Full Ebook of Teaching and Testing Second Language Pragmatics and Interaction A Practical Guide Second Language Acquisition Research Series 1St Edition Carsten Roever Online PDF All Chapter

Teaching and Testing Second
Language Pragmatics and Interaction A

Practical Guide Second Language
Acquisition Research Series 1st Edition
Carsten Roever
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/teaching-and-testing-second-language-pragmatics-an
d-interaction-a-practical-guide-second-language-acquisition-research-series-1st-editio
n-carsten-roever/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Language Learner Autonomy Theory Practice and Research

Volume 117 Second Language Acquisition 117 1st Edition
David Little
https://ebookmeta.com/product/language-learner-autonomy-theory-
practice-and-research-volume-117-second-language-
acquisition-117-1st-edition-david-little/
Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition and

Learner Corpus Research 1st Edition Robert Fuchs
https://ebookmeta.com/product/tense-and-aspect-in-second-
language-acquisition-and-learner-corpus-research-1st-edition-
robert-fuchs/
Email Pragmatics and Second Language Learners 1st

Edition Maria Economidou-Kogetsidis
https://ebookmeta.com/product/email-pragmatics-and-second-
language-learners-1st-edition-maria-economidou-kogetsidis/
Email Pragmatics and Second Language Learners 1st

Edition Maria Economidou-Kogetsidis
https://ebookmeta.com/product/email-pragmatics-and-second-
language-learners-1st-edition-maria-economidou-kogetsidis-2/
Metalinguistic Awareness and Second Language
Acquisition 1st Edition Karen Roehr Brackin
https://ebookmeta.com/product/metalinguistic-awareness-and-
second-language-acquisition-1st-edition-karen-roehr-brackin/
First Language Bidialectism in Second Language

Interface Acquisition Difference and Disorder 1st
Edition Weifeng Han
https://ebookmeta.com/product/first-language-bidialectism-in-
second-language-interface-acquisition-difference-and-
disorder-1st-edition-weifeng-han/
Talking About Second Language Acquisition 1st Edition

Karim Sadeghi
https://ebookmeta.com/product/talking-about-second-language-
acquisition-1st-edition-karim-sadeghi/
Researching Creativity in Second Language Acquisition

1st Edition Ashleigh Pipes
https://ebookmeta.com/product/researching-creativity-in-second-
language-acquisition-1st-edition-ashleigh-pipes/
Second Language Acquisition of Turkish 1st Edition Ay■e

Gürel
https://ebookmeta.com/product/second-language-acquisition-of-
turkish-1st-edition-ayse-gurel/
i
TEACHING AND TESTING SECOND

LANGUAGE PRAGMATICS AND
INTERACTION
Pragmatic ability is crucial for second language learners to communicate

appropriately and effectively; however, pragmatics is underemphasized in language
teaching and testing. This book remedies that situation by connecting theory,
empirical research, and practical curricular suggestions on pragmatics for learners
of different proficiency levels: it surveys the field comprehensively and, with useful
tasks and activities, offers rich guidance for teaching and testing L2 pragmatics.
Mainly referring to pragmatics of English and with relevant examples from
multiple languages, it is an invaluable resource for practicing teachers, graduate
students, and researchers in language pedagogy and assessment.
Carsten Roever is Associate Professor in Applied Linguistics at the University of

Melbourne, Australia.
ii
iii
TEACHING AND
TESTING SECOND
LANGUAGE
PRAGMATICS AND
INTERACTION
A Practical Guide
Carsten Roever
iv
First published 2022

by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
© 2022 Taylor & Francis
The right of Carsten Roever to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Roever, Carsten, author.
Title: Teaching and testing second language pragmatics
and interaction: a practical guide / Carsten Roever.
Description: New York: Routledge, 2021. |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2020054080 (print) | LCCN 2020054081 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367202811 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367203030 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780429260766 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Pragmatic–Study and teaching. |
Second language acquisition.
Classification: LCC P53.62 .R64 2021 (print) |
LCC P53.62 (ebook) | DDC 418.0071–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020054080
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020054081
ISBN: 978-0-367-20281-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-20303-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-26076-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9780429260766
Typeset in Bembo
by Newgen Publishing UK
v
CONTENTS
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is Pragmatics and Why Does It Matter? 1
1.2 Who This Book Is For (and Some Terminology
You Might Need) 3
1.3 How This Book Is Organized 4
2 Pragmatic Competence and Interactional Competence 6

2.1 Pragmatics 6
2.2 How to Talk to Whom: Pragmatic Competence 8
2.2.1 Speech Acts and Politeness 10
2.2.2 Learning L2 Speech Acts 12
2.2.3 Conclusion 14
2.3 Understanding Non-literal Speech: Implicature 15
2.3.1 Learning L2 Implicature 16
2.4 Fixed Expressions for Fixed Purposes: Routine Formulae 17
2.4.1 Learning L2 Routines 18
2.4.2 Conclusion: Implicature and Routine Formulae 18
2.5 Interactional Competence 19
2.5.1 Learning L2 Interactional Competence 29
2.5.2 Conclusion 30
2.6 Summary: Speech Acts, Implicature, Routines, and Interactional
Competence 31
2.7 Resources and Further Readings 32
vi
vi Contents
3 How to Make Teaching Materials and Tests for Pragmatics 33

3.1 The Basics: How to Establish Context 33
3.2 Metapragmatic Judgments 36
3.2.1 Types of Metapragmatic Judgment Tasks 37
3.2.2 Procedure: Administering Metapragmatic Judgment Tasks 40
3.2.3 Resources and Further Readings 40
3.3 Multiple-choice Tasks 40
3.3.1 Creating Multiple-choice Items for Routines 41
3.3.2 Creating Multiple-choice Items for Implicature 42
3.3.3 Creating Multiple-choice Items for Speech Acts 44
3.3.4 Procedure: Administering Multiple-choice Tasks 46
3.3.5 Beyond Multiple Choice: Multi-response Tasks 46
3.4 Discourse Completion Tasks 47
3.4.1 Types of DCTs 49
3.4.2 Designing DCTs 51
3.4.3 Procedure: Administering DCTs 53
3.5 Role Plays 53
3.5.1 Types of Role Plays 55
vi
3.5.2 Target Features in Role Plays 56
3.5.3 Role Play Scenarios 56
3.5.4 Interlocutor Considerations 62
3.5.5 Procedure: How to Run Role Plays 63
3.6 Elicited Conversation 65
3.6.1 Designing Elicited Conversation Tasks 66
3.6.2 Procedure: How to Run Elicited Conversation Tasks 68
4 Pragmatics and Curriculum 69

4.1 The CEFR and Other Frameworks: A Brief Introduction 70
4.2 A Developmentally Sensitive Pragmatics Curriculum 73
4.3 Pragmatics and Proficiency Levels 74
4.4 Beginners: the A1 Level Learner and Pragmatics 74
4.4.1 Getting Learners from 0 to A1 76
4.5 Upper Beginner/Low Intermediate: the A2 Level Learner and
Pragmatics 79
4.5.1 Getting Learners from A1 to A2 81
vi
Contents vii
4.6 Intermediate: the B1 Level Learner and Pragmatics 82

4.6.1 Getting Learners from A2 to B1 86
4.7 Upper-intermediate: the B2 Level Learner and Pragmatics 88
4.7.1 Getting Learners from B1 to B2 93
4.8 Advanced: the C1 Level Learner and Pragmatics 95
4.8.1 Getting Learners from B2 to C1 98
4.9 The High Advanced Learner: Pragmatics at the C2 Level 101
4.9.1 Getting Learners from C1 to C2 103
4.11 Conclusion 103
5 Teaching Pragmatics 105

5.1 Overview: Findings and Issues in Teaching L2 Pragmatics 105
5.1.1 Effectiveness of Teaching L2 Pragmatics 106
5.1.2 Factors in Teaching Pragmatics 107
5.2 Materials for Teaching Pragmatics 108
5.3 Phases of a Pragmatics Lesson 110
5.3.1 Step 1: Presenting the Target Feature 112
5.3.2 Step 2: Receptive Practice 115
5.3.3 Step 3: Productive Practice 118
vi
5.4 Teaching a Feature Across Levels 122
5.4.1 Requests at A1 Level 122
5.4.2 Requests at B1 Level 130
5.4.3 Requests at C1 Level 137
6 Testing Pragmatics 141

6.1 Pragmatics Testing So Far 142
6.2 Testing in Pragmatics Research 145
6.3 Pragmatic Norms 148
6.4 Assessing Learning: Classroom-based Testing of Pragmatics and
Interaction 149
6.5 How to Make Sure Tests Work: Validation of Large-scale Tests 150
6.6 Validating “Objective” Tests 153
6.7 Validating Sociopragmatic Judgment Tests 155
6.8 Validating Productive Tests and their Rating Scales 158
6.9 Fairness and Bias in Testing of Pragmatics 167
6.10 Conclusion 168
vi
newgenprepdf
viii Contents
7 Outlook: the Future of Teaching and Testing of L2 Pragmatics 170

7.1 Pragmatics in General Language Teaching 170
7.2 Specific-purposes Pragmatics: Needs Analyses, Tasks, and
Indigenous Criteria 173
7.3 Making Pragmatics Tests Practical: the Role of Technology 175
Notes 178
References 179
Index 193
vi
1
1
INTRODUCTION
This book is about teaching and testing second language pragmatics and inter-
action. Even language teachers may be unaware of what pragmatic competence
and interactional competence are but we all use them all the time. In the next
vi
chapter, I will go into much more detail of what pragmatics and interactional
competence consist of, and what we know about how learners acquire them. For
now, a shorthand definition will suffice to explain why this book was written.
1.1 What Is Pragmatics and Why Does It Matter?

To put it simply, pragmatic knowledge is knowing how to adapt one’s language use
to other people. Consider the following scenario:
You are in the post office and filling out a form when your pen dies. There
is a woman about your age right next to you. She has just finished filling
out her form and is folding it.You would like to borrow her pen. What do
you say?
It is perfectly grammatically correct in English to say any of the following:
1. “Give me the pen.”

2. “Can you pass me your pen?”
3. “My pen doesn’t work. I so wish I had a pen.”
4. “Excuse me, could I borrow your pen for a second?”
5. “Forgive the intrusion but I was wondering if you wouldn’t mind letting me
use your pen for just a moment. I’ll return it right away.”
DOI: 10.4324/9780429260766-1
2
2 Introduction
However, not all of them fit the situation equally well. The first one is clearly
too direct for the situation, and the second one seems a bit abrupt and not polite
enough. The third one is so arcane and roundabout that the other person may not
even know what the speaker wants but the fourth one is quite good, and the fifth
one would probably get the job done but is possibly a bit too much.
Now imagine the speaker (“you”) and the other person are best friends. That
would change radically what fits the situation and what does not. In that case, the
first one is probably okay, the second one might already be a bit too polite, the
third one could be humorous, and the final two seem completely over the top.
The fact that the relationship influences how we talk might be obvious to
native speakers and high-proficiency speakers, but how would lower-level learners
know this? How do learners know how to talk to people depending on their rela-
tionship with the person and the situation? The stakes are high here: talking to
someone in a way that is culturally inappropriate can make speakers appear rude
even though they do not mean to be.Yet, how to use language with people appro-
priately is not systematically taught in most language courses, not systematically
developed in most language textbooks, not included in most language tests, and
quite scattered even in such an influential document as the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001, 2020).
This state of affairs is highly problematic because it leads to a phenomenon
that communicative language teaching (CLT) is supposed to avoid: learners know 2
about the target language but cannot actually use it appropriately in daily inter-
action. CLT has certainly made great strides in the direction of fostering ability
for use through its “fluency over accuracy” paradigm. But this view does not
necessarily take into account that language is always used with other people and
language use is designed for the person(s) we are speaking to. Fluency must be
supplemented with appropriateness to make learners effective communicators.
The situation is made worse by the absence of pragmatics in language tests.
Unfortunately, what is not tested does not get taught (much). In most language
instruction settings, language teachers and learners focus on content that allows
learners to pass exams and obtain certifications. There is nothing in principle
wrong with this as long as the tests create “positive washback,” i.e., they encourage
the teaching and learning of useful material and thereby make learners better
language users, not just better test takers. Tests can create positive washback by
including desirable material but at this point, pragmatics is not specifically assessed
in any of the big language tests be it IELTS or TOEFL for English, TestDaF for
German, HSK for Chinese, or others. Some of them contain some elements of
pragmatics, for example, the tests in the Cambridge Main Suite assess some inter-
actional abilities but represent a fairly narrow perspective on pragmatics.
Why are pragmatics and abilities for social interaction so underemphasized
in language tests? Is it even possible to test such highly contextual and situation-
dependent skills? And if it is, can scorers agree on what is the “right way” to
say something? These questions have actually been the subject of quite a bit of
3
Introduction 3
research, and there is now quite a bit of knowledge about testing of pragmatics but
it has not really trickled through to many large-scale tests or classrooms.
It is the purpose of this book to familiarize readers with how pragmatic and
interactional abilities can be taught in language classrooms and how they can be
assessed in teacher-made or large-scale tests.
1.2 Who This Book Is For (and Some Terminology

