Grid Connect Design Guidelines CEC

Clean GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS
Energy SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES

Council for Accredited Designers
Issue 3 July 2007 November 2009 UPDATE Page 1
SITE VISIT
Prior to designing any Grid Connected PV system
an accredited designer shall either visit the site or
arrange for a work colleague to visit the site and
undertake/determine/obtain the following:
1. Discuss energy efficient initiatives that could be
implemented by the site owner. These could
include:
- replacing inefficient electrical appliances with
new energy efficient electrical appliances
- replacing off-peak electric hot water heaters
with a solar water heater either gas or
electric boosted.(If applicable)
- replacing incandescent light bulbs with
compact fluorescents
2. Assess the occupational safety and health risks
when working on that particular site.
3. Determine the solar access for the site.
4. Determine whether any shading will occur and
estimate its effect on the system.
5. Determine the orientation and tilt angle of the
roof where the solar array will be mounted.
6. Determine the available area for the solar array.
7. Determine whether the roof is suitable for
mounting the array.
8. Determine how the modules will be mounted on
the roof.
9. Determine where the inverter, will be located.
10. Determine the cabling route and therefore
estimate the lengths of the cable runs.
11. Determine whether monitoring panels or
screens are required and determine a suitable
location with the owner
Following the site visit the designers shall estimate
the available solar irradiation for the array based on
the Australian Solar Radiation Data Handbook and
the tilt, orientation and effect of any shadows
QUOTATION DOCUMENTATION
When providing a quotation to a potential customer,
the accredited designer should provide
[ as a minimum ] the following information
- Full specifications of the system including
quantity, make (manufacturer) and model
number of the solar modules and inverter.
- An estimate of the yearly energy output of the
system. This should be based on the available
solar irradiation for the tilt angle and orientation
of the array. If the array will be shaded at any
time the effect of the shadows must be taken
into account when determining the yearly
energy output.
- The dollar savings this represents based on
existing electrical energy pricing
- A firm quotation which includes all equipment
and installation charges
- Warranty information relating to each of the
items of equipment
If possible the savings in CO
2
(either tonnes or kg)
could also be provided.
STANDARDS for DESIGN and INSTALLATION
The main standards required are
AS/NZS 3000 Wiring Rules
AS/NZS 3008 Selection of Cables
AS 4777 Grid Connection of energy systems
by inverters
AS/NZS 5033 Installation of PV Arrays
AS 4509 Stand-alone power systems
NOTE some aspects of these standards
are relevant to grid connect systems.
AS 3595 Energy management programs
AS 1768 Lightning Protection
These guidelines have been developed for the Clean Energy Council
They represent requirements of CEC Accredited personnel for the design of PV grid-connect systems.
Copyright 2002
While all care has been taken to ensure these guidelines are free from omission or error, no responsibility can
be taken for the use of this information in the design of any PV grid-connect system. This document is not to be
reproduced, transmitted or used without the prior authorisation of the Clean Energy Council.
SYSTEM DESIGN STEPS
The design of a PV grid-connect system requires a
number of steps. A basic design method follows:
1. Determining the main design criteria
2. Obtaining relevant information based on critical
design criteria.
3. Determining the size of the PV Array
4. Determining the size of the inverter
5. Determining the size of the interconnection
cables to minimise system losses
SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
A PV Grid-connect system will, in general, be
designed in accordance with one of the following
limiting design criteria:
6. Designed to meet yearly energy usage
7. Designed to meet maximum grant available
8. Designed to fit on available roof space
9. Designed to meet a budget
At times the design will be limited by two or more
of the criteria and the final size of the PV array
and therefore the inverter required will be
dependent on which is the dominant limiting criteria.
In particular when designing a system to meet a
budget or to meet the yearly energy usage, the final
PV array must fit on the available roof space.
PV ARRAY SIZING
1. DESIGNED TO MEET YEARLY ENERGY USAGE
STEP ONE:
Determine the existing yearly energy usage
Obtain from the customer copies of their most
recent electricity accounts. As a minimum, obtain
records of their last 12 months and if possible
obtain records for the last few years.
If the customer does not have 12 months records,
they should request this information from their
electricity retailer.
Use these records to estimate the average yearly
energy usage in kWh.
If the house is new, then initially obtain records on
their previous house (if applicable) and also conduct
a full load assessment similar to that undertaken
when designing an SPS design
refer to the SPS Design guidelines AS 4509.2
STEP TWO: Allowing for changes
If your energy audit recommended changes and
these will be implemented, estimate the reduction
these changes will have on yearly energy usage.
Discuss with customer what additional loads might
be added to the house/building/site in the near
future.
STEP THREE:
Estimated average yearly energy usage
From the information obtained in steps one and two,
determine the average yearly energy usage which
will be used to design the system.
STEP FOUR: Determining the size of the array
The size of the PV array should be selected to take
account of:
- Inverter efficiency
- System losses (eg power loss in cable)
- Average solar radiation data for selected tilt
angle and orientation
- Manufacturing tolerance of modules
- Temperature effects
- Effects of dirt on the modules
Solar radiation data is available from various
sources, such as the Australian Radiation Data
Handbook (from ANZSES or the Meteorological Bureau)
The units used are often MJ/m/day.
To convert to kWh/m/day (PSH) divide by 3.6.
Note: PV grid-connect systems are typically
mounted on the roof of the house or building
The roof might not be facing true north or at the
optimum tilt angle. The PSH figure for the roof
orientation (azimuth) and pitch (tilt angle) shall be
used when undertaking the design.
DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT FROM THE PV ARRAY
It is necessary to increase the energy required from
the PV array to account for inverter efficiency and
system losses, and still meet the average daily
energy use.
The inverter efficiency should be obtained from the
manufacturer and typically will vary between 90%
and 96% (when inverter is above 10% of its rating).
If it is not known, we recommend that you use 92%.
This figure takes into account the efficiency of the
Maximum Power Point Tracking MPPT facility which
is part of the inverter.
As an example lets assume the estimated yearly
energy usage is 3285 kWh.
The average daily energy usage is .
3285 kWh 365 = 9kWh
This is the energy usage required from the
PV Array at the A.C. switchboard.
Since the inverter includes an MPPT any voltage
drop that occurs between the inverter and the
switchboard and PV Array and the inverter will be
reflected as a loss in power from the array and the
energy from the array must allow for this loss.
This loss should therefore be as small as possible
but the maximum allowable is 5%.
The daily energy required from the array shall allow
for inverter efficiency (assume 90%) and the cable
losses (assume 5%) . Using our example the daily
energy requirement is
9kWh 0.92 0.95 = 10.3kWh
For the worked example, assume the yearly
average solar radiation at the site is 5.12 PSH
e.g. Sydney at tilt angle 20 degrees
To size the PV array to provide the daily energy
required
The peak power required from the PV array is
10. 3kWh 5.12 PSH = 2.01 kW
DE-RATING MODULE PERFORMANCE
1. Manufacturers Output Tolerance
The output of a PV module is specified in watts,
with a manufacturing tolerance of (normally) 5%
and is based on a cell temperature of 25 degrees C
The worst case adjusted output of a typical 160W
PV module is therefore around 152W, or 5% loss
from the rated 152W.
De-rating for 1 gives 152W
2. De-rating due to Soiling (Dirt)
The output of a PV module can be reduced as a
result of a build up of dirt on the surface of the
module. The actual value of this derating will be
dependent on the actual location but in some city
locations this could be high due to the amount of
pollution in the air.
If in doubt, an acceptable derating would be 5%
from the already derated figure of 152W
De-rating then for 1 and 2 gives 144.4W.
