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Finite element modeling of shape memory alloy (SMA) structures

Conference Paper · September 2001

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 Institute of
Fundamental Technological Research
Polish Academy of Sciences
(IPPT PAN)

Center of Excellence for

Advanced Materials and Structures

Workshop on
Shape Memory Alloy Materials
(SMA-2001)
Experimental Investigation
Modeling, Metallurgy, Applications

September 3-6, 2001, Warsaw, Poland

Coordinators
Professor B. Raniecki, IPPT, Warsaw, Poland
A. Ziółkowski PhD, IPPT, Warsaw, Poland
 SMA-2001 Workshop

1. Workshop venue

Staszic Palace, Nowy Świat 72 St., Warsaw, Poland

2. Workshop scientific topics and objectives

☼ ☼ ☼ Mysteries of deformation behavior of SMA under complex thermo-

mechanical loadings
☼ ☼ ☼ Power of theoretical predictions

- Metallurgy of thermo-mechanical treatments of SMA and underlying physical properties

- Experimental methods for investigating SMA properties under complex stress states
- Micromechanics of martensitic phase transformations
- Macroscopic constitutive models of SMA deformation behavior
- Computational thermo-mechanics of SMA materials and structures

The target of the workshop is to bring together interdisciplinary community whose interests
lay in shape memory alloy materials. The exchange of experience in solving fundamental
problems of materials science and mechanics of shape memory alloys as well as those
connected with engineering applications is the basic aim of the meeting. The keynote
lectures on selected topics and short Communications are expected to give a seed for an
open and thorough discussion. It is believed that this meeting results in accelerating
development of design methods of functional and structural composites containing SMA
ingredients.
 SMA-2001 Workshop
September 3-6, 2001, Warsaw, Poland

Keynote Lecture

Finite element modeling of SMA structures

A. Ziółkowski, IPPT-PAN, Warsaw, Poland

Contents
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Relations of thermodynamic, constitutive, RL model of shape memory alloys ................................ 3
3. Boundary-value problem of coupled SMA thermo-mechanics and its FEM formulation ................ 5
4. Implementation of RL model constitutive relations in FEM code MSC/Marc, Mentat .................. 10
4.1 Procedure uvscpl ....................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Tangent stiffness matrices ......................................................................................................... 11
5. Numerical model formulation ......................................................................................................... 14
5.1 Identification of RL model material parameters for NiTi alloy................................................. 14
5.2 Thermomechanical problem geometry, finite element mesh and boundary conditions ........... 17
6. Numerical simulations results ......................................................................................................... 18
6.1 Local transients ......................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Spatial fields.............................................................................................................................. 21
6. Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 31
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................... 32
References ........................................................................................................................................... 32

Ziółkowski A., Finite element modeling of SMA structures, Workshop SMA-2001 Proceedings, Warsaw, 2001.
This document can be referenced by DOI:
 A. Ziółkowski

1. Introduction
The scientific and engineering communities show broad interest in so called shape memory
alloys due to capabilities of their application in wide ranging of "engineering structures", on the one
side, and difficulties in attempts to deliver theoretical models of their behavior on the other side.
The thermo-elastic martensitic transformation is the underlying physical phenomenon responsible
for special functional properties of shape memory alloys – SMA. Consistent macroscopic
theoretical description of shape memory effects, and hence thermo-elastic martensitic
transformation requires use of non-equilibrium thermodynamics apparatus. Constitutive models of
shape memory alloys are continuously developed and improved in IPPT PAN from the beginning of
nineties – family of thermodynamic models by Raniecki et al. (1992), (1994), (1998) [3], [4], [5].
Experimental verification of selected fundamental assumptions used for perfection of these models
became possible with execution of tasks performed within the frames of Project No 7T07A00513
entitled "Investigation of pseudoelasticity effect in Shape Memory Alloys submitted to complex
stress states loadings " (KBN Project 1997-2000). Contemporary construction of constitutive model
of SMA material behavior constitutes only the first stage, on the way to create and deliver
engineering design tool, enabling effective design of devices and structures made of or including
elements made of shape memory alloys. The second stage consists in implementation of constitutive
relations in one of many existing finite element codes. The steps required in this stage comprise the
subject of the present report. The constitutive relations of R L model [4] were implemented in
Marc/Mentat environment, a commercial code of Finite Element Method (FEM) available in the
Institute of Fundamental Technological Research intranet. The R L model was implemented with the
use of material procedure uvscpl. The header of this procedure is delivered within the Marc
software. The procedure coding, being the actual implementation of material model, was written in
Fortran language. The elaborated material procedure is subsequently compiled and linked with
appropriate libraries, delivered by the producer of the software, giving in the effect modified FEM
executable code. The corroboration of correct operation of the elaborated procedure was tested on
simple examples involving single finite element – one dimensional, two dimensional axial
symmetric without torsion, and with torsion (there were also executed tests on bulk three
dimensional element). The specific extent of RL model numerical implementation was dictated by
the need of numerical simulation of the behavior of TiNi cylindrical sample in testing machine
during tests of proportional torsion-tension (compression), in isothermal conditions. Results of these
simulations are presented in the sequel of this report. They were compared with the experimental
mechanical tests results performed within the scope of KBN Project No 7T07A00513. Elaborated
material procedure actually enables running numerical simulations for coupled thermo-mechanical
pseudoelastic problems. However, at the moment correctness of its operation in this extended range
of application is validated.
The program Marc/Mentat with implemented material procedure of RL model constitutes a very
useful tool. It may serve for further improvement of constitutive model through simulation of
behavior of SMA samples in testing machine with or without taking into account of selected
physical effects, e.g. thermal expansion, and/or heat convection on the surface of the sample. This
allows for gaining considerable experience in material
behavior, and quantitative estimation of the influence of
various physical phenomena on material behavior. It also
allows for gaining information, which experimental
determination is technically very difficult and/or very
expensive, e.g. determination of radial strain component
in cylindrical sample. Program Marc with implemented
RL model may also serve for effective design of
structures made of shape memory alloy materials. Fig. 1 Glass frames made of NiTi alloy by
Marchon Company

2
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

As an example of application of shape

memory alloy material there might be given
glass frames made of NiTi alloy, cf.
Figure 1. Such frames due to perfect
pseudoelastic properties of NiTi alloy en-
sure ideal comfort of use and resistance to
relatively large accidental deformations.
The other examples of NiTi alloy
applications are orthodontic wires, cf.
Fig. 2. Flat plateau present on SMA stress-
strain curve ensures constant force of
interaction between buckle and tooth on the
strain up to 6%. Orthodontic wires
exhibiting such property allow for Fig. 2 Orthodontic wires made of NiTi alloy. [6]
considerable reduction of the number of
adjustment treatments during the occlusion therapy in
comparison to traditionally used steel wires.
Capability for shape recovery and perfect
biocompatibility of NiTi alloy resulted in use of this
material for production of catheters, devices ensuring
patency of blood vessels in serious arterio-schlerosis
diseases. Catheters made of NiTi alloy are introduced
into patient body in "closed" (cold) shape, and take
their operational shape only after self heating up to
human body temperature, Fig 3.

2. Relations of thermodynamic, constitutive,

RL model of shape memory alloys
The thermo-elastic martensitic transformation is a
physical phenomenon responsible for shape memory
effects in alloys. For modeling of macroscopic
behavior of the analyzed NiTi alloy, the RL
thermodynamic pseudoelastic model propo-sed in Fig. 3 Various types of catheters (above) and
paper [4] was used. In this model thermo-mechanical clinical picture after insertion (below). [2]
properties of the material are described with the following function of free energy,
pe pe pe *
c ( )L( ) / 2 (T T0 ) 0 L( ) ( z, T ), (1)
* *(1) *(1) f
( z, T ) cv [(T T0 ) T ln(T / T0 )] u 0 Ts 0 z 0 (T ) it (T ) (1 z ) z,
f
it (T ) u0 T s0 , 0 (T ) u * T s* , u* u0*(1) u0*(2) , s* s0*(1) s0*(2) , pe
z / ,
where,
is total strain tensor, is total strain deviator ( ij ij
1
3 ij , v tr( ) 11 22 33 ), pe
– transformation strain tensor (inelastic), T – temperature, z – mass fraction of martensitic phase, L
1/2
– tensor of elastic moduli, || || – strain modulus, eq 2
3
– equivalent strain,
0 0 1 – tensor of thermal expansion coefficients, cv – specific heat at constant volume, –
amplitude of pseudoelastic flow, T0 – reference temperature, u0*( ) , s0*( ) – internal energy and
entropy of particular phases in reference temperature, u0 , s0 – material constants.

