BUILDING&CIVILENGINEERINGDEPARTMENT

LESSONNOTES–APPLIEDSCIENCECRAFT

CLASSNAME :CRAFTINBUILDINGCONSTRUCTIONMOD1
CLASSCODE. :2018BCCE777
COURSECODE :1704/1305
SUBJECT :APPLIEDSCIENCE
CLASSSIZE :
LECTURER :Mr.LinusSang

WEEK1&2

TOPIC-STRESS,STRAINANDYOUNG'SMODULUS
Definitionofterms;
i. Plasticity–
isageneralpropertyofallmaterialswhichcanbedeformedirreversiblywithout
breakingoutbyaforce.ieitremainsdeformedevenaftertheforcecausingdefor
mationiswithdrawn.
ii. ModulusofElasticity-
isaquantitythatmeasuresanobject’sresistancetobeingdeformedelastically(n
on–permanently)whenastressisappliedtoit.Itisdefinedastheslopeofastress-
staincurveiemodulusofelasticity=stress/
strain,thereforeastiffermaterialwillhaveahighermodulusofelasticityandvic
eversa.
iii. Yieldstress-
isthematerialpropertydefinedasthestressatwhichthematerialbeginstodefor
mplastically

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iv. Yieldpoint–
apointwherethereisasharpincreaseintheobject’sstrainthatdoesnotcorrelatew
ithanincreaseinstress.
(orpointwherenonlineardeformationbegins)aftertheyieldpointispassedplast
ic(permanent)deformationoccurs.
v. Stress-isforceperunitareaactingonanobject

vi. Strain–
theratioofextensiontooriginallength.Ithasnounits(itisthedeformationofasolidduetostress
)

Stress

Stressistheratioof appliedforceFtoacrosssectionarea - definedas"forceperunitarea".

 tensilestress -stressthattendstostretchorlengthenthematerial-
actsnormaltothestressedarea
 compressivestress -stressthattendstocompressorshortenthematerial-
actsnormallytothestressedarea
 shearingstress -stressthattendstoshearthematerial-actsinplanetothestressedareaatright-
anglestocompressiveortensilestress

TensileorCompressiveStress-NormalStress

Tensileorcompressivestressnormaltotheplaneisusuallydenoted"normalstress"or"directstress"
andcanbeexpressedas

σ=Fn /A (1)

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where

σ=normalstress(Pa(N/m2),psi(lbf/in2))

Fn =normalforceactingperpendiculartothearea(N,lbf)

A=area(m2,in2)

 akip isanimperialunitofforce-itequals 1000lbf (pounds-force)

 1kip=4448.2216Newtons(N)=4.4482216kiloNewtons(kN)
Anormalforceactsperpendiculartoareaandisdevelopedwheneverexternalloadstendstopushorpul
lthetwosegmentsofabody.

Example-TensileForceactingonaRod

Aforceof 10kN isactingonacircularrodwithdiameter 10mm.Thestressintherodcanbecalculateda

s

σ=(10103 N) /(π((1010-3 m)/2)2)

= 127388535 (N/m2)

= 127 (MPa)

Example-ForceactingonaDouglasFirSquarePost

Acompressiveloadof 30000lb isactingonshortsquare 6x6in postofDouglasfir.The dressedsize

ofthepostis 5.5x5.5in andthecompressivestresscanbecalculatedas

σ=(30000lb) /((5.5in)(5.5in))

= 991 (lb/in2,psi)

ShearStress

Stressparalleltoaplaneisusuallydenotedas"shearstress"andcanbeexpressedas

τ=Fp /A (2)

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where

τ=shearstress(Pa(N/m2),psi(lbf/in2))

Fp =shearforceintheplaneofthearea(N,lbf)

A=area(m2,in2)

Ashearforceliesintheplaneofanareaandisdevelopedwhenexternalloadstendtocausethetwosegme
ntsofabodytoslideoveroneanother.

Strain(Deformation)

Strainisdefinedas"deformationofasolidduetostress".

 Normalstrain-elongationorcontractionofalinesegment
 Shearstrain-changeinanglebetweentwolinesegmentsoriginallyperpendicular
Normalstrainandcanbeexpressedas

ε=dl/lo

=σ/E (3)

where

dl=changeoflength(m,in)

lo =initiallength(m,in)

ε=strain-unit-less

E= Young'smodulus (ModulusofElasticity) (Pa,(N/m2),psi(lbf/in2))

 Young'smoduluscanbeusedtopredicttheelongationorcompressionofanobjectwhenexpos
edtoaforce
Notethatstrainisadimensionlessunitsinceitistheratiooftwolengths.Butitalsocommonpracticetost
ateitastheratiooftwolengthunits-like m/m or in/in.

 Poisson'sratio istheratioofrelativecontractionstrain

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Example-StressandChangeofLength

Therodintheexampleaboveis 2m longandmadeof steelwithModulusofElasticity 200GPa(2001

09 N/m2).Thechangeoflengthcanbecalculatedbytransforming (3) to

dl=σ lo /E

=(127106 Pa)(2m)/(200109 Pa)

= 0.00127 m

= 1.27 mm

StrainEnergy

Stressinganobjectstoresenergyinit.Foranaxialloadtheenergystoredcanbeexpressedas

U=1/2Fn dl

where

U=deformationenergy(J(Nm),ftlb)

Young'sModulus-ModulusofElasticity(orTensileModulus)-Hooke'sLaw

Mostmetalsdeformsproportionaltoimposedloadoverarangeofloads.Stressisproportionaltoloada
ndstrainisproportionaltodeformationasexpressedwith Hooke'sLaw.

E=stress/strain

=σ/ε

=(Fn /A)/(dl/lo) (4)

where

E= Young'sModulus (N/m2)(lb/in2,psi)

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ModulusofElasticity,orYoung'sModulus,iscommonlyusedformetalsandmetalalloysandexpress
edinterms 106 lbf/in2,N/m2 orPa.Tensilemodulusisoftenusedforplasticsandisexpressedinterms
105 lbf/in2 orGPa.

ShearModulusofElasticity-orModulusofRigidity

G=stress/strain

= τ /γ

=(Fp /A)/(s/d) (5)

where

G=ShearModulusofElasticity-orModulusofRigidity(N/m2)(lb/in2,psi)

τ =shearstress((Pa)N/m2,psi)

γ=unitlessmeasureofshearstrain

Fp =forceparalleltothefaceswhichtheyact

A=area(m2,in2)

s=displacementofthefaces(m,in)

d=distancebetweenthefacesdisplaced(m,in)

ModulusElasticity

The BulkModulusElasticity -orVolumeModulus-

isameasureofthesubstance'sresistancetouniformcompression.BulkModulusofElasticityistherati
oofstresstochangeinvolumeofamaterialsubjectedtoaxialloading.