You Might Need)
This book is primarily aimed at practicing second language teachers, curric-
ulum designers, and test makers. It assumes some background in second language
teaching and learning but not in-depth background in linguistics, applied linguis-
tics, or second language acquisition. Having done an introductory course or sub-
ject on second language learning and teaching should be sufficient to follow along.
The book is also useful to students in teacher training courses for ESL or other
languages, or students in applied linguistics/ TESOL/ second language studies
degrees who want to know more about pragmatics and how it can be taught and
tested. It can also be a resource for researchers who work on teaching and testing
of second language pragmatics, though it does not specifically focus on research
methodology. Instead, it is intended as a practical guide that can help with the
2
design of instructional sequences, teaching materials, and tests.
The book is suitable for second language teachers of any modern lan-
guage: English, Chinese, German, Spanish etc. Most examples in the book are in
English though a few are from other languages. However, pragmatics is an issue
for the learning of any language, just like grammar, so everything in the book can
be applied to any language.
There is some terminology that I will use frequently, and which might not be
entirely familiar to all readers:
• Second language: When I talk about “second language,” this means a lan-
guage other than a person’s native language. It also includes third, fourth and
further languages, and does not distinguish between language learning in the
target community (second language setting, e.g., learning English in the US)
or outside (foreign language setting, e.g., learning French in Germany).
• Pragmatics: Chapter 2 will talk in detail about what “pragmatics” is but as a
shorthand definition, pragmatics is an area of language study that investigates
how language relates to the real world. It looks at how the context of lan-
guage use influences the way we talk, and how we use language to make
things happen.
• Interaction: An interaction is two or more people communicating with each
other, typically by means of spoken language. It is also possible to interact in
writing (e.g., text chat) or through gestures and facial expressions but these
modes of communication will not play a big role in this book.
4
4 Introduction
• Interlocutor/interactant: These terms are used fairly interchangeably

to describe people involved in an interaction. The term “interlocutor”
is also sometimes used more specifically to describe a tester or researcher
who interacts with a learner in a role play or other elicited interaction. An
“imaginary interlocutor” is the person described in an interactional task who
is not actually present, for example, the woman in the post office in section
1.1 above.
• Pragmatic competence and interactional competence: Chapter 2 will
talk about these key terms in more depth but suffice it to say that throughout
the book, “pragmatics” and “pragmatic competence” will be used as general
terms that also include interaction and interactional competence.
• Recipient design: Recipient designing an utterance means to formulate
it specifically for a particular hearer. This includes levels of politeness with
close friends and strangers when asking for a pen, but also background know-
ledge. What can the speaker expect the hearer to know and how much back-
ground information do they need to provide to be understood? Speakers
make decisions about this and structure their talk accordingly.
• CEFR: The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(Council of Europe, 2001, 2020) is a lengthy document that describes what
learners at different proficiency levels can be expected to do with the target
language. Its levels A1 and A2 are roughly beginner levels, B1 and B2 are 4
intermediate levels, and C1 and C2 are advanced levels. The CEFR will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
1.3 How This Book Is Organized

Chapters 2 and 3 provide background information for readers with little previous
experience in second language pragmatics and interaction. Chapters 4 through
7 are the core parts of the book, outlining a novel perspective on teaching and
testing pragmatics. Chapter 2 goes into detail about what pragmatics and inter-
actional competence is, and what we know about learners learning to be prag-
matically and interactionally competent. It provides a quick overview of this fairly
broad area to orient readers who may not have a great deal of background on
pragmatics in general and second language pragmatics specifically.
Chapter 3 shows a variety of teaching and testing tools for second language
pragmatics that can be adapted for learners at different levels of proficiency and
pragmatic competence.
Chapter 4 proposes a “pragmatic curriculum” by discussing what aspects of
pragmatics can be taught at various levels of language proficiency.The chapter uses
the CEFR’s proficiency levels as a general guide, and relates them to teaching of
pragmatics and interaction. This is a core chapter, proposing a curricular structure
that is novel in second language pragmatics and curriculum work.
5
Introduction 5
Chapter 5 talks about planning sequences of instruction for pragmatics. How

