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Meteorology-Module-1-Lessons-1-2

physical science (AMA Computer University)

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INTRODUCTION TO
METEOROLOGY
Have you ever wondered what created a typhoon that wreaked havoc on some parts
of the country? How about the gentle breeze you felt during your last beach outing with your
friends? Have you felt any fascination when you saw lightning strikes the horizon? These are
some of the phenomena that we will investigate in the world of meteorology.

The world is an ever-changing picture of naturally occurring events. From drought

and famine to devastating floods, some of the greatest challenges we face come in the form of
natural disasters created by weather. Yet dealing with weather and climate is an inevitable
part of our lives. Sometimes it is as small as deciding what to wear for the day or how to plan
a vacation. But it can also have life-shattering consequences, especially for those who are
victims of a hurricane or a tornado. Weather has always been front-page news, but in recent
years, extreme weather seems to receive an ever-increasing amount of coverage. From the
destruction wrought by extreme storms to the quiet, but no less devastating, impacts of severe
drought, weather has enormous impact on our lives. The longer-term challenges of an
evolving climate also demand our attention, whether it be rising sea levels, record global
temperatures, intensified downpours, or the retreat of Arctic sea ice. Thanks in part to the
rise of social media, more people than ever are sharing their weather-related observations,
impressions, and photographs with the world at large. For these and many other reasons,
interest in meteorology (the study of the atmosphere) continues to grow. One of the reasons
that meteorology is such an engaging science to study is that the atmosphere is a universally
accessible laboratory for everyone. Although the atmosphere will always provide challenges
for us, as research and technology advance, our ability to understand and predict our
atmosphere improves as well.

This chapter will help you develop your own personal understanding and appreciation
of our planet’s dynamic, spectacular atmosphere.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, you can:

a. establish connections of meteorology to other scientific disciplines.

b. design a blueprint for a sustainable ecosystem.
c. compute physics equations relating to meteorology.

Pre-Test:

This is a non-graded assessment to determine your pre-existing knowledge about the

contents of this chapter.

Directions: Encircle the best answer. After answering this, refer to the answer key section
provided at the end of this module.

1. What does RADAR stand for?

a. Rapid Diagnostics of Air Resources
b. Radio Detection and Ranging
c. Radio Detection Array and Ranging
d. Relay Air Distress and Rescue

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2. Which of the following is an example of the Doppler effect?

a. change of pitch heard when a car sounding a horn approach and recede from an observer
b. change of gravitational force when Earth is at its nearest approach to the Moon
c. decrease of wind speed nearing the eye of the storm
d. increase of air pressure near a storm wall
3. The study of the dynamics of the Earth’s magnetic field is called _____.
a. Geoscience c. Geomagnetism
b. Geobiology d. Geography
4. When the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the Earth is greater than its surrounding
environment a/an ____ is formed.
a. low-pressure system c. high-pressure system
b. equilibrium d. tropical weather system
5. Which of the following statement is true about El Niño?
a. Air pressure drops over the western Pacific while air pressure rises over the northern Pacific.
b. Air pressure drops over the eastern Pacific while air pressure rises over the southern Pacific.
c. Eastern Pacific nations experiences extreme rainfall while western Pacific nations experience drought.
d. Western Pacific nations experiences extreme rainfall while eastern Pacific nations experience drought.
6. How can you describe the Coriolis force?
a. It is the strength or energy as an attribute of physical action and movement.
b. It is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass or energy are brought toward one another.
c. A force that stretches a body towards and away from the center of mass of another body.
d. It is an apparent deflection of the path of an object that moves within a rotating coordinate system.
7. What is the possible composition of Earth’s earliest atmosphere about 4.6 billion years ago?
a. oxygen (O) and chlorine (Cl) c. fluorine (F) and krypton (Kr)
b. oxygen (O) and helium (He) d. hydrogen (H) and Helium (He)
8. Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. At the
surface, ozone is the main ingredient of _____.
a. photochemical smog c. fertilizer
b. airbags d. light bulbs
9. Both carbon dioxide (CO2) and _____ are important greenhouse gasses.
a. argon c. oxygen
b. water vapor d. nitrogen
10. Which process is involved in cloud formation by constantly outpouring gases from the Earth’s
interior on its early days?
a. sublimation c. evaporation
b. outgassing d. putrefaction
11. What is the least abundant gas that composes only 0.00009% of Earth’s atmosphere?
a. nitrogen c. argon
b. helium d. xenon
12. Water at 4°C attains its greatest density. What is its assigned density?
a. relative density of 1 c. relative density of 4
b. relative density of 5.3 d. relative density of 0.004
13. A solid density can be computed by using this formula: ______.
þ�㖂ĀĀ ĀĀÿýÿ
ÿ. þÿÿĀ�㖊ā�㖚 = ā. þÿÿĀ�㖊ā�㖚 =
ăĀýĂþÿ ăĀýĂþÿ

ăĀýĂþÿ þ�㖂ĀĀ
Ā. þÿÿĀ�㖊ā�㖚 = Ă. þÿÿĀ�㖊ā�㖚 = �㕅
�㕅

14. The process whereby particles of liquids intermingle as the result of their spontaneous
movement caused by thermal agitation is called ____.
a. dilution c. diffusion
b. convection d. fusion
15. The Ideal Gas Law provides a valuable model of the relations between volume, pressure,
temperature, and number of particles in a gas. Its equation is ________.
a. PV = nRT c. PV = RT
b. P = nVT d. V = P

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Lesson 1: What is Meteorology

A. Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you can:
a. explain the meaning of meteorology and its different aspects.

