EMC150S/X

Engineering Mechanics

WORKBOOK

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CPUT

2019

1
UNIT 1: UNITS, CONVERSIONS, NUMBERS
It is very important that engineers (and scientists and just about everybody else) stick to a common
code and understanding of measurements and the way in which data is presented.
If we don’t know what units are being used to measure quantities, we may misunderstand.

For example “I’m 18, with wheels”

could mean this:

or it could mean this:

SI UNITS
SI units are the accepted international units that are used to measure engineering and scientific
quantities.
They are however, not always the units that are used. For example it is sometimes more useful to
measure distances (length) in km than it is in m and the dimensions in engineering drawings are
usually always done in millimetres (mm).
In addition many countries still use what is known as the FPS (foot, pound, second) system of
measurement rather than the metric system and when teams of engineers or scientists from
around the world are collaborating on an international project, they have to make sure that they are
all using the same system of units. Unfortunately this hasn’t always happened and the
consequences have been quite serious.

QUANTITY SI UNIT Other appropriate Possible FPS units

metric unit
Length metres(m)

Mass

time

Force

Weight

Pressure

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QUANTITY SI UNIT Other appropriate Possible FPS units
metric unit
Speed/velocity

Acceleration

Energy

Power

Torque

Area

Volume

Density

SOME CONVERSIONS
LENGTH

1km = 1000m
1m = 100 cm = 1000mm

AREA

1km2 = 1 000 000m2 (106 m2 )

1m2 = 10000 cm2 (104 cm2 ) = 1000000mm2 (106mm2 )

VOLUME

1km3 = 1000000000m3 (109 m3 )

1m3 = 1000000 cm3 = 1000000000 mm3 (109 mm3 ) = 1000 litres (103 l)
1 litre (l) = 1000 cm3 (1000 ml) = 0,001 m3 (10-3 m3 )

MASS

1kg = 1000 g
1 t (tonne*) = 1000kg = 1000000 g (106g)
(* tonne = metric tonne (1000kg) ton = non-metric or imperial ton, usually 2000 lbs (pounds)

OTHER

1kPa = 1000 Pa 1kN = 1000N etc

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EXERCISE 1

1. Do the following conversions:

a) 25 mm to m ……………………………………………………………………………….……………..

b) 25 mm3 to m3 …………………………………………………………………………….……………..

c) 48 km/h to m/s …………………………………………………………………………….……………..

d) 0,0023 m3 to mm3………………………………………………………………………….……………..

e) 12 m/s to km/h …………………………………………………………………………………………..

f) 2458,93 cm2 to m2 ………………………………………………………………………………………..

g) 247litres to m3 ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

h) 12 g to kg …………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Arrange the following 4 quantities in order of increasing volume

ie: list them from the smallest volume (number i) to the biggest volume (number iv)

a)0,000 11 km3 b) 1800 000 cm3 c) 1.5 m3 d) 35 000 000mm3

i)………………. ii)……………………. iii)…………………… iv)………………

3. The formula for pressure is P = F/A.

If a force of 75kN is exerted on a piece of flat steel whose dimensions are 210mm x 120cm,
calculate the pressure which is exerted on the steel plate.

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4. A new alloy called Bizarrium costs $20.75 (20.75 US dollars) per cubic foot (ft3). You need to
machine 5 blocks from this metal, each having dimensions 200mm length, 120 mm height and
thickness 80 mm.
Calculate how much it will cost in Rands and cents, to machine these 5 blocks (costs just in terms
of materials).
1m3 = 35,5 ft3 1US$ = R7.35

120mm

80mm

200mm

5. Round off the following numbers to 2 decimal places.

a) 675,4322 …………………………… b) 5643,8976 …………………………..

c) 98,0253 …………………………….. d) 675, 998 ……………………………

NOTATION
The two types of notation that are usually used to present numbers/numerical data (particularly
large unwieldy numbers) are SCIENTIFIC NOTATION and ENGINEERING NOTATION.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION:
Numbers are presented as powers of ten with the decimal comma following immediately after the
first digit.
So a number like 350000 would be written in Scientific Notation as 3,5 x 105.

ENGINEERING NOTATION:
Numbers are presented as powers of ten, but the powers must be given as multiples of 3 and the
placing of the decimal comma then follows from that. In addition, the value of the number
presented may not be less than 0,1 or larger than 1000.
So a number like 350000 would be written in Engineering Notation as 350 x 103 or as 0,35 x 106.
350000 Watts for example, would be written in Engineering Notation as 0,35 x 106 Watts , which is
easier expressed as 0,35 MW (megawatts). Or it could be expressed as 350 kW.

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PREFIXES
Prefixes are usually used to replace the powers of three, eg: 103 is kilo, 106 is Mega and so on.
So an amount of 350000 Watts for example would be written as 0,35 x 106 Watts , which is easier
expressed as 0,35 MW (megawatts). (It could also be expressed as 350 kW (kilowatts).)

