forces (Tobin et al, 1997). These approaches are,
17
differently. Thus discussion of the various approaches will help to
the benefits out weigh the cost of taking responsive measures, then this
explain the decisions of most individuals and certainly could not account
18
environmental change and resource scarcity. Here, researchers have
disaster victims have been surveyed to establish what they actually did
specific shock and threats and their behavior can be related to the
potential victims directly (in part because the event has not yet to occur)
problem is that individual does not always do what they say to do. This
they also point out that our understanding of these choice processes
(and hence behavior) is far from clear and might depend on socio-
19
that individuals assess all potential outcomes in a set of order to
scarcity
20
economy than any other factors (e.g. Susman et al, 1983). They argue
all individuals are equally vulnerable but rather that different classes,
are generally more vulnerable than the rich; their behavior is likely to be
different and recovery for this group is usually very different (IFRCRCS,
1993).
which some are less powerful than others; while still a part of the
change is severe and recovery is slower for the poor than the rich.
21
2.4.2 Empirical Considerations
environmental change could have four response options: modify the loss
environmental stress.
At the secondary or group level, other factors come into play (and affect
(Russel et al, 1991; Solomon, et al, 1987). For example it has been
22
suggested that in habitants of homogenous neighborhood have greater
(Ollenburger, 1981).
the value set and livelihood importance of the resource varies between
the two communities (Burton, et al, 1993; white, 1974). Scale may also
demand on those resources are many and varied and hence response
resource scarcity, people adopt various strategies that range from long-
strategy includes search for other forms of livelihood sourcing (e.g. off-
23
sedentary farming. The short-term response could be conservation of the
make preparations to respond to its scarcity than those that did not
likely to apply the same on their farm yard. The same source also
the resources at their disposal but also give wider options to choose
from.
disposal. Household size, labor- land ratio, land size, tenure security,
24
access to off-term income, policies and laws are few to mention (Dejene,
Studies have shown that households with small land holdings are more
other land resources. Thus shortage of arable land may force households
wealth and prestige. Households with large land size have thus adequate
practices
(Bekele and Holden, 1998; Bekele and Lars, 2002). The same literature
also shows that household labor size is negatively correlated with the
being constant, large household size have large labor supply but they are
food insecure in most cases. Thus to ensure food security, they rush to
25
other income generating activities drawing labor away from investment in
conservation of resources.
others hold this hypothesis positively and argue that households with
techniques than those with low income (Bekele and Lars, 2002)
both direct and induced impacts upon the livelihood and institutional
26
wellbeing of the surrounding community. For the community to ensure
direct and induced impact include availability of off farm income, size of
household response are credit supply, fertilizer use, tenure security and
measures such as search for off farm income, land intensification, out-
migration etc.
27
SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND POLICY
INTERVENTION
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
(Dryup of Lake Haramaya)
IMPACT
CONTROL IMPACT
-CONSERVATION MEASURES MITIGATIO
-NONCONSERVATION MEASURES N
28
institutional and demographic factors in the existing exogenous
practices and control the unsustainable ones call for policy interventions.
Conversely, the existing policy frame work may shape the households
29
CHAPTER THREE
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
design. Survey data were collected using personal interviews and focus
group comparison and time series analysis of the sample statistics of the
households located close to the lake and those located far away. On the
the lake was explored through data generated from the households
located close to the lake as the impact is more clearly exhibited for these
households than the group located far away from the lake. The
30
harvesting or both) as a response to the dryup of the lake was
For the sake of simplicity, households located close to the lake are
away from the lake are called ‘control group’. Thus it should be noted
that these references do not mean the actual experimental and ‘control
A. Primary Data: These were collected via household survey and focus
31
conducted. One is with the male elders in the sample Kebeles 2. The
other was with female housewives, and the third was with agricultural
water resources in the study area. These were collected from regional,
the worst case scenario. Thus, under these assumptions, the required
n= p (1-p) Z /e²
Where: n= size of the sample
P= estimate of the population proportion affected by the
disappearance of the lake.
Z= the standard normal valve of the desired confidence level
= area under the normal curve to the left of Z
e = the maximum acceptable error margin (Hammond, 1978)
32
Thus, the sample size determined under this procedure was found to be
A two stage sampling method was used to draw the sample households
for the study. Firstly, the entire rural kebeles of Haramaya District were
divided into two strata, with rural kebeles bordering the lake basin
differentiated from those that do not. Later, one rural kebele was selected
randomly from each stratum. Thus Tuji-gabissa Kebele was selected for
the stratum that borders the lake while Ifa-batee kebele was selected for
The random assignment of these 200 samples to each kebele was decided
kebele.This sample size makes 17.26 percent of the overall total number
The sample frame that constituted the names of the household heads in
each kebele was obtained from their respective kebele office and random
33
numbers were assigned to each of them for selection. After random
the end, the interviewers were able to access 99 households for Tuji-
household heads were not present during the days of field survey. At the
Following the completion of data collection, data were cleaned, coded and
entered into SPSS 15.0 software programme for analysis. The specific
34
Descriptive statistics and t-test were used to assess and investigate
attributes lost due to the dryup of the lake in inter-group and time series
comparison of means over three years. This was hoped to provide insight
dryup of the lake was made using chi-square and logistic regression.
Here the assumption was that households responded to the dryup of the
analysis.
continuous or both).