3
 A. Ziółkowski

In the model it is assumed that SMA macro-element is always in thermodynamic equilibrium

with respect to strain and temperature, while it is not in thermodynamic phase equilibrium, i.e. in
respect to internal state parameter z. Then, the constitutive relations for stress and entropy can be
obtained through formal differentiation of free energy function c / – stress tensor,
s( , T , z ) c / T - entropy. Differentiation of free energy function with respect to parameter z
allows obtaining expression for so called thermodynamic driving force of phase transformation
f
( , T , z) c / z . Progress of forward phase transformation (p.t.) is admissible only when
f
0 , and progress of reverse phase transition is admissible when f 0 . Product D f
dz 0
defines power of energy dissipation accompanying active phase transformation. Discussed
constitutive model in order to be mathematically complete requires explicit specification of so
called kinetics equations of phase transformations. Effective use of the RL model in finite element
code calls for specification of phase transformation kinetics rules in rate (incremental) form. The
relevant relations constituting full specification of RL model are succinctly recalled below.
As it was assumed that the tensor of inelastic strains connected with phase transformation is
traceless tr( pe ) 0 , it is convenient to divide relations between stress rate and strain rate into
volumetric part,
 m  , m
1
3 tr ( )
1
3 ii , ij ij m ij
(2)
 m K [ v 3 0T ],
and shear part,
 2 (   pe ),
(3)
 pe ( / ) z z P( )  , P( ) I (4 s ) ( ) / 2,
where – stress tensor deviator, K – elastic bulk modulus, – shear modulus, – mass density
of two-phase alloy, I (4 s )
– unit tensor in the space of symmetric tensors of the fourth order
1/2
(4s)
( I ijkl 12 ( ik jl il kj ) ), || || – stress modulus, ef 3
2 – effective stress.
Forward and backward transformations kinetic equation takes the following rate form,
z (1/ H (1) ) H ( f )  f (1/ H (2) ) H ( f )  f , (4a)
where function H ( x) 1for x 0 and 0 for x 0 , and function x x for x 0 and 0 for x 0 .
The terms f – thermodynamic driving force of p.t.,  f and H ( ) ( 1,2) are defined as follows,
f f
( , T , z) 0 (T ) (2 / )( z) it (T )(1 2 z),
f f
( ,T , z) 0 (T ) / it (T )(1 2 z ) ,
 f ( f
/ ) ( f
/ T ) T (2 / ) [ s s0 (1 2 z )]T ,
H kz (2 / ) 2 it (T ),
where k z dk / dz and
k (1) ( z ) ( A1 B1 z )ln(1 z ) C 1 z, k (1) ( z ) 0, 0 z 1,
(4b)
k (2) ( z ) ( A2 B 2 (1 z ))ln( z ) C 2 (1 z ), k (2) ( z ) 0,
and
C 1 2 r1 it ( M s0 ), C 2 2 r2 it ( As0 ),
a 1 A1 ( s s0 ), a 2 A 2 ( s s0 ), (4c)
a 1B1 2 r1 s0 , a 2B 2 2 r2 s .

4
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

Constants A1 , B1 , C1 , A2 , B2 , C 2 can be determined on the base of only four material constants

a1 , r1 , a 2 , r2 , which fully define character of phase transformation kinetics. Constants M s0 , As0
appearing in formula (4c) denote temperatures of the start of forward and reverse transformations,
respectively, at stress free state,
M s0 ( u* u0 ) / ( s* s0 ),
(4d)
As0 ( u* u0 ) / ( s* s0 ).
Phase transformation kinetics equations in incremental form (4) were derived at the assumption
that phase transformation proceeds in such a way that the functions ( ) ( 1, 2) remain constant
during active phase transformation process,
(1) f
( ,T , z) ( , T , z ) k (1) ( z ) C0(1) ( z * ) const ,
(2) f
(4e)
( ,T , z) ( , T , z ) k (2) ( z ) C0(2) ( z * ) cont
Index 1 indicates forward phase transformation, 2 indicates reverse phase
transformation, z – denotes the value of mass fraction of martensitic phase during last crossing of
*

the line of states of full thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. the line defined by the condition f 0 .
Local temperature equation in the rate form takes the form,
q c pT q tr ,
(5)
q tr [( / ) ( u u0 (1 2 z ))] z (3 T / )  m ,
q – power of sensible heat exchanged with the surroundings per unit mass (negative when absorbed
from the surroundings), c p – specific heat per unit of mass at constant stress, q tr – power of heat
generated in the material as a result of undergoing physical processes. The term in square commas
standing at z represents total heat generated as a result of internal dissipation in the material and
"reversible" latent heat of phase transformation, while the term standing at  m represents
"reversible" heat connected with piezocaloric effect (much smaller than heat accompanying p.t.).
The recalled constitutive RL model of shape memory alloy behavior is relatively simple. It
requires knowledge of only nine additional constants ( u* , s* , u0 , s0 , , a1, a2 , r1 , r2 ) , in
comparison to linear thermo-elastic model of isotropic material. Identification of these constants for
the analyzed NiTi alloy is presented in section 5.1 of the present work.

3. Boundary-value problem of coupled SMA thermo-mechanics and its FEM formulation

The problem of thermo-mechanical loading of cylindrical sample made of NiTi alloy in testing
machine is investigated in the present section. The basic objective is numerical determination of
transient fields of stress (t ) , strains (t ) temperature T (t ) , and volume fraction of martensite z (t )
generated in cylindrical SMA test specimen submitted to mechanical loading. Geometrical
dimensions of the sample are shown in
Figure 4. The sample is subjected to
16.00

19.00

21.00

26.00

proportional in strain space loading in the

form of axial and torsional displacement
of one end of the sample while the second 60.00
kept fixed, at constant temperature. The 72.00
sample can be treated as a thick walled 11.00
122.00
cylinder with varying thickness of wall;
besides central testing part, which may be
Fig. 4 Geometrical dimensions of cylindrical NiTi sample
treated as thin walled cylinder.
(in mm)

5
 A. Ziółkowski

Although, in the present work only isothermal solutions are presented, in the next stage of
numerical simulations program there will be solved fully coupled thermo-mechanical problems.
Due to that reason, we will pose below coupled thermo-mechanical problem of pseudoelasticity and
corresponding to it "weak" variational formulation. Such formulation is convenient for incremental-
iterative method of solving nonlinear thermomechanical problems with the aid of finite element
method. FEM formulation will be derived from the variational formulation of the posed problem.
Variables appearing in thermo-mechanical problem of pseudoelasticity at every instant must
fulfill fundamental principles of conservation. In particular local balance of mechanical equilibrium
must be fulfilled,
div f 0 (6)
where f denotes body forces per unit of mass.
In the present work only quasi-static problems are investigated. Hence, it is adopted assumption
that all dynamical forces are identically equal to zero ( v 0 ; v – velocity).
T
Balance equation of moment of momentum leads to the symmetry of stress tensor. ( ).
Local balance of heat can be written down in the following form,
c p T / t (1/ ) div( T ) qtr 0 (7)
where denotes isotropic conductivity coefficient, q tr is heat rate connected with phase
transformation (see formula (5)2); it is assumed that specific power of external heat sources is
identically equal to zero r 0 . In heat balance equation classical Fourier law of heat conduction has
been used q T . In the case of isothermal problems equation (7) is fulfilled identically.
Equations (6) and (7) constitute field equations of the coupled problem of thermo-
pseudoelasticity. They must be satisfied identically at every time instant, in the whole domain of the
investigated structure V, and must be augmented with appropriate boundary and initial conditions,
u us (t ) on Vu , n t s (t ) on Vs ,
T T s (t ) on VT , q q s (t ) on Vq , q h (Te T ) on Vc , (8)
u( x , t 0) u 0 ( x ), ( x , 0) 0 ( x ), T ( x, 0) T0 ( x ), z( x, 0) z0 ( x ), in volume V ,
where n denotes versor normal to the surface of the volume V, u s is vector of displacements, t s is
vector of stress, T s is surface temperature, q s is heat flux; superscript "s" denotes that all these
items are known and prescribed on the adequate parts of external surface of the investigated domain;
h is heat convection coefficient, Te is environment temperature, subscript "0" denotes initial values.
From the solution of problem (2)-(8) fields of displacements, temperature, stress and mass
fraction of martensitic phase are obtained. However, obtaining analytical solution of the posed
problem is impossible in majority of practical cases. One of the more effective methods of solution
of the posed problem is the finite element method. It requires so called weak formulation of the
posed problem (2)-(8), and then its discretization in space and time.
Weak formulation of the equation of mechanical equilibrium and balance of heat can be obtained
by formal integration of the equations (6) and (7) multiplied by virtual fields of displacements u
and temperature T , respectively, over the investigated domain, and then such obtained equations
are integrated by parts. It should be noticed that variational fields u , T cannot be completely
arbitrary but must fulfill so called essential boundary conditions. In the present case, essential
boundary conditions have the form u 0 on Vu, T 0 on VT.
Weak form of thermo-pseudoelasticity problem takes the form (see also [1]),
Gu ( u, T ) dV f u dV t s u da 0,
V V VS