3. De-rating Due to Temperature
In accordance with AS4059.2 the average
temperature of the cell within the PV module
can be estimated by the following formula:
T
cell.eff
= T
a.day
+ 25
where
T
cell.eff
= average daily effective cell temperature,
in degrees C
T
a.day
= daytime average ambient temperature
(for the month of interest), in degrees C
The three different solar modules currently available
on the market each have different temperature
coefficients. These are:
A) Monocrystalline Modules
Monocrystalline Modules typically have a temperature
coefficient of 0.45%/
o
C. That is for every degree above
25
o
C the output power is derated by 0.45%
B) Polycrystalline Modules
Polycrystalline Modules typically have a temperature
coefficient of 0.5%/
o
C.
C) Amorphous Modules
These types of modules have a different temperature
characteristic, resulting in a lower coefficient , typically
around - 0.2%/degree C.
NOTE: Some amorphous modules have found to have a zero
value. Check with the manufacturer.
The de-rating of the array due to temperature
will be dependent on the type of module installed
and the average ambient maximum temperature for
the location.
The temperature de-rating factors is calculated
as follows:
f
temp
= 1 - ( (T
cell.eff y
- T
stc
))
where
f
temp
= temperature de-rating factor,
dimensionless
= absolute value of power temperature
co-efficient per degree Celsius
(see above)
T
cell.eff
= average daily cell temperature,
in degrees Celsius
T
stc
= cell temperature at Standard Test
Conditions, in degrees Celsius.
Note: The absolute value of temperature is
applied the formula determines whether the
temperature factor is greater or less than 1
due to actual effective temperature of the cell.,
For the worked example, assume the average
ambient temperature is 25
o
C (T
a.day
) and the
module is polycrystalline.
The average daily effective cell temperature is:
T
cell.eff
= T
a.day
+ 25
= 25 + 25
= 50
In the above formula the absolute value of the
temperature coefficient [ ] is applied, this is
0.5%/
o
C and cell temperature at
Standard Test Conditions is 25
o
C [ T
stc)
]
Therefore the effective derating factor due to
temperature is:
1 - (50 25) x 0.5% = 1 -12.5% =0.875
The de-rating then for 1,2 and 3 above
is 87.5% of 144.4 W, = 126.3 Watts
MINIMUM ARRAY SIZE
The number of modules required in the array =
the peak power required by the array divided by
the adjusted output of the PV module
In the worked example,
the number of 160W modules required is
2.01kW 126.3 W ~ 15.9
always round up to the next full module
i.e. 16 in this case
The 16 modules
will provide an array with a peak rating of
16 x 160W = 2.56 kW
FINAL ARRAY CONFIGURATION
The array must be matched to the voltage window
of the inverter and therefore the final array
configuration will be dependent on the inverter
selected and the allowable operating voltage
window.
MATCHING ARRAY TO VOLTAGE WINDOW OF INVERTERS
The output power of a solar module is affected by
the temperature of the solar cells.
In crystalline PV modules this effect can be as
much as 0.5% for every degree centigrade variation
in temperature.
for other PV cell technologies the manufacturers data
must be used
The temperature de-rating factor for the output
power is defined in AS 4509.2 equation 3.4.3.9(1)
( ) | |
STC eff cell temp
T T f =
_
1
where
f
temp
= temperature de-rating factor,
dimensionless
= power temperature co-efficient per C
( typically 0.005 for crystalline cells )
T
cell.eff
= average daily cell temperature, in C
T
stc
= cell temperature at Standard Test
Conditions, measured in C.
The maximum power point voltage and open circuit
voltage are affected by temperature and the temperature
co-efficient as a % is typically very similar to the power
coefficient.
The - maximum - effective cell temperature
( AS 4509.2 equation 3.3.4.7 )
C 25
0
_ _
+ =
amb ave eff cell
T T
where
T
cell_eff
= the effective cell temperature in C
T
ave_amb
= the daytime ambient temperature in C
So formula 3.4.3.9 (1) can also be applied to as the
de-rating factor for open circuit voltage and
maximum power point voltage.
With the odd exception ( e.g. inverters that also
connect with batteries ) grid interactive inverters
include Maximum Power Point (MPP) trackers.
Many of the inverters available will have a voltage
operating window. If the solar voltage is outside this
window the inverter will not operate and in the case
where a maximum input voltage is specified and the
array voltage is above the maximum specified then
the inverter could be damaged.
Minimum and maximum input voltages will be
specified by the manufacturer. The maximum
voltage is the voltage where, above this, the inverter
could be damaged. Some inverters will nominate a
voltage window where they will operate and then a
maximum voltage, higher than the maximum
operating voltage of the window, which is the
voltage where the inverter could be damaged.
It is critical that the output voltage of the solar array
is matched to the operating voltages of the inverter
and that the maximum voltage of the inverter is
never reached.
As stated earlier the output voltage of a module is
effected by cell temperature changes in a similar
way as the output power. The PV module
manufacturers will provide a voltage temperature
co-efficient.
It is generally specified in V/C (or mV/C)
but it can be expressed as a % of Voc.
To ensure that the output voltages of the array do
not fall outside the range of the inverters d.c. input
operating voltages, the minimum and maximum day
time temperatures for that specific site are required.
When the temperature is at a maximum then the
maximum power point voltage (Vmp) of the array
must never fall below the minimum operating
voltage of the inverter. The actual voltage at the
input of the inverter is not just the Vmp of the array,
the voltage drop in the d.c. cabling must also be
included when determining the actual inverter input
voltage.
Formula 3.4.3.9 (1) can be adapted to determine
the maximum power point voltage at a specified
temperature
( ) | |
STC eff cell v STC mp eff cell mp
T T V V =
_ _ _ _

where
V
mp_cell.eff
= Maximum Power Point Voltage at
effective cell temperature, volts
V
mp-stc
= Maximum Power Point Voltage
at STC, volts
v
= voltage temperature co-efficient , V per C
T
cell_eff
= cell temperature at specified temperature,
in C
T
stc
= cell temperature at STC, measured in C
Though formula 3.3.4.7 defines the effective cell
temperature - it is important that the array voltage
never falls below the minimum inverter specification.
The number of modules in the string must be
selected to ensure that the maximum power voltage
is determined for the highest temperature ever
selected.
The daytime ambient temperature in many areas of
Australia can reach, or exceed 45C.
In these cases, a maximum effective cell
temperature of 70C should be used.
MINIMUM VOLTAGE
As an example , assume that the minimum voltage
window for an inverter is 140V.
The module selected has a rated MPP voltage of
35.4V and a voltage co-efficient of 0.14V /C
Using equation for V
mp_cell.eff
above the minimum
MPP voltage at maximum effective cell temperature
of 70C the temperature de-rating is
V
min_mpp
= 35.4 - (0.14 (70- 25)) = 29.1 V
If we assume a maximum voltage drop in the cables
of 5% then the voltage at the inverter for each
module would be
0.95 x 29.1 = 27.6 V
This is the effective minimum MPP voltage input at
the inverter, V
min_mpp_inv
The minimum number of modules in the string can
be determined by the following equation
(V)
) (V
_ min_
min _
_ min_
inv mpp
inv
string per
V
V
N =
where
V
inv_min
= the minimum inverter input voltage
V
min_mpp_inv
= the effective minimum MPP voltage of a
module at the inverter at maximum
effective cell temperature
The minimum voltage allowed at the inverter, in this
example, is 140V. The MPP voltage rises with
increases in irradiance. Since the array is typically
operating with irradiance levels less than 1kW/m
then the actual MPP voltage would be reduced
- the exact variation is dependent on the quality of
the solar cell so it is recommended that a safety
margin of 10% is used.
In the example above a minimum inverter voltage of
1.1 x 140V = 154V should be used
The minimum number of modules in a string is
N
min_per_string
= 154 / 27.6 = 5.6
rounded up to 6 modules
MAXIMUM VOLTAGE
At the coldest daytime temperature the open circuit
voltage of the array must never be greater than the
maximum allowed input voltage for the inverter.
The Open Circuit voltage ( Voc ) is used because
this is greater than the MPP voltage and it is the
applied voltage when the system is first connected -
prior to the inverter starting to operate and
connecting to the grid.
