BATTERIES TECHNOLOGY

• A battery is any device that store chemical energy and transform chemical into
electrical energy when is connected in a closed circuit.

• Batteries operate by electrochemical cells (galvanic cells) that use spontaneous redox
reactions.

• A battery that is composed of only a single electrochemical cell is commonly referred

to as a cell.
• Technically the term battery is used to refer to a combination of two or more
electrochemical cells connected in series or parallel.
• A standard car battery consists of six electrochemical cells connected in series as
shown in a diagram below.

• Each of the six electrochemical cell consists of two lead electrodes and provide a net
voltage of about 2.1 V.
• Most standard dry cells such as those used in torches are composed of a single
electrochemical cell and provide a net voltage of about 1.5 V.

• Such cells are found in different types depending on the type of substances used to
make up the electrodes and electrolytes.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES

1. Primary or Secondary batteries

2. Wet or dry batteries

4
 Difference between Wet Cell and Dry Cell Battery:

Wet Cell Battery Dry Cell Battery

A Dry cell is a type of

A wet cell battery has a liquid
electricity-producing chemical
electrolyte. Other names are
cell, commonly used today for
flooded cell since the liquid covers
Description many home and portable
all internal parts, or vented cell
devices, often in the form of
since gases produced during
batteries. It uses a paste
operation can escape to the air.
electrolyte.

basic
Liquid electrolyte e.g. sulphuric
Electrolyte Paste electrolyte e.g. KOH
acid

Typically, can be used only in one

Directional Can operate in any orientation
direction. Usage in other
Usage without spilling
orientation may result in spilling.

Can produce gases that are Typically, does not produce

Gases
harmful to health. gases.

Movability Limited or difficult Easy and portable

Some are rechargeable e.g.

Rechargeable Can be recharged eg car batteries smartphone and laptop batteries
but some are not
 Battery Specifications/ Characteristics
• These are characteristic features that quantify the operational capacity of a given
battery. These characteristics are specifically determined by battery manufacturers.
• Some of the specifications are found on the outer label cover of a battery or more
often in battery specification sheets. See example below.

• In this section we will have look at some of these battery specifications and try to
understand their importance in battery usage
Voltage rating
Capacity (charge capacity)
energy density
energy efficiency
cycle life
Shelf life

Voltage rating

• Is the maximum electrical potential difference between the two terminals/ electrodes

of a battery. Different electrical appliances operate on different amount of voltage.

• Depending on electrode material used cells/ batteries are designed to supply a certain

amount voltage e.g a standard car battery is usually manufactured with rated voltage

of about 12 V whereas a standard dry cell has a rated voltage of 1.5 V.

 • When cells are connected in series the sum of their individual voltage gives the total
voltage
Cell capacity (Charge capacity CA)
• Cell capacity is the measure of the number of current/ charges that can be drown from
a battery in an hour time. It is also commonly known as Charge Capacity (CA)
• So, the unit is Ampere-hour (Ah) or milliampere-hour (mAh).
• Basically, a rated cell capacity is quantity of charge capacity of battery. The greater
the cell capacity the more charge/ current it can deliver under specified conditions.
Example: If a battery can deliver a current 2A over period of 5h then its capacity will be
Cell capacity = I x t = 2A x 5h = 10 Ah
It means it can run a 10-ampere device over period of 1h
It can also run a 0.5 A device over a period of 20h
It can also run a 25A device over a period of 0.4 h
• If the current rate of device is known you roughly determine the estimated
theoretical running time of a battery using its rated charge capacity.
Energy density of a battery
• Is the measure of electrical energy can be delivered per unit mass (kg) of a battery.
Also known as specific energy density or gravimetric energy density.
• If a battery has a high energy density, then it is able to store a lot of energy in a small
amount of mass.

• Energy density is measured in unit of Wh/kg

Energy density = Voltage x battery capacity/ mass
V A h/ kg take note of these units (V x A) = W) and Wh = unit for electrical energy
Hence the unit of energy density is Wh/ kg (watt-hour per kilogram)
• For example, a typical 12 V lead- acid battery has a rated energy density range of
about 23 – 35 Wh/kg
12 V x 100Ah/ 34kg = 35 Wh/kg
• A battery with high energy density produces store more energy compared to its mass,
therefore such a battery can be much lighter.
• A battery with less energy density produces same amount of energy but it must be
larger/ heavier enough to compensate the difference.
• Lithium-ion batteries used in laptops and mobile phones are known to have high
energy density (50-260 Wh/kg) therefore are lighter and smaller in size than other
comparable batteries.