B. Time Allotment: Week 1

C. Discussion
The early humans might have been awed by the sheer power of lightning hitting an old oak tree and
setting it on fire. Thus, the conception of gods and goddesses who holds sway to the elements like the Greek
god Zeus and Nordic god Thor who both harness lightning or the Chinese god Fei Lian who harnesses the
wind. Modern science has established that weather patterns are affected by many factors. Meteorologists,
specifically, are the ones responsible in decoding the mysteries of our atmosphere.

1.1. WHAT IS METEOROLOGY?

The atmosphere is the gaseous layer of the physical environment that surrounds a planet. Earth’s
atmosphere is roughly 100 to 125 kilometers (65-75 miles) thick. Gravity keeps the atmosphere from
expanding much farther and leaking into the vacuum of space.
meteorology – the study of atmosphere, atmospheric phenomena, and atmospheric effects on
our weather
• focuses on the lower parts of the atmosphere, primarily the troposphere, where
most weather takes place
Meteorology is a subdiscipline of a much broader science, the atmospheric sciences. The atmospheric
sciences cover all studies of the atmosphere.
▪ subdiscipline – a specialized field of study within a broader subject or discipline

1.2. THE BRANCHES OF METEOROLOGY

Fig 1.1. The different branches

of meteorology divided into
subgroups of Weather and
Climate, Physics, and Life.

Weather and Climate: the main focus of meteorology is the study of chemistry and physics that contributes
to weather changes.
• Climatology – the study of the climate, or long-term weather patterns, how they’ve changed in the past and
will change in the future.
• Topoclimatology – how local topography influences the weather
• Barometry – the detailed study of atmospheric pressure and how it affects both weather and climate
• Paleoclimatology – the study of how prehistoric weather has changed over time
• Paleotempestology – how prehistoric hurricanes and cyclones have changed over time

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Atmospheric Physics: the physical processes in weather and climate can be described in of these branches
of meteorology.
• Aeronomy – observing the chemical and physical properties of the upper atmosphere
• Radiometry – the study of electromagnetic radiation in the upper atmosphere
• Aerodynamics – the study of air circulation
• Hydrometeorology – the study of the hydrologic cycle, the relationship between water and air in the
atmosphere
• Geomagnetism – the study of changes in the Earth’s magnetic field
• Geophysics – How physical processes related to Earth and space around it

Life Science: Weather and climate have tremendous impacts on the biosphere and some branches of
meteorology are concerned with this aspect.
• Bioclimatology – the study of how weather and climate affect life on the planet
• Geobiology – studies the biosphere and how it relates to the atmosphere
• Biometeorology – how weather patterns affect living things in the planet

1.3. METEOROLOGISTS AND WEATHERMEN

Meteorologists are scientists who use scientific principles to observe, explain, and forecast our weather. They
often focus on atmospheric research or operational weather forecasting. Research meteorologists cover several
subdisciplines of meteorology to include:

• Climate modeling 3 making of climate models to be used as tools for

improving our understanding and predictability of climate behavior on
seasonal, annual, decadal, and centennial time scales.
• Remote sensing 3 the process of detecting and monitoring the
physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and
emitted radiation at a distance (typically form meteorological satellites
and aircraft; see Fig. 1.2)
• Air quality monitoring 3 measuring of the degree to which the
ambient air is pollution-free; assessed by measuring a number of
indicators of pollution
• Atmospheric physics 3 the application of physics to the study of
atmosphere
• Climate change 3 significant variation of average weather conditions
which results to the shifting of weather patterns to rising sea levels. The Fig 1.2. Top: the Himawari 8, a
impact of this is global in scope and unprecedented in scale. Japanese weather satellite; Bot: a
Lockheed WC-130J aircraft used
Meteorologists also research the relationship between the atmosphere and by the US Air Force for weather
Earth’s climates, oceans, and biological life. reconnaissance. These are used
for remote sensing.
Weathermen are the ones responsible for broadcasting the forecasts of
meteorologists. They are the ones you usually see on TV or hear on radio. They use the observations and measurements
made by meteorologists to forecast and report weather patterns. Weathermen may or may not be scientists, but they
must have the technical skills to communicate the forecasts to the general public.

1.4. WEATHER MEASURING TOOLS

The atmospheric conditions both at the Earth’s surface and above are measured from a
variety of sources:

• weather stations 3 are structures with weather tools such as a thermometer

(to take temperature readings), a barometer (to measure the pressure in the
atmosphere), and other sensors to measure rain, wind, humidity, and more
• weather ships (also: ocean station vessel) 3 are ships stationed in the ocean
for surface and upper air meteorological observations for use in weather
forecasting
• weather buoys 3 measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean
surface, wind speed (steady and gusting), barometric pressure, and wind
direction