6
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

GT ( u, T ) ( cT ) T dV ( T ) ( T ) dV
V V
(9)
( qtr ) T dV q s T da h (Te T ) T da 0.
V Vq Vc

The above weak formulation (9)1 represent so called principle of virtual power, while the
formula (9)2 constitutes equivalent of this principle for thermal problems. This formulation includes
all nonlinear effects: material, geometric, and also thermal, e.g. in the form of functional
dependence of or h on temperature. The weak form (9) is very convenient for numerical
calculations, as it embraces aptly in one functional all intrinsic features of the problem, that is
balance laws, boundary an initial conditions and allows for reducing solution of the primary
problem of partial differential equations (2-8) to solution of a series of algebraic problems.
Due to nonlinear character of equations (9) usually the loading (boundary conditions) are
converted into a series of increments, in order to obtain linearized incremental equations of primary
problem (9). Linearized equations comprise approximation to the primary problem. Hence, in order
to obtain accurate solution, i.e. solution with prescribed by the user accuracy, iteration procedure is
required on each incremental step.
Equations (9) must be identically fulfilled at every incremental time instant. Expansion of
equations (9) into Taylor series at the equilibrium state at time t with respect to independent state
variables ( u, T ) and neglecting terms of the order higher than one leads to linearized incremental
equations of the problem (9),
(10)
t t t t t
( C CT T ) dV dV ,
V V
t t
( c T / t ) T dV ( ( T )) ( T ) dV ( t h T ) T da
V V Vc

[ (t D t
DT T ) / t ] T dV t t
(t t
T ) ( T ) dV t
h ( t + tTe - tT ) T da ,
V V Vc

where,
t t
( t t
f ) u dV t t s
t u da, t t t+ t
q s T da .
V Vs Vq

In order to eliminate from (10) first time derivatives of stress components, temperature and
connected with phase transformation heat power, the Euler scheme is used,
[t t t
qtr [ t D
] [t Ct
DT T ] T t
CT T ]
 , T . (11) , qtr
t t t t t t
In derivation of (10) from (9), it was assumed that mechanical and thermal external loadings f ,
t s and q s are independent from the fields of displacements and temperature. The following
approximations were also used,
t t t t t t t t t t t t
cp cp, T T, h [ t tTe t t
T] t
h [ t tTe t t
T].
Problem (10), at the assumption of small deformations ( ( u T u) / 2) , constitutes linear
problem with respect to searched increments of displacements and temperature u , T . Equations
(10) can be treated as a first step in iterative solution of coupled incremental problem by Newton-
Raphson method.
Introduced into the balance equations linearizations cause that determined from them increments
of displacements and temperature constitute only approximate solution. In order to determine
accurate solution of incremental problem of thermo-pseudoelasticity, so called global equilibrium
iterations are required.

7
 A. Ziółkowski

Incremental iterative equations of equilibrium take the following form assuming use of modified
Newton-Raphson method,
(tC (i )
) dV (
t
CT T ( i ) ) dV t t t+ t ( i 1)
dV ,
V V V
t t (12)
t+ t ( i 1) t ( i 1)
 ( (t , T (t )) dt ,
t
t
( c T ( i ) / t ) T dV (t ( T ( i ) )) ( T ) dV
V V
t (i )
( h T ) T da [ (t D (i ) t
DT T ( i ) ) / t ] T dV
Vc V
(13)
t t t t ( i 1)
( c T (i 1)
/ t ) T dV (t t ( i 1) t t
T (i 1) ) ( T ) dV
V V
t t
qtr ( i 1)
T dV t t
h (i 1) t
( t
Te - t tT ( i 1) ) T da
V Vc

q tr
st t t (i 1)
The (i 1) approximation of heat connected with phase transformation power
t t ( i 1)
resulting from (i 1) st approximations of displacements and temperature increments ,
t+ t
T (i 1) is computed with the use of formulae (5), (4), (2).
Equations (12), (13) allow for iterative determination of successive approximations of
displacements and temperature increments in particular incremental step of the analysis. Iterative
procedure is terminated, when the preset accuracy condition is fulfilled.
Iterative procedure based on equations (12), (13) requires explicit specification of tangent tensors
t
C , t CT , t D , t DT present in formulae (11). These tensors are explicitly specified in section 5.2.
Tangent tensors depend on the actual state of the material, i.e. actual stress (strain), temperature and
mass fraction of martensitic phase, in particular point of the structure, and at particular time instant.
Obtaining algebraic set of equations equivalent to integral equations (12), (13) requires spatial
discretization of the fields appearing under the integrals. This process constitutes the basic idea of
finite element method. The whole volume of the structure body V is divided into elements V ( e )
with volume small in comparison to the total volume of considered structure (V V ( e ) ) . When
e 1, Ne

sizes of the elements are small enough, then the distribution of specific field within each element
may be guessed, e.g. it can be conjectured to be linear. In such a case distribution of the field in the
element can be interpolated with the aid of values of the field in so called nodal points. For
example, values of displacements u(e) ( x, t ) and temperature T (e) ( x, t ) fields at any location in the
specific element can be expressed with the aid of so called shape functions each h i ( p, r, s), i 1, q ,
p, r , s denote element local "natural" coordinates, q is number of nodes in the element, as follows,
q q
u(e) ( x , t ) i 1
h i ui (e) (t ), T (e) ( x , t ) i 1
h i Ti (e) (t ) (14)
Shape functions h i ( p, r, s) the most commonly are polynomial functions of suitable degree, which
take value 1 at node i and value 0 at any other node. Displacement and temperature vectors of
nodal points ui (e) (t ) , Ti (e) (t ) are connected with corresponding global vectors of nodal values
through so called connection matrices D(e) ,
u (e) (t ) D(e) uˆ (t ), T (e) (t ) D(e)Tˆ (t ) .
i i (15)