NOTE
Some inverters provide a maximum voltage for
operation and a higher voltage as the maximum
allowed voltage. In this situation the MPP Voltage is
used for the operation window and the open circuit
voltage for the maximum allowed voltage
In early morning, at first light, the cell temperature
will be very close to the ambient temperature
because the sun has not had time to heat up the
module.
NOTE : AS 4509.2 equation 3.3.4.7 does not apply
Therefore the lowest daytime temperature for the
area where the system is installed shall be used to
determine the maximum Voc.
This is determined by the following equation
( ) | |
STC v STC oc oc
T T V V =
min _ max_

where
V
max_oc
= Open Circuit Voltage at minimum cell
temperature , volts
V
oc_STC
= Open Circuit Voltage at STC , volts
v
= voltage temperature co-efficient , V/C
T
min
= expected min. daily cell temperature, C
T
STC
= cell temperature STC, C
In many areas of Australia the minimum daytime
ambient temperature can reach 0C.
In some areas of Australia can fall below this.
In our worked example, lets assume the minimum
effective cell temperature is 0C,
V
oc-stc
is 43.2 V and the maximum open circuit
voltage - at minimum effective temperature is
V
oc_max
= 43.2 - (0.14 (0 - 25))
= 43.26 - (0.14 x -25)
= 43.2 + 3.5
= 46.7 V
For our example, assuming the maximum voltage
allowed by the inverter is 400V (V
inv_max
)
The maximum number of modules in the string,
N
max_per_string
, is determined by the following
equation
(V)
) (V
max _
max _
_ max_
oc
inv
string per
V
V
N =
= 400 / 46.7 = 8.56
rounded down to 8 modules
In the example presented the PV string must consist
of between 6 -8 modules only.
In our previous worked example then we required
16 modules. Therefore we could have two parallel
strings of 8 modules.
It is important that the number of modules in a string
is selected to ensure that the output voltage of the
array is always within the voltage operating window
of the inverter.
The above formulae can be used to determine the
effect of temperature but it is necessary that the
maximum and minimum daytime temperatures for
the installation site are used
EFFECT OF SHADOWS
In towns and cities where grid connect systems will
be predominant the roof of the house or building will
not always be free of shadows during parts of the
day. Care should therefore be taken when selecting
the number of modules there are in a string.
Having modules in smaller string configurations
could increase the output of the whole system when
shadows are a problem.
In addition, if designing a system to meet the total
energy demand this must be taken into account
when selecting the PSH figure that is used in the
design.
EFFECT OF ORIENTATION AND TILT
When the roof is not orientated true north and/or not
at the optimum inclination the output from the array
will be less than the maximum possible.
Included with this guide are tables showing the
average annual daily total irradiation, for various
orientations and tilt angles, represented as a
percentage of the maximum value.
The tables provide values for a plane in 360
different orientations (azimuth) and inclination (tilt)
angles. The orientations and inclinations are varied
in increments of 10
o
. These tables have been
derived from The Australian Radiation Data
Handbook (Table 5.13 )
These tables provide the system designer/installer
with information on the expected output of a system
( % of the maximum possible output ) when it is
located on a roof that is not facing the true north
( 5) at an inclination equal to the latitude angle.
Tables have been provided for the following
locations
Hobart Brisbane Darwin
Melbourne Cairns Perth
Canberra Adelaide
Sydney Alice Springs
EFFECT OF CUSTOMERS PURCHASING AGREEMENT
WITH ELECTRICITY SUPPLIER
In designing the system based on the average solar
radiation then there will be some months of the year
when the output from the PV grid connect system
would be greater than the energy usage and other
months when the output would be less than the
energy usage. So though the system should meet
the typical average yearly energy usage this will not
occur during each billing period
Therefore, though the system is designed such that
the energy produced over the year equals their
previous usage, whether the customers energy bill
is zero depends on the purchase agreement.
A table showing the expected output of the system
each month, with respect to monthly average
energy usage, would be beneficial to the customer.
Using the example, the following table shows the
monthly energy outputs of the system compared
with the average monthly energy usage, shown
below
Month
Avg Monthly
energy use
Avg Monthly
system output
Difference
January 279 399.52 120.52
February 252 314.25 62.25
March 279 339.59 60.59
April 270 254.53 -15.47
May 279 218.07 -60.93
June 270 199.76 -70.24
July 279 198.09 -80.91
August 279 263.02 -15.98
September 270 301.25 31.25
October 279 349.58 70.58
November 270 364.08 94.08
December 279 411.17 132.17
TOTALS 3285 3612.90 327.9
Note:
The excess at the end of year is due to the extra
module being installed when rounding up to
determine the number of parallel strings.
2. DESIGNED TO SUIT MAXIMUM REBATE
Rebates are generally based on a nominated
$ per watt to a maximum installed wattage.
Therefore in this situation the designers must
assure the array will fit on the roof * see 3 below
and then determine the actual energy output from
the system for the actual site.
STEP ONE: Determining the output of the PV Array
The average energy output of the PV array can be
calculated by the following formula:
E
array
= P
stc
f
man
f
temp
f
dirt
H
tilt
N
where
E
array
= average daily energy output of the PV array,
in watt-hours
P
stc
= rated output power of the module under
Standard Test Conditions, in watts
f
temp
= temperature de-rating factor, dimensionless
f
man
= de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance,
dimensionless
f
dirt
= de-rating factor for dirt, dimensionless
H
tilt
= irradiation, in peak sun hours for the
specified orientation and tilt angle
Note: for stand alone systems this is typically
daily but for grid connect systems it can be the
yearly figure, in PSH 1 PSH = 1 kWh/m
2
N = number of modules in the array
The above formula can be used to determine the
average daily energy output each month,
where the monthly peak sun hours is applied or
the yearly average daily output where the yearly
peak sun hour figure is applied.
Further explanations of all these factors is contained
in the previous section Determining the size of the
array for systems designed to meet annual energy
usage.
Note:
Peak Sun Hours (PSH) is the number of hours with
solar irradiation equal to 1kW/m
2
1 PSH = 1 kWh/m
2
STEP TWO: Determining the output of the
PV Grid Connect System
The energy that is delivered to the grid and/or loads
within the building is the measured usable energy of
a PV grid connect system.
The output energy from the array is de-rated by the
inverter efficiency and the losses in the cables
between the array and inverter and inverter and
switchboard.
The inverter efficiency should be obtained from the
manufacturer and typically will vary between 90%
and 96% (when inverter is above 10% of its rating)
If it is not known we recommend that you use 92%.
This figure takes into account the efficiency of the
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) facility which
is part of the inverter.
Where the inverter manufacturer quotes a
euro-efficiency this figure should be used as it
takes account of the inverter performance over a
range of operating conditions
Since the inverter includes an MPPT any voltage
drop that occurs between the inverter and the
switchboard and PV Array and the inverter will be
reflected as a loss in power from the array and the
energy from the array must allow for this loss.
This loss should therefore be a small as possible
but the maximum allowable is 5%.
The energy delivered to the grid by the PV grid
connect system is:
E
system
= E
array
x q
inv
x L
s
where
E
system
= average daily Energy output of
the PV grid system
E
array
= average daily energy output of
the PV array, in watt-hours
q
inv
= efficiency of the inverter, dimensionless
L
s
= losses in the system cabling,
dimensionless
Note :
The Effect of Shadows and
The Effect of Orientation and Tilt as detailed in
the previous section is also applicable in this case.
3 .DESIGNED TO FIT ON AVAILABLE ROOF SPACE
STEP ONE: Measure the available roof space
During the site visit either measure the actual
available roof space and/or obtain a set of plans
from the customer.
Determine the area in square metres that is suitable
for the array such that it has minimal - preferably no -
effect from any shadows.