SYMBOL NAME VALUE Power of Ten

E
exa 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 10 18
P
peta 1 000 000 000 000 000 10 15
T
tera 1 000 000 000 000 10 12
G
giga 1 000 000 000 10 9
M
mega 1 000 000 10 6
k
kilo 1 000 10 3

1 10 0
m
milli 1/1 000 10 -3

micro 1/1 000 000 10 -6
n
nano 1/1 000 000 000 10 -9
p
pico 1/ 1 000 000 000 000 10 -12
f
femto 1/1 000 000 000 000 000 10 -15
a
atto 1/1 000 000 000 000 000 000 10 -18

EXERCISE 2

Write the following numbers in i) Scientific Notation, ii) Engineering Notation and iii) as ‘normal’
numbers where necessary.

Sci. Not Eng Not. ‘Normal’ no.

a) 0.0009874 x 106 ……………………….. ………………………………………………………………

b) 6872,53 x 10-5 ………………………………………………………………………………………...

c) 0,000046278 ………………………………………………………………………………………...

d) 64223578,34 x 10-9 ………………………………………………………………………………………

e) 678,34 x 10 –4 ………………………………………………………………………………………...

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 EXERCISE 3
Write the following numbers/quantities in Engineering Notation, but make use of the appropriate
prefix instead of the power. ie: 67 x 109 Pa would become 67 GPa (GigaPascals). Ensure that the
value of the numbers stays between 0,1 and 1000.

1. 4567000 N …………………………………. 4. 0,005643 x 106 J ...…………………………

2. 0,00000947 C……..………………………… 5. 4,3876 x 1011 J ……..…………………………

3. 5000892 Pa ………..………………………… 6. 300 000 W ……….………………………….

EXERCISE 4
Represent each of the following as a number between 0,1 and 1000 using an appropriate prefix.

a) 45 320 kN …………………………………… c) 0,00634 mg ……………………………………

b) 793 x 105 m……………………………………. d) 0,0000231μC ………………………………….

EXERCISE 5
Convert each of the following:

d) 2472,234 W to MW …………………………..
a) 369 MPa to GPa……………………………….

e) 2 MPa to kPa ………………………………..

b) 6772,13 Pa to GPa ……………………………

f) 3054 MN to GN……………………………….
c) 6772,13 MPa to GPa ………………………….

ROUNDING OFF AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

Some of the numbers we have come across are ridiculously long and contain far too many figures.
We need to be able to round off where necessary and also to know which numbers in a numerical
value are significant (ie: have meaning) without losing the essential value of the number.

There are generally two kinds of numbers we deal with – MEASURED NUMBERS and EXACT
NUMBERS. ie: those we measure in the workshop/lab etc and exact numbers like the number of
students in a class.

When dealing with measured numbers, numerical accuracy is determined by the accuracy of
the measuring instrument. For example if you’re using your ruler to measure something in cm or
mm, you can get no more accurate than 4 figures – 3 read directly from your instrument and one
estimated digit or figure.
Measure 187,5mm using your ruler, for example. The 1, 8 and 7 are read directly from the instrument
(ruler), but the five is estimated.

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So the number of figures that are considered to be significant in a measured number will be those
that are read directly from the measuring instrument plus one digit which is estimated. In any
measured number, there may be no more than 1 estimated digit, and this will always be the rightmost
digit.

Problems arise however when we start doing calculations with measured numbers.

For example a rectangle measured with a ruler is found to have a length of 4,65cm and a breadth of
1,55cm. If one calculates the area of this rectangle it comes to 7,2075cm2, a value which has seems
to be far more accurate that the original measured data.

Now accuracy can’t be created in your calculator, it depends on the accuracy of the measuring
instrument.
Our instrument here is a ruler, and as we’ve seen in this case we can only measure to 3 significant
digits (ie: numbers that have meaning) using a ruler. This means that not all of the numbers in our
calculated answer can be significant.
Our input numbers were accurate to 3 significant digits. Our output or calculated number seems to be
accurate to 5 significant digits, and as we’ve said, this can’t be. Our final answer can’t be more
accurate than 3 digits, which means that we’re going to have to chop some of this number off in order
to make it meaningful.

So in this case, our CALCULATED ANSWER is 7,2057 cm2, but our REPORTED ANSWER (the
answer that we report) must be 7,21 cm2.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
How do we know how many significant figures a number has? BUT HOW MANY DECIMAL
PLACES DO EACH OF
2005 has 4
0,000034 has 2 THESE NUMBERS HAVE?
2005,0 has 5
836,257 has 6
1,000034 has 7
32,00450 has 7

Make up and write down numbers that you think have the following amount of significant figures.
Use decimal places and zeroes.

1 sf…………………………………………………………………………..