ElasticModuli

Elasticmoduliforsomecommonmaterials:

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 Young'sModulus ShearModulus BulkModulus
-E- -G- -K-
Material

GPa 106 psi GPa 106 psi GPahi 106 psi

Aluminum 70 10 24 3.4 70 10

Brass 91 13 36 5.1 61 8.5

Copper 110 16 42 6.0 140 20

Glass 55 7.8 23 3.3 37 5.2

Iron 91 13 70 10 100 14

Lead 16 2.3 5.6 0.8 7.7 1.1

Steel 200 29 84 12 160 23

 1GPa=109 Pa(N/m2)

WEEK4&5
STRESS–STRAINCURVE

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Fig.1:Stress–straincurveshowingtypicalyieldbehaviorfornonferrousalloys.Stress(

)isshownasafunctionofstrain( )
1:Elastic(proportionality)limit
2:Offsetyieldstrength(0.2%proofstrength)

Therelationshipbetweenthe stressstrain.

Itisuniqueforeachmaterialandisfoundbyrecordingtheamountofdeformation(strain)atdistinctinte
rvalsoftensileorcompressiveloading(stress).Thesecurvesrevealmanyofthepropertiesofamateria
l(includingdatatoestablishthe ModulusofElasticity,

Stress–
straincurvesofvariousmaterialsvarywidely,anddifferenttensiletestsconductedonthesamemater
ialyielddifferentresults,dependinguponthetemperatureofthespecimenandthespeedoftheloading.
Itispossible,however,todistinguishsomecommoncharacteristicsamongthestress–
straincurvesofvariousgroupsofmaterialsand,onthisbasis,todividematerialsintotwobroadcategor
ies;namely,theductilematerialsandthebrittlematerials

ConsiderabarofcrosssectionalareaAbeingsubjectedtoequalandoppositeforcesFpullingattheends
sothebarisundertension.Thematerialisexperiencingastressdefinedtobetheratiooftheforcetothecr
osssectionalareaofthebar:

Twoimportanteffectsnecessarytounderstandthetruestressaretheeffectsofstrainratesusceptibility
andstrainratehardeninguponthetruestress.Timeisoftenneglectedintheinitialstress-

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straincurverelations,butathigherstrainrates,higherstresseswilloccuraccordingtotherelationship

σT=k'ἕTm
wheremisthestrainratesusceptibility.Toaccountfortheresistancetonecking,therelationship σT
=kεTn mustalsobeconsidered,wherenisthestrainhardeningcoefficientandistypicallybetwee
n0.02and0.50,dependinguponthematerial.Bycombiningthesetworelationships,arelationshipof

σT=kεTnἕTm canbefound.However,asrealstressesandstrainsdonotoccuruniaxially,
considerationsformultiaxialstressesmustbeaddedtothisrelationshiptomodelrealstresses.

Thisstressiscalledthetensilestressbecauseeverypartoftheobjectissubjectedtotension.TheSIu
nitofstressisthenewtonpersquaremeter,whichiscalledthepascal.
1pascal=1Pa=1N/m2

Nowconsideraforcethatisappliedtangentiallytoanobject.Theratiooftheshearingforcetothear
eaAiscalledtheshearstress.

Finally,theshearmodulusMSofamaterialisdefinedastheratioofshearstresstoshearstrainatan
ypointinanobjectmadeofthatmaterial.Theshearmodulusisalsoknownasthetorsionmodulus.

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 A stress–straincurve typicalof structuralsteel.

 1: Ultimatestrength
 2: Yieldstrength(yieldpoint)
 3:Rupture
 4: Strainhardening region
 5: Necking region
 A:Apparentstress(F/A0)
 B:Actualstress(F/A)

Ductile

Lowcarbonsteelgenerallyexhibitsaverylinearstress–strainrelationshipuptoawelldefined
yieldpoint (Thelinearportionofthecurveistheelasticregionandtheslopeisthe modulusof
elasticity or Young'sModulus (Young'sModulusistheratioofthecompressivestress
tothelongitudinalstrain).Manyductilematerialsincludingsomemetals,polymersandcer
amicsexhibitayieldpoint.Plasticflowinitiatesattheupperyieldpointandcontinuesatthelo
werone.Atloweryieldpoint,permanentdeformationisheterogeneouslydistributedalongth
esample..

However,beyondthispointa neckfracture

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 Theappearanceofneckinginductilematerialsisassociatedwithgeometricalinstabilityinth
esystem.Duetothenaturalinhomogeneityofthematerial,itiscommontofindsomeregionsw
ithsmallinclusionsorporositywithinitorsurface,wherestrainwillconcentrate,leadingtoal
ocallysmallerareathanotherregions

Brittlematerials

Brittlematerials,whichincludescastiron,glass,andstone,arecharacterizedbythefactthatru
ptureoccurswithoutanynoticeablepriorchangeintherateofelongation.

Brittleconcrete or carbonfiberFig.3.

Fig.3 Stress–straincurveforbrittlematerials.

Typicalbrittlematerialslike glasselasticconcretefibers

HOOKE’SLAW

Itstatesthatforahelicalspring,oranyotherelasticmaterialstretchingForceisdirectlyproport
ionaltoExtension,providedtheelasticlimitisnotexceeded.

Fαe

F=ke

WhereF–Force

K–springconstant

E-extension

Fromhooke’slaw,itcanbededucedthat

Stress(stretchingforce)isdirectlyproportionaltostrain(deformation/extension)

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 WORKINGSTRESS,ULTIMATESTRESSANDFACTOROFSAFETY

WorkingStressMethod(WSM)/AllowableStressDesign
Workingstressmethodisusedforthedesignof Reinforcedconcrete,SteelandTimberstructures.The
mainassumptioninthe WSM
“Factorofsafetyistheratioofstrengthofmaterialtothepermissiblestress”

YieldingofSteel–StressStrainCurve
Whenweconsidertheeffectofcreep,shrinkage,stressconcentrationsandotherssecondaryeffectstheassumptiono
fmaterialbehaviorintheelasticrangewillnothold.Thesewillleadtoincreaseofstressesintotheinelasticrange.WS
Mcannotaccountforloadsactingsimultaneously,buthasdifferentdegreesofuncertainty.Itcannotaccountforthelo
adshavingcounteractingeffects,suchasdeadloadandwindload.Theabovewillleadtonon-
conservativedesign.WorkingStressmethodwillleadtolargeFOSandover-
sizedsections,thusreducingthedesigneconomy.
WSMisstillbeingusinginspecialstructuressuchaswatertanks,chimneysinIndia.Elasticregionsholdsgoodinserv
iceabilitycheckssuchascrackwidth,deflectionetc.