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• aircraft (also: weather birds) 3 use of aircraft in the acquisition of weather

data used for research and planning.
o weather reconnaissance 3 observing weather from the air
• weather radar 3 used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, and
estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.)
o RADAR 3 Radio Detection and Ranging; originally used to detect enemy
aircrafts
o Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) 3 uses the Doppler Effect; determines
whether movement is toward or away from the radar
• weather balloons (also: sounding balloon)– used to carry instruments aloft
to send back information on atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and
wind speed via a device called radiosonde. Fig 1.3. (1) the weather
• weather satellites 3 a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the ship MS Polarfront at
weather and climate of Earth sea; (2) A weather buoy
beign serviced by
o some weather satellite examples: technicians; (3) a Doppler
▪ GOES-16 (Geostationary Operational Environment Satellite) weather radar; and (4) a
3 operated by NASA and the National Oceanic and weather balloon being
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), a geostationary* launched
weather satellite that provides high spatial and temporal
resolution imagery of the Earth
▪ TIROS-1 (Television Infrared Observation Satellite) 3 first successful low-Earth orbital
weather satellite
▪ Himawari 8 3 a Japanese weather satellite operated by the Japan Meteorological Agency
and entered service on 7 July 2015
▪ NOAA-20 3 the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting, non-geosynchronous**,
environmental satellites called the Joint Polar Satellite System

THE DOPPLER EFFECT

• The apparent change of frequency of sound waves or light waves, varying with the relative velocity of the
source (i.e. storm front) and observer (i.e. Doppler radar): if the source is drawing closer to the observer,
the observed frequency is higher than the emitted frequency.

1.5. SCALES OF METEOROLOGY

Weather occurs at different scales of space and time; hence meteorologists often focus on a specific scale in their
work. There are four meteorological scales, namely:

Microscale Meteorology – focuses on the phenomena that range in size from a few centimeters to a few
kilometers, and that have short life spans (less than a day). Theses phenomena affect very small geographic
areas, including the temperatures and terrains of those areas
• Microscale meteorologists often study the processes that occur between soil, vegetation, and surface
water near ground level. They measure the transfer of heat, gas, and liquid between these surfaces.
• This scale often involves chemistry
• Tracking air pollutants is an example of microscale meteorology

Mesoscale Meteorology 3 focuses on mesoscale phenomena that ranges from a few kilometers to roughly
1,000 kilometers.
• Two important phenomena under this scale are:
▪ mesoscale convective systems (MCS) 3 is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes
organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical
cyclones
o a smaller cluster of thunderstorms (compared to MCC) that last for several hours.
o forms of MCS within the tropics are: (1) Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and (2)
monsoon troughs

*geostationary – of relating to a satellite travelling in an orbit 35,900 km above the Earth’s equator: at this altitude, the satellite’s period of rotation (24
hours) matches the Earth’s, and the satellite always remain at the same spot over the Earth; **non-geosynchronous – not geostationary

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▪mesoscale convective complex (MCC) 3 a unique kind of mesoscale convective system which
is defined by characteristics observed in infrared imagery. They are long-lived, often form
nocturnally, and commonly contain heavy rainfall, wind, hail, lightning, and possibly tornado.
o A single system of clouds that can reach
roughly the size of Luzon Island and
produce heavy rainfall and flooding.
▪ Both are caused by convection, an important
meteorological principle
• Convection 3 a process of circulation.
▪ Warmer, less-dense fluid rises while colder,
denser fluid sinks (see fig. 1.4.)
▪ The fluid that most meteorologists study is air
(any substance that flows is considered a fluid)
▪ Convection results in a transfer of energy, heat, Fig 1.4. Circulation is the result of the action of
and moisture 3 the basic building blocks of convection to warm and cool air.
moisture

Fig 1.5. (1) Low-level jet of air (green arrows) above the surface helps feed the MCS during the overnight/early morning hours.
(2) An infrared satellite image of a mesoscale convective complex.

Synoptic Scale Meteorology – synoptic-scale phenomena cover an area of several hundred or even
thousands of kilometers.
• High- and low-pressure systems seen in local weather forecasts are synoptic in scale.
• Pressure (much like convection) is an important meteorological principle that is at the root of large-scale
weather systems.
• low-pressure systems – occur where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the Earth is less than
its surrounding environment and has tendency of upward vertical motion
▪ cyclone – when wind and moisture from areas with higher pressure seek low-pressure
systems, this movement, in conjunction with the Coriolis+ force and friction, causes the
system to rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere
▪ when a cyclone reaches wind speeds over 119 kilometers per hour, it is now
classified as a hurricane
▪ hurricanes – are a result of low-pressure systems developing over tropical waters in
the Western Hemisphere.
▪ the system sucks up massive amounts of warm moisture from the sea, causing
convection to take place, which in turn causes wind speeds to increase and
pressure to fall

• high-pressure systems – occur where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the Earth is greater
than its surrounding environment. This pressure has a tendency for downward vertical motion, allowing
for dry air and clear skies
▪ extremely cold temperatures are a result of high-pressure systems that develop over the
Arctic and move over to the Northern Hemisphere.
▪ this cold air is so dense that it pushes against Earth’s surface with extreme
pressure, preventing any moisture or heat from staying within the system

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+THE CORIOLIS EFFECT (also Coriolis Force)

Why don’t winds move directly north to south? The prevailing winds do not move in a straight north3south
direction because of the Coriolis effect. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect causes an apparent
deflection of winds to the right of their direction of travel and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. We say
<apparent= deflection because we see this deflection only if we make our observations from the surface of the earth.
To an observer in space, it would appear that winds move in approximately a straight line, while the earth rotates
beneath them. However, we need to keep in mind that the perspective from the earth’s surface is the ecologically
relevant perspective. The biomes that we discuss are as earthbound as our hypothetical observer. Their distributions
across the globe are substantially influenced by global climate, particularly geographic variations in temperature
and precipitation.