35
Due to their proximity to the lake, analysis of household's
the lake is more relevant for the ‘experimental group’ than for ‘control
were used for analysis only for the 99 households that belong to
‘experimental group’.
quantitative approach.
practice is logistic regression model. The model was used to estimate the
that takes either of the two values of Y=1 for implementation and Y=0 for
presented below.
36
According to Gujrati (1988) and Hosmer and Lemeshow (1989), the
1
Pi Z
1 e i
expressed as:
Z i 0 1 X 1 2 X 2 m X m
0 i
Where is the constant and are the coefficient parameters in the
model. The coefficients tell how the log-odds in favor of using water
unit.
water conservation is 1 and 0 if the household did not. Thus a chance for
37
it another way, the model identifies the contribution of each independent
and 1.
Explanatory variables
With age, a farmer may get experience about his/her farm and can react
38
Literacy Status: -. Literacy status of the household head was assumed
required for conservation measures and also they are risk takers than
of conservation measures.
39
Participation in Credit: - Since credit service enables household to
practices.
that had perceived the inevitability of the disappearance of the lake could
measures more likely than those that did not have such perception.
40
Table 3. 1 Definitions of Variables
Independent variables
AGE Whether the Age of the household head above or
below the median age (38 years); 1 if above the
median and 0 if below the median
HOUSEHOLD SIZE Number of persons in the household
LITERACY STATUS Literacy status of the household head; 1if
literate and 0 otherwise
LAND SIZE size of landholding in timad3
OFFINCOM Whether a household is engaged in off-farm
employment; 1 if a farmer has off-farm
employment and 0 otherwise
ACCESS TO CREDIT Whether a household has access to credit; 1 if
has access to credit and 0 otherwise
FERTILIZER USE Whether a household uses fertilizer or not; 1 if
he/she uses fertilizer and 0 otherwise
PERCEIVE Whether a household anticipated the
disappearance of the lake; 1 if household had
anticipated and 0 otherwise
PARTICIPATION IN CRM Whether a household participated in CRM; 1if a
household participated and 0 otherwise
Source: Author’s own construction
41
CHAPTER FOUR
90 351 North latitude and 410 511- 420- 041 East longitude. Haramaya
districts; in the north and northwest by rural Dire Dawa and Kombolcha.
The district has the total area of 550 km2 and comprises three smaller
towns; namely Haramaya (the main town), Adele and Bate. In addition,
as the dominant cash crop is chat4 (Shibiru, 2002). The district is also
4 A plant with a mild stimulant leaves commonly used in East African highlands and
Arabian Peninsula
42
noted for its rich fresh water resource. Before its disappearance Lake
recreation, etc. to the people of the district and surrounding towns and
43
a) Climate
ranges gave the district Dega5 and Woinadega6 agro-ecological zones. The
16.90c. The dry season, with relatively less than 30 mm of rain fall per
month, extends from October to February. The main autumn rain occurs
from September to November while the smaller spring rain occurs from
March to May.
The present land forms that shaped Haramaya district are the product of
the late geologic activities and processes of Mesozoic era coupled with
Cenozoic events. Thus the layers of sedimentary deposits here and there
in the eastern high land of the country including Haramaya are products
extent mica schist are particularly exposed on the surface through out
(Tamire, 1980 cited in Chalachew, 2004). There are five major types of
5 The traditional agro ecological zone for areas lying between 2300-3300m.a.s.l
6 The traditional agro ecological zone for areas lying between 1500-2300m.a.s.l
44
Fluvisols and Vertisols. The Regosols are the dominant in the catchments
while Cambisols cover larger areas around the lake from the southwest of
c) Resource base
called Lake Haramaya from which the district got its name. Lake
the area narrate that these three lakes were once adjoined as a single
demonstrate that the main lake among these three parts of Lake
Haramaya had the surface area of 4.13 km2 in 1965. In 1996, it shrunk
pressure, while still others blame climate change. The debate still goes
on but one thing is real: the lake has gone. Therefore, a repercussion of
45
4.1.2 Socio- demographic profile
a) Age-sex composition
percent) of this population. The sex ratio was 104 males for every 100
b) Ethnic composition
The dominant ethnic group of the district is the Oromo which make 9
Guraghe take third position by 0.36 percent while Harari make 0.16
c) Religious Composition
46
4.2.1 Demographic characteristics of sample households
The mean age of sample households is 40.34 years whereas the median
age is 35 years. This means 50 percent of the households are aged below
35 years old while the remainder 50 percent is above 35 years old. Table
years (active age group) make 92.6 percent. Of these, male households
make up 82.5 percent while the remaining 17.5 percent are female
47
b) Marital status of the sampled household heads
respondents were married. Analysis of the same data indicate that 97.5
Household size of the sample population has been indicated on table 4.3
hand, 13.2 percent of the households have three and less members.