In this guideline we will define the distance between
the gutter of the roof and the ridge as the width and
the length across the roof as the length, that is:
Length
Width
Side View of Roof
Record the actual dimensions of this area in length
and width in metres
STEP TWO: Determine the ideal maximum number
of modules that can fit on the available roof space
Select the solar module or laminate that will be used
in the system design.
Using the manufacturers specifications note the
length and width of the module and calculate its
total area.
If the installation method allows for a gap between
the modules add this to the module dimensions and
calculate the effective area of each module
installed.
The maximum number of modules that can be
installed
= available roof area
effective area of module installed.
For our worked example you will use an 160 watt
module which has the dimensions 790mm wide and
1593mm in length. This has an effective area of
0.790m x 1.593m = 1.26 m
2
.
Assume your typical framing system has a gap of
10mm between modules, therefore the effective
dimensions of you module installed are 800mm
wide and 1603mm in length with an effective area of
0.800m x 1.603m = 1.28 m
2
In this worked example you have measured the
available roof space as 8 metres long and 3.5
metres wide. This has an effective area of
8m x 3.5m = 28 m
2
The maximum number of modules that can be
installed in this area
= 28 m
2
1.28 m
2
per module
= 21.8 modules
STEP THREE: Determine the maximum number
of modules that can fit on the available roof space
The actual maximum number of modules that can
be installed will be the larger of the number of
modules that can be installed in any configuration
on the roof.
A module has two fixed dimensions, length and
width, and in general modules are in a rectangular
shape. The modules could then be installed in an
area either mounted lengthwise across,
or lengthwise up
In any available roof space these two installations
methods must be compared to determine the actual
maximum number of modules that can fit in the
available area.
Front View of
Roof
INSTALLATION LENGTHWISE ACROSS
The number of modules that can be installed up
the roof = Width of Roof Width of Module
In our worked example:
the roof = 3.5m 0.8m = 4.37 i.e. 4 modules
(always round down).
The number of modules that can be installed
across the roof
= Length of Roof Length of Module
across the roof = 8m 1.603m = 4.99 i.e. 4
[ possibly in this case the 5 could be squeezed on ]
Therefore, the maximum number of modules that
can be installed with the modules mounted
lengthwise across the roof = 4 x 4 = 16
( maybe 20 )
INSTALLATION LENGTHWISE UP
the roof = Width of Roof Length of Module
the roof = 3.5m 1.603m = 2.18 i.e 2 modules
(always round down)
across the roof
= Length of Roof Width of Module
across the roof = 8m 0.800m = 10
Therefore, the maximum number of modules that
can be installed with the modules mounted
lengthwise up the roof = 2 x 10 = 20
The actual maximum number of modules that can
be installed will be the larger of the number of
modules that can be installed lengthwise across the
roof compared with length wise up the roof.
In the worked example it was 20 modules.
STEP FOUR: Determine the string configuration
and therefore the number of modules that will be
installed in the available roof space
The final array configuration will be dependent on
the inverter chosen.
After selecting the inverter and determining the
number of modules allowed in the string the number
of parallel strings is calculated as follows:
Number of parallel strings = the actual maximum
number of modules that can fit on roof space
number of modules in each string.
Note:
This number will be rounded down because the
actual maximum number of modules is the limiting
factor.
For our worked example lets say the inverter allows
a string of 10 modules therefore :
The number of parallel strings = 20 10 = 2
The number of modules that will be installed on the
roof = number of parallel strings x number of
modules in each string
In the worked example the number of modules that
will be installed = 2 x 10 = 20
STEP FIVE: Determining the output of the PV Array
The average daily energy output of the PV array can
be calculated by the following formula:
E
array
= P
stc
f
man
f
temp
f
dirt
H
tilt
N
Full explanation of this formula is provided in
section 2 Designed to suit maximum rebate
- Step One.
In the worked example we will use the yearly figure
and the following values for all the factors
P
stc
= 160W
f
temp
= 0.875 (assuming ambient
temperature is 25
o
C)
f
man
= 0.95
f
dirt
= 0.95
H
tilt
= 5.12 (yearly average hours)
N = 20
The average daily energy output of the PV array
= 160 0.95 x 0.875 0.95 5.12 20
= 12,938 watt hrs
Note: The above formula is based on the selected
inverter incorporating a MPPT.
STEP SIX: Determining the output of the PV Grid
Connect System
connect system is:
E
system
= E
array
x q
inv
x L
s
See section 2 - Designed to suit maximum rebate
- Step One.
In the worked example
q
inv
= 0.92
L
s
= 0.95
connect system
= 12938 watt hrs x 0.90 x 0.95
= 11,307 watt hrs = 11.3 kWh
Note:
4.DESIGNED TO MEET A BUDGET
STEP ONE: Determine the size of the array
The customers specified budget must allow for
- The PV array
- The inverter
- The installation of the array, inverter and
associated cabling, switches, circuit breakers,
signage and other ancillary equipment.
- Any fees that are incurred when connecting to
the grid
e.g. cost of meter, cost of inspection, etc
To determine the final size of the array, undertake a
number of system configurations and determine the
corresponding cost of equipment and installation
until a suitable system is selected.
This design will determine the size of the array.
STEP TWO: Determine the output of the PV array
Refer to Step One
section 2 -Designed to suit maximum rebate.
STEP THREE: Determine the output of the PV Grid
Connect System
Refer to Step Two
section 2 -Designed to suit maximum rebate.
Note:
INVERTER SELECTION
The selection of the inverter for the installation will
depend on
- The energy output of the array
- The potential for an increase in the size of the
array in the future
- The matching of the allowable inverter string
configurations with the array power in kW and
the voltage ratings - Vmp and Voc - of the
individual modules within the array
- Whether the system will have one central
inverter or multiple (smaller) inverters
WHY MULTIPLE INVERTERS?
1. If the array is spread over a number of roofs
that have different orientations and tilt angles
then the maximum power points and output
currents will vary from roof to roof. If
economic, installing a seperate inverter for
each section of the array which has the same
orientation and angle will maximise the output
the total array.
2. Multiple inverters allow a portion of the system
to continue to operate if one inverter fails.
3. Allows the system to be modular, so that
increasing the system involves the adding a
predetermined number of modules with one
inverter.
The potential disadvantage of multiple inverters is
that in general, the cost of a number of inverters
with lower power ratings is generally more
expensive than one single inverter with a higher
power rating.
ALLOWING THE SYSTEM TO GROW
If one central inverter is installed, clarify with the
customer whether they will want to install extra
modules in the future. If so, then the inverter should
be sized to allow for this growth
( generally a maximum of 20%
- any more may move the inverter into a less
efficient mode, and the move is counter-productive).
INVERTER SIZING
Inverters currently available are typically rated for:
- Maximum DC input power.
i.e. the size of the array in peak watts;
- Maximum DC input current; and
- Maximum specified output power
i.e. the AC power they can provide to the grid
Once an array has been sized based on one of the
following criteria:
1. Designed to meet yearly energy usage;
2. Designed to suit maximum allowable grant;
3. Designed to fit on available roof space; and
4. Designed to meet a budget
The maximum power of the array is calculated by
the following formula
Array Peak Power
= Number of modules in the array x
the rated maximum power (P
mp
)
of the selected module.
For the worked example on in section 1,
Designed to meet yearly energy usage
the array comprised qty 16 x 160 watt modules.
Therefore the array peak power = 16 x 160
= 2.56kW
The minimum sized inverter which can be selected
must have a input power rating of 2.56kW.
In the section on PV ARRAY SIZING, the
typical PV array output in watts is de-rated due to
- Manufacturers tolerance of the modules
- Dirt
- Temperature
based on figures of:
- 0.95 for manufacturer,
- 0.95 for dirt and
- 0.875 for temperature
(based on ambient of 25
o
C)
The de-rating is: 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.875 = 0.789
As a result of this type of de-rating being experienced in
the field, it is commonly accepted that an inverter can be
selected which has an output rating of 80% of the peak
power of the array.