8
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

When global coordinates (geometry) in the elements are interpolated with the use of the same
shape functions, which are used for interpolation of displacement and temperature fields in the
element, then we speak about so called isoparametric discretization,
q
x i 1 i
h xi (e) . (16)
The same shape functions are used for discretization of total, incremental and virtual
displacement and temperature fields in isoparametric discretization. Isoparametric FEM formulation
is very effective from numerical standpoint, in comparison to alternative approach of generalized
coordinates. Because, it allows avoiding, numerically costly, calculation of inverse matrix to the
transformation matrix from generalized coordinates to coordinates of nodal displacements. Using
assumptions (14) concerning displacements and temperatures corresponding, the fields of strains
and temperature gradients of the elements can be determined with the aid of formulas,
(e) q q
( x, t ) i 1
b i ui (e) (t ), T (e) ( x , t ) i 1
b i Ti (e) (t ) (17)
where strain-displacement transformation functions b i ( p, r, s) are obtained by differentiation of
h i ( p, r, s) with respect to p, r , s , adequately and premultiplying by inverse of Jacobian operator.
Detailed description of isoparametric discretization process can be found, e.g. in chapter 5 of
Bathe's book [1].
Introduction of isoparametric fields (16), (17) to equations (12) and (13) results in the following
set of algebraic equations for unknown global vectors of displacements and temperature increments
u, T ,
t
K MM t
K MT u (i ) t t
R t t
F (i 1)

t
K TM t K TT T (i ) t t
J t t Q (i 1) (18)
i 1,2,3...
Detailed derivation of the set (18) is given in the PhD thesis of A. Ziółkowski [8], cf. also [1],
t
K – stiffness matrix at time t ,
t t
R – vector of external forces at time t t,
t t
J – vector of external thermal loading at time t t,
t t (i 1)
F – (i 1) approximation of vector of internal forces at time t
st
t,
t t
Q (i 1)
– (i 1) approximation of vector of internal thermal loading at time t
st
t,
The first index appearing at submatrices K denotes the effect, while second the cause of
mechanical "M" or thermal "T" character. The submatrix K MT is not identical with submatrix K TM .
This means that global tangent matrix of coupled thermo-mechanical problem is non-symmetric.
The system of algebraic equations (18) is solved for the purposes of the present paper with the
aid of so called staggered iterative solution algorithm, in which "symmetrized" tangent matrix is
used until prescribed accuracy criteria are fulfilled for balance of internal and external mechanical
forces and thermal fluxes, see also [7]. The main idea of staggered algorithm consists in keeping the
temperature constant during determination of "mechanical part" of the solution and keeping the
displacements constant during determination of "thermal part" of the solution. Consecutive
approximations of global vectors of displacements and temperature for time t+ t are updated in
turns. Such strategy leads to uncoupling of equations (18) in the stages of searching for increments
of displacements and temperature, respectively. The coupling terms containing submatrices KMT
and KTM are effectively moved to the right side of the equations (18) during relevant stages of the
solution process.
After determination of global vectors of increments u, T , the solution of coupled thermo-
mechanical problem may be updated one time step forward and whole the procedure may be
repeated for the next incremental time step.

9
 A. Ziółkowski

4. Implementation of RL model constitutive relations in FEM code MSC/Marc, Mentat

Constitutive relations of RL model recalled in section 2 were implemented in commercial code
of finite element method MSC/Marc, Mentat. The MSC/Marc, Mentat software is very well adapted
to implementation of user own concepts
with the aid of user subroutines
mechanism. In Marc software over 130 Marc
user subroutines is available. These
procedures should be written in Fortran
language. User subroutines are delivered
by the producer of the software in the form llovl= 4; stiffness matrix formation
of empty template with formal header of
the procedure. The template must be filled llovl= 6; stress recovery
with adequate content. User subroutines
cover full scope of problems, which must uvscpl
be solved in order to obtain solution of the
problem with the aid of finite element
Assignment of: t , t , t T , t z;
method. Starting from possibility of ij ij ij , T
implementation of user mesh generators,
through introduction of user material
constitutive models and ending on Is the criterion for the active phase
introduction of user algorithms solving set transformation fulfilled?
of algebraic equations. Using FEM
environment Marc/Mentat allows the user No Yes
to concentrate on user research work while Purely elastic behavior Pseudoelastic behavior.
taking advantage of the latest achieveme- or mart. reorientation (active phase trans.)
nts available in FEM technology.
Flow of data in Marc software with Calculation of
special emphasis on material procedure is z=0 martensitic phase
shown in Figure 5. The circular symbols q = piezocaloric fraction increment z,
with caption Marc denote code, which heat generated heat
does not require user intervention during increment q
implementation of user own material
procedure. Between the shaded elliptical Calculation of stress increment ij and
symbols with caption uvscpl the operations phase strain increment pe
ij
are given, which must be carried out in
user material procedure.
If llovl= 4:
4.1 Procedure uvscpl Calculation of new components
of stiffness matrix
For the purposes of the RL model
constitutive equations implementation into
FEM code, the material user subroutine uvscpl
uvscpl was selected. This procedure
according to the software producer
intentions is assigned for implementation
of material model exhibiting elastic– Marc
viscous–plastic properties.
The main module of Marc program
requires from this procedure execution of Fig. 5 Flow diagram of data in Marc program - user
two basic tasks: subroutine "uvscpl" for shape memory alloys

10
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

– the first task consists in computation of increments of stress tensor components, increment of
mass fraction of martensite, increments of inelastic strain components and increment of heat flux
from internal sources (in the case of coupled thermo-mechanical analysis) and possibly computation
of the values of other (hidden) state parameters. These tasks must be fulfilled when the control
parameter llovl of the Marc software takes the value "6". The input parameters for computation of
mentioned above increments are state of the material at instant t and (i 1) st approximations of
( i 1)
strains and temperature increments ij , T ( i 1) coming from global iteration loop.
– the second task of material procedure is generation of elements of tangent matrix used for
(i )
determination of successive approximations of total strain and temperature increments ij , T (i )
in "global" Newton-Raphson iterative process. This task is to be performed when control parameter
of Marc code llovl takes the value "4".
Elaborated by the author of the present report material procedure allows for simulation of
isothermal as well as coupled thermo-mechanical problems that is such, in which displacements
field influences temperature field and temperature field influences displacements field.
In uvscpl procedure the following operations are performed for all elements and all integration
points in the element, see Figure 5. After transfer of actual state parameters for time t and actual
approximations of increments of total strain components and temperature increment to procedure
uvscpl, there takes place checking whether active forward or reverse phase transformation criteria
are fulfilled ( z 0?) . When the criteria are not fulfilled, then the change of mass fraction of
martensitic phase does not take place ( z 0) at current time step increment, and the only heat
effect is the piezocaloric effect. The behavior of the material is purely elastic and/or reorientation of
martensitic phase takes place, i.e. components of phase transformation strain are changing but this
without change of mass fraction of martensite). When the criterion for the active phase
transformation is fulfilled ( z 0) , then the value of increment of mass fraction of martensitic
phase is calculated, and the increment of the heat emitted (absorbed) resulting from such phase
(i )
transformation evolution. Next, on the base of ij , T ( i ) , z there are determined corresponding
(i )
increments of stress components ij with the aid of sub-incremental integration procedure. When
the value of Marc program parameter llovl is 6 then there takes place return to main module of Marc
program. When the value of parameter llovl is 4 then additionally components of stiffness matrix
are computed t C , t CT , t D , t DT before return to main module.

4.2 Tangent stiffness matrices

In the present section formula for the components t C , t CT , t D , t DT of stiffness matrix are
derived, see formula (11). Interchangeably tensor and engineering notation convenient for
elaborating numerical procedures is use here – it is clear from the context which notation is actually
used. In engineering notation symmetric tensors of the 4th order are treated as 6x6 matrices, tensors
of the 2nd order are treated as 6x1 vectors. For example strain tensor in this notation takes the
following vector form T 11 , 22 , 33 , 12 , 23 , 13 .