are pragmatics lessons organized? What ways of teaching pragmatics are effective?
Why is awareness raising of cultural differences such an important part of teaching
pragmatics? The chapter also demonstrates how the same pragmatic feature,
requests, can be taught at beginner level, intermediate level, and advanced level.
Chapter 6 is about testing of pragmatics. It summarizes the research done in this
area, and then looks at the issue of pragmatic norms (who says what is pragmatic-
ally appropriate?) and how to make sure pragmatics tests actually test pragmatics,
and not just general proficiency. It also shows how to construct and validate tests
for different aspects of pragmatics.
Chapter 7 provides an outlook on the future of pragmatics in second language
teaching and testing. It discusses general language teaching and teaching language
for specific purposes, and makes suggestions about how technology can help make
testing of pragmatics more feasible.
4
References
Abe, M. (2019). Interactional Competence in L2 task-based text-chat interactions.
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Melbourne.
Abe, M. , & Roever, C. (2019). Interactional competence in L2 text-chat interactions: First-
idea proffering in task openings. Journal of Pragmatics, 144 , 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2019.03.001
Abe, M. , & Roever, C. (2020). Task closings in L2 text-chat interactions: A study of L2
interactional competence. CALICO Journal, 37 (1), 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.38562
Ahn, R. C. (2005). Five measures of interlanguage pragmatics in KFL [Korean as foreign
language] learners. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Hawai’i at Manoa.
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2011). Refusals in second language interaction. [Unpublished
raw data]. The University of Melbourne.
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2012). Proficiency and sequential organization of L2 requests.
Applied Linguistics, 33 (1), 42–65. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr031
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2013). ‘Hi doctor, give me handouts’: Low-proficiency learners
and requests. ELT Journal, 67 (4), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/cct036
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2014a). Insert and post-expansion in L2 Arabic requests.
System, 42 (1), 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.10.018
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2014b). Preference structure in L2 Arabic requests.
Intercultural Pragmatics, 11 (4), 619–643. https://doi.org/10.1515/ip-2014-0027
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2015). Multiple requests in Arabic as a second language.
Multilingua, 34 (3), 405–432. https://doi.org/10.1515/multi-2014-0056
Al-Gahtani, S. , & Roever, C. (2018). Proficiency and preference organization in second
language refusals. Journal of Pragmatics, 129 , 140–153.
Al-Masaeed, K. , Taguchi, N. , & Tamimi, M. (2020). Proficiency effects on L2 Arabic refusals:
Appropriateness, linguistic strategies and multidialectal practices. Applied Pragmatics, 2 (1),
26–53. https://doi.org/10.1075/ap.19007.mas
Antaki, C. (Ed.). (2011). Applied conversation analysis: Intervention and change in
institutional talk. Springer.
Archer, E. (2010). They made me an invitation I couldn’t refuse: Teaching refusal strategies
for invitations. In D. H. Tatsuki & N. R. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts (pp.
181–194). TESOL.
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L. F. , & Palmer, A. S. (2010). Language assessment in practice: Developing
language tests and justifying their use the real world. Oxford University Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2009). Conventional expressions as a pragmalinguistic resource:
Recognition and production of conventional expressions in L2 pragmatics. Language
Learning, 59 (4), 755–795. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00525.x
Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2014). Awareness of meaning of conventional expressions in second-
language pragmatics. Language Awareness, 23 (1–2), 41–56.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09658416.2013.863894
Bardovi-Harlig, K. , & Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Do language learners recognize pragmatic
violations? Pragmatic vs. grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly,
32 , 233–259. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587583
Bardovi-Harlig, K. , & Hartford, B. S. (1993). Learning the rules of academic talk: A
longitudinal study of pragmatic development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15 ,
279–304. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100012122
Bardovi-Harlig, K. , & Hartford, B. S. (1996). Input in an institutional setting. Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 18 , 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226310001487X
Bardovi-Harlig, K. , & Mahan-Taylor, R. (2005). Teaching pragmatics.
https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/teaching-pragmatics
Bardovi-Harlig, K. , Mossman, S. , & Su, Y. (2017). The effect of corpus-based instruction on
pragmatic routines. Language Learning & Technology, 21 (3), 76–103.
https://doi.org/10125/44622
Bardovi-Harlig, K. , Mossman, S. , & Vellenga, H. E. (2015). The effect of instruction on
pragmatic routines in academic discussion. Language Teaching Research, 15 (4), 479–507.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168814541739
Barraja-Rohan, A. M. , & Pritchard, C. R. (1997). Beyond talk: A course in communication
and conversation for intermediate adult learners of English. Western Melbourne Institute of
TAFE Publishing Service.
Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics: Learning how to do things with
words in a study abroad context. John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.108
Barron, A. (2007). “Ah no honestly we’re okay”: Learning to upgrade in a study abroad
context. Intercultural Pragmatics, 4 (2), 129–166. https://doi.org/10.1515/IP.2007.009
Barron, A. (2019). Norms and variation in L2 pragmatics. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The Routledge
handbook of second language acquisition and pragmatics (pp. 447–461). Routledge.
Baumgarten, N. , & House, J. (2010). I think and I don’t know in English as lingua franca and
native English discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 42 (5), 1184–1200.
Beebe, L. M. , & Cummings, M. C. (1996). Natural speech act data versus written
questionnaire data: How data collection method affects speech act performance. In S. M.
Gass & J. Neu (Eds.), Speech acts across cultures (pp. 65–86). Mouton de Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110219289.1.65
Bella, S. (2014). Developing the ability to refuse: A cross-sectional study of Greek FL
refusals. Journal of Pragmatics, 61 , 35–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2013.11.015
Blum-Kulka, S. (1982). Learning to say what you mean in a second language. Applied
Linguistics, 3 , 29–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/III.1.29
Blum-Kulka, S. , House, J. , & Kasper, G. (Eds.) (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests
and apologies. Ablex.
Bouton, L. (1988). A cross-cultural study of ability to interpret implicatures in English. World
Englishes, 17 , 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1988.tb00230.x
Bouton, L. F. (1992). Culture, pragmatics and implicature. AFinLa Yearbook 1992, 35–61.
Bouton, L. F. (1999). Developing non-native speaker skills in interpreting conversational
implicatures in English: Explicit teaching can ease the process. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Culture in
second language teaching and learning (pp. 47–70). University of Cambridge.
Brown, A. (2003). Interviewer variation and the co-construction of speaking proficiency.
Language Testing, 20 , 1, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532203lt242oa
Brown, J. D. (2001). Six types of pragmatics tests in two different contexts. In K. Rose & G.
Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (pp. 301–325). Cambridge University
Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524797.020
Brown, J. D. (2006). Testing in language programs. McGraw-Hill.
Brown, J. D. , & Ahn, R. C. (2011). Variables that affect the dependability of L2 pragmatics
tests. Journal of Pragmatics, 43 (1), 198–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.026
Brown, P. , & Levinson, S. D. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage.
Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813085
Button, G. , & Casey, N. (1984). Generating topic: the use of topic initial elicitors. In J. M.
Atkinson & J. Heritage , (Eds.), Structures of social action: Studies in Conversation Analysis
(pp. 167–190). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665868.013
Byram, M. (2020). Politics, origins and futures of the CEFR. The Language Learning Journal.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2020.1845392
Cambridge University Press (2017). Interchange (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Cameron, D. (2001). Working with spoken discourse. Sage.
Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy.
In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication (pp. 2–27). Longman.
Canale, M. , & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second
language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1 , 1–47.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/I.1.1
Carduner, J. (2011). Have you paid someone a compliment today? In N. R. Houck & D. H.
Tatsuki (Eds.) Pragmatics: Teaching natural conversation (pp. 61–78). TESOL.
Cekaite, A. (2007). A child’s development of interactional competence in a Swedish L2
classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 91 (1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-
4781.2007.00509.x
Chapelle, C. A. (2021). Argument-based validation in testing and assessment. Sage.
Clift, R. (2016). Conversation analysis. Cambridge.
Cohen, A. D. (2020). Considerations in assessing pragmatic appropriateness in spoken
language. Language Teaching, 53 (2), 183–202.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444819000156
Cohen, A. D. , & Shively, R. L. (2003). Measuring speech acts with multiple rejoinder DCTs.
Language Testing Update, 32 , 39–42.
Coulmas, F. (1981). Introduction: Conversational routine. In F. Coulmas (Ed.), Conversational
routine (pp. 1–20). Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110809145.1
Council of Europe . (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment. Council of Europe. www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-
framework-reference-languages
Council of Europe . (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment. Companion volume with new descriptors. Council of
Europe. www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages
Crystal, D. (1997). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Blackwell.
Cui, X. (2012). Problematic Chinese-Australian social interactions at work. [Unpublished
doctoral dissertation]. University of Melbourne.
Cui, X. (2015). Small talk: A missing skill in the Chinese communicative repertoire. Australian
Review of Applied Linguistics, 38 (1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1075/aral.38.1.01cui
Culpeper, J. , Mackey, A. , & Taguchi, N. (2018). Second language pragmatics: From theory
to research. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315692388
Cummins, J. (2017). BICS and CALP: Empirical and theoretical status of the distinction. In B.
V. Street & S. May (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Literacies and language
education (pp. 60–71). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02252-9_6
Curl, T. , & Drew, P. (2008). Contingency and action: A comparison of two forms of
requesting. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 41 (2), 129–153.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08351810802028613
Cutting, J. , & Fordyce, K. (2020). Pragmatics: A resource book for students. Routledge.
Dai, D. W. (2021). Design and validation of an L2-Chinese interactional competence test.
[Unpublished manuscript]. Linguistics & Applied Linguistics, The University of Melbourne.
Dechert, H. W. (1983). How a story is done in a second language. In G. Kasper & C. Færch
(Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 175–195). Longman Publishing
Group.
Deygers, B. (2019). The CEFR companion volume: Between research-based policy and
policy-based research. Applied Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amz024
Drew, P. (2013). Turn design. In J. Sidnell & T. Stivers (Eds.), The handbook of conversation
analysis (pp. 131–149). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118325001.ch7
Eckes, T. (2011). Introduction to many-facet Rasch measurement: Analyzing and evaluating
rater-mediated assessments. Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-04844-5
Ellis, R. (2017). Task-based language teaching. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The
Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 108–125). Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315676968-7
Ellis, R. , & Roever, C. (Principal Investigators). (2018–2021). Teaching and testing second
language pragmatic skills (Project No. DP180102707) [Grant]. Australian Research Council.
Ellis, R. , & Roever, C. (2019). Test of second language implicature (untimed ). [Unpublished
manuscript]. The University of Melbourne.
Ellis, R. , & Roever, C. (2020a). Evaluating social context variables. [Unpublished
manuscript]. Curtin University, Australia.
Ellis, R. , & Roever, C. (2020b). Metapragmatic knowledge test. [Unpublished manuscript].
Curtin University, Australia.
Ellis, R. , Shintani, N. , Zhu, Y. , & Roever, C. (2020). Assessing L2 learners’ knowledge of
hedges using an elicited imitation test: An exploratory study. [Manuscript submitted for
publication]. Curtin University, Australia.
Ellis, R., Zhu, Y., Shintani, N., & Roever, C. (2021). A study of Chinese learners’ ability to
comprehend irony. Journal of Pragmatics, 172, 7–20.
Enfield, N. (2017). How we talk. Basic Books.
Eskildsen, S. W. , & Kasper, G. (2019 ). Interactional usage-based L2 pragmatics: From
form-meaning pairings to construction-action relations. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The Routledge
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-12
Farhady, H. (1980). Justification, development, and validation of functional language testing.
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of California.
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2007). Pragmatic development in the Spanish as a FL classroom: A
cross-sectional study of learner requests. Intercultural Pragmatics, 4 (2), 253–286.
https://doi.org/10.1515/IP.2007.013
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2018). Discourse completion tasks. In A. H. Junker , K. P. Schneider ,
& W. Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in pragmatics (pp. 305–331). Mouton de Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110424928-012
Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2019). Speech acts in interaction: negotiating joint action in a second
language. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and
pragmatics (pp. 17–30). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-2
Flores-Ferrán, N. , & Lovejoy, K. (2015). An examination of mitigating devices in the
argument interactions of L2 Spanish learners. Journal of Pragmatics, 76 , 67–86.
Fraser, B. , Rintell, E. , &Walters, J. (1980). An approach to conducting research on the
acquisition of pragmatic competence in a second language. In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.),
Discourse analysis in second language research (pp. 75–91). Newbury House.