• Coriolis effect3 describes the pattern of deflection taken by objects not firmly connected to the
ground as they travel long distances around Earth. It is responsible for many large-scale weather
patterns.

Figure 1.6. The Coriolis effect and wind direction

Global Scale Meteorology

Global scale phenomena are weather patterns related to the transport of heat, wind and moisture from the
tropics to the poles.
• global atmospheric circulation 3 an important pattern; the fairly constant movement of winds
across the globe
▪ global atmospheric circulation is largely driven by Hadley cells
o Hadley cells 3 tropical and equatorial
convection patterns
✓ These cells form when warm air around the
equator rises, moves poleward, and sinks
over the subtropics and returns towards the
equator (see fig. 1.7)

El Niño

Meteorologists study long-term climate patterns that disrupt

global atmospheric circulation. They discovered the pattern of El
Niño, for instance. El Niño involves ocean currents and trade winds
across the Pacific Ocean, thus, affecting the Philippines. This
disruption occurs roughly every five years, disrupting global
atmospheric circulation and affecting local weather and economies.
Figure 1.7. The formation of Hadley cells
El Niño is linked with changes in air pressure in the Pacific
Ocean known as the Southern Oscillation. Air pressure drops over
the eastern Pacific while air pressure rises over the western Pacific near the coast of Australia and Indonesia. Eastern
Pacific nations experiences extreme rainfall while western Pacific nations experience drought, devastating
agricultural production.

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1.6. METEOROLOGY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

For hundreds of years, the scientific method has served as the

backbone for advances in medicine, biology, engineering, and many other
fields. In the field of atmospheric science, the scientific method has paved the
way for the production of weather forecasts that have steadily improved over
time.

Investigators use the scientific method by:

a. posing a question
b. putting forth a hypothesis
Figure 1.8. “Red sky at morning, sailor
c. predicting what the hypothesis would imply if it is true
take warning; red sky at night, sailor’s d. carrying out tests to see if the prediction is accurate.
delight”

Many common sayings about the weather, such as <red sky at morning, sailor take warning; red sky at night,
sailor’s delight,= are rooted in careful observation, and there are grains of truth in some of them. However, they are not
considered to be products of the scientific method because they are not tested and verified in a standard, rigorous way.
To be accepted, a hypothesis has to be shown to be correct through a series of quantitative tests. In many areas of
science, such testing is carried out in a laboratory, where it can be replicated again and again.
Studying the atmosphere, however, is somewhat different, because Earth has only one atmosphere. Despite this
limitation, scientists have made vast progress by studying the physics and chemistry of air in the laboratory (for
instance, the way in which molecules absorb energy) and by extending those understandings to the atmosphere as a
whole. Observations using weather instruments allow us to quantify how the atmosphere behaves and to determine
whether a prediction is correct. If a particular kind of weather is being studied, such as hurricanes or snowstorms, a
field campaign can gather additional observations to test specific hypotheses.

Given a chance to be a meteorologist, what field of meteorology will you specialize in? Try to focus on the
following points for your essay:
a. your personal reason for chosing this certain field
b. the posible impact/s of your chosen field to your locality
c. your possible contribution/s to weather science

Write your essay on a short bond paper. Could be printed or handwritten. Refer to the rubrics provided at the
end of this module.

This is a recorded test and will be used to determine what you have learned from this lesson.

Multiple Choice [2 points each]

Directions: Choose the best answer and encircle it.

1. What branch of meteorology that specializes on how mountain ranges can exert influence on prevailing
local weather patterns?
a. climatology c. geobiology
b. barometry d. topoclimatology

2. Meteorology is a broad discipline resulting to varied subdisciplines. Which of these subdisciplines can
explain why snow can form over a tropical country like the Philippines?
a. aeronomy c. bioclimatology
b. hydrometeorology d. barometry

3. Why does air gradually rises as it nears the equator inside a Hadley cell?
a. Air becomes denser as it approaches the equatorial plane.
b. Air is pushed outwards as a side effect of the rotation of Earth.

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c. Air warms up and decreases in density.

d. Air warms up and becomes denser.

4. A tornado forms when warm, humid air collides with cold, dry air. In what scale of meteorology does this
weather phenomenon belong?
a. microscale c. synoptic scale
b. mesoscale d. global scale

5. why do tropical countries experience higher humidity than countries far from the equator?
a. Tropical climate warms the air, therefore making it less dense.
b. Low air pressure allows the formation of water vapors on the air.
c. High air pressure inhibits the formation of water vapor on the air.
d. High pressure pushes air in a downward motion, thus, allowing air to gather more moisture.

True or False [2 points each]

Directions: Write veracious if the statement is correct, and fallacious if the statement is false. Write your answer
on the space provided.