In order to derive formula for local components of tangent matrices the rates of stress and power
of internal heat are split of into elastic and non-elastic parts,
  e  ne , (  ij  ije  ijne ) , (19)
Q Q e Q ne , (  e  m
 e,  e 2 ,  m K [  3 T ] ) – see formulae (2), (3).
v 0

This division is convenient when using commonly exploited for solving non-linear incremental
problems predictor-corrector solution algorithm. In this algorithm as a first step of iterative
procedure leading to the solution of incremental problem on particular time step, the approximation

11
 A. Ziółkowski

resulting from purely elastic behavior of the material is taken. In possible consecutive iterative
steps, inelastic correction of the solution is evaluated in order to correctly describe actual non-
elastic behavior of the material.
Thermo-elastic part of tangent matrix has the well known form resulting from the Hooke's law,
(20)
11
e
(1 ) A1 A1 A1 0 0 0 0 (1 ) A1 11
 22
e
(1 ) A1 A1 0 0 0 0 (1 ) A1 22
 33
e
(1 ) A1 0 0 0 0 (1 ) A1 33
12e (0.5 ) A1 0 0 0 12
 23
e
symm. (0.5 ) A1 0 0 23
13
e
(0.5 ) A1 0 13
Q e A2 A2 A2 0 0 0 3 0 A2 T

A1 E / [(1 ) (1 2 )], A2 3 0 T K / , 3K E / (1 2 ) .
In compact notation,
e t
Ce t
CTe 
Q e t e
D t e
DT T
t
Ce ( e ) , t
CTe ( e T ) , t
De ( Q e ) , t
DTe ( Q e T) .
T T

"Thermo-elastic" tangent matrix is used when no non-elastic effects take place in the material,
i.e.  pe 0 (  ne 0 ). In such a case the heat Q e includes only piezocaloric effect.
The "non-elastic" part of tangent matrix has the form specified by formula 21, see Figure 6.
It can be derived as follows: (22)
 ne
2  pe
, ( ne  ne
) (see formula (31 )) (a)
 pe
( / ) z ( z / )  ( z / )( 3
)  (see formula (32 )),
 pe ( / ) z  ( z/ )  ( z/ 3
)( )  ( / ) zT T ,
 pe ( / )z( / )  ( z / )(1 ( )/ 2
)( / ) ( / ) zT T ,
 pe ( / )z ( / ) ( z / )(1 ( )/ 2
)( / )  ( / ) zT T (b)
When the criteria of active phase transition are fulfilled, then it follows from formula (4a) that,
z z  z T , z ( z T ) 2 / ( H ( ) ) , zT ( z T )
T
( s * s 0 (1 2 z ) / H ( ) , ( =1, 2).
Expressions  ( )  and  (1 / ) /  ( / )  can be presented as follows,
2 / 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 11 11
11
1/ 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 22 22
22
1/ 3 1/ 3 2 / 3 33 1 33
 ( )   ( )  33

1 12 , 12 / 2
12
1 23 13 / 2
23
1 13 23 / 2
13
1/2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1/2
11 22 33 0.5( 12 13 23 ) , ( 2 , ),
 ne 2 (  pe  Tpe T ),  pe  pe / ,  Tpe  / T,
pe
(c)
Substituting expressions for  ,  , z , zT into 22b), and then the result into 22a) gives the
following formula (21)

12
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

(21)
11ne B
11 1 11 2 B2 / 3 B
11 1 22 B2 / 3 B
11 1 33 B2 / 3 B
11 1 12 /2
 ne
22 22 B1 22 2 B2 / 3 22 B1 33 B2 / 3 22 B1 12 /2
 ne
33
B
33 1 33 2B2 / 3 B
33 1 12 /2
 ne
12 12 B1 12 / 4 B2 / 2
 ne
23
symm.
 ne
13

Q ne
2 11 B4 2 22 B4 2 33 B4 12 B4

B /2
11 1 23 B /2
11 1 12 2 11B3 11
22 B1 23 / 2 22 B1 12 / 2 2 11B3 22
33 B1 23 / 2 33 B1 12 / 2 2 11B3 33
12 B1 23 / 4 12 B1 13 / 4 12 B3
12
23 B1 23 / 4 B2 / 2 23 B1 13 / 4 23 B3
23
13 B1 13 / 4 B2 / 2 13 B3
13
23 B4 13 B4 B5 T

where
2
2 2 z 2z [ s* s0 (1 2 z )]
B1 2
[ ( )
], B2 , B3 ,
H H( )

B4 [ / ( u u0 (1 2 z ))] ,
H( )

[ s* s0 (1 2 z )]
B5 [ / ( u u0 (1 2 z ))] .
H( )

In compact notation,
 ne t
Cne t
CTne 
,
Q ne t ne
D t ne
DT T

where
t
Ce (  ne ) , t
CTe (  ne T ) , t
De ( Q ne ) , t
DTe ( Q ne T) .
T T

Fig. 6 The form of inelastic part of tangent matrix for shape memory alloys materials undergoing
RL model description.

13
 A. Ziółkowski

5. Numerical model formulation

The procedure uvscpl with implemented constitutive RL model of shape memory alloys was used
for running numerical simulations of behavior of cylindrical sample made of NiTi alloy in testing
machine. The sample geometrical dimensions of are shown in Figure 4. Computations were
performed for isothermal conditions at several temperatures 310K, 315K, 322.5K. For each
temperature five tests with proportional loading paths were numerically modeled, identical to those
actually executed in real experiments. The load control in numerical simulations took place by
moving midpoint part of the sample in axial direction with prescribed constant speed – it was
displacement controlled. The end part of the sample was kept fixed. This load control was different
from that in actual experiments which was force controlled – loading was applied with prescribed
constant stress rate of 1 MPa/s. Numerical simulations with stress load control will be performed at
a later date. The two-dimensional, axis-symmetric FEM element with torsion was used for
simulations. The basic objective of numerical computations was determination of transient fields of
three components of stress and strain, i.e. axial, hoop and radial and field of mass fraction of
martensitic phase z. The solutions obtained with the aid of finite element method are in fact
solutions of the problem (6)-(8) formulated in section 2 for isothermal conditions and several
variants of mechanical boundary conditions. Before executing actual numerical simulations, it was
necessary to identify material constants of used for simulations RL constitutive model. The
procedure of material data identification is presented in section 5.1. The mesh of finite element
method and the manner of boundary conditions application is discussed in section 5.2.

5.1 Identification of RL model material parameters for NiTi alloy

FEM numerical modeling simulations of NiTi shape memory alloy behavior requires
identification of the constitutive RL model material parameters for this alloy. The complete set of
the RL model material constants can be divided into two groups, cf. also Raniecki (1994) [4].
The first subset consists of thermo-elastic data identical with those required in classical theory of
thermo-elasticity, i.e. density [kg/m3], heat capacity c p [J/kgoK], heat conductivity [W/moK],
Young modulus E [MPa] and Poisson coefficient ; all conjectured to be the same for both phases.
The values of , c p and were adopted from available literature. The Young modulus and
Poisson coefficient were determined from experimental stress-strain curve for uniaxial tension
( Temp 315K ) included in the unpublished report of IPPT PAN, B-1/2000 by Socha and Raniecki.
The second subset of data includes parameters characterizing thermoelastic martensitic phase
transition in SMA materials, those are: difference between internal energies and internal entropies
of martensitic and austenitic phase u * [J/kg], s * [J/(kgK)], material constants u0 [J/kg],
s0 [J/(kgK)], amplitude of pseudoelastic flow at simple tension , and four constants characterizing
forward (reverse) phase transition kinetics a1 [1/0K], a2 [1/0K], r1, r2 ( u* , s* , u0 , s0 , ,, a1, a2 ,
r1 , r2 ) , cf. also [4]. The numerical value of pseudoelastic flow amplitude at simple tension was
estimated from the same experimental data chart, which served for identification of the values of
Young modulus and Poisson coefficient. The obtained value of 0.042 was compared with the values
estimated from charts elaborated for tests with different loading paths. The difference was not
exceeding specified here value of amplitude by more than 10%.
Clausius-Clapeyron relations, determining dependence on temperature, of critical stresses for
start of forward and reverse phase transitions from pure austenitic, pure martensitic phase
respectively, were used in order to determine the values of constants u* , s* , u0 , s0 ,
AM AM
1 (T ) (d 1 / dT ) T S1AM , 1
MA
(T ) (d 1
MA
/ dT ) T S1MA (23)

14
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

In Figure 7, experimental values of 700

AM MA
at four temperatures, Stress [MPa]
1 (T ) 1 (T )
600
determined for NiTi alloy, are marked with
triangles and diamonds. The experimental 500
Clausius-Clapeyron lines (23) were y = 7.71x - 1941.38
interpolated on the base of these data using 400
minimum squares method. The identified
for investigated NiTi alloy values of 300
parameters of interpolated Clausius-
Clapeyron lines are as follows, 200 y = 11.09x - 3259.42
d 1AM / dT 7.71 , d 1MA / dT 11.1 [MPa/
K], S1AM 1941 , S1MA 3260 [MPa]. 100

Taking advantage of the condition that Temperature [K]