Household size group of 4-6 make the largest proportion (59.7 percent) of
the sample population. This implies that nearly 76.8 percent of rural
48
Table 4. 3 Household size of the sample households
Household size N percent
1-3 21 13.2
4-6 95 59.7
7-9 33 20.8
Greater than 10 10 6.3
Total 159 100.00
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
years and above. As indicated on table 4.4, households with labor force
Literacy status, land holding, labor force size and off-farm income
As the study was conducted in rural part of the country majority of the
percent can read, or read and write (see table 4.5 below)
49
Table 4. 5 Literacy status of the sample households
Literacy status of the respondents N percent
Illiterate 113 71.1
Read and write 41 25.8
Read only 5 3.1
Write only 0 0
Total 159 100.00
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
b) Land size
The land holding of households in the study area ranges from one timad
to twelve timads with the average holding of 3.29 timads per household
whereas the median holding is 3 timads. Table 4.5 below shows the
44.7 percent of the house holds own land size less than or equal to two
50
remaining 29.2 percent of the households had labor- land ratio of greater
than 2.
d) Off-farm income
of the lake. To this end, respondents were asked whether they had
51
Table 4. 8 Percentage distribution of the sample households by Off-farm
income
52
CHAPTER FIVE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter is broken down into four major components. The first part
provides the description of the direct utilities that the sample households
used to obtain from the lake. The second part provides an in-depth
However, attempts have been made to record and document the services
Table 5.1 overleaf presents the services that the sample households used
to obtain from the lake before its disappearance. Accordingly, the largest
53
percent of the cases) used the lake as a source of water for drinking while
21.9 percent of the responses and 61.6 percent of the cases reported to
had been using the lake for watering their livestock. Besides, 21.7
percent of the responses and 61 percent of the cases responded that they
had been using the lake as a source of water for irrigation. Table 5.1 also
indicates that 18.8 percent of the responses and 52.8 percent of the
cases reported to had been using the lake as a source of direct livelihood
During the actual data collection in the field, respondents were asked to
report the services that are measurable. Hence the amounts of water for
drinking in Jerry can8, income (in Birr per month) from ferry renting and
7 A multiple response question; a respondent may provide amore than one response for
the question asked for .In the pages that follows also, if the percentage are grater than
100,it is of a multiple response question.
8 A plastic water container that holds 20 liters
54
Table 5. 2 Reported quantities of utilities and incomes from Lake Haramaya before its
disappearance
Utilities N Mean SD
Water for drinking (in Jerry can) 113 3.9 1.7
Income from fishing (Birr/month) 17 220.4 50.4
Income from Ferry renting (Birr/month ) 38 264.2 26.8
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
As can be seen from table 5.1 and table 5.2, out of the 46 households
that reported to have been fishing from the lake, only 17 households
domestic consumption.
asked to explain the benefits they used to obtain from the lake, the
So the above discussions and narratives clearly show that the sudden
55
there have been many induced impacts discussed in the proceeding
section.
induced socio-economic impacts could set in. Varies literature reveal that
especially in the rural households of the Third World and elsewhere (e.g.
goods.
In this section the induced impacts of the change upon the livelihood of
the frequency of the incidents of conflict with other household heads over
56
presents frequencies of conflict by resource type over three years (i.e.
Conflict over water use showed steady increase from 3.1 percent in 2005
the lake had dried up. To further elaborate this argument chat is the
time when the lake was in existence, this supply was sustained by the
withdrawal of water from the lake to irrigate chat. It was learned from
57
focus group discussion that during the times when the lake was there,
households near the lake and those on the upper catchments irrigate
their farm through relay of motor pumps that pump water to far away
farms. However, when the lake dried up, those near the lake began
digging water bore holes on the former floor of the lake. This time, those
insufficient, and the water table is dropping sharply. This is the source of
On the other hand, the conflict is not limited between farmers alone. It
goes far beyond. When asked to explain causes of conflict over water use,
All our problems are rooted to the urban dwellers. They used up
the water of the lake freely for decades. And now the lake has
dried up. They have now turned to underground water. The level of
water in bore holes on which we depend for irrigation and drinking
is falling from day-to-day. We don't have shops and business
enterprises as they do. Our life is tied merely to farming…
In fact, Lake Haramaya was the source of water supply for residents of
Harar city. When the lake disappeared, the Harari Water and Sewerage
Authority had dug numerous water bore holes to supply water to city's
the water pipes to Harar city and use the water for irrigation. There were
even legal interventions to such acts where farmers are still in Jail. This
58
contentious scenario can be supplemented by a report on the weekly
farmers was accused of sabotaging water pipes which are the city's
(Harar) main water source, breaking connections and siphoning off the
escaping water for irrigation purposes. A few of the farmers are still in
jail …" (Fortune March 30, 2008; 54). Therefore, the conflict and
communities was the provision water for irrigation to produce chat and
this section of the paper, impact of the disappearance of the lake on the
analysis of change in mean land size under irrigation for the total 159
households over three years (2005, 2006 and 2007) is examined. This is
insight into the impact of the disappearance of the lake on land under
irrigation.
of their landholding under irrigation for the three consecutive years (i.e.
59
in 2005, in 2006 and in 2007). The result was a dramatic decline in the
mean land size under irrigation from 2005 to 2007. Table 5.4 below
presents the mean land size under irrigation from 2005 to 2007 for 159
sample households. As can be seen from the table, the average land size
0.7830 timad for the year 2006. This indicates a decrease by 0.4403
Table 5.4 shows all lands under irrigation cover irrespective of water
sources that was used for irrigation. In other words, households may
irrigate their land using water of the lake (before and during 2005) or
the mean of 2005 and that of 2006. On the contrary, the mean difference
60
Statistical significance of these mean differences was justified by using t-
test. Thus the mean difference of the irrigated land for 2005 and 2006
where as that of 2006 and 2007 was statistically insignificant (see Table
irrigated land in 2005 and in 2006. On the contrary, the mean land size
This glaring difference of the average irrigated land size in 2005 and the
proceeding years (i.e. 2006 and 2007) requires further scrutiny and
the water of the lake for irrigation purpose declines with the distance of
households’ location from the nearest shore of the lake. Thus the
averages size of land under irrigation for households located near the
shore of the lake (‘experimental group’) were compared with that of those
located far away (‘control group’) over the three years (2005, 2006 and
61
2007). This comparison between the two groups would help to infer how
mean land size under irrigation. In addition it also helps to show how the
lake was prominent source of water for irrigation for the ‘experimental
group’ than the ‘control group’. Table 5.6 below shows the mean area of
farmland under irrigation for these two groups for three years (i.e. 2005,
Table 5. 6 Average land under irrigation for group one and group
two for three years (i.e. 2005, 2006 and 2007)
The average size of farmland under irrigation in 2005, 2006 and 2007 for
respectively. This shows that there was a decline in mean land size
attributed to the dryup of the lake. On the other hand the mean
which is not as large as that of 2005 and 2006 mean difference. This is
because the lake had already dried up in the late 2005. So the mean
62
to use underground water or rain water harvesting as the lake has
By comparison, the mean land area under irrigation for ‘control group’
was 0.4625, 0.45 and 0.45timad in 2005, 2006 and 2007, respectively.