UltimateLoadMethod
Thisisalsoknownasloadfactormethodorultimatestrengthmethod.Inthiswemakeuseofthenonlinearregionofstre
ssstraincurvesofsteelandconcrete.Thesafetyisensuredbyintroducingloadfactor.
“Loadfactoristheratioofultimatestrengthtothe serviceloads”
TheULMmakesitpossibletoconsidertheeffectsofdifferentloadsactingsimultaneouslythussolvingtheshortcomi
ngsofWSM. Astheultimatestrengthofthematerialisconsideredwewillgetmuchslendersectionsforcolumnsand
beamscomparedtoWSMmethod.Butthe serviceability

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LimitStateMethod
Thisphilosophyisanadvancementoverthetraditionaldesignphilosophies.Itconsidersthesafetyattheultimateloa
dandserviceabilityattheworkingload,sortofextensionoftheWSMandULM.
“Limitstateisthestateofimpendingfailure,beyondwhichastructureceasestoperformitsintendedfunctionsatisfac
torily,intermsofeithersafetyorserviceability.”
Thereare2typesoflimitstates

1. UltimateLimitState:Itconsidersstrength,overturning,fatigue,slidingetc.
2. ServiceabilityLimitState:Itconsiderscrackwidth,deflection,vibrationetc.

SpallingofConcreteslabduetocorrosion
Itusesmultiplesafetyfactorsfortherequiredsafetyandserviceabilityattheultimateloadandworkingloadrespectiv
elybyconsideringalllimitstates.Thesearecalled“partialsafetyfactors”.

Partialsafetyfactorformaterials:

Thestrengthofconcreteinactualstructureistakenas(0.67*characteristicstrength),i.e.0.67f ck. Thepartialsafetyfact

or(forultimatelimitstate)forconcreteis1.5andthatforsteelis1.15.Thevalueishigherforconcreteasitisexpectedto
havemorevariabilitycomparedtosteel. Thepartialsafetyfactor(forserviceabilitylimitstate)forconcreteandthatf
orsteelistakenas1.0.Thisistakenasunityasweareinterestedinestimatingtheactualdeflectionsarecrackwidthduri
ngserviceloads.

FRICTION

Advantage
FrictionplaysavitalroleinlifeonEarth.Withoutfrictionalmostnothingcouldbedone.

1.WALKING-
Itisdifficulttowalkonaslipperyroadduetolowfriction.Whenapersonmovesonice,itbecomesdiffic
ulttowalkduetothelowfrictionoftheicewiththeshoe.Thefrictionbetweenthesoleofashoeandthesu
rfaceofthegroundpreventsusfromslipping.

Toimprovethefriction,itisadvisabletowearshoeswithroughsoleswhilewalkingonslipperyfloors.
Forasimilarreason,thecrutchesareprovidedwithrubbertipsontheirundersidetoprovidesufficientf
riction.

.Thefrictionbetweenthefeetoftheanimalsandthegroundmakesiteasiertorunandwalk.Infact,witho
utfriction,theanimalswouldhavedifficultystanding.

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Itislikesomeone'sscenarioslidingonabananapeel:ifthereisnofriction,peopleandanimalscannotw
alk.

Theycouldnotplanttheirfeetfirmlyontheground.Therewouldbenofriction(ietraction)topreventfe
etfromslidingallovertheplace.

2-
Ineverydaylife,frictionbetweentheroadandthetiresofacarhelpsthedrivertocontrolthespeedofthe
vehicle.Byapplyingthebrakes,itallowsyoutoslowdownthecartoastop.

3-
Frictionalsomakeswritingpossibleonpaper.Whenapencilisused,thefrictionofthepapercausesthel
eadofthepenciltodry.

Whenapenisused,thefrictionactivatestheballtoroll,thusreleasingtheinkfromthepen.

4-
Whileinspace,meteorsandcometsdonothavethestrengthtostop,strikingtheatmosphereoftheEarth
,notonlythefrictionoftheatmosphereslowsthem,buttendstoseparatethemintosmallerpieces,thusd
iminishingtheirimpactOnthesurfaceoftheEarth.

5-Frictionweldingworksbyusingacompressionforcetogetherwithfriction-
inducedheattojointwosurfacestogether.

Frictioninducedheatingsmoothesthemetalcomponentstomakethemmoldable.

Thisweldingmethodallowsyoutojoindifferentmaterials(egwoodandmetal)andincreaseproductiv
ityinmanufacturingindustries.

6-Theridgesontheskinofourfingersandpalmsallowustograspandholdobjectsduetofriction.

7-
Thenailcouldnotbefixedonthewoodorwallifthereisnofrictionnorahorsecouldnotpullacarunlesst
hefrictionprovidedasecurepointofsupport.

Disadvantages
Althoughfrictionisveryimportantineverydaylife,italsohassomedisadvantageslike:

1-
Themaindisadvantageoffrictionisthatitproducesheatinvariouspartsofthemachines.Inthisway,us
efulenergyisexpendedasalossinthermalenergy.

Forexample,carenginesbecomewarmerduetofriction.Thiscouldoverheatanddamagethem.

2-Duetofriction,youhavetoexertmorepowerinthemachines,toovercomethelosses.

3-Opposesthemotion,ie,counteractsthemovement,soittakesmoreenergytomove.

4-Duetofriction,noiseoccursinmachines.

5-Byfriction,theenginesofcarsconsumemorefuel,whichcausesalossofmoney.

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6-Theefficiencyofamachinedecreases,sincepartoftheenergyinputlosesinheatbyfriction.

7-
Extrafrictionmakesitdifficulttomoveanobject,suchasslidingaboxacrossthegroundorwalkingind
eepsnow.

8-
Anydevicethathasmovingpartscanquicklywearoutduetofriction.Anexampleoffrictionwears,isar
oughdraft.