2 sf…………………………………………………………………………..

3 sf…………………………………………………………………………..

4 sf…………………………………………………………………………..

5 sf…………………………………………………………………………..

6 sf…………………………………………………………………………..
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RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

EXERCISE 6

How many significant figures are given in the following quantities?

a) 454 kg…………………….. b) 2,2 N ……………………………… c) 2,205 N…………………………

d) 0,3937mm ………………….e) 1,0080 t…………………………. f) 14,0ml…………………………..

g) 9,3 x 107 kN………………. h) 1,118 x 10-3 Pa…………………. i) 1030kg/m3……………………..

j) 125000 GPa……………….. k) 10400 N.m ……………………….. l) 267,349 m3…………………….

CALCULATIONS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

Imagine that you are calculating the average velocity of a moving object in the laboratory.
The formula for average velocity is given as:
av. vel (v) = total dispalcement (s)
total time taken (t)

So you take various measurements with a measuring tape and a stop watch, and you end up with a
total displacement, s = 6,851m and a total time, t = 4,37 s. (Remember, the accuracy of your
measurement is governed by the accuracy of your measuring instrument.)

v = s = 6,851 = 1,567734554m/s
t 4,37

Which is an answer that has accuracy way beyond anything you measured!!!
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RULES FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The final reported answer may not have more significant figures than the input figure with the
smallest amount of significant figures.

Input figures/data: 6,851m (4 significant figures)

4,37s (3 significant figures)

Calculated answer: 1,567734554m/s

Reported answer (which may contain no more than 3 significant figures): 1,57m/s

EXAMPLE:
A student wants to calculate the pressure exerted on a flat piece of steel using the formula for
pressure:
P=F where P represents pressure, A represents area and
A F represents force.
The student measures that the force exerted on the piece of flat steel is 74kN and he measures the
dimensions of the plate and finds them to be 210mm x 120cm.
Calculate the pressure which is exerted on the steel plate.

What do you need to be able to do?

1. Firstly, you need to be able to give all of your data the correct units for calculation purposes (SI)
2. Secondly you need to realise that you are dealing with measured numbers and that significant
figures are therefore very important. So in this regard you need to be able to:
 report data using the appropriate number of digits for the measuring device that you used
(given in this case)
 report answers from calculations with the appropriate number of digits (according to the input
data)
 perform calculations without rounding off unnecessarily (and incorrectly) during the calculation

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RULES FOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Here, the reported answer is governed by the number of decimal places of the input data.

The final reported answer may not have more decimal places than the input figure with the least
amount of decimal places.

Eg:

calculated answer: reported answer: 62,7

12,456
6,7
+ 43,5

= 62,656

EXERCISE 7

The following quantities are all measured numbers and they therefore need to be dealt with
according to the rules that govern measured numbers and significant digits.
Perform the following mathematical operations:

1. Add: a) 703 kg + 7 kg + 0.66 kg b) 18.425 cm + 7.21cm + 5.0 cm

c) 0.0035 litres + 0.097litres + 0.225 litres d) 4.0 N + 0.632 N + 0.148 N

2. Subtract: a) 7.26 – 0.2 b) 562.4 – 16.8 c) 34 – 0.2

3. Multiply : a) 2.21 x 0.3 b) 7.24 x 0.084 c) 107.88 x 0.610

4. Divide: a) 0.032 by 0.004 b) 9.8 by 9.3 c) 97.52 by 2.54

EXERCISE 8

1. Express the following numbers as:

i) numbers with 4 significant digits as well as in

(i) engineering notation
(ii) and then use appropriate prefixes

(eg: 1234,111 J would become i) 1234J then ii) 1,234 x 103J then iii) 1,234kJ

a) 49876075 W
b) 0.00056986 J
c) 4378,56 x 10 4 W
d) 0,0038 Pa
e) 40047 W
f) 75 W

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ANSWERS: UNIT 1; UNITS, CONVERSIONS, NOTATION, SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

EXCERCISE 1

1.
a) 0,025m b) 25 x 10-9m3 (0,000000025m3 or 2,5 x 10-8m3)
c) 13,33m/s d) 2300000mm3 (2,3 x 106mm3) e) 43,2 km/h
f) 0,245893 m (2,45893 x 10-1 m2)
2
g) 0,247m3 h) 0,012 kg

2. i) d ii) c iii) b iv) a

3. 297,619 kPa

4. R51.98

5. a) 675,43 b) 5643,90 c) 98,03 d) 676,00

EXERCISE 2

Sci Not. Eng Not. ‘Ordinary’ number

a) 9,874 x 102 0,9874 x 103 987,4

b) 6,87253 x 10-2 68,7253 x 10 -3 0,0687253
c) 4,6278 x 10-5 46,278 x 10-6 0,000046278
d) 6,422357834 x 10-2 64,22537834 x 10-3 0,06422357834
e) 6,7834 x 10-2 67,834 x 10-3 0,067834