(2.7percent) decrease for the year 2005 and 2006 and no change for
between 2005 and 2006, the figure is very minute in comparison to mean
differences of the ‘experimental group’ for the same period. This result
show that the degree of decline in land under irrigation for the
‘experimental group’ could have show up in ‘control group’ had the cause
for the decline be attributed to any other factors other than the
Further statistical test for these mean differences supplement the above
argument in that the mean difference in land area under irrigation for
insignificant for ‘control group’ (see Table 5.7 overleaf). This significant
concerned.
63
Table 5. 7 t-tests for mean difference in land under irrigation for
‘experimental’ and ‘control’ groups by years (2005, 2006 and 2007)
significant
Table 5.7 also shows that the mean difference of irrigated farmland for
‘experimental group’ but not significant for ‘control group’ for the same
period. Although the lake had dried up in late 2005, those households
located too close to the lake shore can still use the remaining
So, all the above analysis and discussions in group as well as time series
land under irrigation (in group as well as time series comparisons), the
64
same procedures and logic is employed to investigate the impact of the
Plate.5.1 The wilted Chat farm near the shore of former lake
Table 5.8 below presents the average production per timad of the main
crop type produced by households over the three years. Chat production
production per timad in 2005. The other crop type that showed sharp
decline next to chat for the same period was vegetable 9 production which
decreased by 15.1 percent for the same period. Investigation during field
65
survey revealed that these two groups of crops were produced mainly by
irrigation during dry seasons, though they are also produced by rain fed
agriculture. Given the very means of their production, these two groups
Table 5. 8 Percentage increase (decrease of crop production per timad over three years (2005, 2006
and 2007)
Production Percentage
Crop type Year per timad Mean SD
difference
from
preceding Yr
Sorghum (in 2005 2,7456 __ __
quintal10/timad) 2006 2,7118 -1.1 2.60168
2007 2,7162 +0.2 3.6235
Maize (in quintal/timad) 2005 2,2696 __ __
2006 2,3913 +5 4.223
2007 2,4394 +6 6.162
Chat (in kg/timad) 2005 129,9904 __ __
2006 108,4353 -16.6 24.6312
2007 106,1343 _1.5 20.412
Vegetable (in kg/timad) 2005 300,0347 __ __
2006 254,7222 -15.1 60.8715
2007 248,444 -2.5 64.512
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
Table 5.8 also shows comparisons for various rain fed crops over the
period of three years whose mean differences were not only varying but
also showed less significant variation in production over the said period.
66
differences of these two crops showed varying trend. For instance, mean
percent while for 2006 and 2007 it increased by 0.2 percent. On the
other extreme, comparison for maize showed steady increase from 2005
the lake.
Percentage decreases for chat and vegetable, on the other hand, was
between mean production per timad and the disappearance of the lake.
67
But for years 2006 and 2007 the mean difference was by small margin as
mean differences. Thus table 5.9 below presents a paired sample mean
test of each crop over the three years. It shows that the mean production
per timad for chat and vegetable between 2005 and 2006 is significantly
Table 5.9 also shows that the t-value of sorghum production for the year
68
intercropped on the same farmland with chat. Thus, irrigating chat would
chat prior to 2006. Therefore, after the disappearance of the lake, the
impact on production per timad was felt not only on chat and vegetable
maize production, however, the mean difference for the three years is
farming.
access to the lake and those that had limited access. Therefore, two
such analysis.
Table 5.10 presents the mean production per timad for various crops
over the three years (i.e., 2005, 2006 and 2007) for ‘experimental’ and
69
declines for chat and vegetable was much greater between 2005 and
Table 5.10 Two group comparison of crop production per timad for three
years (2005, 2006 and 2007).
Crop ‘experimental group’ ( N=99) ‘control group’ (N = 60)
Year Mean Percentage t- Sign. Mean Percentage t- Sign.
Mean value Mean value
difference difference
Sorghum 05 2.82 __ __ __ 2.61 __ __ __
06 2.78 -1.4 2.46 .016** 2.60 -0.38 1.00 .322
07 2.79 +0.35 -2.68 .01*** 2.59 -0.38 1.00 .326
Maize 05 2.03 __ __ __ 2.62 __ __ __
06 2.24 +10.3 -1.52 .135 2.65 +1.15 1.00 .324
07 2.17 -3.1 1.00 .322 2.72 +2.64 -.283 .779
Chat 05 153.31 __ __ __ 88.48 __ __ __
06 120.05 -21.7 17.04 .00*** 87.76 -0.81 .258 .798
07 116.92 -2.6 1.14 .256 88.03 +0.31 1.143 .258
Vegetable 05 332.68 __ __ __ 202.08 __ __ __
06 290.46 -12.7 4.55 0.00*** 196.36 -2.83 1.42 .256
07 262.93 -9.5 6.67 0.00*** 190.41 -3.03 1.00 .325
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
NOTE: *** show significant at 1percent, ** Show significant at 5percent
Note:- Percentage mean differences indicate differences in the means of two
consecutive years taking the preceding year as a base, and +/- sign show increase or
decrease.
