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Estimation of water erosion in abandoned quarries sites using the

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DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01153

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Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Estimation of water erosion in abandoned quarries sites using

the combination of RUSLE model and geostatistical method
Nabil Aouichaty a,∗, Yassine Bouslihim b, Said Hilali a, Abdeljalil Zouhri c,
Yahya Koulali a
a
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, BNRNE Laboratory, Hassan First University of Settat, Settat, Morocco
b
International Water Research Institute (IWRI), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Ben Guerir, Morocco
c
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, CAE Laboratory, Hassan First University of Settat, Settat, Morocco

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Worldwide, water erosion is one of the most severe hazards to soil degradation. This study
Received 18 August 2021 aims to estimate and map water erosion in abandoned quarries in the semi-arid zone of
Revised 5 March 2022
Morocco with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model coupled to a Geo-
Accepted 15 March 2022
graphic Information System (GIS). This study used the RUSLE model to assess water erosion
risk in abandoned open-pit quarries. This equation necessitates data collection from many
Editor Benjamin Gyampoh sources in various formats and scales. The GIS program (ArcGIS 10.5) facilitated data pro-
cessing and management. It was used to spatially process the different layers and evaluate
Keywords:
the input data’s effect on the soil erosion mapping. The average annual soil loss was calcu-
Water erosion
lated by multiplying the five erosion factors: rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility, slope length
RUSLE
GIS and steepness, vegetation cover and erosion control practices. The results show that: (i)
Abandoned quarries three quarries (Q3=0.574 t/ha/year, Q4=3.772 t/ha/year and Q5=1.096 t/ha/year) have low
Soil conservation soil loss rate, two quarries (Q1=7. 495 t/ha/year and Q2=6.104 t/ha/year) have medium soil
loss rate, and (ii) LS and R factors have the most influence on these results. Finally, these
results can be an important tool for locating erosion hotspots and help decision-makers
make sustainable decisions regarding soil and water conservation.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Introduction

Water erosion is a phenomenon caused by the degradation of the soil cover’s surface layers and the displacement of
constituent materials [1] caused by the energy released by raindrop contact, wind, glacier and the transport of soil particles
away from their original location [1]. It is one of the most common causes of land degradation worldwide [2], posing a
severe threat to human society and the environment [3]. Thus, 1100 million hectares of land have been affected by soil
erosion worldwide [4]. Generally, erosion presents a severe global problem and a source of concern in specific parts of the
world. Indeed, the soils of Mediterranean countries are threatened by erosion and are generally fragile due to several factors

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aouichaty.nabil@gmail.com (N. Aouichaty).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01153
2468-2276/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Table 1
Location of abandoned quarries with their types of extraction.

Quarries Lambert coordinates (m) Type of extraction Administrative statuts Area(m2 )

X Y

1 320,805,42 280,258,48 Clay Abandoned 51,912

2 319,591 283,313 Clay Abandoned 71,270
3 322,079,53 281,743,79 Clay Abandoned 108,700
4 314,301,52 283,081,67 Clay Abandoned 67,245
5 317,427,51 282,607,84 Clay Abandoned 72,416