_________ 1. Qualitative tests are highly favored in conducting tests for a hypothesis by meteorologists.

_________ 2. Rainbow formation is a meteorological phenomenon and is linked to global scale meteorology.

_________ 3. Meteorologists have a lot in common with weathermen because both professions don’t require an area
of specialization.

_________ 4. Air quality monitoring is not necessary on provincial areas like Palawan because pollution levels have
no direct effect to the residents.

_________ 5. The advent of RADAR has advanced the technology used in forecasting and tracking of a storm system.

Concept Map [10 points]

Directions: Make a concept map of meteorology relating to its subdisciplines and other areas of science.

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References

Ahrens, Donald C. and Henson, Robert. 2019. Meteorology today: an introduction to weather, climate and the
environment. Cengage Learning, Inc. 12th Edition.

Gibilisco, Stan. 2016. Meteorology demystified. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Rubric for Essay Writing:

Traits 10 8 6 4
There is a clear and There is a clear and
well-focused topic. well-focused topic.
The topic and main
Focus and Main ideas are clear Main ideas are clear The topic and main
ideas are somewhat
Details and well supported by but are not well ideas are not clear.
clear.
detailed and accurate supported by detailed
information. information
The introduction is
inviting, states the
main topic, and The introduction
provides an overview states the main topic The introduction
There is no clear
of the essay. and provides an states the main
Organization introduction, strucure
Information is overvoew of the essay. topic. A conclusion
or conclusion.
relevant and A conclusion is is included.
presented in a logical included.
order. The conclusion
is strong.
The author’s purpose The author’s
The author’s purpose
of writing is purpose is
of writing is very
somewhat clear, and somewhat clear, and The author’s purpose
Voice clear, and there is
there are some there is evidence of of writing is unclear.
strong evidence of the
evidence of attention attention to
attention to audience.
to audience. audience.
The author uses vivid The author uses vivid
The writer uses a
words and phrases. words and phrases. The author uses
limited vocabulary.
The choice and The choice and words that
Jargon or cliches may
Word Choice placement of words placement of words is communicate
be present and
seems accurate, inacurate at times clearly, but the
detract from the
natural and not and/or seems writing lacks variety.
meaning.
forced overdone.
Sentences sound
Most sentences are
Most sentences are awkward, are
well constructed,
All sentences are well constructed and distractingly
but they have a
well-constructed and have varied structure repetitive, or are
Sentence similar structure.
have varied structure and length. The dificult to
Structure, The author makes
and length. The author makes a few understand. The
Grammar, several errors in
author makes no error in grammar, author makes
Mechanics grammar,
error in grammar, mechanics and/or numerous errors in
and Spelling mechanics, and/or
mechanics, and/or spelling, but they do grammar, mechanics
spelling that
spelling. not interfere with and/or spelling that
interfere with
understanding. interfere with
understanding.
understanding.

Pre-Test Answer Key:

1. b 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. d 8. a 9. b 10. B
11. d 12. a 13. a 14. c 15. a

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Lesson 2: Overview of Earth’s Atmosphere

A. Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you can:
a. discuss the processes involved in the formation of the early atmosphere.
b. explain the role of different substances to the heat-energy balance of the Earth.
c. categorize the impurities found in the atmosphere.

B. Time Allotment: Week 2

C. Discussion
The scientific method has not only illuminated our understanding of weather and climate but also provided
much information about the universe that surrounds us. The universe contains billions of galaxies and each galaxy is
made up of billions of stars.
Stars are hot glowing balls of gas that generate energy by converting hydrogen into helium near their centers.
Our sun is an average-sized star situated near the edge of the Milky Way galaxy. Revolving around the sun are Earth
and seven other planets. Our solar system comprises these planets, along with a host of other material (comets,
asteroids, meteors, dwarf planets, etc.).

Figure 1.9. The relative sizes

and positions the planets in our
solar system. Pluto is included as
an object called a dwarf planet.
(Positions are not to scale

2.1. WHAT POWERS THE WIND?

Warmth for the planets is provided primarily by the sun’s energy. At an average distance from the sun of nearly
150 million kilometers (km) or 93 million miles (mi), Earth intercepts only a very small fraction of the sun’s total energy
output. However, it is this radiant energy (or radiation) that drives the atmosphere into the patterns of everyday wind
and weather and allows Earth to maintain an average surface temperature of about 15°C (59°F). Although this
temperature is mild, Earth experiences a wide range of temperatures, as readings can drop below -85°C (121°F) during
a frigid Antarctic night and climb, during the day, to above 50°C (122°F) on the oppressively hot subtropical desert.

Earth’s atmosphere is a relatively thin, gaseous envelope that comprises

mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of other gases, such as water
vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2). Nestled in the atmosphere are clouds of liquid
water and ice crystals. Although our atmosphere extends upward for many
hundreds of kilometers, it gets progressively thinner with altitude. Almost 99
percent of the atmosphere lies within a mere 30 km (19 mi) of Earth’s surface (see
Fig. 1.3). In fact, if Earth were to shrink to the size of a beach ball, its inhabitable
atmosphere would be thinner than a piece of paper. This thin blanket of air
constantly shields the surface and its inhabitants from the sun’s dangerous
ultraviolet radiant energy, as well as from the onslaught of material from
Figure 1.9. Earth’s atmosphere as
interplanetary space. There is no definite upper limit to the atmosphere; rather, it viewed from space. The atmosphere
becomes thinner and thinner, eventually merging with empty space, which is the thin bluish-white region along
the edge of Earth. © ISS
surrounds all the planets.