Powe density
• Power density is a measure of how much electrical power (rate of energy usage) a
battery can deliver per unit mass.
• Power density is measured in units of watt per kilogram (W/kg).

Energy efficiency of a battery (Eeff)

• The energy efficiency is a measure of the output energy of a battery compared to the
amount of energy that was charged into the battery beforehand.

• Battery efficiency, simply put, is the amount of energy you can get out of a battery
relative to the amount of energy that’s put into it. E.g A battery of 80% efficiency
means only 80Wh out 100 Wh can be converted into electrical energy.

• The amount of energy you get out is always going to be less than what’s put in, due
specific factors such as battery internal resistance, anode and cathode materials, and
age.

Battery life cycle

• As you use your battery and recharge it, it slowly loses the ability to return to its
original capacity.

• The life cycle of a battery is the number of charge and discharge cycles that it can
complete before losing performance. charge cycle means using all the battery's
capacity.
• The life cycle of a battery depends on the type of battery and how you use it

• There is not a standard test, for determining the life cycle of a battery but a general
rule of thumb is that the life cycle of the battery is the number of cycles you get
before you cannot recharge your battery to more than 80% of the original capacity.

Shelf life of battery

• Shelf life is the length of time a new disposable battery will retain its charge/ energy
capacity while it is unused.

• Stored battery loses some of its energy/ charges through self-discharging. Self-
discharging is caused by undesired chemical reactions that may occur inside the
battery.

• Rate of self-discharging is influenced by certain factors such as storage temperature,

age of battery and the chemistry of battery.

• Battery Manufacturers usually allocate a certain time( expiring date) beyond which
the battery capacity is no longer guaranteed.
 DESIGNS OF COMMON DRY BATTERIES
Zinc – carbon dry cell
• Zinc – carbon dry cell consists of the following components:

1. Zinc enclosed plate (anode electrode).

2. Carbon (graphite rod) surrounded by a powdery mixture of Manganese (IV)

dioxide MnO2 (cathode electrode).

3. Paste (thick liquid) mixture of Ammonium chloride NH4Cl and ZnCl2.

(electrolyte).

Electrode reactions:
Anode: Oxidation of Zn metal to Zn2+

Zn(s) → 2e- + Zn2+ (aq)

Cathode: Reduction of MnO2 to Mn2O3
2NH4+ (aq) + 2MnO2 (s) + 2e– → Mn2O3 (s) + H2O (l) + 2NH3 (g)

Overall reaction: Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) + 2 NH4+(aq) → Mn2O3(s) + Zn(NH3)22+(aq) + H2O (l)

• Standard voltage rating of a zinc carbon battery is determined by the type of anode
and cathode materials used in the battery cell.
• In zinc carbon battery cell, zinc is the anode material and manganese dioxide is the
cathode material. Electrode potential of zinc is – 0.76 volt whereas electrode potential
of manganese dioxide is 1.28.
•
Therefore, theoretical voltage of each cell should be (1.28 V) –(-1.23) = 1.99 V but
considering many practical conditions, the actual voltage output of a standard zinc
carbon battery is not more than 1.5 V.

• Zn – carbon batteries are relatively cheaper to manufacture hence they cost less than
alkaline batteries.

• Zn- carbon batteries have law energy density hance they run out quickly upon
discharging.

• They are highly prone to internal acidic condition. During discharging the zinc anode
which also serves as the enclosing case is continuously being consumed and this may
lead to leakage of electrolyte paste such as NH4Cl.

• Zn – carbon Battey is not rechargeable . bcz the products formed during electrochemical reaction are
non-reverversible
 Alkaline Batteries
Zinc-manganese dioxide alkaline battery
• A standard alkaline battery is almost the same as zinc-carbon but the electrolyte used
is an alkaline solution of KOH.

• In an alkaline battery, the anode (negative terminal) is made of zinc powder. This
allows for a greater surface area which results in an increased rate of reaction and
hence a greater rate of electron flow.