such as irregular precipitation and high temperatures, topography marked by hilly and mountainous areas and erosion-prone
soils [5].
In Morocco, water erosion is the main threat of soil degradation [6,7]. According to the individual characteristics of each
region, annual soil loss varies between 5 and more than 50 t/ha/year [8]. Previous studies that applied the RUSLE model
show that quarries directly impacted landslides, such as the study by Taoufik et al. [9] on the erosion risk assessment of
abandoned quarries in the Akreuch region (Morocco) and the other research by Koca and Kincal [10] on abandoned stone
quarries in and their geo-environmental impact.
Remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are becoming more important tools in interactive decision
support and operational planning for risk management operations [11,12]. Thus, a geographical assessment of the erosion
risk is required before effective soil conservation measures can be implemented [13].
Several approaches are used to evaluate the rate or status of erosion. The most extensively used method is the Universal
Soil Loss Equation(USLE) [14,15], its modified version (MUSLE) [16] and revisited one (RUSLE) [17]. Generally, the choice of
the most suitable model is based on the variability of the study area and the data availability [15].
The USLE/RUSLE model is based on mathematical equations used to field observations and laboratory analyses to cal-
culate the various factors used in erosion estimation. Both models are still the most often used mathematical models for
predicting ground erosion losses. It calculates the long-term average yearly erosion rate on a plot of land using the following
variables: rainfall, soil type, topography, vegetation cover, and erosion control practices [18].
The advantages of this equation are simplicity and efficiency in different contexts. Like any model, it has advantages
and also some disadvantages/limitations. It calculates only long-term average losses due to surface erosion and does not
consider gullying [19]. Also, it is impossible to determine soil losses outside of the areas of interest or for a single season or
rain event [19].
In recent years, soil loss calculation methods have been linked to GIS and remote sensing. Indeed, the interest in spa-
tializing soil loss calculation methods and building scenarios of human interventions on the environment using these new
methodologies is clearly discovered [15]. GIS allows to cross maps of different scales and themes, merge databases and im-
plement mathematical equations. These techniques also allow measuring soil erosion and its geographical distribution at a
low cost, in a shorter time, and with higher accuracy over large areas [18,20,21].
This paper presents a case study of five abandoned quarries (Table 1) [22]. This study aims to use the RUSLE model and
a GIS to estimate and map water erosion in abandoned quarries in a Moroccan semi-arid zone. The RUSLE model is one
of the most suitable models for estimating potential soil water erosion annually. Indeed, it has been used worldwide and
adapted to different climatic, pedological and topographical conditions [1,5,11,15,23].
The model was chosen due to data availability in the study area. All factors in the equation were adopted to quantify
soil losses and spatialize them through the development of erosive risk maps. This is achieved through two complementary
ways. First, we begin by mapping the various factors related to the erosive process using GIS, allowing us to store and
structure the basic mapping information and integrate other features of the study area. Second, we set up an interactive
database of erosion factors, including the location of areas susceptible to erosion and evaluate the amount of soil loss per
hectare by integrating the (RUSLE) into the GIS.

Materials and methods

Study area

The commune of Bouguergouh is located in the province of Settat and extends over an area of about 93.1 km2 [24], it
is 155 km southeast of the capital of Morocco (Fig. 1). Geologically, it belongs to the structural domain of the Moroccan
Meseta. Indeed, it is located in the Settat Ben Ahmed plateau, which is part of the structural subdomain that is the phos-
phate plateau [22]. The topographic analysis shows a gradient increasing from west to east and varies between 360 m and
635 m [22]. Regarding the land use cover, the study area is little covered with vegetation. The bare ground occupies the
most important part. Otherwise, the water represents only a small part, and the other classes occupy the rest of the sur-
face (urban, agriculture and pasture) [25]. The climate is semi-arid, with an average annual precipitation of about 394 mm
(20 0 0–2017). Generally, the driest months are June, July and August. Furthermore, December, January and February are often
wet (Fig. 2) [26]. As shown in Fig. 3, the average annual precipitation data show significant variability between years over

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Fig. 1. Localization of the study area and geographical distribution of abandoned quarries.

Fig. 2. Monthly total rainfall (mm) and temperature ( °C) variation at Bouguergouh commune (20 0 0–2017).

18 years (20 0 0–2017), during which many dry periods have occurred (2001, 2015, and 2017). These periods are interspersed
with wet periods of shorter cycles [27]. There is a scarcity of climatic and hydro-meteorological data in this area [28]. The
population distribution in rural and urban areas is unequal. Livestock and rain-fed agriculture are the main socioeconomic
activities [28].

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Fig. 3. Annual total precipitation variation for 14 stations between 20 0 0 and 2017.

Fig. 4. Flowchart adopted in the present study.

RUSLE model and the methodology

Different models can be used to estimate soil erosion, ranging from simple to complex and differ in their data require-
ments and ability to predict soil erosion rates at different spatial and temporal resolutions. The RUSLE is a revised version
of the USLE model of Wischmeier and Smith [14]. This model has been recognized as the most widely used model for quan-
tifying soil losses and guiding soil conservation plans to control water erosion [20,29]. Furthermore, mapping erosion risk
necessitates various data types that reflect the reality of field conditions. To achieve the objectives of this study, we applied
the RUSLE model, following the methodology presented in Fig. 4, which requires the combination of different factors that
influence the phenomenon of erosion, such as topography, land use, soil characteristic, land management and the climate
[23].
Soil loss (A) is a multiplicative function that based five elements, according to the RUSLE model (Eq. (1)): rainfall erosivity
(R) (MJ.mm/ha.h.year), soil erodibility (K) (t.h/MJ.mm), topography factor (LS), vegetation cover factor (C), and erosion control
practices factor (P) [30,31]. The ArcGIS software (10.5) was used to prepare these various components [17,31]. The next part
explains in detail the approach used to prepare each parameter.