For the worked example above
The array peak power is 2.56kW.
This array can be connected to an inverter with an
output rating of
0.80x 2.56kW = 2.04kW
MATCHING INVERTER OPERATING VOLTAGES WITH
PV ARRAY OPERATING VOLTAGES
Grid interactive inverter have a specified operating
voltage window on the DC input. This is the
minimum and maximum DC voltages that the
inverter will still function correctly
Note : higher than this maximum voltage could
cause damage to the inverter. Lower than this
minimum voltage will result in inverter switching off
and the energy output of the system will be reduced
Please refer to section
MATCHING ARRAY TO VOLTAGE WINDOW OF INVERTERS
in PV Array Sizing.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
INVERTERS WITH AMORPHOUS ARRAYS
Amorphous modules are rated at their stable power
output, that is, the maximum power after the
annealing process. This can take up to six months
to occur after installation. The maximum output of
the Amorphous Array could be up to 25% larger
than the rated power. The inverter and all switches
and circuit breakers must be sized for the initial
output of the array.
ENERGY YIELD
The system energy output over a whole year is
known as the systems Energy Yield
The average yearly energy yield can be determined
as follows
inv inv pv tilt dirt mm temp STC array sys
H f f f P E q q =
_ _
where H
tilt
is the yearly irradiation value for the
selected site ( allowing for shadows and orientation )
SPECIFIC ENERGY YIELD
The specific energy yield is expressed in
kWh per kW
p
and is calculated as follows:
STC array
sys
P
E
SY
_
=
If the performance of systems in different regions is
to be compared the shading loss must be estimated
and eliminated from the calculation of energy yield.
PERFORMANCE RATIO
The performance ratio (PR) is used to access the
installation quality. The PR provides a normalised
basis so comparison of different types and sizes of
PV systems can be undertaken.
The performance ratio is calculated as follows
ideal
sys
E
E
PR =
where
E
sys
= actual yearly energy yield from the system
E
ideal
= the ideal energy output of the array.
The PV arrays ideal energy yield E
ideal
can determined two ways.
Method 1
tilt STC array ideal
H P E =
_
where
H
tilt
= yearly average daily irradiation,
in kWh/m
2
for the specified tilt angle
P
array..STC
= rated output power of the array under
Standard Test Conditions, in watts
Method 2
pv pv ideal
H E q =
where
Hpv = actual irradiation on the array surface area
q
pv
= efficiency of the PV modules
and
pv tilt pv
A H H =
where
H
tilt
= yearly average daily irradiation,
in kWh/m
2
for the specified tilt angle
A
pv
= Total area of the PV array
If the performance of systems in different regions is
to be compared the shading loss must be estimated
and eliminated from the calculation when
determining the real energy yield.
ANNUAL DAILY IRRADIATION ON AN INCLINED PLANE EXPRESSED AS % OF MAXIMUM VALUE FOR
BRISBANE
Plane Azimuth (degrees)
Plane Inclination (degrees)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 90% 95% 99% 100% 98% 94% 88% 80% 70% 59%
10 90% 95% 99% 100% 98% 94% 88% 80% 71% 60%
20 90% 95% 98% 99% 98% 94% 88% 80% 71% 61%
30 90% 95% 98% 98% 97% 93% 87% 80% 71% 61%
40 90% 95% 97% 97% 95% 92% 86% 79% 71% 61%
50 90% 94% 96% 96% 93% 90% 84% 78% 70% 61%
60 90% 93% 94% 94% 91% 88% 82% 76% 69% 60%
70 90% 92% 93% 92% 89% 85% 80% 74% 67% 59%
80 90% 91% 91% 89% 86% 82% 77% 71% 64% 57%
90 90% 91% 89% 87% 83% 79% 74% 68% 61% 55%
100 90% 90% 88% 84% 80% 75% 70% 64% 58% 52%
110 90% 89% 86% 82% 77% 71% 65% 60% 54% 48%
120 90% 88% 84% 79% 73% 67% 61% 55% 50% 44%
130 90% 87% 82% 76% 70% 63% 57% 51% 45% 40%
140 90% 86% 81% 74% 66% 59% 52% 46% 41% 36%
150 90% 86% 80% 72% 64% 56% 48% 42% 37% 32%
160 90% 85% 79% 71% 61% 53% 45% 39% 34% 30%
170 90% 85% 78% 69% 60% 51% 44% 37% 31% 28%
180 90% 85% 78% 69% 59% 51% 43% 36% 30% 27%
190 90% 85% 78% 69% 59% 51% 43% 37% 31% 27%
200 90% 85% 78% 70% 60% 52% 45% 38% 32% 29%
210 90% 85% 79% 71% 62% 54% 47% 41% 36% 31%
220 90% 86% 80% 73% 65% 57% 51% 45% 39% 35%
230 90% 86% 81% 75% 68% 61% 55% 49% 43% 38%
240 90% 87% 83% 77% 71% 65% 59% 53% 48% 42%
250 90% 88% 84% 80% 74% 69% 63% 57% 52% 46%
260 90% 89% 86% 82% 78% 73% 67% 61% 55% 49%
270 90% 90% 88% 85% 81% 76% 71% 65% 59% 52%
280 90% 91% 90% 87% 84% 79% 74% 68% 61% 55%
290 90% 92% 91% 90% 86% 82% 77% 71% 64% 56%
300 90% 92% 93% 92% 89% 85% 79% 73% 66% 58%
310 90% 93% 94% 94% 91% 87% 82% 75% 67% 59%
320 90% 94% 96% 96% 93% 89% 84% 77% 69% 59%
330 90% 95% 97% 97% 95% 91% 85% 78% 69% 60%
340 90% 95% 98% 98% 97% 93% 87% 79% 70% 60%
350 90% 95% 98% 99% 98% 94% 88% 80% 70% 59%
CANBERRA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 91% 83% 74% 64%
10 87% 94% 98% 99% 99% 96% 91% 83% 74% 64%
20 87% 93% 97% 99% 98% 95% 90% 83% 74% 64%
30 87% 93% 96% 98% 97% 94% 89% 82% 73% 64%
40 87% 92% 95% 96% 95% 92% 87% 80% 72% 63%