-Unit of measurement for Sorghum and Maize is quintal/timad while that of chat and
Vegetable is kg/timad
crop production over the three years are statistically significant only for
lake had declined crop production for those that had close location to the
lake. Secondly, vegetable production for gross means for 2006 and 2007
was insignificant. (See Table 5.9) for gross comparison but significant for
70
The overall examination of the two groups shows that there is significant
for every crop in all the years, none of these were statistically significant.
So by the same token, those variations in the mean production that were
group approach revealed one fact; that is, in both cases chat and
In nut shell, all the above analysis that incorporate comparisons by time
series, crop types and group, regarding crop production per timad give a
clear insight into the impact of the disappearance of the lake upon crop
71
5.2.4 Perceived impact on household’s income
During the field survey, households were requested to report their own
evaluation on trends in their income over the past three years. The result
their income as decreasing while 5.7 percent responded that their income
decline in their incomes over the said period. Hence, responses of the
presented on table 5.12 below. The main perceived cause of the decline
in their incomes is high cost of farm input (i.e., 46.3 percent of the
responses and 64.2 percent of the cases). The second cause is lack of
water for irrigation (i.e., 43.5 percent of the responses and 61.3 percent
Table 5. 12 Causes of income decrease over the past three years (2005, 2006 and 2007) as
perceived by the household heads
Percent
Causes Number Responses Cases
High cost of farm input 95 46.3 64.2
72
Lack of water for irrigation 89 43.5 61.3
Low market price for farm produces 16 7.8 10.8
Large family size 5 2.4 3.4
Total 205 100.00 139.7
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
To take the analysis one step further, responses on income trend over
the said period as well as the perceived reasons for decline in income is
groups).
N percent N perce
nt
Increasing 5 5.1 4 6.7
Decreasing 94 94.9 54 90
No change 0 0 2 3.3
Total 99 100 60 100
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008
Table 5.13 shows that only 5.1 percent of the respondents from
period while the figure is 6.7 percent for ‘control group’. On the other
‘control group’. Here, the point to ponder is that ‘control group’ is better
off both in increasing response trend of income (i.e., 6.7 percent) and in
73
proportion of respondents who reported no change in their income over
the said period (i.e., 3.3 percent). Therefore, ‘experimental group’, which
had greater accessibility to the lake before it dried up, perceive their
Further investigation was made between the two groups regarding the
involved. This was done in the hope of showing the impact of the dryup
frequencies of the responses and cases. Thus, Table 5.14 overleaf shows
The major perceive cause of decline in income over the past three years
for ‘experimental group’ is the lack of water for irrigation (i.e., 50 percent
of the responses and 73.4 percent of the cases). This is followed by high
cost of farm input (i.e., 42 percent of the responses and 61.7 percent of
the cases).
On the contrary, the result for ‘control group’ is the reverse of the former
group. In other words, the main perceived cause of income decline for
this group is high cost of farm inputs (i.e., 55.2 percent of the responses
74
and 68.5 percent of the cases) while the second cause is lack of water for
irrigation (i.e. 29.8 percent of the responses and 37 percent of the cases).
75
5.3 Household responses to disappearance of the lake
of the lake are presented with in-depth analysis. In this regard water
adaptive actions (Tobin and Montz, 1997). In line with this argument,
the lake before its disappearance. This was sought through their
responses to the question whether or not she/he had ever imagined Lake
(17.6 percent) had a perception that the lake would dryup one day while
131 households (82.4 percent) had never ever thought Lake Haramaya
would dryup.
76
Asked whether they were shocked by the disappearance of the lake, 78.4
percent of the households responded that they were ‘very shocked’ while
20.1 percent responded that they ‘were shocked’ and 1.5 percent (8
But it is almost impossible to measure the degree of shock for some one
who knew Haramaya in the past and came recently to find a once vast
lake now transformed into just a vast field. This story takes us to what
eight years ago. After spending eight years in USA, Chala Ahmed came
77
Plate 5.3.A vast field that once comprised Lake Haramaya
report on the measures they were using to satisfy their water demands
during and after the lake had disappeared. The results are presented in
78
Accordingly, only 24 household (15.1 percent) of the total sampled
water harvesting during 2005. However, after the lake had dried up, in
From Table 5.15, one can infer that there is a steady and abrupt increase
79
harvesting is becoming an important practice to rely on as underground
Inter- group analysis was made to provide much clearer pictures of such
80
Comparison of the two groups with regard to water conservation and
utilization practices, one can ponder intriguing points from Table 5.16.
the major practice to meet their water demand while for ‘control group’
rain water harvesting is the reliable and consistent practice. The sharp
2005 to 2007 signaling the resultant drop in water table and associated
two groups over the years, though the percentages are larger for ‘control
81
group’. This shows that with continuously dropping water table and
and rain water harvesting will become the major practice by both groups
underground water from the very ground that used to be lake bed. And
as the later is becoming more costly and scarce with declining water
With sudden disappearance of the lake, severe shortage of water set in.
vegetables, which in turn caused soaring prices of chat that has doubled
It was learned from group discussion that water for irrigating chat farm
this scarcity by drilling water bore hole further deep. There is parallel
increase in the cost drilling as well as fuel for water pumping generators.