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2.2. THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere that originally surrounded Earth was probably much different from the air we breathe today.
Let’s look at what most scientists believe about Earth’s early atmosphere.

• Earth’s first atmosphere (some 4.6 billion years ago) was most likely hydrogen and helium4the two most
abundant gases found in the universe4as well as hydrogen compounds, such as methane (CH4) and
ammonia (NH3). Most scientists believe that this early atmosphere escaped into space from Earth’s hot
surface.
• A second, denser atmosphere, however, gradually enveloped Earth as gases from molten rock within its hot
interior escaped through volcanoes and steam vents. We assume that volcanoes spewed out the same gases
then as they do today: mostly water vapor (about 80 percent), carbon dioxide (about 10 percent), and up to
a few percent nitrogen. These gases (mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide) probably created Earth’s second
atmosphere. As millions of years passed, outgassing provided a rich supply of water vapor, which formed
into clouds. (It is also believed that when Earth was very young, some of its water may have originated from
numerous collisions with small meteors that pounded Earth, as well as from disintegrating comets.)
▪ outgassing - the constant outpouring of gases from the hot interior (core) of Earth

• Rain fell upon Earth for many thousands of years, forming the rivers, lakes, and oceans of the world. During
this time, large amounts of carbon dioxide were dissolved in the oceans. Through chemical and biological
processes, much of the CO2 became locked up in carbonate sedimentary rocks, such as limestone. With much
of the water vapor already condensed and the concentration of CO2 dwindling, the atmosphere gradually
became dominated by molecular nitrogen (N2), which is usually not chemically active. It appears that
molecular oxygen (O2), the second most abundant gas in today’s atmosphere, probably began an extremely
slow increase in concentration as energetic rays from the sun split water vapor (H2O) into hydrogen and
oxygen during a process called photodissociation.
▪ photodissociation (also: photolysis or photodecomposition) 3 a chemical reaction in which a
chemical compound is broken down by photons and is not limited to visible light

• The hydrogen, being lighter, probably rose and escaped into space, while the oxygen remained in the
atmosphere. It is uncertain whether this slow increase in oxygen supported the evolution of primitive plants,
perhaps two to three billion years ago, or whether plants evolved in an almost oxygen-free (anaerobic)
environment. At any rate, plant growth greatly enriched our atmosphere with oxygen. The reason for this
enrichment is that, during the process of photosynthesis, plants, in the presence of sunlight, combine carbon
dioxide and water to produce sugar and oxygen. Hence, after plants evolved, the atmospheric oxygen content
increased more rapidly, probably reaching its present composition about several hundred million years ago.

2.3. COMPOSITION OF TODAY’S ATMOSPHERE

Table 1.1 shows the various gases present in a volume of air near Earth’s surface. Notice that molecular nitrogen
(N2) occupies about 78 percent and molecular oxygen (O 2) about 21 percent of the total volume of dry air. If all the
other gases are removed, these percentages for nitrogen and oxygen hold fairly constant up to an elevation of about 80
km (50 mi).
At the surface, there is a balance between destruction (output) and production (input) of these gases. For
example:
• nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere primarily by biological processes that involve soil bacteria.
Nitrogen is also taken from the air by tiny ocean-dwelling plankton that convert it into nutrients that help
fortify the ocean’s food chain. It is returned to the atmosphere mainly through the decaying of plant and
animal matter.
• Oxygen, on the other hand, is removed from the atmosphere when organic matter decays and when oxygen
combines with other substances, producing oxides. It is also taken from the atmosphere during breathing,
as the lungs take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The addition of oxygen to the atmosphere occurs
during photosynthesis.

The concentration of the invisible gas water vapor, however, varies greatly from place to place, and from time to
time. Close to the surface in warm, steamy, tropical locations, water vapor may account for up to 4 percent of the

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atmospheric gases, whereas in colder arctic areas, its concentration may dwindle to a mere fraction of a percent (see
Table 1.1).

Water vapor molecules are, of course, invisible. They become visible only when they transform into larger liquid
or solid particles, such as cloud droplets and ice crystals, which may grow in size and eventually fall to Earth as rain or
snow. The main processes of the hydrologic cycle come to play:
• condensation 3 the changing of water vapor into liquid water
• evaporation 3 process of liquid water becoming water vapor
• precipitation 3 the falling rain and snow

In the lower atmosphere, water is everywhere. It is the only substance that exists as a gas, a liquid, and a solid at
those temperatures and pressures normally found near Earth’s surface. Water vapor is an extremely important gas in
our atmosphere. Not only does it form into both liquid and solid cloud particles that grow in size and fall to Earth as
precipitation, but it also releases large amounts of heat4called latent heat4when it changes from vapor into liquid
water or ice. Latent heat is an important source of atmospheric energy, especially for storms, such as thunderstorms.
• latent heat – energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state (phase) that
occurs without changing its temperature.