50 87% 92% 94% 94% 93% 89% 84% 78% 70% 62%
60 87% 91% 92% 92% 90% 86% 81% 75% 68% 61%
70 87% 90% 90% 89% 87% 83% 78% 72% 66% 59%
80 87% 89% 88% 87% 84% 80% 75% 69% 63% 56%
90 87% 88% 86% 84% 80% 76% 71% 65% 59% 53%
100 87% 87% 84% 81% 77% 72% 67% 61% 56% 50%
110 87% 86% 82% 78% 73% 68% 62% 57% 51% 46%
120 87% 85% 80% 75% 69% 63% 58% 52% 47% 42%
130 87% 84% 78% 72% 66% 59% 53% 48% 43% 38%
140 87% 83% 77% 70% 62% 55% 49% 44% 39% 35%
150 87% 82% 76% 68% 60% 52% 45% 40% 35% 32%
160 87% 82% 75% 66% 57% 50% 42% 36% 33% 29%
170 87% 82% 74% 65% 56% 48% 41% 35% 30% 28%
180 87% 81% 74% 65% 56% 48% 40% 34% 30% 27%
190 87% 81% 74% 65% 56% 48% 41% 35% 30% 28%
200 87% 82% 74% 66% 57% 50% 42% 36% 32% 29%
210 87% 82% 75% 67% 59% 52% 45% 40% 35% 32%
220 87% 83% 77% 69% 62% 55% 49% 43% 39% 35%
230 87% 84% 78% 72% 65% 59% 53% 48% 43% 38%
240 87% 84% 80% 74% 68% 63% 57% 52% 47% 41%
250 87% 85% 82% 77% 72% 67% 62% 56% 51% 45%
260 87% 86% 84% 80% 76% 71% 66% 61% 55% 49%
270 87% 87% 86% 83% 79% 75% 70% 65% 59% 52%
280 87% 89% 88% 86% 83% 79% 74% 68% 62% 55%
290 87% 90% 90% 89% 86% 82% 77% 71% 65% 58%
300 87% 91% 92% 91% 89% 85% 81% 74% 67% 60%
310 87% 91% 93% 94% 92% 88% 83% 77% 70% 61%
320 87% 92% 95% 96% 94% 91% 86% 79% 71% 63%
330 87% 93% 96% 97% 96% 93% 88% 81% 73% 63%
340 87% 93% 97% 98% 98% 95% 89% 82% 74% 64%
350 87% 94% 98% 99% 99% 95% 90% 83% 74% 64%
DARWIN
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 96% 99% 100% 99% 94% 88% 79% 69% 58% 48%
10 96% 99% 100% 99% 94% 88% 79% 69% 58% 48%
20 96% 99% 100% 98% 94% 88% 80% 70% 59% 49%
30 96% 99% 100% 98% 94% 88% 80% 71% 61% 51%
40 96% 99% 99% 97% 93% 88% 80% 71% 62% 53%
50 96% 98% 99% 96% 93% 87% 80% 72% 63% 55%
60 96% 98% 98% 96% 92% 86% 80% 72% 64% 56%
70 96% 97% 97% 94% 91% 85% 79% 72% 64% 56%
80 96% 97% 96% 93% 89% 84% 78% 71% 63% 56%
90 96% 96% 95% 92% 87% 82% 76% 69% 62% 55%
100 96% 96% 93% 90% 85% 79% 73% 67% 59% 52%
110 96% 95% 93% 88% 83% 77% 70% 63% 56% 49%
120 96% 94% 91% 86% 80% 74% 67% 59% 52% 46%
130 96% 94% 90% 84% 78% 70% 63% 56% 48% 41%
140 96% 93% 89% 82% 75% 67% 59% 51% 44% 37%
150 96% 93% 88% 81% 73% 64% 55% 46% 39% 33%
160 96% 93% 87% 80% 71% 61% 51% 43% 36% 30%
170 96% 93% 87% 79% 70% 59% 49% 41% 34% 28%
180 96% 92% 86% 78% 69% 58% 48% 40% 33% 27%
190 96% 92% 86% 78% 69% 59% 48% 41% 33% 27%
200 96% 93% 87% 79% 70% 60% 50% 42% 35% 29%
210 96% 93% 87% 80% 71% 63% 53% 45% 38% 32%
220 96% 93% 88% 81% 74% 65% 57% 49% 42% 36%
230 96% 93% 89% 83% 76% 68% 60% 53% 46% 40%
240 96% 94% 90% 85% 78% 71% 64% 57% 50% 44%
250 96% 94% 91% 86% 81% 74% 67% 61% 54% 47%
260 96% 95% 92% 88% 83% 77% 70% 64% 57% 50%
270 96% 96% 93% 90% 85% 79% 73% 67% 60% 52%
280 96% 96% 95% 91% 87% 81% 75% 68% 61% 54%
290 96% 97% 96% 93% 89% 83% 77% 70% 62% 55%
300 96% 97% 96% 94% 90% 84% 78% 70% 63% 55%
310 96% 98% 97% 95% 91% 85% 78% 70% 62% 54%
320 96% 98% 98% 96% 92% 86% 78% 70% 61% 52%
330 96% 99% 99% 97% 93% 86% 78% 70% 60% 51%
340 96% 99% 100% 98% 93% 87% 79% 69% 59% 49%
350 96% 99% 100% 98% 94% 87% 79% 69% 58% 48%
HOBART
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 82% 90% 95% 99% 100% 99% 95% 89% 81% 72%
10 82% 89% 95% 98% 99% 98% 95% 88% 81% 72%
20 82% 89% 95% 98% 99% 97% 94% 88% 81% 72%
30 82% 88% 93% 96% 97% 96% 92% 87% 79% 70%
40 82% 88% 92% 95% 95% 93% 90% 84% 78% 69%
50 82% 87% 90% 92% 92% 90% 87% 81% 75% 67%
60 82% 86% 88% 90% 89% 87% 83% 78% 72% 65%
70 82% 85% 87% 87% 85% 83% 79% 75% 69% 62%
80 82% 84% 84% 84% 82% 79% 75% 70% 65% 59%
90 82% 82% 82% 80% 78% 75% 71% 66% 61% 55%
100 82% 81% 79% 76% 73% 70% 66% 61% 56% 52%
110 82% 80% 77% 73% 69% 65% 61% 56% 52% 47%
120 82% 79% 75% 70% 65% 60% 56% 52% 47% 42%
130 82% 78% 72% 66% 61% 55% 51% 47% 42% 38%
140 82% 76% 70% 64% 57% 51% 46% 42% 38% 35%
150 82% 76% 68% 61% 54% 47% 42% 38% 35% 32%
160 82% 75% 67% 59% 52% 45% 39% 35% 32% 29%
170 82% 75% 67% 58% 50% 43% 37% 32% 30% 28%
180 82% 75% 66% 58% 50% 43% 36% 32% 29% 27%
190 82% 75% 67% 58% 50% 43% 37% 33% 30% 28%
200 82% 75% 67% 59% 52% 45% 39% 35% 32% 29%
210 82% 76% 68% 61% 54% 47% 42% 38% 35% 32%
220 82% 76% 70% 63% 56% 51% 46% 42% 38% 35%
230 82% 77% 72% 66% 60% 55% 51% 47% 42% 38%
240 82% 78% 74% 69% 64% 60% 56% 52% 47% 42%
250 82% 79% 76% 73% 68% 65% 61% 56% 52% 46%
260 82% 81% 79% 76% 73% 69% 65% 61% 56% 50%
270 82% 82% 81% 79% 77% 74% 70% 65% 61% 55%
280 82% 83% 84% 83% 81% 78% 75% 70% 64% 58%
290 82% 85% 86% 86% 85% 82% 79% 74% 68% 61%
300 82% 85% 88% 89% 88% 86% 82% 78% 72% 64%
310 82% 87% 90% 92% 92% 90% 86% 81% 74% 67%
320 82% 88% 92% 94% 95% 93% 89% 84% 76% 68%
330 82% 88% 93% 96% 96% 95% 92% 86% 79% 70%
340 82% 89% 95% 98% 98% 97% 93% 87% 80% 71%
350 82% 89% 95% 98% 99% 98% 95% 88% 81% 72%
SYDNEY
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 97% 91% 84% 75% 64%
10 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 91% 84% 75% 64%
20 87% 93% 97% 99% 98% 95% 90% 83% 74% 64%
30 87% 93% 96% 98% 97% 94% 88% 81% 73% 63%