0
thermodynamic driving force of phase
305 310 315 320 325 330 335
transition is zero at start of forward, reverse
p.t. ( f 0 ), the following relations are Fig. 7. Interpolation of Clausius-Clapeyron lines of
obtained, cf. formulae below 4a), critical stresses for start of forward and start of
reverse phase transformations 1AM (T ) , MA
(T ) of
s* 0.5 ( / ) (d 1
AM
/ dT d 1
MA
/ dT ) , 1
NiTi alloy in dependence on temperature.
MA AM
s0 0.5 ( / ) (d 1 / dT d 1 / dT ) (24)
AM MA
Extrapolation of the relations (23) to stress free states ( 1 (T ) 0, 1 (T ) 0 ) leads to the
following formulae for characteristic temperatures M s0 and As0 ,
M s0 S1AM / (d 1
AM
/ dT ), As0 S1MA / (d 1
MA
/ dT ) , (25)
For constants u* , u0 the following connections are valid resulting from (4d),
u* 0.5 [ s* ( As0 M s0 ) s0 ( As0 M s0 )]
(26)
u0 0.5 [ s* ( As0 M s0 ) s0 ( As0 M s0 )]
AM MA
Substitution of found on the base of experimental data d 1 / dT , d 1 / dT , S1AM , S1MA into
(24), (25) and (26) leads to the following values of NiTi alloy material constants u * =16800 [J/kg],
u0 =4264.5 [J/kg], s * =60.8 [J/kgK], s0 =11.0 [J/kgK], M s0 =251.6 [K], As0 =293.7 [K]. It is worth
noting that temperatures M s0 and As0 determined for the investigated alloy not with mechanical data
but by calorimetric method (DSC) were as follows, M s0 =253 [K], As0 =268 [K].
In order to determine material constants characterizing phase transformation kinetics a1, a2, r1, r2,
the following procedure was used. In accordance with assumptions of the RL model, phase
( )
transformation proceeds in such a way that functions remain constant during the active,
continuous transformation,
(1) f
( ,T , z) ( , T , z ) k (1) ( z ) C0(1) ( z * ) Const ,
( 2) f
(27)
( ,T , z) ( , T , z ) k ( 2) ( z ) C0( 2) ( z * ) Const
1 – indicates forward transformation A M, and index 2 indicates reverse transformation
*
M A, z denotes value of mass fraction of martensitic phase at the moment of last crossing of the
line of full thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. line specified with equation f 0 . Using condition
f
0 the values of constants C 0(1) , C 0( 2 ) can be expressed in terms of z * as follows:
C0(1) ( z* ) k (1) ( z* ) (C0(1) ( z* 0) 0), C0(2) ( z* ) k (2) ( z* ) (C0(2) ( z* 1) 0) .

15
 A. Ziółkowski

Considerable difficulty in the process of identification of phase transition (p.t.) kinetics constants
makes the fact that usually available experimental stress-strain curves do not describe so called
external hysteresis loop. The external hysteresis loop is obtained when in the process of sample
loading-unloading at some load complete phase transition in the sample is attained, i.e. material is
fully transformed into martensitic phase (zmax=1). Usually p.t. in the sample reaches maximum
value zmax noticeably lower than "1". In order to overcome this difficulty two relations were used:
– stress as a function of mass fraction of martensitic phase 1 ( z ) during loading phase,
– stress as a function of mass fraction of martensitic phase during unloading phase, after reaching
maximum advancement of the phase transformation at peak load 1 ( z, zmax ) .
They take the following form:
1 ( / )[ ( u* T s* ) (u0 T s0 )(1 2 z )
(28)
1 / a1[( s* s0 (1 2 r1 z ))] ln(1 z ) 2r1 (u0 M s0 s0 ) z]
1 ( / )[ ( u* T s* ) (u0 T s0 )(1 2 z )
[ s* s0 2 r2 s0 (1 z )][ln( z ) ln( zmax )] / a2 2 r2 (u0 As0 s0 ) ( z zmax )]
The formula (28)1 is valid only for
800
external hysteresis loop, i.e. when Stress [MPa] Experiment
(1)
C0 0 , whereas formula (28)2 is 700 Forward kin.
generally valid. Reverse kin.
Taking advantage of relation 600
z (1/ )[ 1 1 / E ] experimen- 500
tal chart 1 ( 1 ) for tension at
Temp=315K (own unpublished 400
experimental data), was transfor- 300
med to the form 1 ( z ) . Next, by
trial and error values of a1, a2, r1, 200
r2 were selected in such away as
to obtain the best compatibility 100 mass fraction of martensite
between experimental and 0
modeling curves. It may be stated
not very precisely but quite Fig. -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
8. Comparison of modeling curves obtained for identified
1
intuitively that constants a1, a2 constants of phase transition kinetics with experimental curve.
control the "radius" of curvature Table 1
of pseudoelastic flow at advanced stage of
[kg/m3] 6500.0 s*[J/kgK] 60.8
phase transformation, whereas constants r1,
r2 control the slope of pseudoelastic plateau. [GPa] 20.2 u* [J/kg] 16800.0
The compatibility between experimental and
modeling curves obtained for identified [GPa] 195.0 s0 [J/kgoK] 11.0
values of phase transformation kinetics con-
stants a 1 0.3, a 2 0.19, r1 0.6, r2 0.85 [GPa] 58.5 u0 [J/kg] 4264.5
is shown in Figure 8. 0.45 0.042
The complete set of identified NiTi alloy
material data is given in Table 1 and Table 2. 3 / 2 =0.051, M s0 = 251.6, As0 = 293.7 [0K],
Please note that among six constants appearing Table 2
in formula 4b) and specified in Table 2 only
A 1 [J/kg] 166.1 A 2 [J/kg] 377.5
four is independent. Constants specified in
Table 2 were determined on the base of B1 [J/kg] 43.8 B 2 [J/kg] 98.0
identified values a1, a2 , r1, r2 from formula 4c).
C 1 [J/kg] 1810.4 C 2 [J/kg] 1781.4

16
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

5.2 Thermomechanical problem geometry, finite element mesh and boundary conditions
The commercial FEM environment Marc/Mentat with implemented material procedure for shape
memory alloy materials was used when running numerical simulations of behavior of NiTi
cylindrical sample in testing machine in isothermal conditions, cf. Figure 4. In order to simplify
investigated FEM problem, non axial-symmetric cut outs in grip parts of the otherwise axial-
symmetric real tubular specimen were not taken into consideration in numerical simulations
process. In that way the FEM problem could be reduced to axial-symmetric one. In view of
symmetry of the sample geometry with respect to the plane orthogonal to its axis, passing through
the sample center point, and analogical symmetry of mechanical loading conditions computations
were performed only for half of the sample. For finite element method modeling simulations "two-
dimensional" axis-symmetric element with torsion was used. This element has three degrees of
freedom, i.e. displacement in axial direction, displacement in radial direction and rotational
displacement around axis of axial symmetry. However, using of this element involves computation
of the value of hoop component of strain – from the components of displacement vector, with
taking advantage of the kinematical constrains resulting from conjectured axial-symmetry. Such
technique used in this element brings considerable computer time saving. In order to increase
accuracy of the FEM modeling predictions alternatively solid three-dimensional element can be
used. The 3D brick elements FEM computations analogous to the ones presented in this report are
planned to be executed at a later date. Though, this will require relatively long computation times
with computational power available at present to the present author.
Division of the sample into finite element mesh is shown in Figure 9, where details of meshing
in the transition area from measurement to grip part of the sample are also shown. The finite
element mesh of the numerical task embraces 612 elements and 708 nodes.
The adopted boundary conditions of numerical task are shown in Figure 10a. The axial and hoop
displacements of the end of the sample are fixed but displacements in radial direction are allowable.
The mechanical loading applied in midsection part of the sample was displacement controlled in
pseudo-time. Variants of loading paths, i.e. torsion (path 1), uniaxial tension (path 2), uniaxial
compression (path 3), tension-torsion (path 4) and compression-torsion (path 5) were imposed by
prescribing displacements in axial, hoop or axial and hoop directions. The change of displacements
of central part of the sample was enforced in accordance with loading function shown in Figure 10b
(where t denotes time-like parameter). One loading-unloading cycle was modeled.
In order to ensure rigidity of the middle section of the sample under loading in axial and hoop
direction, the nodes lying on the surface perpendicular to the sample axis passing through

Fig. 9 The finite element method mesh for the half of cylindrical sample. The mesh includes 612
elements and 708 nodes.