Galaczi, E. D. (2014). Interactional competence across proficiency levels: How do learners
manage interaction in paired speaking tests? Applied Linguistics, 35 (5), 553–574.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amt017
Gass, S. (2018). SLA elicitation tasks. In A. Phakiti , P. I. De Costa , L. Plonsky , & S.
Starfield (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of applied linguistics research methodology (pp.
313–337). Palgrave Macmillan.
Gass, S. M. , & Houck, N. (1999). Interlanguage refusals. Mouton de Gruyter.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday Anchor Books.
Golato, A. (2003). Studying compliment responses: A comparison of DCTs and recordings of
naturally occurring talk. Applied Linguistics, 21 (1), 90–121.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/24.1.90
González-Lloret, M. (2019). Task-based language teaching and L2 pragmatics. In N. Taguchi
(Ed.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and pragmatics (pp.
338–352). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-22
Grabowski, K. (2009). Investigating the construct validity of a test designed to measure
grammatical and pragmatic knowledge in the context of speaking. [Unpublished doctoral
dissertation]. Columbia University.
Grabowski, K. (2013). Investigating the construct validity of a role-play test designed to
measure grammatical and pragmatic knowledge at multiple proficiency levels. In S. Ross &
G. Kasper (Eds.), Assessing second language pragmatics (pp. 149–171). Palgrave
MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137003522_6
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and
semantics 3: Speech acts (pp. 41–58). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004368811_003
Grieve, A. M. (2015). The impact of host family relations and length of stay on adolescent
identity expression during study abroad. Multilingua, 34 (5), 623–657.
Haider, I. (2019). Cyberpragmatics: Assessing interlanguage pragmatics through interactive
email communication. In S. Papageorgiou & K. M. Bailey (Eds.), Global perspectives on
language assessment (pp. 152–166). Routledge.
Hall, J. K. , & Pekarek Doehler, S. (2011). L2 interactional competence and development. In
J. K. Hall , J. Hellermann , & S. Pekarek Doehler (Eds.), L2 interactional competence and
development (pp. 1–15). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847694072
Hanafi . (2015). Comparing interactional competence between learners and native speakers
of Indonesian. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Melbourne.
Harmer, J. (2015). The practice of English language teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Longman.
Hartford, B. S. , & Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1992). Experimental and observational data in the study
of interlanguage pragmatics. In L. F. Bouton & Y. Kachru (Eds.), Pragmatics and language
learning monograph series (pp. 33–52). DEIL.
Hellermann, J. (2009). Looking for evidence of language learning in practices for repair: A
case study of self-initiated self-repair by an adult learner of English. Scandinavian Journal of
Educational Research, 53 (2), 113–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830902757550
Hellermann, J. (2011). Members’ methods, members’ competencies: Looking for evidence of
language learning in longitudinal investigations of other-initiated repair. In J. K. Hall , J.
Hellermann , & S. Pekarek Doehler (Eds.), L2 interactional competence and development
(pp.124–172). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847694072-008
Hellermann, J. , Eskildsen, S. W. , Doehler, S. P. , & Piirainen-Marsh, A. (Eds.). (2019).
Conversation analytic research on learning-in-action: The complex ecology of second
language interaction ‘in the wild’ (Vol. 38). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
030-22165-2
Heritage, J. (1984). Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. Polity Press.
Hinkel, E. (1997). Appropriateness of advice: DCT and multiple choice data. Applied
Linguistics, 18 (1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/18.1.1
Holmes, J. , & Stubbe, M. (2003). Power and politeness in the workplace. Pearson
Education.
Houck, N. R. , & Fujimori, J. (2010). Teacher, you should lose some weight: Advice giving in
English. In D. H. Tatsuki & N. R. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts (pp.
89–104). TESOL.
Houck, N. R. , & Tatsuki, D. H. (Eds.). (2011). Pragmatics: Teaching natural conversation.
TESOL.
Hudson, T. , & Brown, J. D. (2002). Criterion-referenced language testing. Cambridge
University Press.
Hudson, T. , Detmer, E. , & Brown, J. D. (1992). A framework for testing cross-cultural
pragmatics. University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum
Center.
Hudson, T. , Detmer, E. , & Brown, J. D. (1995). Developing prototypic measures of cross-
cultural pragmatics (Technical Report #7). University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Second Language
Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Ikeda, N. (2017). Measuring L2 oral pragmatic abilities for use in social contexts:
Development and validation of an assessment instrument for L2 pragmatics performance in
university settings. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Melbourne.
Ikeda, N . (2021). Assessing L2 learners’ pragmatic ability in problem-solving situations at
English-medium university. Applied Pragmatics, 3(1), 51–83.
https://doi.org/10.1075/ap.19039.ike.
Ishida, M. (2011). Engaging in another person’s telling as a recipient in L2 Japanese:
Development of interactional competence during one-year study abroad. In G. Palotti & J.
Wagner (Eds.), L2 learning as social practice: Conversation-analytic perspectives (pp.
17–44). University of Hawai’i at Manoa, National Foreign Language Resource Center.
Ishihara, N. (2019). Identity and agency in L2 pragmatics. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The Routledge
Ishihara, N. , & Cohen, A. (2010). Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and
culture meet. Pearson.
Itomitsu, M. (2009). Developing a test of pragmatics of Japanese as a foreign language.
[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Ohio State University.
Jacoby, S. , & McNamara, T. (1999). Locating competence. English for Specific Purposes, 18
(3), 213–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-4906(97)00053-7
Johnston, B. , Kasper, G. , & Ross, S. (1998). Effect of rejoinders in production
questionnaires. Applied Linguistics, 19(2), 157–182. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/19.2.157
Kane, M. T. (2006). Validation. In R. L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational measurement (4th ed., pp.
17–64). American Council on Education/Praeger Publishers.
Kasper, G. (2006). Speech acts in interaction: Towards discursive pragmatics. In K. Bardovi-
Harlig , C. Félix-Brasdefer , & A. S. Omar (Eds.), Pragmatics and language learning (pp.
281–314). University of Hawai’i at Manoa, National Foreign Language Resource Center.
Kasper, G. , & Rose, K. R. (2002). Pragmatic development in a second language. Blackwell.
Kim, H. Y. (2014). Learner investment, identity, and resistance to second language pragmatic
norms. System, 45 , 92–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.05.002
Kim, J. , & Lantolf, J. P. (2018). Developing conceptual understanding of sarcasm in L2
English through explicit instruction. Language Teaching Research, 22 (2), 208–229.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168816675521
Kinginger, C. (2008). Language learning in study abroad: Case studies of Americans in
France. The Modern Language Journal, 92 , 1–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-
4781.2008.00821.x
Lam, D. M. K. (2015). Assessing interactional competence: The case of school-based
speaking assessment in Hong Kong. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of
Edinburgh.
Lam, D. M. K. (2018). What counts as “responding”? Contingency on previous speaker
contribution as a feature of interactional competence. Language Testing, 35 (3), 377–401.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532218758126
Language Testing International (LTI) (2012). ACTFL assessments. Language Testing
International. www.languagetesting.com/pub/media/wysiwyg/manuals/commercial-
brochure.pdf
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. Longman.
Lester, J. N. , & O’Reilly, M. (2019). Applied conversation analysis. Sage.
Li, S. (2014). The effects of different levels of linguistic proficiency on the development of L2
Chinese request production during study abroad. System, 45 , 103–116.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.05.001
Liu, J. (2006). Measuring interlanguage pragmatic knowledge of EFL learners. Peter Lang.
Liu, J. (2007). Developing a pragmatics test for Chinese EFL learners. Language Testing, 24
, 391–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532207077206
LoCastro, V. (2010). Misunderstandings: pragmatic glitches and misfires. In D. H. Tatsuki &
N. R. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts (pp. 7–18). TESOL.
Long, M. (2015). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. Wiley-
Blackwell.
Mackey, P. (2018). Pragmatic language skills for CALD carers working in aged care. Fine
Print, 41 (1), 18–23. https://search.informit.com.au/fullText;dn=220762;res=AEIPT
Mao, L. R. (1994). Beyond politeness theory: ‘face’ revisited and renewed. Journal of
Pragmatics, 21 (5), 451–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-2166(94)90025-6
Martínez-Flor, A. , & Usó-Juan, E. (2006). A comprehensive pedagogical framework to
develop pragmatics in the foreign language classroom: The 6R approach. Applied Language
Learning, 16 (2), 39–63.
Matsumoto, Y. (1988). Reexamination of the universality of face: Politeness phenomena in
Japanese. Journal of Pragmatics, 12 , 403–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-
2166(88)90003-3
Matsumura, S. (2001). Learning the rules for offering advice: A quantitative approach to
second language socialization. Language Learning, 51 (4), 635–679.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00170
Matsumura, S. (2003). Modelling the relationships among interlanguage pragmatic
development, L2 proficiency, and exposure to L2. Applied Linguistics, 24 ( 4), 465–491.
McNamara, T. F. , & Roever, C. (2006). Language testing: The social dimension. Basil
Blackwell.
McNamara, T. , Knoch, U. , & Fan, J. (2019). Fairness, justice & language assessment.
Oxford University Press.
Nagai, N. , Birch, G. C. , Bower, J. V. , & Schmidt, M. G. (2020). CEFR-informed learning,
teaching and assessment. Springer.
Newton, J. M. (1993). Task-based interaction among adult learners of English and its role in
second language development. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Victoria University of
Wellington.
Nguyen, T. T. M. (2018). Pragmatic development in the instructed context: A longitudinal
investigation of L2 email requests. Pragmatics, 28 (2), 217–252.
https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.00007.ngu
Nguyen, T. T. M. , & Basturkmen, H. (2010). Teaching constructive critical feedback. In D. H.
Tatsuki & N. R. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts (pp. 125–140). TESOL.
Niezgoda, K. , & Roever, C. (2001). Grammatical and pragmatic awareness: A function of the
learning environment? In K. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching (pp.
63–79). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524797.008
North, B. , & Piccardo, E. (2019). Developing new CEFR descriptor scales and expanding the
existing ones: Constructs, approaches and methodologies. Zeitschrift für
Fremdsprachenforschung, 30 (2), 142–160.
O’Hagan, S. , Pill, J. , & Zhang, Y. (2016). Extending the scope of speaking assessment
criteria in a specific-purpose language test: Operationalizing a health professional
perspective. Language Testing, 33 (2), 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532215607920
Ochs, E. (1986). Introduction. In B. B. Schieffelin & E. Ochs (Eds.), Language socialization
across cultures (pp. 1–17). Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511620898.001
Ockey, G. J., & Chukharev-Hudilainen, E. (2021). Human versus computer partner in the
paired oral discussion test. Applied Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amaa067
Ockey, G. J. , Koyama, D. , Setoguchi, E. , & Sun, A. (2015). The extent to which TOEFL iBT
speaking scores are associated with performance on oral language tasks and oral ability
components for Japanese university students. Language Testing, 32 (1), 39–62.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532214538014
OET . (2020, October 23). About OET (Occupational English Test).
www.occupationalenglishtest.org/about-oet/
Ogiermann, E. (2018). Discourse completion tasks. In A. H. Junker , K. P. Schneider , & W.
Bublitz (Eds.), Methods in pragmatics (pp. 229–255). Mouton de Gruyter.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110424928-009
Oxford University Press (2018). Wide Angle. Oxford University Press.
Pekarek Doehler, S. (2019). On the nature and the development of L2 interactional
competence: State of the art and implications for praxis. In M. R. Salaberry & S. Kunitz
(Eds.), Teaching and testing L2 interactional competence: Bridging theory and practice (pp.
25−59). Routledge.
Pekarek Doehler, S. , & Berger, E. (2016). L2 interactional competence as increased ability
for context-sensitive conduct: A longitudinal study of story-openings. Applied Linguistics, 39
(4), 555–578. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amw021
Pekarek Doehler, S. , & Pochon-Berger, E. (2011). Developing ‘methods’ for interaction: A
cross-sectional study of disagreement sequences in French L2. In J. K. Hall , J. Hellermann ,
& S. Pekarek Doehler (Eds.), L2 interactional competence and development (pp. 206–243).
Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847694072-010
Pekarek Doehler, S. , & Pochon-Berger, E. (2015). The development of L2 interactional
competence: Evidence from turn-taking organization, sequence organization, repair
organization and preference organization. In T. Cadierno & S. W. Eskildsen (Eds.), Usage-
based perspectives on second language learning. DeGruyter Mouton.
Pill, J. (2013). What doctors value in consultations and the implications for specific-purpose
language testing. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Melbourne.
Pill, J. (2016). Drawing on indigenous criteria for more authentic assessment in a specific-
purpose language test: Health professionals interacting with patients. Language Testing, 33
(2), 175–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532215607400
Plonsky, L. , & Oswald, F. L. (2014). How big is ‘big’? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research.
Language Learning, 64 (4), 878–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079
Plonsky, L. , & Zhuang, J. (2019). A meta-analysis of L2 pragmatics instruction. In N. Taguchi
(Ed.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and pragmatics (pp.
287–307). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-19
Purpura, J. (2004), Assessing grammar. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511733086
Ramanarayanan, V. , Evanini, K. , & Tsuprun, E. (2019). Beyond monologues: Automated
processing of conversational speech. In K. Zechner & K. Evanini (Eds.), Automated speaking
assessment: Using language technologies to score spontaneous speech (pp. 176–191).
Routledge.
Rebuschat, P. (Ed.). (2015). Implicit and explicit learning of languages (Vol. 48). John
Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.48
Riddiford, N. (2013). Working in an eldercare facility: An ESOL resource. School of
Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington.
www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/centres-and-institutes/language-in-the-workplace/resources/teaching-
and-learning-resources