COEFFICIENTOFFRICTIONANDCALCULATIONS

Solidfriction

Frictionisaforcewhichopposesortendstoopposetherelativemotionoftwosurfacesinc
ontactwitheachother.

Measuringfrictionalforces

Wecanrelateweightofbodiesincontactandtheforcebetweenthem.

Thisrelationshipiscalledcoefficientoffriction.

CoefficientoffrictionisdefinedastheratiooftheforceneededtoovercomefrictionFftot
heperpendicularforcebetweenthesurfacesFn.

Henceµ=Ff/Fn

Examples

1.Aboxofmass50kgisdraggedonahorizontalfloorbymeansofaropetiedtoitsfront.

Ifthecoefficientofkineticfrictionbetweenthefloorandtheboxis0.30,whatistheforcere
quiredtomovetheboxatuniformspeed?

Solution

Ff=µFn

Fn=weight=50×10=500N

Ff=0.30×500=150N

2.Ablockofmetalwithamassof20kgrequiresahorizontalforceof50Ntopullitwithunifo
rmvelocityalongahorizontalsurface.

Calculatethecoefficientoffrictionbetweenthesurfaceandtheblock.(takeg=10m/s)

Solution

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Sincemotionisuniform,theappliedforceisequaltothefrictionalforce

Fn=normalreaction=weight=20×10=200N

Therefore,µ=Ff/Fn=50/200=0.25..

Applicationsoffriction

1.Matchstick

2.Chewingfood

3.Brakes

4.Motionofmotorvehicles

5.Walking

Methodsofreducingfriction

1.Rollers

2.Ballbearingsinvehiclesandmachines

3.Lubrication/oiling

4.Aircushioninginhovercrafts

Example

Awoodenboxofmass30kgrestsonaroughfloor.Thecoefficientoffrictionbetweenthefloorandtheb
oxis0.6.Calculate

a)Theforcerequiredtojustmovethebox

b)Ifaforceof200Nisappliedtheboxwithwhataccelerationwillitmove?

Solution

a)FrictionalforceFf=µFn=µ(mg)

=0.6×30×10=180N

b)Theresultantforce=200–180=20N

FromF=ma,then20=30a

a=20/30=0.67m/s2

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Viscosity

Thisistheinternalfrictionofafluid.Viscosityofaliquiddecreasesastemperatureincreases.

Whenabodyisreleasedinaviscousfluiditacceleratesatfirstthensoonattainsasteadyvelocitycalledt
erminalvelocity.

TerminalvelocityisattainedwhenF+U=mgwhereFisviscousforce,Uisupthrustandmgisweight.

TOPIC-DENSITY
DENSITYANDRELATIVEDENSITY

Theconceptofdensity.
thedensityofasubstanceisthemassperunitvolumeofagivensubsta
nce.
TheSIunitofdensityiskilogrampermetercubic(kg/
m3)alsogrampercentimetercubic(g/
cm3).Thesymbolfordensityisrho(ρ)ρ=mass/volume.
Example1.
Ablockoficewithvolume5.5m3 hasamassof5060kgfindthedensi
tyofice.
Solution
Volumeofblock=5.5m3
Massofblock=5060kg
Density=mass/volume
=5060/5.5m3.
=920kg/m3.

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Thedensityoficeis920kg/m3.

Example2.
Asilvercylindricalrodhasalengthof0.5mandradiusof0.4m,findt
hedensityoftherodifitsmassis2640kg.
Solution
Massofcylinder=2640kg
Volumeofcylinder= πr²h
=3.14x 0.4 2 x0.5
=0.2512m3
Density=mass/volume
=10509kg/m3.
Example3.
Astonehasamassof112.5g.whenthestonetotallyimmersedinwat
ercontainedinmeasuringcylinderdisplacedwaterfrom50cm3 to9
5cm3.findthedensityofthestone.
Solution
Massofthestone=112.5g
Volumeofstone=95cm3-50cm3=45cm3

Density=mass/volume
=2.5g/cm3.

Example4.

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Beakercontain262.5cm3 ofacertainliquid weigh410g,ifthemass
ofanemptydrybeakeris200g,findthedensity oftheliquid.
Solution
Massofliquid=410g-200g=210g
Volumeofliquid=262.5cm3.
Density=mass/volume
=0.8g/cm3.

DENSITYBOTTLE
Thedensitybottle(pycnometer)consistsofgroundglassstopperwi
thafineholethroughit.

Thefunctionofthefineholeinastopperisthat,whenthebottleisfille
dandthestopperisinserted,theexcessliquidrisesthroughtheholea
ndrunsdownoutsidethebottle,bythiswaythebottlewillalwayscon
tainthesamevolumeofwhatevertheliquidisfilledinprovidedthete
mperatureremainsconstant.

densitybottle
thebottleisusedtomeasuredensityandrelativedensity,relativeden
sityiscomparisonofonedensitytoanother,thusadensityofagivenv

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 olumeofasubstancetoadensityofequalvolumeofreferencedsubst
ance,forexamplearatioofadensityofa givenvolumeofsubstancet
oadensityofanequalvolumeofwater,thisisreferredtoarelativeden
sityofagivensubstanceorSpecificgravityofagivensubstance.The
termspecificgravityisusedwhenthereferencesubstanceiswater.
Measurementofdensityofliquidbyrelativedensitybottle
 Themassofbottleisfoundwhendryandempty
 Thebottleisthenfilledwiththeliquiddensityistobedetermined
 Thestopperistheninsertedcausingtheliquidtooverflow
 Thebottleisdriedupbyusingblottingpaper
 Themassoftheliquidandthebottleisfound
 Densityisfoundfromthecollecteddata
Massofemptybottle=m1g
Volumeofliquidinthebottle=V
massofbottleandtheliquid=m2g
massofliquidonly=(m2-m1)g
density=mass/volume
density= .(m2-m1)g/V
Thevolumeofthebottleisknown,usually25ml,30mlor50ml
Example1
A30mldensitybottlewasfilledwithkeroseneandfoundtoweigh86
g.ifthemassemptydrybottlewas62g,findthedensityofkerosene.

Solution

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 Massofemptybottle=62g
Massofbottleandkerosene=86g
Massofkeroseneonly=86g-62g=24g
Density=mass/volume
=24g/30ml
=0.8g/cm3.

