Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

(MEng 5212)
Part I. Refrigeration
3. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEMS (VCRS)
 Comparison between gas cycles and vapor cycles
• In gas power cycle the operating cycle will be away from the
vapor dome (saturation liquid and vapor curves).
• Heat rejection and refrigeration take place as the gas undergoes
sensible cooling and heating
• In a vapour cycle, phase change takes place and refrigeration
effect is due to the vaporization of refrigerant liquid.
• In VCRS temperature remains constant, If the refrigerant is a
pure substance
• But temperature glide during vaporization and condensation if
the refrigerant is a zeotropic mixture (having d/t vapor and
liquid phase composition)
• The required mass flow rates for a given refrigeration capacity
is much smaller compared to a gas cycle, because large amount
of heat (latent heat) can be transferred per kg of refrigerant at a
near constant temperature during phase change

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 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
• Vapour cycles can be subdivided into vapour compression
systems, vapour absorption systems, vapour jet systems etc.
• VCRS are the most commonly used among all refrigeration
systems
• In VCRS working fluid (refrigerant) undergoes phase change at
least during one process.
• The refrigeration effect is produced when the refrigerant
evaporates at low temperature
• It is also called mechanical refrigeration systems, b/c the input
energy required to run the compressor is in the form of
mechanical energy
• Suit to almost all applications with the refrigeration capacities
ranging from few Watts to few megawatts with wide variety
of refrigerants
• The actual vapour compression cycle is based on Evans-
Perkins cycle, which is also called as reverse Rankine cycle.
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Cont.…

Rankine Cycle

two isobaric and two isentropic processes

S
Reverse Rankine cycle
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 Advantage and Dis-advantage of VCRS over Air
Refrigeration System
▪ Advantages:
• Smaller size for a give capacity of refrigeration
• Has less running cost
• Can be employed over a large range of
temperature
• Quite high COP
▪ Dis advantages
• High initial cost (components eg. evaporator)
• Prevention of leakage of refrigerant, which is a
major problem in VCRS

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Practical Difficulties with Carnot Refrigeration System

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 Practical Difficulties with Carnot Refrigeration System

• COP of Carnot refrigeration cycle is a function of evaporator

and condenser temperatures only and is independent of the
nature of the working substance and increases as the Te
increases and Tc decreases.
COP

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 Difficulties Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
i. 1-2, wet compression is very difficult especially with high
speed reciprocating compressors (mostly used in
refrigeration), which get damaged due to the presence of
liquid droplets in the vapour.
ii. 3-4, using a turbine and extracting work from the system
during the isentropic expansion of liquid refrigerant is not
economically feasible, b/c specific work o/p is small due to
the specific volume of liquid is much smaller compared to the
specific volume of a vapour/gas.

❖ Dry compression mechanisms are required to enhance actual

reversed Carnot Refrigeration cycle performance
enhancement.

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 Alternative Ways of Dry compression
• One way of achieving dry compression in Carnot refrigeration
cycle is to have two compressors

• Dry compression with a single compressor is possible if the

isothermal heat rejection process is replaced by isobaric heat
rejection process. Similarly, the isentropic expansion process
can be replaced by an isenthalpic throttling process.
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Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
(VCRS)

Rankine Cycle

two isobaric and two isentropic processes

S
Reverse Rankine cycle
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 Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration
System (VCRS)
• Based on a theoretical cycle called Evans-Perkins or reverse
Rankine cycle w/h has two isobaric and tow isentropic processes
• Theoretical COP of standard cycle to be smaller than that of a
Carnot system for the same heat source and sink temperatures

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 VCRS Processes
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in compressor

Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser

Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of saturated liquid in expansion

device

Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator

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 Comparison b/n Carnot and standard VCRS in terms
of Refrigeration effect.
• VCRS introduces two irreversibilities due to:
1. non-isothermal heat rejection (process 2-3) and
2. isenthalpic throttling (process 3-4)
• The theoretical COP of standard VCRS cycle to be smaller than
that of a Carnot system for the same heat source and sink temp.