• The cathode (positive terminal) is composed of pure manganese dioxide.

• They last approximately five times longer than a Zn – carbon dry cell.

• Because of alkaline solution, it is less likely to undergo acidic corrosion that damage
the cell.

• Used in applications which require intermittent bursts of high current such as a toy
car.

• Alkaline batteries have higher energy density and last longer than Zn -carbon
batteries.

The half-reactions are:

Anode: Zn (s) + 2OH-(aq) → ZnO (s) + H2O (l) + 2e−

Cathode: 2MnO2 (s) + H2O (l) + 2e− → Mn2O3 (s) + 2OH− (aq)
The overall reaction (sum of anodic and cathodic reactions) is:
Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) ⇌ ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s) (Ecell = Eox + Ered = +1.5 V)

• Standard alkaline batteries are non-rechargeable.

 NICKEL–CADMIUM BATTERY

• The nickel–cadmium battery is a rechargeable alkaline battery. Because is

rechargeable it therefore a type of secondary batteries.

• The anode electrode is made of Cadmium metal.

• The cathode is made of a compound Nickel oxyhydroxide NiO(OH).

• The electrolyte used is KOH

• The maximum cell voltage during charge is 1.3 V.

the cell reactions during charging and discharging are presented.

At the cathode electrode

2NiO(OH) ( s) + 2H2 O + 2e- ⇒ 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + 2OH- E = 0.49V

At the anode electrode,

Cd (s) + 2OH- (aq) ⇒ 2Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e- E = -0.81V

Overall, the reaction is.

2NiOOH (s) + Cd (s) +2H2O (l) ⇔ 2Ni(OH)2 (s) + Cd(OH)2 (s) E =1.3V
• This overall reaction is reversed during charging by means of external power source.
• Nickel- cadmium battery are useful in low voltage rechargeable electronic devises
such rechargeable lamps, and fans but their disposal possess environmental risk
because cadmium metal is a highly toxic metal.
 Li-ion Batteries
• The most common type of rechargeable batteries used in laptops and mobile phones.

• This battery has standard voltage of about 3.7.

• This battery has high energy density than most standard batteries. can store more energy

• The anode electrode reaction:

LiC6 (s) → C6 (s) + Li+ (aq) + e- (Li atom is being oxidised Li+ )

• The cathode electrode reaction:

CoO2 (s) + Li+ (aq) + e- → LiCoO2 (s) (Co4+ is being reduced to Co 3+)

• Overall cell reaction:

• LiC6 (s) + CoO2 (s) ⇄ C6 (s) + LiCoO2 (s)

• This reaction is reversible by means of power source.

How does discharging a lithium-ion battery work?

giving power to your
• When the lithium-ion battery in your mobile phone is powering it, positively phone

charged lithium ions (Li+) move from the negative anode to the positive cathode.
• They do this by moving through the electrolyte until they reach the positive
electrode. There, they are deposited. The electrons, on the other hand, move from
the anode to the cathode. See the diagram below.
• When you charge a lithium-ion battery, the exact opposite process happens. The
lithium ions move back from the cathode to the anode. The electrons move from
the cathode to the anode.
 Zinc-Air Batteries

• Zinc-air batteries are composed of a zinc metal anode coupled to oxygen through an
air cathode.
• Oxygen gas is introduced into the battery through the air cathode.
• O2 is essentially an unlimited cathode reactant source due to oxygen in the
atmosphere.
• A complete circuit is achieved through an alkaline electrolyte
• The standard voltage of Zinc-air battery is 1.4 V
• It has high energy density.
• They are mostly found as primary batteries not rechargeable

• The zinc metal reacts with oxygen gas to give electricity according to the following
discharge reactions.

Discharge
(anode reaction1) Zn (s) + 4OH- (aq) → Zn(OH)42- (aq) + 2e-

(anode reaction2) Zn (OH)42- (aq) → ZnO (s) + H2O (l) + 2OH- (aq)

(cathode) 1/2 O2 (g) + H2O (l) + 2e- → 2OH- (aq)

Overall cell Zn (s) + O2 (g) → ZnO (s)

• Most zinc air batteries are found in buttons shape as shown in the above diagram. You
can see the air access holes of the cathode.
 Practice Questions: Batteries Technology
1. Define the term battery. a device that stores chemical energy and converts it intoelectrical when in closed circuit
2. State the technical difference between a battery and a cell.
3. True or false? In everyday language the terms battery and cell are interchangeably
used.
4. Describe briefly in short how you would practically determine the charge capacity
(Ca)of a battery.