EXERCISE 6

a) 3 b) 2 c) 4 d) 4 e) 5 f) 3 g) 2 h) 4 i) 3 j) 3 k) 3 l) 6

EXERCISE 7

1a) 711 b) 30,6 c) 0,326 d) 4,8

2a) 7,1 b) 545,6 c) 34
3a) 0,7 b) 0,61 c) 65,8
4a) 8 b) 1,1 c) 38,4

EXERCISE 8
d)
a) i) …0,003800 Pa………………………
i)…49880000 W or 4,988 x 10 7 ii) …3,800 x 10-3 Pa………….
ii)…49,88 x 10 6…W iii) …3,800 mPa………….
iii) 49,88 MW..
e)
b) i) …40050……………………………
i) 0,0005699 J… ii) …40,05 x 103 W………….
ii)…0,5699 x 10 -3J or 569,9 x 10 -6J…… iii) …40,05 kW………………….
iii)…0,5699 mJ or 569,9 µJ……………
f)
c) i)……75,00 W……………
i) …4379 10 4……………… ii)……cant do………..
ii) …43,79x 10 6………………………… iii) …cant do…………..
iii) …43,79MW……………………………

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UNIT 2: FORCE
When a FORCE or forces
act on objects, one of two
things happens:

The object will be in

The object experiences a RESULTANT FORCE. (TRANSLATIONAL) EQUILIBRIUM.
(Fres = something ie: Fres = x) Fres = 0
ie: ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0

We can use the Method of Components to determine unknown forces.

 find x and y components of each force We often use the Triangle Rule (3 Forces in
 find ΣFx and ΣFy ( vectors in opposite directions must be equilibrium must give a closed triangle)
subtracted) or we can use the Method of
 Find Fres (Pythagoras etc) Components:(ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0)
to determine unknown forces
eg: ΣFx = and ΣFy = then Fres =

eg: The diagram below shows a number of forces in the same

vertical plane acting on a light beam.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the RESULTANT eg: Determine the forces in the jib and tie of
force which acts on the beam. the crane shown

TIE
1,2kN 500N 5kN 45°
400N TIE: 747,6N
900N
JIB: 610,4N

45° 80° 60° 30° 85kg

2m 2m 2m 2m 60°
JIB

Ans: 5,395kN ; 56,23° 13

clockwise from +ve x axis
FORCE ANALYSIS AND FREE BODY DIAGRAMS
TYPES OF FORCES

1. WEIGHT

Weight is the force that the earth exerts on objects that are on or close to its surface. It always acts
downwards, downwards meaning that it is directed towards the centre of the earth.

W = mg ; g = 9,81m/s2

2. FRICTION (Fµ)

Friction is a force which occurs between two surfaces. It arises when two surfaces move, or attempt
to move relative to each other. (If there is no motion or no attempt at motion, there will be no friction.)
Friction acts parallel to the surfaces in contact and in the opposite direction of the motion or
attempted motion.

A rock climber keeps

FT himself steady by
pressing against the
walls of a crevice. Fill in
on the diagram where
Fµ you think the frictional
forces will act.

3. TENSIONS – ‘pulling force’.

A Tension is the force that a rope/cable/cord exerts on the object to which it is attached.

ceiling

rope Members in structures that are in tension are called TIES.

4. COMPRESSIONS – ‘pushing force’. Compressions are caused when loads push on an object.
They are found in pillars, beams and other support bearing structures – eg: load bearing walls.

Members in structures that are in compression are usually called

STRUTS.

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 5. NORMAL (‘SURFACE) REACTIONS
(action-reaction pair)

The floor or surface in the first example for example, experiences compression and ‘reacts’ ie:
pushes back. Normal Reactions are always perpendicular to the surface that exerts them.

Compressive force Normal reaction

W NR

6. REACTIONS (‘Structural’ reactions)

These are forces which occur in response or in REACTION to the loading of a particular structure.
eg: the reaction at the support(s) which occurs in beams/levers etc.
eg: the reaction from a pulley which has weight suspended over it.

Load 1 Load 3
Load 2
Reaction

BEAM
T Supports

T
Reaction Reaction

FREE BODY DIAGRAMS, FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

In both A and B crate Z has a weight of 200N.

A. Crate Q rests on top of crate Z which rests B. Crate Z is pulled along a rough floor at
on the floor. constant velocity by an applied force FT = 40 N.

Q=
150N Applied force FT
Z
Z Rough surface
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1. Draw properly labelled free body diagrams that show all of the forces which act on crate Z,
1.1 in system A and
1.2 in system B.

2. Both system A and B are in equilibrium.

2.1 Write down values for all the forces that you drew in 1.1.
2.2 Write down values for all the forces that you drew in 1.2.