Riddiford, N. , & Newton, J. (2010). Workplace talk in action: An ESOL resource. School of
Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington.
Rinnert, C. , & Iwai, C. (2010). I want you to help me: Learning to soften English requests. In
D. H. Tatsuki & N. R. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts (pp. 29–46). TESOL.
Roever, C. (1994). Linguistische Routinen beim Fremdsprachenerwerb des Englischen:
Bedeutung, Probleme und Perspektiven. [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. University of
Duisburg.
Roever, C. (2005). Testing ESL pragmatics. Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-
04780-6
Roever, C. (2006). Validation of a web-based test of ESL pragmalinguistics. Language
Testing, 23 (2), 229–256. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532206lt329oa
Roever, C. (2007). DIF in the assessment of second language pragmatics. Language
Assessment Quarterly, 4 (2), 165–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434300701375733
Roever, C. (2012). What learners get for free (and when): Learning of routine formulae in
ESL and EFL environments. ELT Journal, 66 (1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccq090
Roever, C. (2013). Technology and tests of L2 pragmatics. In N. Taguchi & J. Sykes (Eds.),
Technology and interlanguage pragmatics (pp. 215–233). John Benjamins.
https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.36.11roe
Roever, C. , & Al-Gahtani, S. (2015). The development of ESL proficiency and pragmatic
performance. ELT Journal, 69 (4), 395–404. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccv032
Roever, C. , & Al-Gahtani, S. (2017, March 21). Quantifying developmental markers of
interactional competence. [Paper presentation]. American Association of Applied Linguistics
conference, Portland, Oregon.
Roever, C. , & Dai, D. W. (2021). Reconceptualizing interactional competence for language
testing. In R. Salaberry & R. Burch (Eds.), Assessing speaking in context: Expanding the
construct and its applications (pp. 23–49). Multilingual Matters.
Roever, C. , Fraser, C. , & Elder, C. (2014a). Testing ESL sociopragmatics. Peter Lang.
https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-04598-7
Roever, C. , Higuchi, Y. , Sasaki, M. , & Yashima, T. (in press). Validating a test of L2 routine
formulae to detect pragmatics learning in stays abroad. Applied Pragmatics.
Roever, C. , & Ikeda, N. (2020). Testing L2 pragmatic competence. In K. P. Schneider & E.
Ifantidou (Eds.), Developmental and clinical pragmatics (pp. 475–496). Mouton de Gruyter.
Roever, C. , & Ikeda, N. (2021). What scores from monologic speaking tests can (not) tell us
about interactional competence . Language Testing,
https://doi.org/10.1177/02655322211003332
Roever, C. , & Kasper, G. (2018). Speaking in turns and sequences: Interactional
competence as a target construct in testing speaking. Language Testing, 35 (3), 331–355.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532218758128
Roever, C. , Knoch, U. , & Macqueen, S. (2015). Writing pragmatically: Second language
pragmatic ability and email. [Unpublished manuscript]. Linguistics & Applied Linguistics, The
University of Melbourne.
Roever, C. , & Phakiti, A. (2018). Quantitative methods in language assessment and
acquisition research. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203067659
Roever, C. , Wang, S. , & Brophy, S. (2014b). Learner background factors and learning of
second language pragmatics. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 52 (4), 377–401.
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2014-0016
Rose, K. R. , & Ng, C. (2001). Inductive and deductive teaching of compliments and
compliment responses. In K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching
(pp. 145–170). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524797.013
Ross, S. J. (2017). Interviewing for language proficiency: Interaction and interpretation.
Palgrave Macmillan.
Ross, S. J. , & O’Connell, S. P. (2013). The situation with complication as a site for strategic
competence. In G. Kasper & S. Ross (Eds.), Assessing second language pragmatics (pp.
311–326). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137003522_12
Sacks, H. , Schegloff, E. , & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization
of turn-taking for conversation. Language, 50 , 696–735.
Saito-Stehberger, D. (2010). Indirect complaints as a conversational strategy. In D. H. Tatsuki
& N. R. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts (pp. 141–159). TESOL.
Salsbury, T. , & Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2001). “I know your mean, but I don’t think so”
Disagreements in L2 English. In L. Bouton (Ed.), Pragmatics and language learning (pp.
131–151). University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign: Division of English as an International
Language.
Sánchez-Hernández, A. , & Alcón-Soler, E. (2019). Pragmatic gains in the study abroad
context: Learners’ experiences and recognition of pragmatic routines. Journal of Pragmatics,
146 , 54–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2018.08.006
Sato, T. , & McNamara, T. (2019). What counts in second language oral communication
ability? The perspective of linguistic laypersons. Applied Linguistics, 40 (6), 894–916.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amy032
Scarcella, R. (1979). On speaking politely in a second language. In C. A. Yorio , K. Perkins ,
& J. Schachter (Eds.), On TESOL ’79 (pp. 275–287). TESOL.
Schauer, G. (2006). Pragmatic awareness in ESL and EFL contexts: Contrast and
development. Language Learning, 56 (2), 269–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0023-
8333.2006.00348.x
Schegloff, E. (1980). Preliminaries to preliminaries: “Can I ask you a question?” Sociological
Inquiry, 50 (3–4), 104–152.
Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence organization in interaction: A primer in conversation
analysis (Vol. 1). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791208
Schneider, K. P. (2008). Small talk in England, Ireland, and the USA. In K. P. Schneider & A.
Barron (Eds.), Variational pragmatics: A focus on regional varieties in pluricentric languages
(pp. 99–140). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.178.06sch
Schneider, K. P. (2011). Imagining conversation: How people think people do things with
words. Sociolinguistic Studies, 5 (1), 15–36. https://doi.org/10.1558/sols.v5i1.15
Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech acts. Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R. (1976). A classification of illocutionary acts. Language in Society, 5 , 1–23.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404500006837
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL, 10 (3), 209–231
https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209
Shimazu, Y. M. (1989). Construction and concurrent validation of a written pragmatic
competence test of English as a second language. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation].
University of San Francisco.
Shively, R. L. (2010). From the virtual world to the real world: A model of pragmatics
instruction for study abroad. Foreign Language Annals, 43 (1), 105–137.
Shively, R. L. (2011). L2 pragmatic development in study abroad: A longitudinal study of
Spanish service encounters. Journal of Pragmatics, 43 (6), 1818–1835.
Siegal, M. (1996). The role of learner subjectivity in second language sociolinguistic
competency: Western women learning Japanese. Applied Linguistics, 17 , 356–382.
Sperber, D. , & Wilson, D. (1995). Communication and cognition (2nd ed.). Harvard
University Press.
Stokoe, E. (2013). The (in)authenticity of simulated talk: Comparing role-played and actual
interaction and the implications for communication training. Research on Language and
Social Interaction, 46 (2), 165–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/08351813.2013.780341
Stokoe, E. (2014). The Conversation Analytic Role-play Method (CARM): A method for
training communication skills as an alternative to simulated role-play. Research on Language
and Social Interaction, 47 (3), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/08351813.2014.925663
Stokoe, E. (2018). Talk. Robinson.
Svennevig, J. (2000). Getting acquainted in conversation: A study of initial interactions. John
Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/pbns.64
Sydorenko, T. , Daurio, P. , & Thorne, S. (2018). Refining pragmatically-appropriate oral
communication via computer-simulated conversations. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 31 , 157–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1394326
Sykes, J. (2013). Multiuser virtual environments. In N. Taguchi & J. Sykes (Eds.), Technology
in interlanguage pragmatics research and teaching (pp. 71–100). John Benjamins.
https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.36.05syk
Tada, M. (2005). Assessment of EFL pragmatic production and perception using video
prompts. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Temple University.
Taguchi, N. (2005). Comprehending implied meaning in English as a foreign language. The
Modern Language Journal, 89 (4), 543–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-
4781.2005.00329.x
Taguchi, N. (2008). Cognition, language contact, and the development of pragmatic
comprehension in a study-abroad context. Language Learning, 58 (1), 33–71.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00434.x
Taguchi, N. (2009). Corpus-informed assessment of comprehension of conversational
implicatures in L2 English. TESOL Quarterly, 43 (4), 738–749. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1545-
7249.2009.tb00202.x
Taguchi, N. (2011). The effect of L2 proficiency and study-abroad experience on pragmatic
comprehension. Language Learning, 61 (3), 904–939. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9922.2011.00633.x
Taguchi, N. (2012). Context, individual differences, and pragmatic competence. Multilingual
Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847696106
Taguchi, N. (2013). Production of routines in L2 English: Effect of proficiency and study-
abroad experience. System, 41 (1), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.003
Taguchi, N. (2015). Instructed pragmatics at a glance: Where instructional studies were, are,
and should be going. Language Teaching, 48 (1), 1–50.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444814000263
Taguchi, N. , & Ishihara, N. (2018). The pragmatics of English as a lingua franca: Research
and pedagogy in the era of globalization. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 38 , 80–101.
Taguchi, N. , & Kim, Y. (2018). Task-based approaches to teaching and assessing
pragmatics: An overview. In N. Taguchi & Y. Kim (Eds.), Task-based approaches to teaching
and assessing pragmatics (pp. 1–26). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/tblt.10.01tag
Taguchi, N. , Li, S. , & Liu, Y. (2013). Comprehension of conversational implicature in L2
Chinese. Pragmatics & Cognition, 21 (1), 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1075/pc.21.1.06tag
Taguchi, N. , Li, S. , & Xiao, F. (2013). Production of formulaic expressions in L2 Chinese: A
developmental investigation in a study abroad context. Chinese as a Second Language
Research, 2 (1), 23–58. https://doi.org/10.1515/caslar-2013-0021
Taguchi, N. , & Roever, C. (2017). Second language pragmatics. Oxford University Press.
Taguchi, N. , Xiao, F. , & Li, S. (2016). Effects of intercultural competence and social contact
on speech act production in a Chinese study abroad context. The Modern Language Journal,
100 (4), 775–796. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12349
Taguchi, N. , & Yamaguchi, S. (2019). Implicature comprehension in L2 pragmatics research.
The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and pragmatics, 31–46. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-3
Takimoto, M. (2008). The effects of deductive and inductive instruction on the development of
language learners’ pragmatic competence. The Modern Language Journal, 92 (3), 369–386.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00752.x
Takimoto, M. (2009). The effects of input-based tasks on the development of learners’
pragmatic proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 30 (1), 1–25.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amm049
Tateyama, Y. (2019). Pragmatics in a language classroom. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The
Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and pragmatics (pp. 400–412).
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-26
Tatsuki, D. H. , & Houck, N. R. (2010). Pragmatics: Teaching speech acts. Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Timpe, V. (2013). Assessing intercultural language learning. Peter Lang.
https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-03884-2
Timpe-Laughlin, V. , & Choi, I. (2017). Exploring the validity of a second language
intercultural pragmatics assessment tool. Language Assessment Quarterly, 14 (1), 19–35.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2016.1256406Timpe-Laughlin, V., & Dombi, J. (2020).
Exploring L2 learners’ request behavior in a multi-turn conversation with a fully automated
agent. Intercultural Pragmatics, 17(2), 221–257. https://doi.org/10.1515/ip-2020-0010
Tran, V. T. T. (2014). Second language interactional competence: Solicitation effects on
suggestions. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Melbourne.
Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requests, complaints and apologies. Mouton
de Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110885286
University of Cambridge Language Examination Syndicate (2020). Cambridge English
qualifications. www.cambridgeenglish.org/exams-and-tests/qualifications/
Van Ek, J. A. (1976). The threshold level for modern language learning in schools. Longman.
Walters, F. S. (2004). An application of conversation analysis to the development of a test of
second language pragmatic competence. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of
Illinois.
Walters, F. S. (2007). A conversation-analytic hermeneutic rating protocol to assess L2 oral
pragmatic competence. Language Testing, 27 (2), 155–183.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532207076362
Watanabe, A. (2017). Developing L2 interactional competence: Increasing participation
through self-selection in post-expansion sequences. Classroom Discourse, 8 (3), 271–293.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19463014.2017.1354310
Wesche, M. , & Paribakht, T. S. (1996). Assessing second language vocabulary knowledge:
Depth versus breadth. Canadian Modern Language Review, 53 (1), 13–40.
https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.53.1.13
Wildner-Bassett, M. (1984). Improving pragmatic aspects of learners’ interlanguage. Narr.
Wolfson, N. (1983). An empirically based analysis of complimenting in American English. In
N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language acquisition (pp. 82–95). Newbury.
Wong, J. , & Waring, H. Z. (2010). Conversation analysis and second language pedagogy.
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203852347
Wu, J. X. (2018). Proficiency and preference organization in second language Mandarin
Chinese refusals. [Unpublished Master’s thesis]. University of Melbourne.
Wu, J. X. (2020). Development of L2 interactional competence in Mandarin Chinese:
Comparing role plays and elicited conversations. [Manuscript in preparation]. Department of
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, University of Melbourne.
Wu, J. X. , & Roever, C. (in press). Proficiency and preference organization in second
language Mandarin Chinese refusals. Modern Language Journal.
Xiao, F. , Taguchi, N. , & Li, S. (2018). Effects of proficiency subskills on pragmatic
development in L2 Chinese study abroad. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41 (2),