Determinationofdensitiesofgranulesandsand

Tofindthedensityofsandorgranulessuchasleadshotsadensitybott
leisusedasfollows
1. Findthemassofemptydrydensitybottle mo
2. Putsomegranulesandfindthemass m1 =(massofemptybottle+
massofgranules)
3. Pourwaterinthebottleuntilitisfullandfindmass m2 = (massofb
ottle+massofgranules+massofwaterontopofgranules)
4. Findthemassofbottlefilledwithwateronly m3 =(massofbottl
e+massof water)

Themassofsand =(m1-m0)g
Massofwaterabovethesand =(m2-m1)g

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Massofwaterfillingthebottle =(m3-m0)g
Sincedensityofwateris1g/cm³

Volumeofsand = [(m1+m3)-(mo+m2)]/1g/cm³
=[(m1+m3)-(mo+m2)]cm³
Density=mass/volume

Example1
Giventhedatabelowfindthedensityofgranules
Massofemptydrydensitybottle=18g
Massofdensitybottleandgranules=131g
Massofdensitybottleandgranulestogetherwithwaterontop=171g

Massofdensitybottlefullofwater=68g

RELATIVEDENSITY

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 Relativedensityofasubstanceistheratioofthedensityofsubstancet
othedensityofwater.
Or
Relativedensityofasubstanceistheratioofmassofanyvolumeofsu
bstancetothemassofanequalvolumeofwater.

Example 1
Aglobeofsteelhasamassof12gandavolumeof15.2cm³,finditsrela
tivedensity.

Tomeasurerelativedensityofliquidbydensitybottle

 Findmassofemptybottle–m0
 Findmassofbottleandliquid-m1
 Emptythebottleandrinseitwithwater

 Fillthebottlewithwaterandfindmassm2

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Massofliquid=(m1-m0)g

Massofequalvolumeofwater=(m2-m0)g

Sincecomparisonofdensityisdonewithwater(referencedsubstan
ce)theothernameoftheratiois specificgravity ofagivensubstance
.Becausethedensityofwateris1g/
cm³.Relativedensityhasnounitsitissimplyanumberorratio.
Example
Themassofdensitybottleis19gwhendryandempty,45gwhenfille
dwithwaterand40gwhenfullofliquidx.calculatethedensityofthel
iquidx.

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 Determinationsofrelativedensitybyeurekacanmethod
 Findthemassm₀ gofsolid
 Filltheeurekacan andletwateroverflowuntillastdrop
 Placeunderthespoutofoverflowcanacleandrybeakerofmassm₁
g.
 Lowerthesolidslowlywiththinthreaduntilitistotallyimmersed
 Obtainthemassofwaterthatoverflowfromtheeurekacanandtheb
eakeritselfm₂ g.

Thevolumeofwateroverflowsintoabeakerisequaltothevolumeof
solid
Massofsolid=m₀ g
Massofbeakerandwater=m₂ g
Massofbeaker=m ₁g.
Massofwateronly=(m₂-m₁)g

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 EXAMPLE

Acertainpieceofmetalhasamassof282.5g,ifwhentheblockwastot
allyimmersedinoverflowcandisplacedwaterinabeakerofmass20
g.ifthemassofwaterandthebeakerwas45g,findtherelativedensity
ofthemetal.

ARCHIMEDESPRINCIPLE

Archimedesprinciplestatesthat‘Whenabodyiswhollyorpartiallyimmersedinafluid(liquid/
gas),itexperiencesanupthrustequaltotheweightofthedisplacedfluid”

ArcimedesprincipleandRelativedensity

Wehaveestablishedtherelativedensityastheratioofthedensityofasubstancetothedens
ityofwater.Sincebythelawoffloatationanobjectdisplacesafluidequaltoitsownweight
hencethefollowingmathematicalexpressionscanbeestablished.

Relativedensity=densityofsubstance/densityofwater.

=weightofsubstance/weightofequalvolumeofwater

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=massofsubstance/massofequalvolumeofwater

ApplyingArchimedesprinciple,therelativedensity‘d’;

d=weightofsubstanceinair/upthrustinwaterord=W/u

Sinceupthrustisgivenby(W2-W1)whereW2–weightinair,W2–
weightwhensubmerged.Henced=W/u=W/W2–
W1,theactualdensity,ρofanobjectcanbeobtainedasfollowsρofanobject=d×1,000kg
m-3

LINEARMOTION

Studyofmotionisdividedintotwo;

1.Kinematics

2.Dynamics

Inkinematicsforcescausingmotionaredisregardedwhiledynamicsdealswithmotionof
objectsandtheforcescausingthem.

I.Displacement

Distancemovedbyabodyinaspecifieddirectioniscalleddisplacement.Itisdenotedbyle
tter‘s’andhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Distanceisthemovementfromonepointtoa
nother.TheSiunitfordisplacementisthemetre(m).

II.Speed

Thisisthedistancecoveredperunittime.

Speed=distancecovered/
timetaken.Distanceisascalarquantitysinceithasmagnitudeonly.

TheSIunitforspeedismetrespersecond(m/sorms - 1 )

Averagespeed=totaldistancecovered/
totaltimetakenOtherunitsforspeedusedareKm/h.

Examples

1.Abodycoversadistanceof10min4seconds.Itrestsfor10secondsandfinallycoversadi
stanceof90min60seconds.Calculatetheaveragespeed.

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Solution

Totaldistancecovered =10+90=100m

Totaltimetaken =4+10+6=20seconds

Thereforeaveragespeed =100/20=5m/s

2.Calculatethedistanceinmetrescoveredbyabodymovingwithauniformspeedof180k
m/hin30seconds.

Solution

Distancecovered=speed*time

=180*1000/60*60=50m/s

=50*30

=1,500m

3.Calculatethetimeinsecondstakenabybodymovingwithauniformspeedof360km/
htocoveradistanceof3,000km?

Solution

Speed:360km/h=360*1000/60*60=100m/s

Time=distance/speed

3000*1000/100

=30,000seconds.

III.Velocity

Thisisthechangeofdisplacementperunittime.Itisavectorquantity.

Velocity=changeindisplacement/totaltimetaken

TheSIunitsforvelocityarem/s

Examples

1.Amanruns800mdueNorthin100seconds,followedby400mdueSouthin80seconds.C
alculate,

a.Hisaveragespeed

b.Hisaveragevelocity

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c.Hischangeinvelocityforthewholejourney

Solution

a.Averagespeed:totaldistancetravelled/totaltimetaken

=800+400/100+80

=1200/180

=6.67m/s

b.Averagevelocity:totaldisplacement/totaltime

=800-400/180

=400/180

=2.22m/sdueNorth

c.Changeinvelocity=final-initialvelocity

=(800/100)-(400-80)

=8-5

=3m/sdueNorth

2.Atennisballhitsaverticalwallatavelocityof10m/
sandbouncesoffatthesamevelocity.Determinethechangeinvelocity.