3. Three spheres rest on top of one another in i) a well and ii) a trough. Draw a free body diagram
which shows the forces acting on sphere B in system i) and system ii).

i) B ii) A
Aa
C
B
C

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4. Draw fbd’s which show all the forces which act at point 1 and 2. (A, B, C, D and E are cables.)

A B

1
C
D 2

200 kg

EXERCISE 1

1. Two forces act on a cranked lever. Determine the magnitude of the reaction at the support. The
lever is in equilibrium.
32 N

90° 31,25 N

80mm 130°
100mm 55°

2. F1 = 800N, F2 and F3 act on a particle. Determine the magnitude of F2 and F3 so that the particle
will be in equilibrium.
F2

800N 70°
45°

F3

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3. A lifting device holding a load of 1400 N stationary, consists of a beam AB and a cable BC which
passes over a frictionless pulley D.
Determine:
i) The magnitude of the force in member AB AND whether it is in tension or compression.
ii) The magnitude of the force in member BC AND whether it is in tension or compression.
iii) The reaction at the frictionless pulley D.

C
D
60° 45°

30°

1400N A

4. An array of full range speakers are hung (flown) from the roof and walls from non-flexible cables
A,B,C D and E (non-flexible = the cables will not stretch) at a music concert. The system must
obviously remain stationary. If the tension in cable A is 960 N, calculate:
i) the mass of the speakers and
ii) the tension in cable D.

B C

D
A

40° 30°
E

Speakers

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5.The following diagram shows a light frictionless pulley supported by a light inextensible cord
between two points A and B on a horizontal beam. The pulley supports a hanging mass of 300 kg. It
is held in the position shown by a horizontal force F. When in this position the tension in the cord is
2,25 kN. Calculate the angle θ and the magnitude of force F.

A θ 57° B

300 kg

6. A body with a mass of 200 kg is supported by the cable shown below. Determine the tensions in
cable A, B, C, D and E.

A B
40° 30°

C
D 60°

200
kg

19
ANSWERS : UNIT 2. FORCE EXERCISE 1

1. 62,71N ; 42,59° c’wise from +y axis

2. F2 : 624,2N
F3 : 829,5N

3. AB : 1212N
BC : 700N
Reaction at pulley : 852,3N ; 7,500° c’wise from + y axis

4. i) 120,0kg
ii) 831,4N

5. F = 761,4N
θ = 27,99°

6. A = 1205 N
B= 2374 N
C = 2266 N
D =1133 N
E = 1962 N

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 UNIT 3: MOMENTS
A moment is the turning effect of a force.

For any system to turn, it must have a point (or points) around which it can turn. This point is known
as the turning point, or fulcrum or pivot.

If one thinks of a bolt which is tightened as it is turned,

it turns around its mid-point, which we can consider
to be the pivot or pivot point of that bolt.

Now in order to turn, a bolt a force needs to be applied to it.

The bolt turns this way. This is

an anti-clockwise moment.

The moment of a force (ie: the turning effect it causes) is calculated as follows:

Mo = Force applied x perpendicular distance between the pivot point and the point of application of
the force.

ie: Mo = F x s

F = 80 N

13 cm

So the moment of the force applied to the spanner above would be:

Mo = F x s, Mo = 80 x 0,13 = 10,4 N.m (anti-clockwise)

21
ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM (The Second Condition for Equilibrium) and The Law of
Moments

If a body is to be totally in equilibrium, it must experience no resultant force (1st Condition of

Equilibrium also known as Translational Equilibrium), and no resultant moment, Ie: ΣMo = 0
(2nd Condition of Equilibrium).

If a body experiences no resultant moment when forces which would cause moments act on it, this
must be because the clockwise and anti-clockwise moments balance each other.

This beam
5m 10 m is in
equilibrium
2N 1N

Clockwise moment of
Anti-clockwise moment 10N.m
of 10N.m

The Law of Moments states that if a body is in equilibrium, then the sum of the clockwise
moments must equal the sum of the anti-clockwise moments.

ie: Σ Mo Clock-wise = Σ Mo Anti-clockwise

EXERCISE 1

1. The lever shown below is in equilibrium. It is hinged (pivoted) at point A. Using the law of
moments, calculate the value of the unknown force F. The lengths of the lever arms are 2m and 3m
as shown.

F
20 N

2m
3m
A
F = ……………………

2. Study the following diagrams and referring to the law of moments, determine whether the following
levers are in equilibrium. Give a reason for your answer.
50N

5m
20N 10 N
2m 4m

1m
5N 22
a)…………. b)…………
 30N 30N
1m 1m 1m

30N
c)……………..