469–483. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000128
Yamashita, S. (1996). Six measures of JSL pragmatics. University of Hawai’i at Manoa,
National Foreign Languages Resource Center.
Yates, L. , & Springall, J. (2010). Soften up! Successful requests in the workplace. In D.
Tatsuki & N. Houck (Eds.), Pragmatics from research to practice: Teaching speech acts (pp.
67–86). TESOL.
Yeh, M. (2018). Active listenership: Developing beginners’ interactional competence. Chinese
as a Second Language Research, 7 (1), 47–77. https://doi.org/10.1515/caslar-2018-0003
Yoshitake, S. (1997). Interlanguage competence of Japanese students of English: A multi-
test framework evaluation. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Columbia Pacific University.
Youn, S. J. (2013). Validating task-based assessment of L2 pragmatics in interaction using
mixed methods. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Hawai’i at Manoa.
Youn, S. J. (2015). Validity argument for assessing L2 pragmatics in interaction using mixed
methods. Language Testing, 32 (2), 199–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532214557113
Youn, S. J. (2018). Task-based needs analysis of L2 pragmatics in an EAP context. Journal
of English for Academic Purposes, 36 , 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2018.10.005
Youn, S. J. (2019). Managing proposal sequences in role-play assessment: Validity evidence
of interactional competence across levels. Language Testing, 37 (1), 76–106
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532219860077
Youn, S. J. (2020). Managing proposal sequences in role-play assessment: Validity evidence
of interactional competence across levels. Language Testing, 37 (1), 76–106.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532219860077
Youn, S. J. , & Bogorevich, V. (2019). Assessment in L2 pragmatics. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The
Routledge.
Young, R. F. (2019). Interactional competence and L2 pragmatics. In N. Taguchi (Ed.), The
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351164085-7
Zhang, Y. (2016). Development of second language interactional competence: Agreement
and disagreement negotiation by learners of Mandarin. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation].
University of Melbourne.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
lobster, from the sun, and in order to protect my eyes, I had taken off
my cravat and bound it around the red tarboosh. My friend had
swathed his felt hat in like manner, and when the shekh looked at us
from time to time, while Achmet spoke of our friendship with all the
Consuls in Cairo, it was almost too much to enjoy quietly. However,
the shekh, who wore a red cap and a single cotton garment, treated
us with much respect. His serene, impartial demeanor, as he heard
the testimony of the various witnesses who were called up, was most
admirable. After half an hour’s delay, the messenger returned, and
the guilty parties were brought into court, looking somewhat alarmed
and very submissive. We identified the two ringleaders, and after
considering the matter thoroughly, the shekh ordered that they
should be instantly bastinadoed. We decided between ourselves to
let the punishment commence, lest the matter should not be
considered sufficiently serious, and then to show our mercy by
pardoning the culprits.
One of the men was then thrown on the ground and held by the
head and feet, while the shekh took a stout rod and began
administering the blows. The victim had prepared himself by giving
his bornous a double turn over his back, and as the end of the rod
struck the ground each time, there was much sound with the veriest
farce of punishment. After half a dozen strokes, he cried out, “ya
salaam!” whereupon the crowd laughed heartily, and my friend
ordered the shekh to stop. The latter cast the rod at our feet, and
asked us to continue the infliction ourselves, until we were satisfied.
We told him and the company in general, through Achmet, that we
were convinced of his readiness to punish imposition; that we wished
to show the Arabs that they must in future treat travellers with
respect; that we should send word of the affair to Cairo, and they
might rest assured that a second assault would be more severely
dealt with. Since this had been demonstrated, we were willing that
the punishment should now cease, and in conclusion returned our
thanks to the shekh, for his readiness to do us justice. This decision
was received with great favor; the two culprits came forward and
kissed our hands and those of Achmet, and the villagers pronounced
a unanimous sentence of “taïb!” (good!) The indiscreet youth again
appeared, and this time with coffee, of which we partook with much
relish, for this playing the Cadi was rather fatiguing. The shekh
raised our hands to his forehead, and accompanied us to the end of
the village, where we gave the coffee-bearer a backsheesh,
dismissed our water-boys, and turned our donkeys’ heads toward
Abousir.
Achmet’s dark skin was pale from his wounded pride, and I was
faint from pyramid-climbing, but a cold fowl, eaten as we sat in the
sun, on the border of the glowing Desert, comforted us. The
dominion of the sand has here as distinct a bound as that of the sea;
there is not thirty yards from the black, pregnant loam, to the fiery
plain, where no spear of grass grows. Our path lay sometimes on
one side of this border, sometimes on the other, for more than an
hour and a half, till we reached the ruined pyramids of Abousir,
where it turned southward into the Desert. After seeing Cheops and
Cephrenes, these pyramids are only interesting on account of their
dilapidated state and the peculiarity of their forms, some of their
sides taking a more obtuse angle at half their height. They are buried
deep in the sand, which has so drifted toward the plain, that from the
broad hollow lying between them and the group of Sakkara, more
than a mile distant, every sign of vegetation is shut out. Vast, sloping
causeways of masonry lead up to two of them, and a large mound,
occupying the space between, suggests the idea that a temple
formerly stood there. The whole of the desert promontory, which
seemed to have been gradually blown out on the plain, from the hills
in the rear, exhibits traces here and there of ruins beneath the
surface. My friend and I, as we walked over the hot sand, before our
panting donkeys, came instinctively to the same conclusion—that a
large city must have once occupied the space between, and to the
southward of, the two groups of pyramids. It is not often that amateur
antiquarians find such sudden and triumphant confirmation of their
conjectures, as we did.
On the way, Achmet had told us of a Frenchman who had been all
summer digging in the sand, near Sakkara. After we had crawled
into the subterranean dépôt of mummied ibises, and nearly choked
ourselves with dust in trying to find a pot not broken open; and after
one of our donkeymen went into a human mummy pit and brought
out the feet and legs of some withered old Egyptian, we saw before
us the residence of this Frenchman; a mud hut on a high sand-bank.
It was an unfortunate building, for nearly all the front wall had
tumbled down, revealing the contents of his kitchen. One or two
Arabs loitered about, but a large number were employed at the end
of a long trench which extended to the hills.
Before reaching the house a number of deep pits barred our path,
and the loose sand, stirred by our feet, slid back into the bottom, as if
eager to hide the wonders they disclosed. Pavements, fresh as when
first laid; basement-walls of white marble, steps, doorways,
pedestals and fragments of pillars glittered in the sun, which, after
the lapse of more than two thousand years, beheld them again. I slid
down the side of the pit and walked in the streets of Memphis. The
pavement of bitumen, which once covered the stone blocks,
apparently to protect them and deaden the noise of horses and
chariots, was entire in many places. Here a marble sphinx sat at the
base of a temple, and stared abstractedly before her; there a
sculptured cornice, with heavy mouldings, leaned against the walls
of the chamber into which it had fallen, and over all were scattered
fragments of glazed and painted tiles and sculptured alabaster. The
principal street was narrow, and was apparently occupied by private
dwellings, but at its extremity were the basement-walls of a spacious
edifice. All the pits opened on pavements and walls, so fresh and
cleanly cut, that they seemed rather the foundations of a new city,
laid yesterday, than the remains of one of the oldest capitals of the
world.
We approached the workmen, where we met the discoverer of
Memphis, Mr. Auguste Mariette. On finding we were not Englishmen
(of whose visits he appeared to be rather shy), he became very
courteous and communicative. He apologized for the little he had to
show us, since on account of the Vandalism of the Arabs, he was
obliged to cover up all his discoveries, after making his drawings and
measurements. The Egyptian authorities are worse than apathetic,
for they would not hesitate to burn the sphinxes for lime, and build
barracks for filthy soldiers with the marble blocks. Besides this, the
French influence at Cairo was then entirely overshadowed by that of
England, and although M. Mariette was supported in his labors by
the French Academy, and a subscription headed by Louis
Napoleon’s name, he was forced to be content with the simple
permission to dig out these remarkable ruins and describe them. He
could neither protect them nor remove the portable sculptures and
inscriptions, and therefore preferred giving them again into the safe
keeping of the sand. Here they will be secure from injury, until some
more fortunate period, when, possibly, the lost Memphis may be
entirely given to the world, as fresh as Pompeii, and far more grand
and imposing.
I asked M. Mariette what first induced him to dig for Memphis in
that spot, since antiquarians had fixed upon the mounds near
Mitrahenny (a village in the plain below, and about four miles
distant), as the former site of the city. He said that the tenor of an
inscription which he found on one of the blocks quarried out of these
mounds, induced him to believe that the principal part of the city lay
to the westward, and therefore he commenced excavating in the
nearest sand-hill in that direction. After sinking pits in various places
he struck on an avenue of sphinxes, the clue to all his after
discoveries. Following this, he came upon the remains of a temple
(probably the Serapeum, or Temple of Serapis, mentioned by
Strabo), and afterward upon streets, colonnades, public and private
edifices, and all other signs of a great city. The number of sphinxes
alone, buried under these high sand-drifts, amounted to two
thousand, and he had frequently uncovered twenty or thirty in a day.
He estimated the entire number of statues, inscriptions and reliefs, at
between four and five thousand. The most remarkable discovery was
that of eight colossal statues, which were evidently the product of
Grecian art. During thirteen months of assiduous labor, with but one
assistant, he had made drawings of all these objects and forwarded
them to Paris. In order to be near at hand, he had built an Arab
house of unburnt bricks, the walls of which had just tumbled down for
the third time. His workmen were then engaged in clearing away the
sand from the dwelling of some old Memphian, and he intended
spreading his roof over the massive walls, and making his residence
in the exhumed city.
The man’s appearance showed what he had undergone, and gave
me an idea of the extraordinary zeal and patience required to make
a successful antiquarian. His face was as brown as an Arab’s, his
eyes severely inflamed, and his hands as rough as a bricklayer’s.
His manner with the native workmen was admirable, and they
labored with a hearty good-will which almost supplied the want of the
needful implements. All they had were straw baskets, which they
filled with a sort of rude shovel, and then handed up to be carried off
on the heads of others. One of the principal workmen was deaf and
dumb, but the funniest Arab I ever saw. He was constantly playing
off his jokes on those who were too slow or too negligent. An unlucky
girl, stooping down at the wrong time to lift a basket of sand,
received the contents of another on her head, and her indignant
outcry was hailed by the rest with screams of laughter. I saw the
same man pick out of the sand a glazed tile containing hieroglyphic
characters. The gravity with which he held it before him, feigning to
peruse it, occasionally nodding his head, as if to say, “Well done for
old Pharaoh!” could not have been excelled by Burton himself.
Strabo states that Memphis had a circumference of seventeen
miles, and therefore both M. Mariette and the antiquarians are right.
The mounds of Mitrahenny probably mark the eastern portion of the
city, while its western limit extended beyond the Pyramids of
Sakkara, and included in its suburbs those of Abousir and Dashoor.
The space explored by M. Mariette is about a mile and a half in
length, and somewhat more than half a mile in breadth. He was then
continuing his excavations westward, and had almost reached the
first ridge of the Libyan Hills, without finding the termination of the
ruins. The magnitude of his discovery will be best known when his
drawings and descriptions are given to the world. A few months after
my visit, his labors were further rewarded by finding thirteen colossal
sarcophagi of black marble, and he has recently added to his renown
by discovering an entrance to the Sphinx. Yet at that time, the
exhumation of the lost Memphis—second only in importance to that
of Nineveh—was unknown in Europe, except to a few savans in
Paris, and the first intimation which some of my friends in Cairo and
Alexandria had of it, was my own account of my visit, in the
newspapers they received from America. But M. Mariette is a young
man, and will yet see his name inscribed beside those of Burckhardt,
Belzoni and Layard.
We had still a long ride before us, and I took leave of Memphis
and its discoverer, promising to revisit him on my return from
Khartoum. As we passed the brick Pyramid of Sakkara, which is built
in four terraces of equal height, the dark, grateful green of the palms
and harvest-fields of the Nile appeared between two sand-hills—a
genuine balm to our heated eyes. We rode through groves of the
fragrant mimosa to a broad dike, the windings of which we were
obliged to follow across the plain, as the soil was still wet and
adhesive. It was too late to visit the beautiful Pyramids of Dashoor,
the first of which is more than three hundred feet in height, and from
a distance has almost as grand an effect as those of Gizeh. Our tired
donkeys lagged slowly along to the palm-groves of Mitrahenny,
where we saw mounds of earth, a few blocks of red granite and a
colossal statue of Remeses II. (Sesostris)—which until now were
supposed to be the only remains of Memphis. The statue lies on its
face in a hole filled with water. The countenance is said to be very
beautiful, but I could only see the top of Sesostris’s back, which bore
a faint resemblance to a crocodile.
Through fields of cotton in pod and beans in blossom, we rode to
the Nile, dismissed our donkeys and their attendants, and lay down
on some bundles of corn-stalks to wait the arrival of our boat. But
there had been a south wind all day, and we had ridden much faster
than our men could tow. We sat till long after sunset before the stars
and stripes, floating from the mizzen of the Cleopatra, turned the
corner below Bedrasheyn. When, at last, we sat at our cabin-table,
weary and hungry, we were ready to confess that the works of art
produced by our cook, Salame, were more marvellous and
interesting than Memphis and the Pyramids.
CHAPTER VI.
FROM MEMPHIS TO SIOUT.
Leaving the Pyramids—A Calm and a Breeze—A Coptic Visit—Minyeh—