17
 A. Ziółkowski

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 loading
5 function
10 15 t= 20

a) b)
Fig. 10 Boundary conditions of numerical task.
the midsection of the sample were tied together by a proper kinematical links imposed on respective
degrees of freedom. These constraints in effect enforced the same axial and hoop displacements of
all linked nodes lying in the midsection of the sample. The temperature of the sample was
prescribed to be constant and fixed in the whole volume of the sample and amounted to
T ( x, t ) 310 K or T ( x, t ) 315K (isothermal conditions).
In real testing experiments the loadings of the NiTi sample were stress controlled. Due to
difficulties with obtaining satisfactory results of numerical simulations with this type of loading
control, it was decided to present results of simulations of sample behavior with displacement load
control. Simulations under stress load control will be presented at a later date.
At the beginning of loading process it was always assumed that the sample is in fully austenitic
and stress-free state z ( x,0) ( x,0) 0 . It was also assumed that there are no initial strains
( x,0) 0 .

6. Numerical simulations results

In the present section selected results are presented of numerical simulations for the problem
formulated in section 5. In section 6.1, there are presented stress-strain curves for the point in the
middle of measurement part of the sample obtained on the base of data from measurements during
experimental testing and those from numerical simulations for two temperatures T 310 K and
T 315K . In section 6.2, there are shown maps of spatial fields of effective stress and mass
fraction of martensitic phase obtained for uniaxial tension (path 2) and proportional tension-torsion
(path 4) loadings at temperature T 315K at several time instants. Subsequently, variations of
stress components are also shown along line on internal wall of the sample in axial direction at peak
load instant for the loading paths 2 and 4. Finally, maps of stress and mass fraction of martensitic
phase fraction fields at peak load are shown for five measured experimentally and FEM simulated
loading paths.

6.1 Local transients

In Figure 11 collective stress-strain chart is shown of axial and shear components and effective
stress-equivalent strain 11 11 , 13 13 , ef eq in middle cross section of NiTi sample

elaborated on the base of experimental data obtained in isothermal, proportional tension-torsion test
executed at temperature T 310 K . In Figure 12 analogous collective chart is shown in middle
cross section at internal wall – see arrow in Figure 16A, elaborated on the base of FEM simulation
modeling data, where for comparison purposes also experimental curve of effective stress-
equivalent strain from Figure 11 has been overlaid. In Figures 13 and 14 the charts are shown
showing the same kind of curves as that shown in Figures 11 and 12 but elaborated on the base of
data originating from real test and FEM modeling simulation executed at temperature T 315K . It

18
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

can be evaluated that in stress terms discrepancy between modeling and experimental data
presented in Figures 11 to 14 do not exceed 10%, i.e. good agreement has been obtained in
engineering terms between experimental and modeling curves. The possible sources for the
discrepancies are numerous. One of them is difference in the manner of load control, which in real
tests was force controlled, while in numerical experiments it was displacement controlled. In the
mechanical laboratory of IPPT several tests has been completed with displacement control of the
sample loading, which revealed that stress-strain charts exhibited considerable hardening in stress
controlled loading experiments and small hardening in the case of displacement controlled
experiments. This indicates that type of loading control is important factor strongly influencing
shape memory alloy material behavior. Further theoretical and experimental works are required to
clarify this issue.
800
Stress [MPa] T=310K
700
SigEf Sig11 Sig13
600

500

400

300

200

100
Strain
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Fig. 11 Experimental stress-strain curves of 11 11 , 13 13 , ef eq in the middle of

measurement part of the sample; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, Temp 310 K .

Fig. 12 Modeling stress-strain charts 11 11 , 13 13 , ef eq , on internal wall in the middle of

measurement part of the sample; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, Temp 310 K .

19
 A. Ziółkowski

800
Stress [MPa] T=315K
700
SigEf Sig11 Sig13
600

500

400

300

200

100
Strain
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Fig. 13 Experimental stress-strain curves 11 11 , 13 13 , ef eq , in the middle of

measurement part of the sample; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, Temp 315 K .
800
Stress [MPa] T=315K
700
SigEf Sig11 Sig13 SigEf Exp
600

500

400

300

200

100
Strain
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Fig. 14 Modeling stress-strain curves 11 11 , 13 13 , ef eq , on internal wall in the middle of
measurement part of the sample; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, Temp 315 K .

20
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

6.2 Spatial fields

The chart of effective stress-equivalent strain in the middle cross section on internal wall of the
tubular NiTi alloy sample is shown in Figure 15, cf. arrow in Figure 16A. The curve was obtained
as a result of FEM simulation of isothermal, uniaxial tension (Path 2) loading-unloading test of NiTi
specimen in strength testing machine at temperature T 315K . The points A-B-C-D-E-F mark
instants for which maps of mass fraction of martensitic phase and effective stress fields in the
longitudinal cross section of the sample, and charts of their variation on internal wall of the sample
along line in axial direction were elaborated. These maps and charts are shown in Figures 16 to 18.
It is interesting to note that during NiTi sample mechanical loading martensitic phase
transformation from pure austenite (B2 M) first appears locally in place of strong stress
concentration near the transition rim from grip part to measurement part of the sample, visible as
small area in yellow color in Figures 16A and 16B. However, almost immediately afterwards
martensitic phase appears nearly uniformly in bulk volume on approximately 3/4 length of
measurement part of the sample as can be found upon analyzing fields shown in Figure 16 and
curves presented in Figure 18a).

700
Effective stress [MPa] Tension D
600
C
B
500

400
A
300
E
200

100 F
Equivalent strain
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Fig. 15 Modeling curve of effective stress-equivalent strain, on internal wall in the middle cross
section of measurement part of the sample, cf. arrow in Figure 16; Uniaxial tension test –
Path 2, Temp 315 K .

21
 A. Ziółkowski

Fig. 16 Fields of mass fraction of martensitic phase at consecutive time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 ,
t 5.6 , t 10.0 , t 14.0 , t 19.2 s; Uniaxial tension – Path 2, T 315 K .
Please note that the scales on the consecutive parts of Figure 16 are different, what results in
highlighting fields inhomogeneities (in figures A and F the scale maksimum amounts to mere 3% of
mass fraction of martensitic phase). Sequence A-B-C-D-E-F of fields presented in Figures 16 and
17 corresponds to the points marked with the same letters on the stress-strain curve in Figure 15.

22
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

Fig. 17 Fields of effective stress at consecutive time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 , t 5.6 , t 10.0 ,
t 14.0 , t 19.2 s; Uniaxial Tension – Path 2, T 315 K .
Please note that the scales on the consecutive parts of Figure 17 are different.

23
 A. Ziółkowski

Fig. 18 a) Variation of mass fraction of martensitic phase, on internal wall of the sample along line
parallel to its axis, at several time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 , t 5.6 , t 10.0 s; Tension – Path 2,
T 315 K .

Fig. 18 b) Variation of effective stress, on internal wall of the sample along line parallel to its axis,
at several time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 , t 5.6 , t 10.0 s; Uniaxial Tension – Path 2,
T 315 K .
The measurement part of the sample is on the left side of Figure 18.

24
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

In Figure 19, the chart of effective stress-equivalent strain on internal wall in the middle cross
section of the tubular NiTi alloy sample is shown, cf. arrow in Figure 20A, obtained in the case of
isothermal test of proportional tension-torsion (Path 4) at temperature T=315. The points A-B-C-D-
E-F mark instants for which maps of mass fraction of martensitic phase and effective stress fields in
the longitudinal cross section of the sample, and charts of their variation on internal wall of the
sample along line in axial direction were elaborated. These maps and charts are shown in Figures 20
to 22. Similarly like in the case of uniaxial tension also in the case of complex tension-torsion
loading martensitic phase transformation first appears in place of strong stress concentration near
the transition rim from grip part to measurement part of the sample, please note small area in yellow
color in Figures 20A and 20B. Next, almost immediately afterwards martensitic phase appears
uniformly in bulk volume of measurement part of the sample, cf. Figure 20 and curves presented in
Figure 22a). Quite distinct gradient of mass fraction of martensitic phase in the radial direction –
through the thickness, of the sample appears in the case of proportional tension-torsion test.