Table 1.1. The composition of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface

A. The Role of Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide and CFCs in Earth’s Heat-Energy Balance

• Water Vapor
Moreover, water vapor is a potent greenhouse gas because it
strongly absorbs a portion of Earth’s outgoing radiant energy (somewhat
like the glass of a greenhouse prevents the heat inside from escaping and
mixing with the outside air). This trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s
surface4called the greenhouse effect4keeps the average air
temperature near the surface much warmer than it would be otherwise.
Thus, water vapor plays a significant role in Earth’s heat-energy balance.
• Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide, a natural component of the atmosphere,
occupies a small (but important) percent of a volume of air, about 0.04
percent. Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere mainly from the decay of
vegetation, but it also comes from volcanic eruptions, the exhalations of
animal life, from the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and natural
gas), and from deforestation. The removal of CO2 from the atmosphere
Figure 1.10. The main components of the
takes place during photosynthesis, as plants consume CO 2 to produce atmospheric carbon dioxide cycle. The gray lines
green matter. The CO2 is then stored in roots, branches, and leaves. Rain show processes that put carbon dioxide into the
and snow can react with silicate minerals in rocks and remove CO2 from atmosphere, whereas the red lines show
processes that remove carbon dioxide from the
the atmosphere through a process known as chemical weathering. The atmosphere.
oceans act as a huge reservoir for CO2, as phytoplankton (tiny drifting

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plants) in surface water fix CO2 into organic tissues. Carbon dioxide that dissolves directly into surface water mixes
downward and circulates through greater depths. Estimates are that the oceans hold more than 50 times the total
atmospheric CO2 content. ● Figure 1.5 illustrates important ways carbon dioxide enters and leaves the atmosphere.

Atmospheric Concentration of CO2

Figure 1.6 reveals that the atmospheric

concentration of CO2 has risen by around 30 percent
since 1958, when regular measurements began at
Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. This increase
means that CO2 is entering the atmosphere at a
greater rate than it is being removed. The increase is
caused mainly by the burning of fossil fuels; however,
deforestation also plays a role, as cut timber, burned
or left to rot, releases CO2 directly into the air. In
addition, these dead trees no longer remove CO2 from
the atmosphere. Deforestation accounts for about 10
to 15 percent of the observed CO2 increase in recent
years. Measurements of CO2 also come from ice cores.
Figure 1.11. (a) The solid blue line shows the average yearly measurements of CO2 in parts per million (ppm) at Mauna Loa Observatory,
Hawaii, from 1958 to mid-2017. The jagged dark line illustrates how higher readings occur in winter where plants die and release CO2 to
the atmosphere, and how lower readings occur in summer when more abundant vegetation absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere. (b) The
inset shows CO2 values in ppm during the past 1000 years from ice cores in Antarctica (orange line) and from Mauna Loa Observatory
(blue line). (Mauna Loa data courtesy of NOAA; Ice Core data courtesy of Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

• CFC
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) represent a group of greenhouse gases that, up until the mid-1990s, had been
increasing in concentration. At one time, they were the most widely used propellants in spray cans. More recently, they
were used as refrigerants, as propellants for the blowing of plastic-foam insulation, and as solvents for cleaning
electronic microcircuits. Although their average concentration in a volume of air is quite small (see Table 1.1), CFCs
have an important effect on our atmosphere. They not only act as greenhouse gases to trap heat but also play a part in
destroying the gas ozone in the stratosphere, a region in the atmosphere located between about 11 km and 50 km above
Earth’s surface. CFCs have been almost completely phased out through a global agreement called the Montreal
Protocol. Their main replacements, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), do not damage stratospheric ozone, but they are still
powerful greenhouse gases.
• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (also: Montreal
Protocol) – an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production
of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion
B. OZONE

On Earth’s surface, ozone (O3) is the primary ingredient of

photochemical smog*, which irritates the eyes and throat and damages
vegetation. But the majority of atmospheric ozone (about 97 percent) is found
in the stratosphere, where it is formed naturally, as oxygen atoms combine with
oxygen molecules. Here, the concentration of ozone averages less than 0.002
percent by volume. This small quantity is important, however, because it
shields plants, animals, and humans from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. It
is ironic that ozone, which damages plant life in a polluted environment,
provides a natural protective shield in the upper atmosphere so that plants on
Figure 1.11. The darkest color represents
the surface may survive. When CFCs enter the stratosphere, ultraviolet rays the area of lowest ozone concentration, or
break them apart, and the CFCs release ozone-destroying chlorine. Because of ozone hole, over the Southern Hemisphere
this effect, ozone concentration in the stratosphere decreased over parts of the on October 2, 2015. Notice that the hole is
larger than the continent of Antarctica. A
Northern and Southern Hemispheres in the late twentieth century, especially Dobson unit (DU) is the physical thickness
over the southern polar region. ● Figure 1.11 illustrates the extent of ozone of the ozone layer if it were brought to
depletion above Antarctica during October 2015. Stratospheric ozone Earth’s surface, where 500 DU equals 5
millimeters.
plummets each year during September and October above Antarctica, to the
point where so little ozone is observed that a seasonal ozone hole forms, as shown in Fig. 1.11.

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C. OTHER IMPURITIES IN OUR ATMOSPHERE

Impurities from both natural and human sources

are also present in the atmosphere:

• Wind picks up dust and soil from Earth’s

surface and carries it aloft;
• small saltwater drops from ocean waves are
swept into the air (upon evaporating, these
drops leave microscopic salt particles
suspended in the atmosphere);
• smoke from forest fires is often carried high
above Earth; and
Figure 1.11. Erupting volcanoes can send tons of particles into the
• volcanoes spew many tons of fine ash particles atmosphere, along with vast amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and gases into the air (see ● Fig. 1.8). and sulfur dioxide.