The Grottoes of Beni-Hassan—Doum Palms and Crocodiles—Djebel
Aboufayda—Entrance into Upper Egypt—Diversions of the Boatmen
—Siout—Its Tombs—A Landscape—A Bath.
“It flows through old hushed Egypt and its sands,

Like some grave, mighty thought threading a dream.”
Leigh Hunt’s Sonnet to the Nile.
The extent of my journey into Africa led me to reverse the usual

plan pursued by travellers on the Nile, who sail to Assouan or Wadi-
Halfa without pause, and visit the antiquities on their return. I have
never been able to discern the philosophy of this plan. The voyage
up is always longer, and more tedious (to those heathens who call
the Nile tedious), than the return; besides which, two visits, though
brief, with an interval between, leave a more complete and enduring
image, than a single one. The mind has time to analyze and
contrast, and can afterwards confirm or correct the first impressions.
How any one can sail from Cairo to Siout, a voyage of two hundred
and sixty miles, with but one or two points of interest, without taking
the Pyramids with him in memory, I cannot imagine. Were it not for
that recollection, I should have pronounced Modern Egypt more
interesting than the Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies. I
omitted seeing none of the important remains on my upward journey,
so that I might be left free to choose another route homeward, if
possible. It seemed like slighting Fortune to pass Dendera, and
Karnak and Ombos, without notice. Opportunity is rare, and a wise
man will never let it go by him. I knew not what dangers I might have
to encounter, but I knew that it would be a satisfaction to me, even if
speared by the Bedouins of the Lybian Desert, to think: “You rascals,
you have killed me, but I have seen Thebes!”
The Pyramids of Dashoor followed us all the next day after leaving
Memphis. Our sailors tugged us slowly along shore, against a mild
south wind, but could not bring us out of the horizon of those red
sandstone piles. Our patience was tried, that day and the next, by
our slow and toilsome progress, hindered still more by running
aground on sand-banks, but we were pledged to patience, and had
our reward. On the morning of the fourth day, as we descried before
us the minarets of Benisouef, the first large town after leaving Cairo,
a timid breeze came rustling over the dourra-fields to the north, and
puffed out the Cleopatra’s languid sails. The tow-rope was hauled in,
our Arabs jumped on board and produced the drum and tambourine,
singing lustily as we moved out into the middle of the stream. The
wind increased; the flag lifted itself from the mast and streamed
toward Thebes, and Benisouef went by, almost before we had
counted its minarets. I tried in vain to distinguish the Pyramid of
Illahoon, which stands inland, at the base of the Libyan Hills and the
entrance of the pass leading to the Lake of Fyoom, the ancient
Mœris. Near the Pyramid are the foundations of the famous
Labyrinth, lately excavated by Dr. Lepsius. The Province of Fyoom,
surrounding the lake, is, with the exception of the Oases in the
Libyan Desert, the only productive land west of the mountains
bordering the Nile.
All afternoon, with both sails full and our vessel leaning against the
current, we flew before the wind. At dusk, the town of Feshn
appeared on our left; at midnight, we passed Abou-Girgeh and the
Mounds of Behnesa, the ancient Oxyrinchus; and when the wind left
us, at sunrise, we were seventy miles from Benisouef. The Arabian
Mountains here approach the river, and at two points terminate in
abrupt precipices of yellow calcareous rock. The bare cliffs of Djebel
el Tayr (the Mountain of Birds), are crowned with the “Convent of the
Pulley,” so called from its inaccessible situation, and the fact that
visitors are frequently drawn to the summit by a rope and windlass.
While passing this convent, a cry came up from the muddy waters of
the river: “We are Christians, O Howadji!” and presently two naked
Coptic monks wriggled over the gunwale, and sat down, panting and
dripping, on the deck. We gave them backsheesh, which they
instantly clapped into their mouths, but their souls likewise devoutly
yearned for brandy, which they did not get. They were large, lusty
fellows, and whatever perfection of spirit they might have attained,
their flesh certainly had never been unnecessarily mortified. After a
breathing spell, they jumped into the river again, and we soon saw
them straddling from point to point, as they crawled up the almost
perpendicular cliff. At Djebel el Tayr, the birds of Egypt (according to
an Arabic legend) assemble annually and choose one of their
number to remain there for a year. My friend complained that the wild
geese and ducks were not represented, and out of revenge fired at a
company of huge pelicans, who were seated on a sand-bank.
The drum and tambourine kept lively time to the voices of our
sailors, as we approached Minyeh, the second large town on the
river, and the capital of a Province. But the song this time had a
peculiar significance. After the long-drawn sound, something
between a howl and a groan, which terminated it, we were waited
upon by a deputation, who formally welcomed us to the city. We
responded by a backsheesh of twenty-five piastres, and the drum
rang louder than ever. We stayed in Minyeh long enough to buy a leg
of mutton, and then sailed for the tombs of Beni-Hassan. The wind
left us as we reached a superb palm-grove, which for several miles
skirts the foot of Djebel Shekh Timay. The inhabitants are in bad
odor, and in addition to our own guard, we were obliged to take two
men from the village, who came armed with long sticks and built a
fire on the bank, beside our vessel. This is a regulation of the
Government, to which travellers usually conform, but I never saw
much reason for it. We rose at dawn and wandered for hours
through the palms, to the verge of the Desert. When within two or
three miles of the mountain of Beni-Hassan, we provided ourselves
with candles, water-flasks and weapons, and set off in advance of
our boat. The Desert here reached the Nile, terminating in a bluff
thirty to forty feet in height, which is composed of layers of pebbles
and shelly sand, apparently the deposit of many successive floods. I
should have attributed this to the action of the river, cutting a deeper
channel from year to year, but I believe it is now acknowledged that
the bed of the Nile is gradually rising, and that the yearly inundation
covers a much wider space than in the time of the Pharaohs. It is
difficult to reconcile this fact with the very perceptible encroachments
which the sand is making on the Libyan shore; but we may at least
be satisfied that the glorious harvest-valley through which the river
wanders can never be wholly effaced thereby.
We climbed to the glaring level of the Desert, carrying with us the
plumes of a beautiful gray heron which my friend brought down. A
solitary Arab horseman was slowly moving along the base of the arid
hills, and we descried in the distance a light-footed gazelle, which
leisurely kept aloof and mocked our efforts to surround it. At the foot
of the mountain we passed two ruined villages, destroyed several
years ago by Ibrahim Pasha, on account of the marauding
propensities of the inhabitants. It has a cruel sound, when you are
told that the people were driven away, and their dwellings razed to
the ground, but the reality is a trifling matter. The Arabs take their
water-skins and pottery, jump into the Nile, swim across to a safer
place, and in three or four days their palaces of mud are drying in the
sun. We came upon them the next morning, as thievishly inclined as
ever, and this was the only place where I found the people otherwise
than friendly.
A steep path, up a slope covered with rounded boulders of hard
black rock, leads to the grottoes of Beni-Hassan. They are among
the oldest in Egypt, dating from the reign of Osirtasen I, about 1750
years before the Christian Era, and are interesting from their
encaustic paintings, representing Egyptian life and customs at that
early date. The rock chambers extend for nearly half a mile along the
side of the mountain. The most of them are plain and without
particular interest, and they have all suffered from the great spoilers
of Egypt—the Persian, the Copt and the Saracen. Four only retain
their hieroglyphics and paintings, and are adorned with columns
hewn from the solid rock. The first we entered contained four plain,
fluted columns, one of which had been shivered in the centre,
leaving the architrave and capital suspended from the ceiling. The
walls were covered with paintings, greatly faded and defaced,
representing the culture and manufacture of flax, the sowing and
reaping of grain, and the making of bread, besides a number of
spirited hunting and fishing scenes. The occupant of the tomb
appears to have been a severe master, for his servants are shown in
many places, undergoing the punishment of the bastinado, which is
even inflicted upon women. He was also wealthy, for we still see his
stewards presenting him with tablets showing the revenues of his
property. He was a great man in Joseph’s day, but the pit in which he
lay is now empty, and the Arabs have long since burned his mummy
to boil their rice.
The second tomb is interesting, from a painting representing thirty
men, of a foreign nation, who are brought before the deceased
occupant. Some antiquarians suppose them to be the brethren of
Joseph, but the tomb is that of a person named Nehophth, and the
number of men does not correspond with the Bible account. Two of
the southern tombs, which are supported by pillars formed of four
budding locust-stalks bound together, are covered with paintings
representing different trades and professions. The rear walls are
entirely devoted to illustrations of gymnastic exercises, and the
figures are drawn with remarkable freedom and skill. There are
never more than two persons in a group, one being painted red and
the other black, in order the better to show the position of each. In at
least five hundred different groupings the same exercise is not
repeated, showing a wonderful fertility of invention, either on the part
of the artist or the wrestlers. The execution of these figures fully
reached my ideas of Egyptian pictorial art, but the colors were much
less vivid than some travellers represent. The tombs are not large,
though numerous, and what is rather singular, there is not the least
trace of a city in the neighborhood, to which they could have
belonged.
The next day at noon we passed between the mounds of Antinoë
and Hermopolis Magna, lying on opposite banks of the Nile. Antinoë,
built by the Emperor Adrian in honor of his favorite, the glorious
Antinous, who was here drowned in the river, has entirely
disappeared, with the exception of its foundations. Twenty-five years
ago, many interesting monuments were still standing, but as they
were, unfortunately, of the white calcareous stone of the Arabian
Hills, they have been long since burnt for lime. Before reaching
Antinoë we had just come on board, after a long walk on the western
bank, and the light wind which bore us toward the mountain of Shekh
Abaddeh was too pleasant to be slighted; so we saw nothing of
Adrian’s city except some heaps of dirt. The splendid evening,
however, which bathed the naked cliffs of the mountain in rosy flame,
was worth more to us than any amount of marble blocks.
The guide book says, “hereabouts appears the doum palm, and
crocodiles begin to be more frequently seen.” The next morning we
found one of the trees, but day after day we vainly sought a
crocodile. My friend recalled a song of Geibel’s, concerning a
German musician who played his violin by the Nile till the crocodiles
came out and danced around the Pyramids and in his despair would
also have purchased a violin, if any could have been found in Siout. I
had seen alligators on the Mississippi, and took the disappointment
more complacently. The doum palm differs from the columnar date-
palm in the form of its leaves, which are fan-like, and in having a
branching trunk. The main stem divides a few feet from the root,
each of the branches again forming two, and each of these two
more, till the tree receives a broad, rounded top. The fruit hangs
below in clusters, resembling small cocoa-nuts, and has a sort of
gingerbread flavor, which is not disagreeable. When fully dry and
hard, it takes a polish like ivory, and is manufactured by the Arabs
into beads, pipe bowls and other small articles.
We approached the mountain of Aboufayda with a strong and
favorable wind. Here the Nile, for upward of ten miles, washes the
foot of lofty precipices, whose many deep fissures and sharp angles
give them the appearance of mountains in ruin. The afternoon sun
shone full on the yellow rocks, and their jagged pinnacles were cut
with wonderful distinctness against the perfect blue of the sky. This
mountain is considered the most dangerous point on the Nile for
boats, and the sailors always approach it with fear. Owing to its deep
side-gorges, the wind sometimes shifts about without a moment’s
warning, and if the large lateen sail is caught aback, the vessel is
instantly overturned. During the passage of this and other similar
straits, two sailors sit on deck, holding the sail-rope, ready to let it fly
in the wind on the slightest appearance of danger. The shifting of the
sail is a delicate business, at such times, but I found it better to trust
to our men, awkward as they were, than to confuse by attempting to
direct them. At Djebel Shekh Saïd, the sailors have a custom of
throwing two or three loaves of bread on the water, believing that it
will be taken up by two large white birds and deposited on the tomb
of the Shekh. The wind favored us in passing Aboufayda; the
Cleopatra dashed the foam from the rough waves, and in two or
three hours the southern corner of the mountain lay behind us,
leaning away from the Nile like the shattered pylon of a temple.
Before sunset we passed the city of Manfalout, whose houses
year by year topple into the mining flood. The side next the river
shows only halves of buildings, the rest of which have been washed
away. In a few years the tall and airy minarets will follow, and unless
the inhabitants continue to shift their dwellings to the inland side, the
city will entirely disappear. From this point, the plain of Siout, the
garden of Upper Egypt, opened wide and far before us. The spur of
the Libyan hills, at the foot of which the city is built, shot out in
advance, not more than ten or twelve miles distant, but the Nile, loth
to leave these beautiful fields and groves, winds hither and thither in
such a devious, lingering track, that you must sail twenty-five miles
to reach El Hamra, the port of Siout. The landscape, broader and
more majestic than those of Lower Egypt, is even richer and more
blooming. The Desert is kept within its proper bounds; it is no longer
visible from the river, and the hills, whose long, level lines frame the
view on either side, enhance by their terrible sterility the luxury of
vegetation which covers the plain. It is a bounteous land, visited only
by healthy airs, and free from the pestilence which sometimes
scourges Cairo.
The wind fell at midnight, but came to us again the next morning at
sunrise, and brought us to El Hamra before noon. Our men were in
high spirits at having a day of rest before them, the contracts for
boats always stipulating for a halt of twenty-four hours at Siout and
Esneh, in order that they may procure their supplies of provisions.
They buy wheat and dourra, have it ground in one of the rude mills
worked by buffaloes, and bake a sufficient quantity of loaves to last
two or three weeks. Our men had also the inspiration of backsheesh
in their song, and their dolorous love-melodies rang from shore to
shore. The correctness with which these people sing is absolutely
surprising. Wild and harsh as are their songs, their choruses are in
perfect accord, and even when at the same time exerting all their
strength at the poles and oars, they never fail in a note. The
melodies are simple, but not without expression, and all are
pervaded with a mournful monotony which seems to have been
caught from the Desert. There is generally an improvisatore in each
boat’s crew, who supplies an endless number of lines to the regular
chorus of “hay-haylee sah!” So far as I could understand our poet,
there was not the least meaning or connection in his poetry, but he
never failed in the rhythm. He sang, for instance: “O Alexandrian!”—
then followed the chorus: “Hasten, three of you!”—chorus again:
“Hail, Sidi Ibrahim!” and so on, for an hour at a time. On particular
occasions, he added pantomime, and the scene on our forward deck
resembled a war-dance of the Blackfeet. The favorite pantomime is
that of a man running into a hornet’s nest. He stamps and cries,
improvising all the while, the chorus seeking to drown his voice. He
then throws off his mantle, cap, and sometimes his last garment,
slapping his body to drive off the hornets, and howling with pain. The
song winds up with a prolonged cry which only ceases when every
lung is emptied. Even when most mirthfully inclined, and roaring in
ecstasy over some silly joke, our men always laughed in accord. So
sound and hearty were their cachinnatory choruses, that we
involuntarily laughed with them.
A crowd of donkeys, ready saddled, awaited us on the bank, and
the boys began to fight before our boat was moored. We chose three
unpainted animals, so large that our feet were at least three inches
from the ground, and set off on a gallop for Siout, which is about a
mile and a half from the river. Its fifteen tall, white minarets rose
before us, against the background of the mountain, and the
handsome front of the palace of Ismaïl Pasha shone through the
dark green of its embosoming acacias. The road follows the course
of a dam, built to retain the waters of the inundation, and is shaded
with palms, sycamores and mimosas. On either side we looked
down upon fields of clover, so green, juicy and June-like that I was
tempted to jump from my donkey and take a roll therein. Where the
ground was still damp the Arabs were ploughing with camels, and
sowing wheat on the moist, fat loam. We crossed a bridge and
entered the court of justice, one of the most charmingly clean and
shady spots in Egypt. The town, which is built of sun-dried bricks,
whose muddy hue is somewhat relieved by the whitewashed
mosques and minarets, is astonishingly clean in every part. The
people themselves appeared to be orderly, intelligent and amiable.
The tombs of the City of Wolves, the ancient Lycopolis, are in the
eastern front of the mountain overhanging the city. We rode to the
Stabl Antar, the principal one, and then climbed to the summit. The
tombs are much larger than those of Beni-Hassan, but have been
almost ruined by the modern Egyptians. The enormous square
pillars which filled their halls have been shattered down for lime, and
only fragments of the capitals still hang from the ceilings of solid
rock. The sculptures and hieroglyphics, which are here not painted
but sculptured in intaglio, are also greatly defaced. The second tomb
called by the Arabs Stabl Hamam (Pigeon Stable), retains its grand
doorway, which has on each side the colossal figure of an ancient
king. The sand around its mouth is filled with fragments of mummied
wolves, and on our way up the mountain we scared one of their
descendants from his lair in a solitary tomb. The Stabl Hamam is
about sixty feet square by forty in height, and in its rough and ruined
aspect is more impressive than the more chaste and elegant
chambers of Beni-Hassan. The view of the plain of Siout, seen
through its entrance, has a truly magical effect. From the gray
twilight of the hall in which you stand, the green of the fields, the
purple of the distant mountains, and the blue of the sky, dazzle your
eye as if tinged with the broken rays of a prism.
From the summit of the mountain, which we reached by scaling a
crevice in its white cliffs, we overlooked a more beautiful landscape
than that seen from the Pyramid. In the north, beyond the spires of
Manfalout and the crags of Aboufayda, we counted the long palm-
groves, receding behind one another to the yellow shore of the
Desert; in front, the winding Nile and the Arabian Mountains;
southward, a sea of wheat and clover here deepening into dark
emerald, there paling into gold, according to the degree of moisture
in the soil, and ceasing only because the eye refused to follow; while
behind us, over the desert hills, wound the track of the yearly
caravan from Dar-Fūr and Kordofan. Our Arab guide pointed out a
sandy plain, behind the cemetery of the Mamelukes, which lay at our
feet, as the camping-ground of the caravan, and tried to tell us how
many thousand camels were assembled there. As we looked upon
the superb plain, teeming with its glory of vegetable life and
enlivened by the songs of the Arab ploughmen, a funeral procession
came from the city and passed slowly to the burying-ground,
accompanied by the dismal howling of a band of women. We went
below and rode between the whitewashed domes covering the
graves of the Mamelukes. The place was bright, clean and cheerful,
in comparison with the other Arab burying-grounds we had seen.
The grove which shades its northern wall stretches for more than a
mile along the edge of the Desert—a picturesque avenue of palms,
sycamores, fragrant acacias, mimosas and acanthus. The air around
Siout is pregnant with the rich odor of the yellow mimosa-flowers,
and one becomes exhilarated by breathing it.
The city has handsome bazaars and a large bath, built by
Mohammed Bey Defterdar, the savage son-in-law of Mohammed Ali.
The halls are spacious, supported by granite columns, and paved
with marble. Little threads of water, scarcely visible in the dim,
steamy atmosphere, shoot upward from the stone tanks, around
which a dozen brown figures lie stretched in the lazy beatitude of the
bath. I was given over to two Arabs, who scrubbed me to
desperation, plunged me twice over head and ears in a tank of
scalding water, and then placed me under a cold douche. When the
whole process, which occupied more than half an hour, was over, a
cup of coffee and a pipe were brought to me as I lay stretched out on
the divan, while another attendant commenced a course of
dislocation, twisting and cracking all my joints and pressing violently
with both hands on my breast. Singularly enough, this removed the
languor occasioned by so much hot water, and gave a wonderful
elasticity to the frame. I walked out as if shod with the wings of
Mercury, and as I rode back to our boat, congratulated my donkey on
the airy lightness of his load.
The Cleopatra.
CHAPTER VII.
LIFE ON THE NILE.
Independence of Nile Life—The Dahabiyeh—Our Servants—Our