EXERCISE 2
Use the Law of Moments to determine the unknown force F in all the following examples.
All the systems are in equilibrium. Take moments around the pivot point.

a) F
7N + = pivot
4N points
3m

2m 6m
8N
10m

32 N

b)
F
90°

80mm
130°
100mm 55°

F
c)
50°

80 N 40 N
350
140°
35°

50
200
23
 F
d)
4m

10 N

2m

30°
27 N

3m 1m

EXERCISE 3
Determine the reaction at the support (pivot point) in each of the examples a) – d) above.

EXERCISE 4

1. Calculate the resultant moment that acts on the following system. ( = pivot point)
5 kN
1m

3m
3m

2 kN

2m Ans: 16 kN.m c’wise

10 N
2.
1,5 m 0,5m

0,43m
30° 5N

5N 1m
1,732m

90°
A

Determine the resultant force as well as the resultant moment acting on the plate which is pivoted at
A. (Resultant moment = 10,76N.m clockwise)

24
3. Four forces act on a beam as shown. Three of them are known, and the fourth is supplied by the
tension in a rod attached at a point, P, which is ‘x’ metres from the left hand end of the beam.

If the beam is in equilibrium, determine:

(i) The magnitude and direction of the force in the rod, and (ii) The distance ‘x’.
[ distance x = 4,176 m, force in rod = 3,213kN W81,01°S]

4. The swing arm of a crane is pivoted at point A. It carries a load of 500 kg and is held in place by a
cable in tension, F, as shown. The crane arm is a uniform structure having uniform density and has a
weight of 7848N.

4.1 Calculate the value of F and (6)

4.2 the reaction at the pivot point A. (4)
[10]

60°
F

A . 30°

4m 5m

500 kg

(F = 12210 N (12,21kN) ; Reaction is 12490 N (12,49kN) N57,83°E or E32,17°)

25
 5. A beam of weight 60 N and length 12 m has to be kept perfectly still and level according to the
arrangement shown below:
Mass m2 = 4 kg and mass m3 = 2,2 kg and m2 must be placed exactly as shown.
5.1 Draw a force diagram of the beam. (2)
5.2 Determine the value of F. (2)
5.3 Determine the value of mass m1. (2)
5.4 Determine how far apart the cables which are attached to m1 and m2 must be placed.
(ie: determine the distance x m) (3)
[9]
[5.2 F= 54,86 N ; 5.3 m1 = 3,997 kg ; 5.4 x = 6,122 m ]

m1
m2

xm
32°
F
2m

m3
2

BEAMS and REACTIONS at SUPPORTS

Beams are (usually horizontal) structures which bear or carry loads.

They might have one support or they might have two supports. (or more).

They might carry point loads (ie: loads which act at a specific point). A stack of bricks on a plank
which rests on two paint tins would be a rough example of this.

26
They might also carry distributed loads. An example of this would be the same plank, but in this case
the bricks are spread out along the plank.
If the load is spread out evenly, as the bricks in this example are, then the load is called a Uniformly
Distributed Load (UDL).

Uniformly distributed loads are represented in various ways. The above example could be shown in
one of the following three ways:

The units of UDL’s are N/m or sometimes kg/m. So if the load below covered a span of 3m, and had
a value of 5N/m, then the total value of the load would be 15N.
(5N/m x 3m = 15N)

5N/m

3m

The mass or weight of beams when given or when taken into account, must also be treated as a
UDL. (sometimes we can ignore the weight of the beam if it is very small compared to the applied
forces)

For purposes of calculating reaction at the supports of beams, UDL’s can be replaced by a point load
acting in the middle of the UDL.
15N

1,5m 1,5m
3m 27
Example 1
150N
The beam shown below is in equilibrium.
73 N

10 N/m
50 N/m 7 N/m

A B
1m 4m 2m 3m 1m

2m 2m

1.1 Calculate the total value, in Newtons, of the distributed loads.

1.2 Calculate the total value of the vertical loading.
1.3 Calculate the reactions at the supports A and B.

28
Example 2

The beam shown below is in equilibrium.

2.1 Do a scale diagram of the beam which shows all the forces which act on the beam. Use
a scale of 1cm (10mm) = 1m. (2)
2.2 Calculate the reactions at the supports B and F. The weight of the beam can be ignored. (11)
[13]

10kN 12kN
10kN
2kN/m 4kN/m

1200

A B C D E F

4m 2m 1m 1m 5m

29
UNIT 3 : MOMENTS

Answers to Ex 2 and 3 (pg 23 and 24 in notes)

2
a) F = 7,333 N
b) F = 31,25N
c) F = 63, 95N
d) F = 15,02N

3
a) 10,33 N upwards
b) 62,71N ; 42,59° cwise from +y axis
c) 148,9 N ; 50° cwise from –x axis
d) 24,87 N ; 19,93° acw from +y axis

Example 2 : Beams

B = 37,51 kN ; FV = 19,15 kN ; FH = 10cos60° = 5 N ; so FT = 19,79 kN 75,37° cw from –ve x axis.