82
Therefore, this situation has led poorer farmers to search for credit (both
households have had credit of any form in 2007, however, the figure for
fertilizer use had shown inconsistent trend, being 62.9 percent in 2007
that associated this trend with high cost of inputs and lucrative chat
prices.
83
Table 5.18 shows the results of household’s participation in credit by
On the hand the result for ‘control group’ reveals inconsistent trend (i.e.
respectively.
price of chat has some grain of truth. This is because in the analysis of
84
reveals that greater percentage of households in ‘experimental group’ (i.e.
water withdrawal (see Table 5.16). Thus there is a good reason to believe
presented in Table 5.19 below. Thus percentage comparison for the three
years in off- farm activities did not show consistent trend of variation. In
in off- farm income generation activities while the figure for 2006 had
85
So there seem no clear variations in off- farm income generation by the
households that could be attributed to the dryup of the lake. Like wise,
On the other end of the analysis, intents of the household to use child
children below ten years old were engaged in any farm activities. Hence
21 households (i.e. 13.2 percent) agreed that they do let children of that
dropout. Table 5.20 presents cross- tabulation of the two variables. The
percent confidence level) between child labor use and school dropout.
86
Table 5. 20 Cross- tabulation of child labor use and school dropout in 2007
groups indicate that ‘experimental group’ use child labor for farm
Similarly, percentages for school dropout also confirm the above finding
while only 2 belong to ‘control group’. From these glaring differences one
87
Plate 5.6 Children working on underground water bore holes
(1992) that environmental goods scarcity has vital bearing on child labor
88
5.4 Determinants of Household's Participation in Water
Conservation Measures
scarcity that was set following the disappearance of the lake. These
factors are Age, literacy status, Household size, land size, off-farm
management.
The variables included in the model were tested for the existence of
continuous variables.
89
With highly significant model chi-square statistics ( 2 ) = 43.45 value
(with 9 degrees of freedom) and a -44.2 log likelihood ratio, the model
respectively.
Among the factors considered in the model, eight variables were found to
towards the dryup of lake. On the other hand, fertilizer use and
90
Table 5. 21 Parameter estimates of a Logistic Model of factors affecting
households’ participation in water conservation measures
Model 2 43.45***
91
In the proceeding section the result of the logistic model for each variable
heads have the physical strength that may favor their participation in
among participant households 52.5 percent were aged above median age
while 48.5 percent were aged below the median age of the ‘experimental
The result of logistic regression revealed that age of the household head
92
conservation measures by household heads aged above the median age
attributed to their long age experience and asset they have built over
The result of logistic regression model disclosed that household size has
attributed to the fact that large sized households have the obligation to
93
production that, in turn, calls for water conservation activities. Besides,
such households would have surplus labor that could be used as input
illiterate counterparts
94
5.4.4 Land size versus participation in water conservation activities
Land is a very important asset and source of prestige and wealth in most
Table 5.22 presents the mean land sizes of the sample households that
The result shows that the mean land size in timad for households
implementing water conservation measures and those that did not is 3.6
and 2.3 timads respectively. Thus the result of t-test revealed that the
Similarly, the result of logistic regression (see Table 5.21) showed that
land size has a positive and significant (at 99 percent confidence level)
in land size, citrus Paribas. Thus, households with larger land holding
95
other words, households with larger land size are usually better off and
income.
Data presented in table 5.22 shows that only 29.3 percent of the
96
justified by the fact that with participation in off- farm income generation
mainstay.
Table 5.22).
97
Access to credit which is significant at p< 0.05 level increases the
This finding also agrees with the information gathered through focus
group discussion which noted that owing to soaring price of chat, many
resource constraints. Therefore the choice of one among the two inputs
households (68.7percent) were fertilizer users. When this data was cross
98
2 = 4.766 at p < 0.05) but negative relation between dependent and
independent variables.
can influence their response when the actual event of change occurs.
Hence Table 5.21 presents households that had ever imagined the
not.
99
Chi-square test of independence was employed to investigate the
Model result showed a significant (at p< 0.1) and positive relation
100
Table 5.22 presents data on household’s participation in community
significant relation ship between the two variables. Besides, the result of
Table 5.21)
decisions. However, this study could not validate its significance by the
101
Table 5. 22 Results of chi-square of independence by background
Characteristics of the Respondents
Participation In WC
Background Characteristics Measures
Total P-
Yes
No
N percent N percent N percent
2 value
Age Below median age 29 47.5 19 50 48 48.5
.057 .812
32 52.5 19 50 51 51.5
Above median age
Literacy Illiterate 41 67.2 32 84.2 73 73.7
3.493 .062
Literate 20 32.8 6 15.8 26 26.3
Off-farm Had no access 48 78.7 22 57.9 70 70.7
income 4.888 .027
Had access 13 21.3 16 42.1 29 29.3
Credit service Had no access 39 63.9 32 84.2 71 71.7
Had access 22 36.1 6 15.8 28 28.3 4.750 .029
Fertilizer use Non- users 24 39.3 7 18.4 31 31.3
4.766 .029
Users 37 60.7 31 81.6 68 68.7
Perception not anticipated 45 73.8 35 92.1 80 80.8
on dry up 5.075 .024
Did anticipated 16 26.2 3 7.9 19 19.2
Community Non participant 36 59 23 60.5 59 59.6
resource Mgt .022 .882
Participant 25 41 15 39.5 40 40.4
Source: Based on Field Survey, 2008 NB: WC= water conservation
102
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 CONCLUSION
wellbeing, this particular study has exposed how human being affects
surrounding communities.