700
Effective stress [MPa] Tension - Torsion D
600 C
A B
500

400

300
E
F
200

100
Equivalent strain
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Fig. 19 Modeling curve of effective stress-equivalent strain, on internal wall in the middle cross
section of measurement part of the sample, cf. arrow in Figure 20; Proportional tension and
torsion – Path 4, Temp 315 K .

25
 A. Ziółkowski

Fig. 20 Fields of mass fraction of martensitic phase at consecutive time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 ,
t 5.6 , t 10.0 , t 14.0 , t 19.2 s; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, T 315 K .
Please note that the scales on the consecutive parts of Figure 20 are different, what results in
highlighting fields inhomogeneities. Sequence A-B-C-D-E-F of fields presented in Figures 20 and
21 corresponds to the points marked with the same letters on the stress-strain curve in Figure 19.

26
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

Fig. 21 Fields of effective stress at consecutive time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 , t 5.6 , t 10.0 ,
t 14.0 , t 19.2 s; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, T 315 K .
Please note that the scales on the consecutive parts of the Figure 21 are different.

27
 A. Ziółkowski

Fig. 22 a) Variation of mass fraction of martensitic phase, on internal wall of the sample along line
parallel to its axis, at several time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 , t 5.6 , t 10.0 s; Tension-
Torsion – Path 4, T 315 K .

Fig. 22 b) Variation of effective stress, on internal wall of the sample along line parallel to its axis,
at several time instants t 2.0 , t 2.8 , t 5.6 , t 10.0 s; Proportional Tension-Torsion –
Path 4, T 315 K .
The measurement part of the sample is on the left side of Figure 22.

28
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

In Figure 23a), there is shown collective chart of spatial variation of all stress tensor components
on internal wall, along axis of the NiTi sample at peak load ( t 10 s), submitted to uniaxial tension
(path 2) loading at temperature T 315 K . The only non-zero component of stress tensor in
measurement part of the sample is 11 component in accordance with the expectations. In Figure
23b) analogous data are shown as those in Figure 23a) but for the case when sample was submitted
to tension-torsion loading (path 4), at T 315 K . In this case in measurement part of the sample the
two non-zero stress tensor components are 11 and 13 , as expected. These results deliver some
validation of correctness of performed FEM modeling computations.
800
Stress a)
[MPa]
Sig11
600 Sig22
Sig33
Sig12
400 Sig23
Sig13

200

0
Distance along axis
from specimen center →
-200
[mm]
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Fig. 23a) Variation of all stress tensor components, on internal wall of the sample along line parallel
to its axis, at peak load; Uniaxial tension – Path 2, Temp 315 K .

800
Stress Sig11 b)
[MPa] Sig22
600
Sig33
Sig12
400
Sig23
Sig13
200

-200

-400
Distance along axis
from specimen center →
-600
[mm]
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Fig. 23b) Variation of all stress tensor components on internal wall of the sample along line parallel
to its axis, at peak load; Proportional Tension-Torsion – Path 4, Temp 315 K .

29
 A. Ziółkowski

Figure 24 shows fields of mass fraction of martensitic phase at peak load for five loading paths. It
is worth noting that martensitic phase inhomogeneity in the measurement part of the sample during
torsion is practically through the thickness of the sample – attaining zmax=0.1 at peak load. The
largest 2D inhomogeneity of the martensitic phase field in the measurement part of the sample
appears in the case of uniaxial compression. This suggests that this type of loading should be treated
with special care when analyzing the results – treating them macroscopically. It also suggests that
this type of loading should be treated as critical in selection of geometrical dimensions of tubular
SMA sample because too thin wall can lead to micro-buckling resulting in "excessive"
inhomogeneity of phase and in the effect also strain fields, difficult to be noticed at first sight.

Torsion Path 1

Path 2
Tension

Compression Path 3

Tension - torsion Path 4

Compression - torsion Path 5

Fig. 24 Fields of mass fraction of martensitic phase at peak load for five loading paths, T 315 K .

30
 Finite element modeling of SMA structures

Figure 25 shows fields of effective stress at peak load for five loading paths. These fields
correspond to fields of mass fraction of martensitic phase presented in Figure 24.

Torsion Path 1

Tension Path 2

Compression Path 3

Tension - torsion Path 4

Compression - torsion Path 5

Fig. 25 Fields of effective stress at peak load for five proportional loading paths T 315 K .

6. Summary
Effective use of RL constitutive models of shape memory alloy materials, developed in IPPT
PAN – cf. [3]-[5], in engineering practice for design of structures including elements made of SMA
materials requires development of efficient design tool. The commercial finite element method code
with implemented material procedure of RL constitutive relations makes such tool. Due to that
reason, author of the present work undertook the task of software development being
implementation of constitutive relations of RL thermodynamic model proposed in paper [4] into

31
 A. Ziółkowski

commercial FEM code MSC/Marc, Mentat. The task required fluent theoretical and practical
knowledge of finite element method technology on the one side, and quite detailed knowledge on
the organization of data flow in specific FEM code on the other side, in this case in Marc code. This
skills and knowledge allowed for elaboration and validation of shape memory alloys software
material procedure suitable for 1D elements and axial-symmetric elements allowing for torsional
loads. The procedure has been used for solving quasi-static, isothermal initial-boundary value
problems modeling strength testing of tubular NiTi sample submitted in testing machine to
proportional mechanical loading paths, in particular tension and tension-torsion. Obtaining solution
of such problems analytically is practically impossible.
Although, in the present report numerical results for isothermal conditions were only presented,
the elaborated procedure allows for running analyses of fully coupled thermo-mechanical problems
with taking into account all important coupling mechanical and thermal effects e.g. piezocaloric
effect, reversible latent heat of phase transformation, heat generated as a result of work dissipation,
effects induced by increase of the value of critical stress for phase transformation with temperature
or stress recovery resulting from imposed kinematical constraints. Computations for coupled
problems will be performed at a later stage of the theoretical works on modeling SMA materials
executed in IPPT PAN.
Hitherto, many researchers running numerical analyses involving shape memory alloy materials
out of necessity applied models of plasticity, using special "artificial" operations enabling more or
less precise description of SMA materials behavior in some prescribed temperature range and/or for
special type of loading. In that approaches many effects of pseudoelasticity were often ignored
especially those connected with temperature variation and heat generation. Use of RL
thermodynamic models family of SMA behavior in numerical computations enables avoiding
serious limitations of adapted plasticity models, e.g. such that plasticity models allow to simulate
only loading phase of the SMA material but not the unloading one.
Acknowledgments
Financial support of the Polish National Committee of Sciences (KBN Project No 7T07A00513)
is gratefully acknowledged.
References
1 Bathe K.J., Finite element procedures in engineering analysis, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
07632, 1982.
2 Jinfang G., Zhu M., Mi X., Design and medical applications of NiTi SMA self-expanding stents in
China in Pelton A., Hodgson D., Russel S., Duerig T. Editors, Proceedings of The Second International
Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic Technologies SMST-97, Pacific Grove, CA, March 2-6,
ISBN 0-9660508-1-9, 1997, pp. 449-454.
3 Raniecki B., Lexcellent C., Tanaka K., Arch. Mech. 44, 3, Thermodynamic models of pseudoelastic
behavior of shape memory alloys 1992, pp. 261-284.
4 Raniecki B., Lexcellent C., Europ. J. of Mechanics /Solids/, 1, 13, RL–models of pseudoelasticity and
their specifications for some shape memory alloys, 1994, pp. 1-30.
5 Raniecki B. Lexcellent C., Europ. J. of Mechanics /Solids/, 2, 17, Thermodynamics of isotropic
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plastic range in dependence upon temperature treatment in Pelton A., Hodgson D., Russel S., Duerig T.
Editors, Proceedings of The Second International Conference on Shape Memory and Superelastic
Technologies SMST-97, Pacific Grove, CA, March 2-6, ISBN 0-9660508-1-9, 1997, pp. 449-454.
7 Wriggers P., Miehe C., Kleiber M., Simo J.C., Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., Vol. 33, On the coupled
thermomechanical treatment of necking problems via finite element methods 1992, pp. 869-883.
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Poland, 1995.

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