A = R.K.LS.C.P (1)

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Table 2
Statistical analysis for rainfall data.

Stations Lambert average annual R (MJ.mm/ha.h.year)

coordinates (m) precipitation (mm)
X Y

AlMassira Dam 296,687.260 211,440.921 292,993 55,348

Ben Ahmed 327,792.674 276,099.800 395,389 70,456
Bouguergouh 319,418.757 281,684.696 425,210 73,229
El Brouj 331,491.110 213,664.472 353,584 63,774
Gdana 252,129.903 272,451.482 360,418 65,623
Guisser 302,668.819 243,764.424 337,300 61,980
Laqraqra 335,740.684 196,394.629 310,681 56,362
Machraa Ben Abou 274,962.721 231,000.063 337,300 61,980
Mrizigue 341,604.569 251,571.891 353,584 63,774
Oulad Fares 346,533.910 217,287.328 353,584 63,774
Oulad Mhamed 346,189.282 279,362.533 395,389 70,456
Oulad Mrah 325,745.703 259,226.538 353,584 63,774
Oulad Said 274,530.935 266,307.549 337,300 61,980
Settat 292,592.706 269,954.372 375,901 67,936

Preparation of RUSLE factors

Rainfall erosivity (R)

The R factor depends mainly on climate data since precipitation plays a key role in generating risks and forms of ero-
sion [19,32]. Precipitation data for 20 years were obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Langley Research Center (LaRC) Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resource (POWER) Project funded through the NASA Earth
Science/Applied Science Program database. Data for 14 stations distributed throughout Settat province were extracted to give
the most representative and accurate results. These data were used to calculate the R-factor (Eq. (2)) [31,33]. Many Moroccan
studies used this equation to evaluate the R-factor with encouraging results [6,9,21,29] Table 2. summarizes the statistical
analysis for rainfall data. Furthermore, the R-factor values were used to create a spatial distribution of this parameter based
on the interpolation method (Kriging) using ArcGIS software (10.5) with a resolution of 30 m [34,35].
 
p2i
log R = 1, 74 × log + 1, 29 (2)
p
where R is the precipitation erosive (MJ.mm/ha.h.year) [29], Pi is the average monthly precipitation (mm) and P is the
average annual precipitation (mm) [29].

Soil erodibility (K)

The soil erodibility (K-factor) characterizes the resistance of soil to erosion. The K-factor is determined based on soil
characteristics such as texture, organic matter, permeability and depth [17]. All those soil parameters were obtained as raster
files with a resolution of 30 m from the ISRIC-World Soil Information database. Moreover, ArcGIS software (10.5) was used
to calculate the soil erodibility map with a resolution of 30 m by directly applying Eq. (3) [36] and raster files representing
the parameters required to calculate the K-factor.
  msilt   0 . 3  0.25 ×orgC
Kusle = 0.2 + 0.3 × e−0.256 ×ms 1− 100 × msilt
mC +msilt
× 1− orgC+ e3.72−2.95 ×orgC
(3)
× 1−
(ms
0.7 × 1− 100 ) × 0.1317
( 1100
−ms
)+e −5.51+2.95 × (1− 100
ms
)
where KUSLE is the soil erodibility index (t.h/MJ.mm) [37], ms , msilt and mC are the% sand, silt, and clay content, respectively,
and orgC is the% organic carbon content of the layer (%) [38].

The topographic factor (LS)

The LS factor combines the slope length (L) and the slope steepness (S). The length of the slope is the distance between
the upper limit of the parcel and the point where runoff begins to concentrate at a component of the river system [39].
Steep slopes with a rapid flow are generally the cause of significant erosion [7,40]. The LS map was produced from an
ASTER DEM with a spatial resolution of 30 m. The LS factor is calculated based on Eq. (8) developed by Mitasova et al.
(1996) and Hoffman et al. (2013) [40,41] using the raster calculator in ArcGIS software (10.5) [31,42].

LS = Power ( (Flow accumulation × cell size ) / 22.1, 0.4) × Power ( (Sin (slope ) × 0.01745 ) / 0.09, 1.4) × 1.4
(8)
where LS is the combined slope length and steepness factor, flow accumulation determines the upslope contributing area
for a given cell [6,19].

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Table 3
The attribute value of vegetation cover (C-factor) [29].