Solution

Initialvelocity(u)=-10m/s

Finalvelocity(v)=10m/s

Thereforechangeinvelocity=v-u

=10-(-10)

=20m/s

IV.Acceleration

Thisisthechangeofvelocityperunittime.Itisavectorquantitysymbolizedby‘a’.Accele
ration‘a’=changeinvelocity/timetaken=v-u/tTheSIunitsforaccelerationarem/
s2Examples1.Thevelocityofabodyincreasesfrom72km/hto144km/hin10seconds.

Calculateitsacceleration.

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Solution

Initialvelocity=72km/h=20m/s

Finalvelocity=144km/h=40m/s

Therefore‘a’=v-u/t

=40-20/10

2m/s2

2.Acarisbroughttorestfrom180km/hin20seconds.Whatisitsretardation?

Solution

Initialvelocity=180km/h=50m/s

Finalvelocity=0m/s

A=v-u/t=0-50/20

=-2.5m/s2

Henceretardationis2.5m/s2

Motiongraphs

Distance-timegraphs

a)

b)

Areaundervelocity-timegraph

Considerabodywithuniformorconstantaccelerationfortime‘t’seconds;

Thisisequivalenttotheareaunderthegraph.Theareaundervelocity-
timegraphgivesthedistancecoveredbythebodyunder‘t’seconds.

Example

Acarstartsfromrestandattainsavelocityof72km/hin10seconds.

Ittravelsatthisvelocityfor5secondsandthendeceleratestostopafteranother6seconds.

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Drawavelocity-timegraphforthismotion.Fromthegraph;

i.Calculatethetotaldistancemovedbythecar

ii.Findtheaccelerationofthecarateachstage.

Solution

a.Fromthegraph,totaldistancecovered=areaof(A+B+C)

=(1/2×10×20)+(1/2×6×20)+(5×20)

=100+60+100

=260m

Alsotheareaofthetrapeziumgivesthesameresult.

b.Acceleration=gradientofthegraph

StageAgradient=20-0/10-0=2m/s2

Stagebgradient=20-20/15-10=0m/s2

Stagecgradient=0-20/21-15=-3.33m/s2

Newton’sLawsofMotion

Newton’sfirstlaw(lawofinertia)

Thislawstatesthat“Abodycontinuesinitsstateofrestoruniformmotionunlessanunbala
ncedforceactsonit”.

Themassofabodyisameasureofitsinertia.Inertiaisthepropertythatkeepsanobjectinits
stateofmotionandresistsanyeffortstochangeit.

Newton’ssecondlaw(lawofmomentum)

Momentumofabodyisdefinedastheproductofitsmassanditsvelocity.

Momentum‘p’=mv.TheSIunitformomentumiskgm/sorNs.

TheNewton’ssecondlawstatesthat“Therateofchangeofmomentumofabodyisproporti
onaltotheappliedforceandtakesplaceinthedirectioninwhichtheforceacts”

Changeinmomentum=mv-mu

Rateofchangeofmomentum=mv-mu/∆t

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GenerallythesecondlawgivesrisetotheequationofforceF=ma

HenceF=mv-mu/∆tandF∆t=mv-mu

ThequantityF∆tiscalledimpulseandisequaltothechangeofmomentumofthebody.The
SIunitforimpulseisNs.

Examples

1.Avanofmass3metrictonsistravellingatavelocityof72km/
h.Calculatethemomentumofthevehicle.

Solution

Momentum=mv=72km/h=(20m/s)×3×103kg

=6.0×104kgm/s

2.Atruckweighs1.0×105Nandisfreetomove.Whatforcewillgiveitanaccelerationof1.
5m/s2?(takeg=10N/kg)

Solution

Massofthetruck =(1.0×105)/10=6.0×104

UsingF=ma

=1.5×10×104

=1.5×104N

3.Acarofmass1,200kgtravellingat45m/sisbroughttorestin9seconds.

Calculatetheaverageretardationofthecarandtheaverageforceappliedbythebrakes.

Solution

Sincethecarcomestorest,v=0,a=(v-u)/t=(0-45)/9=-5m/s(retardation)

F=ma=(1200×-5)N=-6,000N(brakingforce)

4.Atruckofmass2,000kgstartsfromrestonhorizontalrails.Findthespeed3secondsafte
rstartingifthetractiveforcebytheengineis1,000N.

Solution

Impulse=Ft=1,000×3=3,000Ns

Letvbethevelocityafter3seconds.

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Sincethetruckwasinitiallyatrestthenu=0.Changeinmomentum=mv-mu

=(2,000×v)-(2,000×0)

=2,000v

Butimpulse=changeinmomentum

2,000v=3,000

v=3/2=1.5m/s.

Weightofabodyinaliftorelevator

Whenabodyisinaliftatrestthentheweight

W=mg

Whentheliftmovesupwardswithacceleration‘a’thentheweightbecomes

W =m(a+g)

Iftheliftmovesdownwardswithacceleration‘a’thentheweightbecomes

W =m(g-a)

Example

Agirlofmassstandsinsidealiftwhichisacceleratedupwardsatarateof2m/
s 2 .Determinethereactionoftheliftatthegirls’feet.

Solution

Letthereactionatthegirls’feetbe‘R’andtheweight‘W’

TheresultantforceF=R-W

=(R-500)N

UsingF=ma,thenR-500=50×2,R=100+500=600N.

Newton’sthirdlaw(lawofinteraction)

Thislawstatesthat“Foreveryactionorforcethereisanequalandoppositeforceorreactio
n”

Example

Agirlofmass50Kgstandsonrollerskatesnearawall.Shepushesherselfagainstthewallw
ithaforceof30N.

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Ifthegroundishorizontalandthefrictionontherollerskatesisnegligible,determinehera
ccelerationfromthewall.

Solution

Action=reaction=30N

Forceofaccelerationfromthewall=30N

F=ma

a=F/m=30/50=0.6m/s2

Linearcollisions

Linearcollisionoccurswhentwobodiescollidehead-
onandmovealongthesamestraightline.

Therearetwotypesofcollisions;

a)Inelasticcollision: -
thisoccurswhentwobodiescollideandsticktogetheri.e.hittingputtyonawall.Momentu
misconserved.

b)Elasticcollision: -
occurswhenbodiescollideandbounceoffeachotheraftercollision.Bothmomentumand
kineticenergyareconserved.