Collectively, these tiny solid or liquid particles of various composition, suspended in the air, are called
aerosols. Some natural impurities found in the atmosphere are quite beneficial. Small, floating particles, for instance,
act as surfaces on which water vapor condenses to form clouds. However, most human-made impurities (and some
natural ones) are a nuisance, as well as a health hazard. These we call pollutants.

For example, many older automobile engines emit copious amounts of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons. In sunlight, nitrogen dioxide reacts with hydrocarbons and other gases to produce
photochemical smog*. Carbon monoxide is a major pollutant of city air. Colorless and odorless, this poisonous gas
forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuel. Hence, more than half of carbon monoxide in
urban areas comes from road vehicles. The burning of sulfur-containing fuels (such as coal and oil) releases sulfur
gases into the air. When the atmosphere is sufficiently moist, these gases may transform into tiny dilute drops of
sulfuric acid. Rain containing sulfuric acid corrodes metals and painted surfaces, and turns freshwater lakes acidic.
Acid rain is a major environmental problem, especially downwind from major industrial areas.

Even the tiniest pollutants are a major concern. Particulate matter refers to solid particles and liquid
droplets that are small enough to remain suspended in the air. These particles can obscure visibility and cause
respiratory and cardiovascular problems.

• Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In a volume of dry air near the surface, nitrogen occupies
about 78 percent and oxygen about 21 percent.
• Water vapor, which normally occupies less than 4 percent in a volume of air near the surface, can condense
into liquid cloud droplets or transform into delicate ice crystals. Water is the only substance in our
atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapor), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice).
• Both water vapor and carbon dioxide are important greenhouse gases.
• Ozone in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. At the surface, ozone is the
main ingredient of photochemical smog.
• The majority of water on our planet is believed to have come from its hot interior through outgassing,
although some of Earth’s water may have come from collisions with meteors and comets.

*photochemical smog - originally the word smog meant the combining of smoke and fog. Today, however, the word usually refers to the type of smog that
forms in large cities, such as Los Angeles, California. This type of smog forms when chemical reactions take place in the presence of sunlight.

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Directions: Read the selection A Breath of Fresh Air. Write a reaction paper about it on a short bond paper (could be
handwritten or printed).

A BREATH OF FRESH AIR

If we could examine a breath of air, we would see that air (like everything else in the universe) is composed of
incredibly tiny particles called atoms. We cannot see atoms individually with the naked eye. Yet, if we could see one,
we would find electrons whirling at fantastic speeds about an extremely dense center, somewhat like hummingbirds
darting and circling about a flower. At this center, or nucleus, are the protons and neutrons. Almost all of the atom’s
mass is concentrated here, in a trillionth of the atom’s entire volume. In the nucleus, the proton carries a positive
charge, whereas the neutron is electrically neutral. The circling electron carries a negative charge. As long as the total
number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of orbiting electrons, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.

Most of the air particles are molecules, combinations of two or more atoms such as nitrogen and oxygen, and
most of the molecules are electrically neutral. A few, however, are electrically charged, having lost or gained electrons.
These charged atoms and molecules are called ions.

An average breath of fresh air contains a tremendous number of molecules. With every deep breath, trillions of
molecules from the atmosphere enter your body. Some of these inhaled gases become a part of you, and others are
exhaled.

The volume of an average size breath of air is about a liter. Near sea level, there are roughly ten thousand million
million million (1022) air molecules in a liter. So, 51 breath of air = 1022 molecules. We can appreciate how large this
number is when we compare it to the number of stars in the universe. Astronomers estimate that there are about 500
billion (1011) stars in the Milky Way, which is considered to be an average sized galaxy, and that there may be more
than 1011 galaxies in the universe. To determine the total number of stars in the universe, we multiply the average
number of stars in a galaxy by the total number of galaxies and obtain: (5 x 1011) x 1011 = 5 x 1022 stars in the universe.

Therefore, just a few breaths of air contain about as many molecules as there are stars in the known universe.
In the entire atmosphere, there are nearly 1044 molecules. The number 1044 is 1022 squared; consequently: 1022 x 1022
= 1044 molecules in the atmosphere.

We thus conclude that there are about 1022 breaths of air in the entire atmosphere. In other words, there are as
many molecules in a single breath as there are breaths in the atmosphere. Each time we breathe, the molecules we
exhale enter the turbulent atmosphere. If we wait a long time, those molecules will eventually become thoroughly mixed
with all of the other air molecules. If none of the molecules were consumed in other processes, eventually there would
be a molecule from that single breath in every breath that is out there. So, considering the many breaths people exhale
in their lifetimes, it is possible that in our lungs are molecules that were once in the lungs of people who lived hundreds
or even thousands of years ago. In a very real way then, we all share the same atmosphere.

(The Lesson Evaluation will be sent to you electronically.)

References

Ahrens, Donald C. and Henson, Robert. 2019. Meteorology today: an introduction to weather, climate and the
environment. Cengage Learning, Inc. 12th Edition.

Gibilisco, Stan. 2016. Meteorology demystified. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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