Residence—Our Manner of Living—The Climate—The Natives—
Costume—Our Sunset Repose—My Friend—A Sensuous Life
Defended.
——“The life thou seek’st

Thou’lt find beside the Eternal Nile.”—Moore’s Alciphron.
We hear much said by tourists who have visited Egypt, concerning

the comparative pains and pleasures of life on the Nile, and their
decisions are as various as their individual characters. Four out of
every five complain of the monotony and tedium of the voyage, and
pour forth touching lamentations over the annoyance of rats and
cockroaches, the impossibility of procuring beef-steak, or the
difficulty of shooting crocodiles. Some of them are wholly
impermeable to the influences of the climate, scenery and ruins of
Egypt, and carry to the Nubian frontier the airs of Broadway or Bond-
street. I have heard such a one say: “This seeing the Nile is a nice
thing to have gotten over, but it is a great bore while you are about
it.” Such is the spirit of those travelling snobs (of all nations), by
some of whom sacred Egypt is profaned every winter. They are
unworthy to behold the glories of the Nile, and if I had the
management of Society, they never should. A palm-tree is to them a
good post to shoot a pigeon from, Dendera is a “rum old concern,”
and a crocodile is better than Karnak.
There are a few, however, who will acknowledge the truth of the
picture which follows, and which was written in the cabin of the
Cleopatra, immediately after our arrival in Upper Egypt. As it is a
faithful transcript of my Nilotic life, I have deviated from the regular
course of my narrative, in order to give it without change:—
The Nile is the Paradise of Travel. I thought I had already
fathomed all the depths of enjoyment which the traveller’s restless
life could reach—enjoyment more varied and exciting, but far less
serene and enduring than that of a quiet home—but here I have
reached a fountain too pure and powerful to be exhausted. I never
before experienced such a thorough deliverance from all the petty
annoyances of travel in other lands, such perfect contentment of
spirit, such entire abandonment to the best influences of nature.
Every day opens with a jubilate, and closes with a thanksgiving. If
such a balm and blessing as this life has been to me, thus far, can
be felt twice in one’s existence, there must be another Nile
somewhere in the world.
Other travellers undoubtedly make other experiences and take
away other impressions. I can even conceive circumstances which
would almost destroy the pleasure of the journey. The same
exquisitely sensitive temperament which in our case has not been
disturbed by a single untoward incident, might easily be kept in a
state of constant derangement by an unsympathetic companion, a
cheating dragoman, or a fractious crew. There are also many trifling
desagrémens, inseparable from life in Egypt, which some would
consider a source of annoyance; but as we find fewer than we were
prepared to meet, we are not troubled thereby. Our enjoyment
springs from causes so few and simple, that I scarcely know how to
make them suffice for the effect, to those who have never visited the
Nile. It may be interesting to such to be made acquainted with our
manner of living, in detail.
In the first place, we are as independent of all organized
Governments as a ship on the open sea. (The Arabs call the Nile El
bahr, “the sea.”) We are on board our own chartered vessel, which
must go where we list, the captain and sailors being strictly bound to
obey us. We sail under national colors, make our own laws for the
time being, are ourselves the only censors over our speech and
conduct, and shall have no communication with the authorities on
shore, unless our subjects rebel. Of this we have no fear, for we
commenced by maintaining strict discipline, and as we make no
unreasonable demands, are always cheerfully obeyed. Indeed, the
most complete harmony exists between the rulers and the ruled, and
though our government is the purest form of despotism, we flatter
ourselves that it is better managed than that of the Model Republic.
Our territory, to be sure, is not very extensive. The Cleopatra is a
dahabiyeh, seventy feet long by ten broad. She has two short masts
in the bow and stern, the first upholding the trinkeet, a lateen sail
nearly seventy feet in length. The latter carries the belikôn, a small
sail, and the American colors. The narrow space around the
foremast belongs to the crew, who cook their meals in a small brick
furnace, and sit on the gunwale, beating a drum and tambourine and
singing for hours in interminable choruses, when the wind blows fair.
If there is no wind, half of them are on shore, tugging us slowly along
the banks with a long tow-rope, and singing all day long: “Ayà
hamàm—ayà hamàm!” If we strike on a sand-bank, they jump into
the river and put their shoulders against the hull, ringing: “hay-haylee
sah!” If the current is slow, they ship the oars and pull us up stream,
singing so complicated a refrain that it is impossible to write it with
other than Arabic characters. There are eight men and a boy,
besides our stately raïs, Hassan Abd el-Sadek, and the swarthy pilot,
who greets us every morning with a whole round of Arabic
salutations.
Against an upright pole which occupies the place of a main-mast,
stands our kitchen, a high wooden box, with three furnaces. Here our
cook, Salame, may be seen at all times, with the cowl of a blue
capote drawn over his turban, preparing the marvellous dishes,
wherein his delight is not less than ours. Salame, like a skilful artist,
as he is, husbands his resources, and each day astonishes us with
new preparations, so that, out of few materials, he has attained the
grand climax of all art—variety in unity. Achmet, my faithful
dragoman, has his station here, and keeps one eye on the vessel
and one on the kitchen, while between the two he does not relax his
protecting care for us. The approach to the cabin is flanked by our
provision chests, which will also serve as a breastwork in case of
foreign aggression. A huge filter-jar of porous earthenware stands
against the back of the kitchen. We keep our fresh butter and
vegetables in a box under it, where the sweet Nile-water drips cool

Full Ebook of Teaching and Testing Second Language Pragmatics and Interaction A Practical Guide Second Language Acquisition Research Series 1St Edition Carsten Roever Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Full Ebook of Teaching and Testing Second Language Pragmatics and Interaction A Practical Guide Second Language Acquisition Research Series 1St Edition Carsten Roever Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Ebook of Teaching and Testing Second Language Pragmatics and Interaction A Practical Guide Second Language Acquisition Research Series 1St Edition Carsten Roever Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Teaching and Testing Second

Language Pragmatics and Interaction A

Language Learner Autonomy Theory Practice and Research

Tense and Aspect in Second Language Acquisition and

Email Pragmatics and Second Language Learners 1st

Email Pragmatics and Second Language Learners 1st

First Language Bidialectism in Second Language

Talking About Second Language Acquisition 1st Edition

Researching Creativity in Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition of Turkish 1st Edition Ay■e

TEACHING AND TESTING SECOND

Pragmatic ability is crucial for second language learners to communicate

Carsten Roever is Associate Professor in Applied Linguistics at the University of

First published 2022

2 Pragmatic Competence and Interactional Competence 6

3 How to Make Teaching Materials and Tests for Pragmatics 33

4 Pragmatics and Curriculum 69

4.6 Intermediate: the B1 Level Learner and Pragmatics 82

5 Teaching Pragmatics 105

6 Testing Pragmatics 141

7 Outlook: the Future of Teaching and Testing of L2 Pragmatics 170

1.1 What Is Pragmatics and Why Does It Matter?

It is perfectly grammatically correct in English to say any of the following:

1. “Give me the pen.”

1.2 Who This Book Is For (and Some Terminology

• Interlocutor/​interactant: These terms are used fairly interchangeably

1.3 How This Book Is Organized

Chapter 5 talks about planning sequences of instruction for pragmatics. How

Leaving the Pyramids—A Calm and a Breeze—A Coptic Visit—Minyeh—

“It flows through old hushed Egypt and its sands,

Leigh Hunt’s Sonnet to the Nile.

The extent of my journey into Africa led me to reverse the usual

Independence of Nile Life—The Dahabiyeh—Our Servants—Our

——“The life thou seek’st

We hear much said by tourists who have visited Egypt, concerning

You might also like

• Interlocutor/interactant: These terms are used fairly interchangeably