40 87% 92% 95% 96% 95% 91% 86% 79% 71% 63%
50 87% 91% 94% 94% 92% 89% 84% 77% 69% 61%
60 87% 90% 92% 91% 89% 86% 80% 74% 67% 60%
70 87% 89% 90% 89% 86% 82% 77% 71% 64% 57%
80 87% 88% 88% 86% 82% 78% 73% 68% 61% 55%
90 87% 87% 86% 82% 79% 74% 69% 64% 58% 52%
100 87% 86% 84% 80% 75% 70% 65% 60% 54% 48%
110 87% 85% 81% 77% 71% 66% 61% 55% 50% 44%
120 87% 84% 79% 73% 68% 62% 56% 51% 45% 40%
130 87% 83% 77% 71% 64% 57% 52% 46% 41% 37%
140 87% 82% 76% 68% 61% 54% 47% 42% 37% 34%
150 87% 81% 74% 66% 58% 50% 44% 38% 34% 30%
160 87% 81% 73% 65% 56% 48% 41% 35% 31% 28%
170 87% 81% 73% 64% 55% 47% 39% 34% 29% 27%
180 87% 81% 73% 63% 54% 46% 39% 33% 28% 26%
190 87% 81% 73% 64% 55% 47% 40% 34% 29% 27%
200 87% 81% 74% 65% 56% 48% 41% 35% 31% 28%
210 87% 82% 74% 66% 59% 51% 44% 38% 34% 30%
220 87% 82% 76% 69% 61% 54% 48% 43% 38% 34%
230 87% 83% 78% 71% 65% 59% 52% 47% 41% 37%
240 87% 84% 80% 74% 69% 63% 57% 52% 46% 41%
250 87% 85% 82% 77% 72% 67% 62% 56% 51% 45%
260 87% 86% 84% 80% 76% 71% 66% 61% 55% 49%
270 87% 87% 86% 84% 80% 76% 71% 65% 59% 53%
280 87% 88% 88% 87% 84% 79% 74% 69% 62% 56%
290 87% 89% 90% 89% 87% 83% 78% 72% 66% 59%
300 87% 90% 92% 92% 90% 87% 81% 76% 69% 61%
310 87% 91% 94% 94% 93% 89% 85% 78% 71% 62%
320 87% 93% 95% 96% 95% 92% 87% 80% 72% 63%
330 87% 93% 97% 98% 97% 94% 89% 82% 74% 64%
340 87% 94% 97% 99% 98% 96% 90% 84% 75% 65%
350 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 97% 91% 84% 75% 65%
MELBOURNE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 86% 93% 98% 100% 100% 98% 93% 86% 77% 67%
10 86% 92% 97% 99% 99% 97% 92% 85% 77% 67%
20 86% 92% 96% 99% 98% 96% 91% 84% 76% 67%
30 86% 92% 95% 97% 96% 94% 89% 83% 75% 66%
40 86% 91% 94% 95% 95% 92% 87% 81% 74% 65%
50 86% 90% 92% 93% 92% 89% 85% 79% 71% 63%
60 86% 89% 91% 91% 89% 86% 81% 76% 69% 61%
70 86% 88% 89% 88% 86% 82% 78% 73% 66% 59%
80 86% 87% 87% 85% 82% 78% 74% 68% 63% 56%
90 86% 85% 84% 82% 78% 74% 70% 64% 59% 53%
100 86% 84% 82% 78% 74% 70% 65% 60% 55% 49%
110 86% 84% 80% 75% 71% 65% 61% 56% 50% 45%
120 86% 82% 78% 72% 67% 61% 56% 51% 46% 42%
130 86% 81% 76% 69% 63% 57% 51% 46% 42% 37%
140 86% 81% 74% 67% 59% 53% 47% 42% 38% 34%
150 86% 80% 73% 65% 57% 49% 43% 38% 35% 31%
160 86% 80% 72% 63% 54% 47% 40% 35% 32% 29%
170 86% 80% 71% 63% 54% 46% 39% 33% 29% 27%
180 86% 80% 71% 62% 54% 46% 39% 33% 29% 27%
190 86% 80% 72% 63% 54% 47% 40% 33% 30% 28%
200 86% 80% 73% 64% 56% 49% 42% 36% 33% 30%
210 86% 81% 74% 66% 58% 51% 45% 40% 36% 33%
220 86% 81% 75% 68% 62% 55% 50% 44% 40% 36%
230 86% 82% 77% 71% 65% 60% 54% 49% 44% 40%
240 86% 83% 80% 75% 70% 64% 59% 54% 49% 44%
250 86% 84% 82% 78% 74% 69% 64% 59% 54% 49%
260 86% 85% 84% 81% 78% 74% 69% 64% 58% 53%
270 86% 87% 87% 85% 82% 78% 74% 68% 63% 56%
280 86% 88% 88% 88% 85% 82% 78% 73% 67% 59%
290 86% 89% 91% 91% 89% 86% 82% 76% 70% 62%
300 86% 90% 92% 93% 92% 89% 85% 80% 73% 64%
310 86% 91% 94% 95% 95% 92% 88% 82% 74% 66%
320 86% 92% 95% 97% 97% 95% 90% 84% 76% 67%
330 86% 92% 96% 99% 98% 96% 92% 85% 77% 68%
340 86% 92% 97% 99% 99% 97% 93% 86% 78% 68%
350 86% 93% 98% 100% 100% 98% 93% 87% 78% 67%
ADELAIDE
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 91% 83% 74% 63%
10 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 90% 83% 74% 63%
20 87% 94% 97% 99% 98% 94% 89% 82% 73% 63%
30 87% 93% 96% 97% 96% 93% 87% 80% 72% 62%
40 87% 92% 95% 95% 94% 91% 85% 78% 71% 61%
50 87% 91% 93% 93% 91% 88% 83% 76% 69% 60%
60 87% 91% 92% 91% 89% 85% 79% 74% 66% 58%
70 87% 89% 90% 88% 85% 81% 76% 70% 63% 56%
80 87% 88% 87% 85% 82% 77% 73% 67% 60% 53%
90 87% 87% 85% 82% 78% 74% 69% 63% 57% 50%
100 87% 86% 83% 79% 75% 70% 64% 59% 53% 47%
110 87% 85% 81% 76% 71% 65% 60% 54% 49% 44%
120 87% 84% 79% 74% 67% 61% 55% 50% 45% 40%
130 87% 83% 77% 71% 64% 57% 51% 46% 41% 36%
140 87% 82% 76% 68% 60% 53% 47% 41% 37% 33%
150 87% 82% 75% 67% 58% 50% 43% 37% 33% 30%
160 87% 81% 74% 65% 56% 48% 40% 34% 30% 27%
170 87% 81% 74% 64% 55% 47% 39% 32% 28% 26%
180 87% 81% 74% 64% 55% 47% 39% 32% 27% 25%
190 87% 81% 74% 65% 55% 47% 39% 33% 28% 26%
200 87% 82% 75% 66% 57% 49% 41% 35% 31% 28%
210 87% 82% 75% 68% 59% 51% 44% 39% 34% 31%
220 87% 83% 77% 70% 62% 55% 49% 43% 38% 34%
230 87% 84% 78% 73% 66% 59% 53% 48% 42% 38%
240 87% 85% 80% 75% 70% 64% 58% 52% 47% 42%
250 87% 86% 83% 78% 74% 68% 63% 57% 51% 46%
260 87% 87% 85% 81% 77% 73% 67% 61% 55% 49%
270 87% 88% 87% 84% 81% 76% 72% 66% 59% 53%
280 87% 89% 89% 87% 85% 80% 75% 70% 63% 56%
290 87% 90% 91% 90% 88% 84% 79% 73% 66% 59%
300 87% 91% 93% 93% 91% 87% 82% 76% 69% 61%
310 87% 92% 95% 95% 94% 90% 85% 79% 71% 62%
320 87% 93% 96% 97% 96% 93% 88% 81% 73% 64%
330 87% 93% 97% 98% 98% 94% 89% 82% 74% 64%
340 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 90% 83% 74% 64%
350 87% 94% 98% 100% 99% 96% 91% 83% 74% 64%
ALICE SPRINGS
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 90% 96% 99% 100% 98% 94% 87% 78% 68% 57%