Land-use classes C-factor Area (km2 ) % Area

Built-up land 0.003 4.9 5.26

Forest 0.004 10.7 11.51
Bare land 1 40.9 43.93
Water Body 0 0.3 0.32
Agriculture 0.4 23.1 24.81
Uncultivated land 0.75 13.2 14.17

Fig. 5. Comparison between the observed and the estimated values of R-factor.

The vegetation cover factor(C)

Vegetation cover is the most important factor in protecting the soil and curbing the extent of soil erosion [17,43]. The
C-factor was created based on the Landsat-8 image, downloaded from the American USGS database with a resolution of
30 m, and processed by the supervised classification in the ArcGIS program to establish the land cover.
The information listed in Table 3 was used to transform each land-use class into an attributive value (factor C). These
values vary between 0 and 1. Generally, the more there is no possibility of erosion, the value falls towards 0 (water body = 0,
forest = 0.004). Further, if there is a strong possibility of erosion, the value falls towards 1 (Bare land = 1) [29,44].
In general, the land use of the commune of Bouguergouh was discretized into five classes. The bare soil occupies the
most important part, with 43.93% of the total area of our study area. The water represents only a small part and does not
exceed 0.32% of the total area. The other types occupy the rest of the surface with percentages of 24.81%, 14.17%, 11.51% and
5.26% for agriculture, uncultivated land, forest and built-up land, respectively, as shown in Table 3.

The erosion control practices factor (P)

Soil conservation practices also influence soil erosion processes and lead to a remarkable reduction in soil loss. There-
fore, soil loss values vary depending on the types of practices adopted. Erosion control practices include contour crops,
benches reforestation, mounding and ridged logging [45]. The P-factor is the relation between soil loss with a specific sup-
port practice and the corresponding loss from an area with up-slope downslope tillage practices [17]. In the current study,
the P-factor value equal to 1 was assigned to the entire area due to the absence of any information about the soil and water
conservation practices location [9,19,21,29,31].

Results and discussion

Evaluation of water erosion factors

Fig. 5 shows the comparison between the observed and the estimated values of R-factors. Results show a Root Mean
Square Error of 3.386 with an Average Standard Error of 3.603. Therefore, these values indicate that the interpolation con-
ducted by Kriging was satisfactory.

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Fig. 6. Distribution of clay fraction (%).

Fig. 7. Distribution of organic carbon (%).

Fig. 8a illustrates the R-factor distribution with a maximum value of 69,778 MJ.mm/ha.h.year in the northeast, while the
lowest value (67,630 MJ.mm/ha.h.year) was found in the south. A high erosivity of precipitation in most quarries, exceeding
68 MJ.mm/ha.h.year,
The obtained values are higher than those obtained in the Beni Mohand watershed (Western High Atlas of Morocco)
with 39.18 and 44.56 MJ mm/ha.h.year [35], and also with values obtained in the Boussoaub watershed (31.2 to 60 MJ.
mm/ha.h.year) in the eastern part of the Rif [46]. Otherwise, these values are relatively low compared to those obtained at
the level of abandoned quarries (84.7264 to 87.609 MJ. mm/ha.h.year) in the region of Akreuch [9], and also with values
obtained from in Oued Arbaa Ayacha catchment (Western Rif of Morocco) with values vary from116.633 to 122.615 MJ.
mm/ha.h.year) [6].
The K-factor values vary between 0.034 and 0.040 (Fig. 8b); according to the French classification proposed by Dumas
[47], we can conclude that a low erodibility characterizes the soils of the study area; This low erodibility is due to the
clayey nature of most soil present in the study area (Fig. 6) with low organic carbon content (Fig. 7). The obtained values
are relatively low compared to those obtained at abandoned quarries in the region of Akreuch, which exceed 0.3 th/MJ.mm
[9], and the values noted by Modeste et al. [48] in Ourika watershed (High Atlas, Morocco) with values vary between 0.15
and 0.69 th/MJ.mm.
The LS factor values range from 0 in the south to 95.9 in the north (Fig. 8c). This means that locations with steep
slopes are more vulnerable to erosion. This result obtained shows that the LS factor has an essential role in soil erosion

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Fig. 8. Distribution of RUSLE parameters a) R-factor (Rainfall erosivity), b) K-factor (Soil erodibility), c) LS-factor (Topography factor), d) C-factor (Vegetation
cover factor).

quantification. LS Results are similar to those obtained by Taoufik et al. [9] at abandoned quarries in the region of Akreuch
[9] and the study conducted by Elbouqdaoui et al. [49] at the Oum Er-Rbia basin. Both studies showed that erosion increases
with the increasing slope degree.
The annual loss of soil from agricultural land also depends on the type of crop. Therefore, the greater the vegetation
cover, the less soil erosion [50]. According to Fig. 8d, the quarries are located on the bare soil class. These results are
consistent with other research in abandoned quarries [9,31].