Part of the blame on this win-lose game could be the lack of operational
laws and policies for the rational use of these common property
fact so far there is no law or policy that would guide and restrict the use
103
food security would be in jeopardy without enforcing effective law and
policy to protect and guide the sustainable use of the very resources that
are vital to achieve such goals, let alone the moral obligation of passing
of Lake Haramaya revealed that much had been lost and much has to be
would be effective only for short-term .Thus the long-term impacts and
104
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
these resources and enhance their sustainable use both for present and
105
be provision of alternatives income and employment opportunities,
help the local community to recover the impacts quickly before further
Such heavy reliance on the ground water may deplete the resource in the
106
(Strahller, 2000).Therefore, to save the resource and the repercussions of
harvesting )
107
REFERENCE
Bekele Shifereaw and Stein Holden (1998) ‘Resource Degradation and Adoption
of Land Conservation Technologies in the Highlands of Ethiopia : a case
study of Andit Tid, North Shoa’, Agricultural Economics 18(1).
Bekele Wogayehu and Drake Lars (2002) Adoption of Soil and Water
Conservation Measures by Subsistence Farmers in Eastern Ethiopia..
Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics.
Symposium No. 6.Paper No. 1747.
Burton, I., W. Kates and G.F. White (1993) The Environment as Hazard (2nd ed)
New York. Guildford press.
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Central Statistics Authority (1996) The 1994 Population and Housing Census:
Results of Oromiya Region Statistical Report on Population Size and
Characteristics. Vol I, part I. Addis Ababa.
Desgupta, P. (1992) Population, Resource, and Poverty. Special Issue Paper for
Natural Resources and Development, Ambio, 21(1), Feb 1992:1-16.
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Gould, B.W., Saupe, W.E., and Klemme, R.M. (1989) ‘Conservation Tillage: The
Role of Farm and Operator Characteristics and the Perception of Soil
Erosion’. Land Economics 65(2): 167-82
Gujrati, D. N. (1995). Basic Econometrics. Third edition. McGraw hill, inc., New
York U.S.A.
Hosmer, D.W. and S. Lemeshow (1989) Applied Logistic Regression. New York:
A Willey Inter-Science Publication
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (1993) World
Disaster Report. Dordrecht.
Knees, A.V. (1977) Economics and the Environment. New York: Penguin Books.
110
Meyer, W.B. (1996) Human Impact on the Earth. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Miller, T.G. (1998) Living in the Environment (10th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Mohr, P.A (1960) The Geology of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa University College
Press.
__________, (1993) ‘Water Scarcity Spreading’, in L. Starke (ed), Vital Signs 1993:
The Trends that are Shaping Our Future (pp106-7) New York.
Russell, D.W. and C,E. Cutrona (1991) Social Support, Stress and
Depressive Symptoms among Elderly. Journal of Psychology of Aging
6(2)190-211.
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Solomon, S.D. et al (1987) Social Involvement as a Mediatory of Disaster
Induced Stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17(12) 1092-1112.
Tobin, G.A. and B.E. Montz (1997) Natural Hazards: Explanation and
Integration. New York: Guilford Press.
White, G.F. (1974) Natural Hazards: Local, National and Global. New York:
Oxford University Press.
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Yeraswork Admassie (1995) Twenty Years to Nowhere: Property Rights, Land
Management and Conservation in Ethiopia. Ph.D Dissertation, Uppsala
University.
Zimmermann, E.W. (1951) World Resources and Industries. New York: Harper
and Brothers.
113
ANNEX -I Questionnaire
114
III. Impact Assessement
301. What benefits /Services have you been obtaining from Lake Alemaya
before its disappearance? (Multiple responses are possible)
1. None
2. Water for irrigation
3. Water for drinking
4. fishing
5. ferry renting
6. Water for livestock 7. Other (specify)-------------
302. If your response to Qn 301 above is 2.i.e Water for irrigation, what
proportion of your farmland (in timad) was irrigated by it: ___________
303. If your response to Qn 301 above is 3. i.e Water for drinking, please give
us your house hold’s water consumption per day in Jerry cane________
304. If your response to Qn 301 above is 4,i.e for fishing, give us the average
income (in Birr) generated per month ______________________
305. If your response to Qn 301 is 5. i.e ferry renting, give us your income
from this in Birr per month
306. If your response to Qn 301 above is 6. i.e Water for livestock, please
give us the number of livestock in counts per day______
307. Please give us the following information about your land holding and
farming practices
Information required In 2007 In 2006 In 2005
1- Total size of holding( in timad
2-Proportion under rain fed
farming (in timad)
3. Proportion Under irrigation in 1._________ 1._________ 1.________
timad. 2._________ 2._________ 2._________
1=by using water of the lake 3.__________ 3._________ 3._________
2=by using underground water
3=by using rainwater harvesting
4 Dominant crop type & grown 1._________ 1._________ 1._________
1= cash crop2= staple 2._________ 2._________ 2._________
5 No of households engaged in 1.__________ 1._________ 1._________
farm work 2.__________ 2__________. 2._________
1= Adult males 3.__________ 3.__________ 3._________
2= Adult females
3 =Children less than 10yrs old
115
308. Has any member of the household dropped out of schooling in
1. 2005 2. 2006 3. 2007__________
309. Is there any household member who abandoned the locality?
1. Yes 2. No (skip Qn 311)
310. If your response to Qn 309 above is yes, why do you think she/he
migrated from the area?