• Due to these irreversibilities, the cooling effect reduce s and work

input increases, thus reducing the system COP.
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 Throttling Loss
• The heat extraction (evaporation) process is reversible for
both the Carnot cycle and VCRS cycle.
• For Carnot refrigeration cycle (1-2’’-3-4’):

• For VCRS cycle (1-2-3-4):

• Carnot cycle is replaced by isenthalpic throttling process of

VCRS cycle, this reduction is equal to the area d-4-4’-c-d
(area A2) and is known as throttling loss.
• The throttling loss is equal to the enthalpy difference
between state points 3 and 4’, i.e,

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 Superheat Horn
• The heat rejection in case of VCRS cycle also increases when
compared to Carnot cycle.
• The heat rejection in case of Carnot cycle (1-2’’-3-4’) is given

• In case of VCRS cycle, the heat rejection rate is given by:

• Hence the increase in heat rejection rate of VCRS compared

to Carnot cycle is equal to the area 2’’-2-2’ (area A1), This
region is known as superheat horn
• The net work input in case of Carnot and VCRS cycles are
given by:

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 Work Net
▪ the increase in net work input in VCRS cycle is given by:

▪ The COP of VCRS cycle is given by:

▪ If we define the cycle efficiency, ηR as the ratio of COP of

VCRS cycle to the COP of Carnot cycle, then:

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 Cont.…
▪ If we assume that the potential and kinetic energy changes during
isentropic compression process 1-2 are negligible, then the work
input w1-2 is given by:

▪ if we further assume that the saturated liquid line 3-f coincides with
the constant pressure line Pc in the subcooled region
▪ Then from the 2nd Tds relation;
.

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 Cont.…
▪ Superheat losses (A1) and throttling losses (A2 ≈ A3) depend
very much on the shape of the vapor dome (saturation liquid
and vapour curves) on T s diagram.
▪ The shape of the saturation curves depends on the nature of
refrigerant
Type 1: symmetrical
saturation curves or
both losses are
significant, Ammonia,
CO2 and water

Type 2: CFC11, CFC12, HFC134a, small

superheat losses, but large throttling losses
Type 3: CFC113, CFC114, CFC115, iso-
butane, do not have any superheat losses
(danger of wet compression)

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 Generally

▪ The superheat loss increases only the work input

to the compressor, it does not effect the refrigeration
effect.
▪ In heat pumps superheat is not a loss, but a part of the
useful heating effect.
▪ However, the process of throttling is inherently
irreversible, and it increases the work input and also
reduces the refrigeration effect

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 Analysis of standard VCRS
▪ Assumption for analysis of VCRS
▪ Steady flow;
▪ negligible kinetic and potential energy changes across each
component, and
▪ no heat transfer in connecting pipe lines

1. Evaporator: Heat transfer rate at evaporator or refrigeration

capacity, is given by:

The evaporator pressure Pe is the saturation pressure

corresponding to evaporator temperature Te

2. Compressor: Power input to the compressor, is given by:

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 Cont.…
3. Condenser: Heat transfer rate at condenser, c is given by:

The condenser Pc is the saturation pressure corresponding to

evaporator temperature Tc:

4. Expansion device: h3=h4, and the exit condition is two phase

region, hence from the definition of quality (dryness fraction)

▪ where X4 is the quality at point 4, ℎf,e, ℎg,e, ℎf,g are the saturated
liquid enthalpy, saturated vapour enthalpy and latent heat of
vaporization at evaporator pressure, respectively
▪ The COP of the system is given by:

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 Cont.…
▪ At any point in the cycle, the mass flow rate of refrigerant can
be written in terms of volumetric flow rate and specific volume
at that point, i.e.,

▪ where is the volumetric flow rate and v1 is the specific volume

at compressor inlet
▪ the refrigeration capacity in terms of volumetric flow rate as

▪ Where is called as volumetric refrigeration effect

(kJ/m of refrigerant).
▪ Once all the state points are known, then from the required
refrigeration capacity and various enthalpies one can obtain the
required refrigerant mass flow rate, volumetric flow rate at
compressor inlet, COP, cycle efficiency etc.

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Standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle on a P-h chart

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 Performance SSS cycle
Standard, Saturated, Single stage VCRS
▪ Performance of a standard VCRS cycle can be obtained by
varying evaporator and condensing temperatures over the
required range
• Refrigeration effect has direct &inverse proportion with functions
of Te and Tc, respectively specific work of compression and
volumetric work (per volume) Vs Te and Tc COP Vs Te and Tc

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 Sub-cooling and superheating
▪ Reducing sink (condenser) temperature lower than condensing
temp by adding extra area for heat transfer. Exit condition (in
the sub-cooled liquid region) called sub-cooling.
▪ Temperature of heat source can be a few degrees higher than the
evaporator temperature, hence the vapour at the exit of the
evaporator can be superheated by a few degrees
▪ Useful superheating:- super-heating of refrigerant due to heat
transfer with the refrigerated space
▪ useless superheating:- super-heating of refrigerant vapor by
exchanging heat with the surroundings as it flows through the
connecting pipelines
▪ Sub-cooling is beneficial w/h increases refrigeration effect by
reducing throttling loss with no additional specific work input
▪ And only liquid enters into the throttling device leading to its
efficient operation by reducing pressure drop in the evaporator.