CollisionsbringaboutalawderivedfrombothNewton’sthirdlawandconservationofmo
mentum.

Thislawisknownasthelawofconservationoflinearmomentum whichstatesthat“wh
ennooutsideforcesactonasystemofmovingobjects,thetotalmomentumofthesystemst
aysconstant”.

Examples

1.Abulletofmass0.005kgisfiredfromagunofmass0.5kg.

Ifthemuzzlevelocityofthebulletis300m/s,determinetherecoilvelocityofthegun.

Solution

Initialmomentumofthebulletandtheguniszerosincetheyareatrest.

Momentumofthebulletafterfiring=(0.005×350)=1.75kgm/s

Butmomentumbeforefiring=momentumafterfiringhence

0=1.75+0.5vwhere‘v’=recoilvelocity

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0.5v=-1.75

v=-1.75/0.5=-3.5m/s(recoilvelocity)

2.Aresultantforceof12Nactsonabodyofmass2kgfor10seconds.

Whatisthechangeinmomentumofthebody?

Solution

Changeinmomentum =∆P=mv–mu=Ft

=12×10=12Ns

3.Aminibusofmass1,500kgtravellingataconstantvelocityof72km/hcollideshead-
onwithastationarycarofmass900kg.

Theimpacttakes2secondsbeforethetwomovetogetherataconstantvelocityfor20secon
ds.

Calculate

a)Thecommonvelocity

b)Thedistancemovedaftertheimpact

c)Theimpulsiveforce

d)Thechangeinkineticenergy

Solution

a)Letthecommonvelocitybe‘v’

Momentumbeforecollision =momentumaftercollision

(1500×20)+(900×0)=(1500+900)v

30,000=2,400v

v=30,000/2,400=12.5m/s(commonvelocity)

b)Afterimpact,thetwobodiesmovetogetherasonewithavelocityof12.5m/s

Distance =velocity×time

=12.5×20

=250m

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c)Impulse=changeinmomentum

=1500(20-12.5)forminibusor

=900(12.5–0)forthecar

=11,250Ns

ImpulseforceF =impulse/time=11,250/2=5,625N

d)K.Ebeforecollision=½×1,500×202=3×105J

K.Eaftercollision=½×2400×12.52=1.875×105J

Therefore,changeinK.E=(3.00–1.875)×105=1.25×105J

Someoftheapplicationsofthelawofconservationofmomentum

1.Rocketandjetpropulsion: -
rocketpropelsitselfforwardbyforcingoutitsexhaustgases.

Thehotgasesarepushedthroughexhaustnozzleathighvelocitythereforegainingmome
ntumtomoveforward.

2.Thegardensprinkler: -
aswaterpassesthroughthenozzleathighpressureitforcesthesprinklertorotate.

TOPIC-FORCES,MOMENTSANDCOUPLES

TYPESOFFORCES–

HORIZONTAL

VERTICAL

COPLANAR

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Themomentofaforceaboutapointistheproductoftheforceappliedandtheperpendicula
rdistancefromthepivot(orturningpoint)tothelineofactionoftheforce.

Hence,Momentsofaforce=Force×perpendiculardistancefrompivot.

Moments
Itistheturningeffectproducedbyaforce,onthebody,onwhichitacts.Themomentisequaltotheprodu
ctoftheforceandtheperpendiculardistanceofthepoint,aboutwhichthemomentisrequiredandthelin
eofactionofforce.
i.e.M=Fxl
Invectorform,

WhilethemomentM(vector)ofaforceaboutapointdependsuponthemagnitude,thelineofaction,an
dthesenseoftheforce,itdoesnotdependupontheactualpositionofthepointofapplicationoftheforcea
longitslineofaction.

Types: i.Clockwisemoment"+ve"
ii.Anticlockwisemoment"-ve"

LawofMoments
Itstatesthat"Ifanumberofforces,allbeinginoneplane,areactingatapointinequilibrium,thesumofcl
ockwisemomentsmustbeequaltothesumofanticlockwisemomentstakenaboutanypointintheplan
eofforces."

Couple

 Coupleisdefinedascombinationoftwoequalandoppositeforcesseparatedbyacertaindistan
ce.

 Coupleisproducedduetoequalbutunlikeforces.

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  Coupleisunabletoproduceanytranslatorymotion(i.e.motioninastraightline).Itproduceso
nlyrotationinabody.
 CoupleMoment=M=Pxa
 TwoforcesP(vector)and-
P(vector)havingsamemagnitude,parallellineofactionandoppositesensesaresaidtoformac
ouple.

CharacteristicsofCouple

1. Thealgebraicsumoftheforcesconstitutingthecoupleiszero.
2. Thealgebraicsumofthemomentsoftheforces,constitutingthecoupleaboutanypointissame
.
3. Acouplecannotbebalancedbyasingleforce,butcanbebalancedonlybyacouple;butofoppos
itesense.

ResolutionofaForceintoForcesandaCouple
ConsideraforceF(vector)actingonarigidbodyatapointAdefinedbythepositionvectorr(vector).

TohavetheforceactatpointO,wecanattachtwoforcesatpointO,oneequaltoF(vector)andtheothereq
ualto-F(vector),withoutmodifyingtheactionoftheoriginalforceontherigidbody.

Thus,anyforceF(vector)actingonarigidbodymaybemovedtoanarbitrarypointO,providedthataco
upleisadded,ofmomentequaltothemomentofF(vector)aboutO.

 Tereverseofthetheoremisalsotruei.e.ifwehaveasystemconsistingofaforceandacouple,th
eforcecanbeshiftedtoanewpositionsuchthatthenewcouplegeneratedbydoingsoisequalan
doppositetothegivencouple.

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ResultantofForceandMomentforaSystemofForces

Theresultantofasystemofforcescanbeobtainedasbelow:

i.SimplestResultantofaGeneralForceSystem

ii.SimplestResultantofaCoplanarForceSystem

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MASS&WEIGHT

Massandweight.

Massistheamountofmattercontainedinasubstancewhileweightisthepullofgravityonanobject.

TheSIunitformassistheKgwhileweightisthenewton(N).

Massisconstantregardlessofplacewhileweightchangeswithplace.

Therelationshipbetweenmassandweightisgivenbythefollowingformula,W=mgwhereg=gravitat
ionalforce.