30
UNIT 4: CENTRES OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of an object is where all the mass of that object (and therefore weight) can be
considered as acting. A single upward force applied at this point would therefore balance the weight
of the object and because the resultant moment around this point is zero, objects can be balanced at
their centres of gravity either by suspension or by a support.
(If it were treated as a pivot point, the CENTRE OF GRAVITY of an object would be the one and
ONLY POINT in that object AROUND WHICH the RESULTANT MOMENTS OR TORQUE WOULD
BE ZERO.)

SUSPENSION

SUPPORT

Objects which are perfectly symmetrical have their centres of gravity exactly in their middles.
For example, a beam which is 6m in length and 1m high will have its centre of gravity, C, exactly in
its middle.

ie:
c
0,5m

3,0m

If an object hangs from a rope or a cable, the centre of gravity will always hang directly below the
point where the rope or cable is attached.
This means that if a symmetrical beam is suspended from ropes of unequal lengths the beam will not
hang horizontally. (Because the centre of gravity must always be below the point of suspension)

ie:

= centre of
gravity

31
Objects start becoming UNSTABLE and tend to fall over or topple when their centres of gravity move
outside of their bases.

Consider a tall narrow thin cupboard and a long low kist (chest) or crate:

= centre of
gravity

Because the base of the cupboard is much smaller than that of the chest and also because the
centre of gravity of the cupboard is higher than that of the chest, it is much easier for the cupboard to
fall over when it and the chest are raised to the same angle than it is for the chest, because it is much
easier to get the cog of the cupboard outside of its base.

W W

Determining the centre of gravity of an object

For the purposes of stability it is obviously very important that engineers are able to calculate and
determine exactly where the centre of gravity of objects are.

32
EXERCISE 1 : CENTRES OF GRAVITY, LAMINAE WITH HOLES, CUT-OUTS etc

33
1. Determine the centre of gravity of the following lamina which has a hole of diameter 1m cut into it.
Let PQ be the Y axis and PZ the x axis. You MUST present your work in table form, as you have
been shown. Do not forget to include units in your table.

3m

3m

Z
P 2m 2m 4m

34
2. Calculate the x and y co-ordinates of centre of gravity/centroid of the following lamina. You MUST
present your work in table form, as you have been shown. Do not forget to include units in your table.
(All measurements on the diagram are in mm)

35
EXERCISE 2 : CENTRES OF GRAVITY – SOLID AND COMPOSITE OBJECTS.

1. A shaft has two discs attached to it as shown. Calculate the centre of gravity of this object from the
left hand end.

ø = 20cm ø = 30cm

ø = 10cm

30 cm 10 cm 20 cm 12 cm 15 cm

36
2. A machined object is placed on an inclined plane as shown above. A steadily increasing force F
acts on it. The block has a thickness of 50mm and has a circular, as well as a triangular hole cut into
it as shown. The object is made out of one type of material which has a density of 250 kg/m 3.

i) Determine the weight of the object as well as its weight components parallel to and perpendicular
to the plane.
ii) Calculate the centre of gravity of this object.

37
3.The figure below shows a body made of 30 mm thick titanium plate. A circular hole of diameter 56
mm is cut in the body and this hole is filled with lead (also 30 mm thick).
Determine the position of the centre of gravity of the composite body, with respect to the point ‘O’.
The density of titanium is 4 500 kg/m3, and that of lead is 11 300 kg/m3.

38
4. The following composite object consists of a plastic cone attached to a concrete cylinder. The
inner core of the concrete cylinder has been bored out (removed) and replaced with copper.
Calculate the x and y co-ordinates of this object.
ρ plastic = 1260 kg/m3
ρ concrete = 2380 kg/m3
ρ copper = 8300 kg/m3

Cone:
Plastic

150 mm

Outer Cylinder:
Concrete
200 mm

Core:
Copper

Ø 20 mm

Ø 100 mm

39
ANSWERS : UNIT 4 : CENTRES OF GRAVITY

EX 1

1. x = 3,136 m

y = 2,659 m

2. x = 65, 16 mm

y = 76,50 mm

EX 2

1. x = 52,44 cm from LHS along centre line

2. i) W = 13,77 N W component parallel to plane = Wsin25° = 5,819 N

W component perpendicular to plane = Wcos25° = 12,48 N

ii) x = 136,5 mm

y = 233,6 mm

3. x = 80,21 mm

y = 82,95 mm

4. y = 114,8 mm from base along centre line (ie : x = 50mm)

40
UNIT 5: FRICTION (Fµ)

Friction is a force that opposes motion or attempted motion, so friction between surfaces will arise
whether an object is actually moving relative to a particular surface or just trying to move relative to it.

This leads us to describe friction in two ways : Static friction, Fµs (for surfaces that are attempting to
move relative to one another) and Kinetic friction, Fµk, (for surfaces that are already moving
relative to one another).