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 Modifications to SSS cycle
1. Subcooling and superheating
(a)

iJ
▪ Throttling loss with subcooling a-4”-4’-b
▪ Throttling loss without subcooling the b-4’-4-c
▪ Refrigeration effect increases by an amount
equal to (h4-h4’) = (h3-h3’)

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▪ Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration effect as well
as the work of compression.
▪ COP may or may not increase with superheat, depends on the
relative increase in refrigeration effect and work of compression
▪ superheat is desirable to prevents the entry of liquid droplets
into the compressor
▪ With useful superheating, the refrigeration effect, specific volume
at the inlet to the compressor and work of compression increase.

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 Effect of super heating on COP
▪ The Ewing and Gosney criteria,

• Indicates the maximum COP occurs in the saturated region

Refrigerant COPiaf Maximum

T.
(K) COP
T^t - Te
Ammonia 4.77 372 2.26 Ye*
co2 2 72 341 3.11 No
Rll 5,03 317 4.38 Yes,
R12 4.70 311 4.87 No
R22 4.66 326 3.80 Yes
R5Q2 4.35 310 4.96 No

Existence of maximum COP. Te - 25S K> Tc = 303 K (Gosney)

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 Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger (LSHX)
▪ Sub – cooling and superheating can be achieved by simply increasing
heat transfer area if the temperature difference is large enough b/n
condenser and heat sink and b/n evaporator and heat source.
▪ If change in temp is not sufficient, the required amount of subcooling
and superheating is by LSHX
▪ A LSHX is a counter-flow heat exchanger in which the warm
refrigerant liquid from the condenser exchanges heat with the cool
refrigerant vapour from the evaporator.
LSHX effect

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▪ Heat transferred between the refrigerant liquid and vapour in the
LSHX

▪ Taking average specific heat

▪ But

▪ The actual heat transfer is

▪ The maximum possible heat transfer is
▪ The effectiveness of the LSHX

▪ For heat exchanger effectiveness of 1, 3/ = 3- = 3 or condensing

temperature, which leads to Grindley cycle wherein the isentropic
compression process can be replaced by an isothermal compression
leading to improved COP…

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▪ Theoretically the Grindley cycle offers higher COP,
• Achieving isothermal compression with modern high-speed
reciprocating and centrifugal compressors is difficult in
practice.
• However, this may be possible with screw compressor
where the lubricating oil provides large heat transfer rates.

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 Actual VCR systems

Process State
Pressure drop in evaporator 4-ld
Superheat of vapour in evaporator ld-lc
Useless superheat in suction line lc-lb
Suction line pressure drop lb-la
Pressure drop across suction valve la-1
Non-isentropic compression 1-2
Pressure drop across discharge valve 2-2a
Pressure drop in the delivery lme 2a-2b
Desuperheating of vapour in delivery pipe 2b-2c
Pressure drop in the condenser 2b-3
Subcooling of liquid refrigerant 3-3a
Heat gain in liquid line 3a-3b

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 Modification of the SSS (Simple Stage Standard) cycle

▪ The SSS cycle can be sufficient for small temperature

difference between condenser and evaporator.
▪ But in some applications the temperature difference becomes
too large either due to very low temperature requirement of
the refrigerated space or relatively high available heat sink.
▪ When evaporator temperature decreases significantly, the SSS
cycle performance significantly reduces due to:
• Increase in throttling loss
• Increase in superheat horn loss
• Increase in compressor discharge temperature
• Quality of vapor increases, thereby increasing pressure
drop in the evaporator
• Specific volume at the inlet of the compressor increases,
which decreases the volumetric work of compression
requiring larger compressor.

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 1. Multi -compression
2. Multi -evaporator
3. Cascade system
• Intermediate processes are compulsory in multi - stage
systems: Flash removal and intercooling.

Reading Assignment on Multi stage VCRS

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