Evaluation of soil loss

The soil loss evaluation shows that the estimated erosion rate ranges from 0 to 260.6 t/ha/year. Based on the classification
proposed by Beskow et al [51]. (Table 4), the results obtained for abandoned quarries (Fig. 9) show that, three quarries
(AQ3 = 0.574 t/ha/year, AQ4 = 3.772 t/ha/year and AQ5 = 1.096 t/ha/year) with a slight erosion risk varies between 0 and
5 t/ha/year, and two quarries (AQ1 = 7.495 t/ha/year and AQ2 =6.104 t/ha/year) with a medium risk of erosion (5 to 15
t/ha/year). The analysis of five factors used in the RUSLE model shows that (i) the K-factor values are extremely similar

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Table 4
Soil loss classes classification, adapted from Beskow et al. [51].

Soil loss rate (t/ha/year) Qualitative soil loss class

0–5 Slight
5–15 Medium
15–25 High
25–100 Very high
>100 Extremely high

Fig. 9. Resulting soil loss map in t/ha/year.

across the study area, and (ii) the C-factor and P-factor were assigned the same values for all quarries. As a result, the
highest values can be explained by the high rate of precipitation and the topographic conditions (LS- factor). The presence
of several trails of water erosion in all quarries can approve the obtained results (Fig. 10). Moreover, the soils of this study
area are subject to intense anthropogenic pressure due to the presence of several clay quarries.
On the other hand, Taoufik et al. [9] used the RUSLE method in the Akreuch region. They found soil loss rate values
between 9.65 and 103.46 t/ha/yr for different abandoned quarries. Compared to the results obtained in our research, these
values are considered very high. Generally, the comparison of the parameters used in both studies shows that this difference
can be explained by a difference in soil erodibility (k-factor). Bouslihim et al [27,28]. applied the SWAT model in different
watersheds of the Settat-Ben Ahmed plateau. They obtained soil loss values similar to our study, which confirmed the results
obtained in the present study.
Comparison of the results with other studies on water erosion assessment carried out in similar semi-arid environments
[21,31,35,48,52] show the relative reliability of the model applied despite the absence of detailed soil and rainfall data. Thus,
they showed that erosion is mainly triggered in these areas by the topography and rainfall erosion factors. The present
results seem similar to other works in other semi-arid regions.
The RUSLE model helps decision-makers and planners simulate regional evolution scenarios and plan erosion control
actions, particularly in places where erosion rates are high. It also makes it possible to track land-use and development
effects.

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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153
Fig. 10. Image of different open-pit quarries eroded.
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N. Aouichaty, Y. Bouslihim, S. Hilali et al. Scientific African 16 (2022) e01153

Conclusion

The erosion phenomenon in large areas requires regular monitoring, which necessitates an interesting investment. The
RUSLE model offers an excellent solution to estimate soil erosion based on different data, such as soil parameters, topog-
raphy, vegetation cover and climate. All those factors are performed using GIS and remote sensing imagery. Mapping water
erosion in the study area by the RUSLE equation allowed us to distinguish two classes of soil loss rates (low and medium)
with a minimum value of 0.574 t/ha/year in AQ3 and a maximum value of 7.495 t/ha/year for AQ1 . Furthermore, the results
show that slope and rainfall are the most critical factors influencing soil erosion in the study area. However, RUSLE proved
to be a valuable tool for determining erosion risk in the region and identified areas that could benefit from meaningful
intervention strategies. The soil loss map obtained from this work could help rational land use planning and soil and water
conservation in the region. The spatialization of the land loss model under GIS and remote sensing environment has given
results that still need to be validated.
To conclude, we advise that only these priority regions (abandoned quarries) receive additional erosion control attention.
Reforestation, tree planting, and certain resistant species to improve vegetation cover on the slopes are suggested erosion
control treatments in these places. These places also require the installation of hedges, stones, bulges and drains, and outlets
on slopes and gullies to limit the influence of erosive runoff.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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