10 90% 96% 99% 100% 98% 94% 87% 79% 69% 57%
20 90% 96% 99% 100% 98% 93% 87% 79% 69% 58%
30 90% 96% 98% 99% 97% 93% 87% 78% 69% 59%
40 90% 95% 98% 98% 96% 91% 86% 78% 69% 60%
50 90% 94% 96% 96% 94% 90% 84% 77% 69% 60%
60 90% 93% 95% 94% 92% 88% 82% 76% 68% 60%
70 90% 93% 93% 92% 89% 85% 80% 73% 66% 59%
80 90% 92% 91% 90% 87% 82% 77% 71% 64% 57%
90 90% 91% 90% 87% 84% 79% 73% 67% 61% 54%
100 90% 90% 88% 84% 80% 75% 69% 63% 57% 51%
110 90% 89% 86% 82% 76% 71% 65% 59% 53% 47%
120 90% 88% 84% 79% 73% 67% 60% 54% 48% 42%
130 90% 87% 82% 76% 69% 62% 55% 49% 43% 38%
140 90% 86% 80% 73% 65% 58% 50% 44% 38% 33%
150 90% 86% 79% 71% 62% 53% 46% 39% 34% 29%
160 90% 85% 78% 69% 60% 50% 42% 36% 30% 26%
170 90% 85% 77% 68% 58% 48% 40% 33% 28% 24%
180 90% 84% 77% 67% 57% 47% 40% 33% 27% 22%
190 90% 84% 77% 68% 57% 48% 40% 33% 27% 23%
200 90% 85% 78% 69% 59% 49% 41% 34% 29% 25%
210 90% 85% 78% 70% 61% 52% 44% 38% 33% 29%
220 90% 86% 80% 72% 64% 56% 49% 42% 37% 32%
230 90% 87% 81% 74% 67% 60% 53% 47% 42% 37%
240 90% 87% 83% 77% 71% 64% 58% 52% 46% 41%
250 90% 88% 84% 80% 75% 69% 63% 57% 51% 45%
260 90% 89% 87% 83% 78% 73% 67% 61% 55% 49%
270 90% 90% 89% 85% 81% 77% 71% 65% 59% 52%
280 90% 91% 90% 88% 84% 80% 75% 69% 62% 55%
290 90% 92% 92% 91% 87% 83% 78% 71% 64% 57%
300 90% 93% 94% 93% 90% 86% 80% 73% 66% 58%
310 90% 94% 95% 95% 92% 88% 82% 75% 67% 58%
320 90% 95% 97% 96% 94% 90% 84% 76% 68% 58%
330 90% 95% 98% 98% 96% 91% 85% 77% 68% 58%
340 90% 96% 98% 99% 97% 93% 86% 78% 68% 58%
350 90% 96% 99% 100% 98% 93% 87% 78% 68% 57%
PERTH
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 88% 94% 98% 100% 99% 95% 89% 81% 72% 61%
10 88% 94% 98% 100% 99% 95% 89% 81% 72% 61%
20 88% 94% 98% 99% 98% 94% 89% 81% 72% 62%
30 88% 94% 97% 98% 97% 93% 88% 81% 72% 62%
40 88% 93% 96% 96% 95% 92% 86% 80% 71% 62%
50 88% 92% 94% 94% 93% 89% 84% 78% 70% 62%
60 88% 91% 93% 93% 90% 87% 82% 76% 69% 61%
70 88% 90% 91% 90% 88% 84% 79% 73% 66% 59%
80 88% 89% 89% 88% 85% 81% 76% 70% 63% 56%
90 88% 88% 87% 84% 81% 77% 72% 66% 60% 54%
100 88% 87% 85% 81% 77% 73% 68% 62% 56% 50%
110 88% 86% 83% 78% 74% 68% 63% 57% 51% 46%
120 88% 85% 81% 75% 69% 63% 58% 52% 47% 42%
130 88% 84% 79% 73% 66% 59% 53% 47% 42% 38%
140 88% 83% 77% 70% 62% 55% 48% 42% 38% 33%
150 88% 83% 76% 68% 59% 51% 44% 38% 33% 30%
160 88% 82% 75% 66% 57% 48% 40% 34% 30% 27%
170 88% 82% 75% 65% 56% 47% 39% 32% 27% 25%
180 88% 82% 74% 65% 55% 46% 38% 31% 26% 24%
190 88% 82% 75% 65% 56% 47% 39% 32% 27% 25%
200 88% 82% 75% 66% 57% 49% 41% 34% 30% 27%
210 88% 83% 76% 68% 59% 51% 44% 38% 34% 30%
220 88% 84% 77% 70% 63% 55% 49% 43% 38% 34%
230 88% 84% 79% 73% 66% 60% 53% 48% 43% 38%
240 88% 85% 81% 75% 70% 64% 58% 53% 48% 43%
250 88% 86% 83% 79% 74% 69% 63% 58% 52% 47%
260 88% 88% 85% 82% 78% 73% 68% 63% 56% 50%
270 88% 88% 87% 85% 81% 77% 72% 67% 60% 54%
280 88% 89% 89% 88% 85% 81% 76% 70% 64% 57%
290 88% 91% 91% 90% 88% 84% 79% 74% 67% 59%
300 88% 92% 93% 93% 91% 87% 82% 76% 69% 61%
310 88% 92% 94% 95% 93% 90% 85% 78% 70% 62%
320 88% 93% 96% 97% 95% 92% 87% 80% 71% 62%
330 88% 94% 97% 98% 97% 94% 88% 81% 72% 62%
340 88% 94% 98% 99% 98% 94% 89% 81% 72% 62%
350 88% 94% 98% 100% 99% 95% 89% 81% 72% 61%
CAIRNS
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 95% 99% 100% 99% 96% 90% 82% 73% 62% 52%
10 95% 99% 100% 99% 95% 90% 82% 73% 62% 52%
20 95% 98% 100% 98% 95% 90% 82% 73% 63% 53%
30 95% 98% 99% 98% 94% 89% 82% 73% 64% 54%
40 95% 98% 99% 97% 94% 88% 81% 73% 64% 55%
50 95% 97% 98% 96% 93% 87% 80% 73% 64% 56%
60 95% 97% 97% 95% 91% 86% 79% 72% 64% 56%
70 95% 96% 96% 94% 90% 84% 78% 71% 63% 55%
80 95% 96% 95% 92% 88% 82% 76% 69% 62% 54%
90 95% 95% 94% 90% 85% 80% 74% 67% 60% 53%
100 95% 95% 92% 89% 83% 78% 71% 64% 58% 51%
110 95% 94% 91% 87% 81% 75% 68% 61% 54% 48%
120 95% 94% 90% 85% 79% 72% 65% 58% 51% 45%
130 95% 93% 89% 83% 76% 69% 62% 54% 48% 41%
140 95% 93% 88% 82% 74% 66% 58% 50% 44% 38%
150 95% 92% 87% 80% 72% 63% 55% 47% 40% 35%
160 95% 92% 87% 79% 71% 61% 52% 45% 38% 33%
170 95% 92% 87% 79% 70% 60% 51% 44% 37% 31%
180 95% 92% 86% 79% 69% 60% 51% 43% 36% 31%
190 95% 92% 87% 79% 70% 60% 51% 44% 37% 31%
200 95% 92% 87% 80% 71% 62% 53% 45% 38% 33%
210 95% 92% 88% 81% 73% 64% 55% 48% 41% 36%
220 95% 93% 88% 82% 75% 67% 59% 51% 45% 39%
230 95% 93% 89% 83% 77% 69% 62% 55% 48% 42%
240 95% 94% 90% 85% 79% 73% 65% 59% 52% 46%
250 95% 94% 91% 87% 81% 75% 69% 62% 55% 49%
260 95% 95% 93% 89% 84% 78% 72% 65% 58% 51%
270 95% 95% 94% 91% 86% 80% 74% 67% 61% 53%
280 95% 96% 95% 92% 88% 83% 76% 69% 62% 55%
290 95% 97% 96% 94% 90% 84% 78% 71% 63% 55%
300 95% 97% 97% 95% 91% 86% 79% 72% 64% 56%
310 95% 98% 98% 96% 93% 87% 80% 73% 64% 55%
320 95% 98% 99% 97% 94% 88% 81% 73% 64% 55%
330 95% 98% 99% 98% 94% 89% 81% 73% 63% 54%
340 95% 98% 100% 98% 95% 90% 82% 73% 63% 53%
350 95% 99% 100% 99% 95% 90% 82% 73% 62% 52%

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