5. What happens to the emf of a battery as it used? Why does this happen?
it decreases because the concent of chemicals inside the battery dcreases as thy react to form electron flow leading to
reduced emf
6. State the advantage of a high energy density battery as compared a low energy density
battery.
high energy desity bats cn store more enegy in a small amount of mass compared to lower ones and have longer operating
period
7. State the advantage of high charger capacity battery over a low charge battery
capacity. can operate an appliance longer than the low charge capacity bats

8. 3.7 V Li-ion batteries are high energy density compared to a 12V lead- acid batteries
used in cars. If we connect a certain number of Li-ion batteries in series, that add up
to 12V and surely this will give us a much lighter car battery. But why probably this
is not practically used?
lithium ions are very much sensitive to heat, they are costy , they short life span

9. Alkaline batteries uses Zn (s) and MnO2 as electrode reactants and alkaline paste
as electrolyte.

(a) One of the occurring reaction is:

MnO2 (s) → Mn2O3 (s) Balance this reaction in basic medium.
(b) The other reaction is :
Zn (s) + 2OH- → Zn(OH)2 (s) Is this equation balanced or not? if not then
balance it .
(c) Identify the anode and cathode reaction equations. anode; zn+oh =zno +h2o+2e-
(d) Derive the overall cell reaction. cthd; mnO2 + H2O+2E- =MN2O3 + OH

(e) Determine the emf an alkaline battery

(f) State two major component differences between an alkaline battery and non-
alkaline Zn- carbon battery. electrolyte differences, and alkaline has high charge capacity
(g) Why alkaline batteries are preferred over the old Zn- carbon battery. acidic corrosion pronity, zinc is
consume and bursting occurs
(h) During the discharge of an alkaline battery, 12.6g of Zn was consumed, how
many grams of MnO2 was consumed? mole callculations from ratio involved
10. A 12 V battery was connected to current load of 3A which completely drained the
battery over 120min .
(a) Determine the theoretical charge capacity of this battery.
(b) Determine the total electrical energy in Wh that was used up in draining the
battery.
 13. lead acid batteries are the most common batteries used in most cars.
(a) Name the substances used at the cathode and anode respectively.
(b) Name the electrolyte used. sulfuric acid

(c) Salt bridge is not required in lead acid battery. Explain why? both half cells use the same electrolyte,

(d) State major disadvantages of lead acid batteries.

Fuel cells
• A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that requires a constant external supply of reactants
because the products of the reaction are continuously removed.
•
difference between
Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not store chemical but allows electrical energy to be
baterry and fuel cellextracted directly from a chemical reaction.

• Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They
produce electricity and heat if there is enough supply of fuel (H2) and oxidising agent
(O2).

• A fuel cell such as hydrogen fuel cell represented in the diagram above, hydrogen
gas is fed to the anode, and oxygen gas is fed to the cathode.

• It has a polymer electrolyte membrane which allows only hydrogen ions H+ from the
anode to pass through to the cathode.
• The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons
migrate through the electrolyte membrane to the cathode, where they reunite with
oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat.

• A fuel cell that uses an electrolyte membrane that allows only hydrogen ions to pass
through is called a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC).

• Eefficiency of a PEMFC is generally between 40% and 60% higher than the
conventional thermal power generators which are rated at 25%
• Hydrogen fuel cell does not produce pollutant gases as it produces only water and
heat.

• Unfortunately, the mass production of pure H2 e.g from electrolysis of water can be
very costly.

• Hydrogen gas is also very reactive making it difficult to store and transport.

OTHER TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

• Fuel cells are classified based on the type of fuel and electrolyte used. But the basic
operational principle is the same for all different types of fuel cells.

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells/ Protons Exchange Membrane

Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

Direct-Methanol Fuel Cells

Alkaline Fuel Cells

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Combined Heat and Power Fuel Cells