1. . Due to marriage 2.due to decline in household income
3. In search of job else where 4. Due to personal reasons
5. Due to land scarcity 6. Due to water shortage 7.Other (Specify)___
311. Do you intend to have more children
1= Yes 2= No
312. If not, what is/are your reason?
116
314. Please give us household’s crop production performance for the
indicated period.
315. Have you been engaged in any off farm activities? 1= Yes and 0 = No
In 2007_________ amount per month in birr_______________
In 2006_________ amount per month in birr_______________
In 2005_________ amount per month in birr_______________
316. How do you evaluate your household income over the last three years?
1. Increasing 2. Decreasing 3. No change
317. If your response to Qn 316above is’ decreasing’ what are the reasons?
1. Lack of water for irrigation
2. Low market prices for farm produces
3. High cost of living
4. increases in family size
5. high cost of farm input
6. other( specify)________
117
IV Response Assessment
404.Do you buy /use in farm inputs?
1. Yes
2. No __________________(skip to Qn 408)
407. If yes, what motivates you to do so?
1. To get Better market prices for cash crops
2. Lesson dawn from extension workers
3. To meet high cost of living
4. Experience from neighboring farmers
5. Others (specify)
408.If your response to Qn 406 above is no, deters you from not doing it?
1. Lack of capital 4. High prices
2. Lack of awareness 5. Less adaptability of the input to my plots
3. Lack of access to inputs 6. Other (specify )_______________
409.Have you participated in credit services? 1=Yes 2=No
1) in 2005 2) in 2006 3) in 2007
410.If you respond to Qn 409 above is no, Please give us your reason:-
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
411.Please give us the following information on Farm input.
Expenditure in Birr
Farm input 2005 2006 2007
1.Water Pump
2.Water Harvesting
3.Fertilizer
4.Pesticide
5.Seeds
6.others (specify) _______________
V. Adaptation Strategies
501. Have you been engaged in water conservation practices?
118
1=Yes 2=No
1. in 2005 2.in 2006 3.in2007
502. If yes, what motivated you to such practice?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
503.If not, what were/are your constraints?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
504.Have you been using water of Lake Alemaya for multiple purposes
before its disappearance?
1. Yes 2. No
505.if yes for what ?
1. Irrigation 3. Washing
2. Draining 4. Other(Specify__________________
506. If irrigation how did cope with water scarcity after it dried up?
1. by harvesting rain water
2. By using underground water
3. By shifting to less water dependent crops
4. By reducing water consumption
5. By shifting to rain fed farming
6. Others (Specify)
507. If your response to Qn 505 above is rain water harvesting, what are
your reasons?
1. Its accessibility/availability
2. Local availability of technology
3. Does not cause conflict with others
4. Lesson by extension workers
5. Others (specify)
508.If your response to Qn 505 above is relying on underground water, why
is that so?
1. Its availability
2. Due to proximity of my farm to underground water source
3. Local availability of technology
119
4. Lesson by extension workers
5. Other (specify)
509.If your response to Qn 505 is by’ shifting to other crop type’, which
crops are they?
510.Do you practice efficient water end use in conservation of water?
1. Yes 2. No
511If your response to Q505 is by reducing water consumption in what
ways?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
512. Did you ever imagined lake Alemaya to disappear?
1. Yes 2. No
513. If your response to Qn 511 above is Yes; what did you account for its
disappearance?
1. Punishment from God
2. Misuse and over use by both rural and urban population
3. Population growth
4. Climate change
5. Other (Specify)_________________-
514. How do you perceive the disappearance of lack Alemaya ?
1. Nothing
2. As a loss of a resource
3. As a loss of a great resource
4. Other ( specify)__________________
515. Has the disappearance of lake Alamaya affected your livelihood and
wellbeing?
1. yes 2. No
516 . If your response to Qn 514 above is ‘Yes ; in what ways if affected
your?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
120
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
603. If your response to Qn 601 above is (no) then what is/ are your
reasons?
1. Lack of awareness
2. Lack of input
3. Lack of consensus among resource users
4. Lack of interest
5. Other (specify)
604. Do you participate in community resource management at local level?
1. Yes 2. No
605. If not, why?
1. Have no idea
2. It is too expensive
3. Due to conflict over priorities
4. Lack of cooperation and leadership
5. Other (specify)
606. If your response to Qn 604 above is ‘yes’ in what ways do you
contribute?
1. Generate ideas on when and how to use resources
2. Generate required funds
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3. Participate in local regulation and law formulation
4. Others (specify)
607. Please give us your ratings on water conservation and utilization
strategies listed below
1st ______ 2nd ________ 3rd ______ 4th _____ 5th _______ 6th _______
608. Which of the above strategies are you applying currently to overcome
water shortage? _______________________________
609. What do you think are the constraints to local resource management
and utilization (e.g. water) in your Kebele? (Multiple responses
Possible).
1. Competition between rural and urban users
2. Competition among rural household uses
3. Lack of social regulations and laws
4. Little or no awareness of resource management
5. Lack of leadership
6. Lack of required inputs
7. Other (specify)
610. What are your future plans to conserve and manage your resources
(e.g. Soil and water)?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Thank you,
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