Differencesbetweenmassandweight Mass

Itisthequantityofmatterinabody
Itismeasuredinkilograms
Itisthesameeverywhere
Itismeasuredusingabeambalance
Hasmagnitudeonly

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Weight
Itisthepullofgravityonabody
Itismeasuredinnewton’s
Itchangesfromplacetoplace
Measuredusingaspringbalance

Hasbothmagnitudeanddirection

Thelawofmoments

Thelawofmomentsstatesthat“whenabodyisinbalanceorinequilibrium,thesumofthecl
ockwisemomentsequalsthesumofanti-clockwisemoments”.

TheSIunitsofthemomentsofaforceisNewtonmetre(Nm).

Examples

1.Auniformrodofnegligiblemassbalanceswhenaweightof3NisatA,weightof3NisatB
andaweightofWisatC.WhatisthevalueofweightW?

2.Thefollowingbarisofnegligibleweight.Determinethevalueof‘x’ifthebarisbalance
d.

Solution

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Thedistancefromtheturningpointtothelineofactioncanbedeterminedas,

Clockwisemoments =10×30=300Ncm,Anticlockwisemoments=10בx’=10x.Ncm.
Usingtheprincipleofmoments

Anti-clockwisemoments=clockwisemoments

10x=300,hencex=30cm.

3.StudythediagrambelowanddeterminethevalueofXandhencethelengthofthebar.

Solution

Clockwisemoments=15xN+5(X×20)N

Anticlockwisemoments=(20×10)+(60×10)Ncm,=800Ncm.

Anti-clockwisemoments=clockwisemoments

800Ncm=15X+5X+100

800ncm=20X+100

20X=700

X=35cm.

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Therefore,thelengthofthebar=40+20+35+20=115cm.

Thelever

Aleverisanydevicewhichcanturnaboutapivotorfulcrum.

Theappliedforceiscalledtheeffortandisusedtoovercometheresistingforcecalledthel
oad.Weusethelawofmomentsintheoperationoflevers.

Example

Considerthefollowingdiagram.
(Thebarisofnegligiblemass).Determinetheeffortapplied.

Solution

TakingmomentsaboutO.Then,clockwisemoments=effort×200cm.Anticlockwisemo
ments=200×30cm.

Effort =(200×30)/200=30N.

ChapterFour

EquilibriumandCentreofGravity.

Centreofgravity

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CentreofgravityorC.Gisthepointofbalanceofabodyinwhichthetotalweightofthebody
seemstoactthrough.

ForregularshapedbodiestheC.Gisatthegeometriccentreofthebody.Forirregularbodi
estheirweightstillactsatthecentreofthegravityandthelawofmomentscanbeusedtodet
erminetheweightofthebody.

Example

Thefigurebelowshowsauniformbarofweight‘W’andlength80cm.Ifaforceof20Nkeep
sitinbalance,determinetheweight‘W’ofthebar.

Solution

Takingmomentsaboutthepivot,clockwisemoments=W×20Ncm.

Anticlockwisemoments=20×30Ncm.Clockwisemoments=anticlockwisemoments2
0W=600,thereforeW=30N.

Parallelforcesandequilibrium

Forabodytobeinequilibrium(neithermovingnorrotating),undertheactionofparallelf
orces,thefollowingconditionswillbesatisfied;

a)Thesumofupwardforcesmustbeequaltothesumofdownwardforces.

b)Thesumofclockwisemomentsequalsthesumofanticlockwisemoments.

Thetwoarecalledthefirstandsecondconditionofequilibriumrespectively.

Examples 1.Auniformrodoflength1.0mishungfromaspringbalanceasshownandbala
ncedinhorizontalpositionbyaforceof1.6N.Determine;a)Theweightoftherod

b)Readingofthespringbalance.

Solution

a)Lettheweightoftherodbe‘W’.Wactsat50cmmark,thereforetakingmomentsaboutpo
intofsuspension,clockwisemoments=W×0.2Nm=0.2WNm.

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Anticlockwisemoments =1.6×0.3=0.48Nm.

Usingthelawofmoments,then

Anticlockwisemoments=clockwisemoments

0.48=0.2W,henceW=2.4N

b)Upwardforces=downwardforces

Downwardforce=W+1.6N

=2.4+1.6

=4.0N

Upwardforce =readingofthespringbalance=4.0N

2.Auniformrodis1.0mlongweighs5N.Itissupportedhorizontallyatoneendbyaspringa
ndtheotherendrestsonatableasshownbelow.Amassof2kgishungfromtherodasshown;
determine,

a)Readingofthespringbalance

b)Reactionforce,F,fromthetable.

Solution

a)The2kgmassandtheweightoftherod(5N)givesclockwisemomentwhilethespringbal
anceprovidesanticlockwisemoments.

Clockwisemoments=(2×10)×0.4+(5×0.5)=10.5Nm.Anticlockwisemoments=S×1(r
eadingofthespringbalance)

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1S=10.5,henceS=10.5N.b)Upwardforces=downwardforces

Downwardforces=(2×10)+5=25NThereforeF+10.5=25,henceF=14.5N.

Stability

Thisisatermwhichexplainshoweasyordifficultitisforanobjecttotoppleoverwhenafor
ceisappliedtoit.Factorsaffectingstability,

a)Basearea –thebiggerthebaseareathemorethestability.

b)Positionofthecentreofgravity–
thehigherthecentreofgravitythelessstablethebodywillbe.

Statesofequilibrium

1.Stableequilibrium –
ifabodyisdisplacedbyasmallamountofforceitreturnstoitsoriginalposition.

2.Unstableequilibrium –
ifabodyisdisplacedbyasmallamountofforceittoppledoveranddoesnotreturntoitsorig
inalposition.

3.Neutralequilibrium –
abodyisatrestinwhicheverpositionitisplacedini.e.itdoesnotriseorfallwhendisplaced
.

Applicationsofstability

Neutralequilibrium Itisusedmainlyinthedesignofmotorvehiclesi.e.

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a)Racingcars–theyhavealowandwidewheelbasetoincreasetheirbasearea.

b)Doubledeckerbuses–
theyaremanufacturedwithalowcentreofgravitybymountingtheirchassisandenginesa
slowaspossible.

References

1. ^ Luebkeman,C.,&Peting,D.(2012,0428).Stress–straincurves.Retrievedfrom ht
tp://pages.uoregon.edu/struct/courseware/461/461_lectures/
461_lecture24/461_lecture24.html.
2. ^

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