The amount of friction that exists between two surfaces depends on the nature of the two surfaces
which are in contact and the amount of force that presses or squeezes the two surfaces together.

Each set of surfaces will have its own characteristic coefficient of friction, µ, and µ will also depend
on whether the system is moving or at rest attempting to move.
The coefficient for (the limit of) static friction is known as µs and for kinetic friction it is referred to as
µk.

Friction can be calculated from the general formula Fµ = µ x NR, where NR is the normal reaction
between the surfaces.

SOME COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

Surfaces in contact µs µk

Steel on Ice 0,027 0,014

Ice on Ice 0,1 0,03

Aluminium on Steel 0,61 0,47

Rubber on Concrete 1 0,8

Synovial joints in humans 0,01 0,003

Wood on Wood 0,25 – 0,5 0,2

Steel on Steel 0,74 0,57

(Values taken from Physlink.com – www.physlin.com/education/AskExperts/ae139.cfm and

Technical Formula: Gieck R and Gieck K, 8th English Edition, Gieck Verlag, D-82110 Germering, 1996)

In general, the greater the coefficient of friction, the greater will be the friction between surfaces.
Also, surfaces that are already moving relative to one another experience less friction than the same
surfaces which are still attempting to move relative to one another.

41
Consider the example of a steel block of weight 100 N that rests on an aluminium surface.

Steel µs = 0,61

Aluminium µk = 0,47

If these surfaces were to slide or attempt to slide over one another, kinetic friction, Fµk, for this
system would be 0,47 x 100 = 47N, and Fµs, the limit of static friction, or maximum friction for this
system would be 0,61 x 100 = 61N.

If a steadily increasing force (FT) is applied to the steel block in order to try and slide it over the
aluminium block, the frictional force is able to adjust itself and oppose whatever value of force is
being applied. As the applied force steadily increases, so will the frictional force increase until the
limit of static friction (or maximum friction) is reached. (61N in this case)
At this point the block will be just at the point of motion.
ie:

FT = 20 N FT = 40 N

Fµs = 20 N Fµs = 40 N

v = constant
FT = 61 N FT = 47 N

Fµs = 61 N Fµk = 47 N

Steel block now on point of sliding Steel block now sliding to the right at constant velocity

GRAPH OF FRICTION VS APPLIED FORCE

Some conclusions:

42
Example 1

A steel block rests on a steel surface. The weight of the block is 150N. µs for these surfaces is 0,74
and µk for these surfaces is 0,57.

i) How large is the friction force exerted on the steel block?

ii) How large will the friction force be if a horizontal force of 50 N is exerted on the steel block?
iii) How much force would need to be applied to get the steel block moving?
iv) How much force would need to be applied to keep the steel block moving?
v) If a horizontal force of 200 N was applied to the block, what would the value of the frictional force
be?

SYSTEMS IN EQUILIBRIUM

In each of the following cases, the block is just on the point of motion over a rough surface.
The motion is in the direction shown by the arrow. Draw free body diagrams of each of these blocks
to show the forces that act on them.

43
 FT

Example 2

Block A weighs 120N. The coefficient of friction between it and the surface on which it rests is 0,4. A
rope is attached to block A and this rope is joined to others as shown in the sketch.

. 2.1 Draw properly labelled free

A body diagrams which show the
forces acting on block A and the
. .P 35° the forces that act at point P, the
point where the ropes all join.
2.2 Determine the maximum
mass that object m can have, if
the system must stay at rest.
m

44
Example 3
The diagram shows a 14 kg block on a plane which is inclined at 20° to the horizontal. Force P, at an
angle of 16° to the plane, is increased until, when it is 86N, the block just begins to move.

16°

20°

3.1 Find the coefficeient of friction between this block and the plane. Your answer must start with a
diagram that shows all the forces that act on the block. (Ans: 0,34)
3.2 If you removed force P, would the block slide? Give a valid explanation for your answer.

45
Example 4
A mass of 54 kg is placed on an inclined plane and is attached to a cable which is tied to a stake at
the top of the plane as shown. (The cable is parallel to the plane.) The coefficient of friction, µ,
between the object and the surface of the plane is 0,58. Calculate the minimum tension that must
exist in the cable if the object is not to slide down the plane.

stake
cable

µ = 0,58

54 kg

48°

ACCELERATING SYSTEMS
These are systems in which a resultant force (Fres) is present. ie: the forces no longer balance each
other and the system is no longer in equilibrium somewhere. For example if we consider the
horizontal and vertical planes, a system which is accelerating would not be in equilibrium in one or
another or both of these planes.
This would mean that either ∑ Fx ≠ 0, or ∑ Fy ≠ 0, or both. The acceleration of the object will be
experienced in the plane that is not in equilibrium. In other words, either ∑Fleft ≠ ∑Fright or
∑Fup ≠ ∑Fdown, or both.
Newton’s Second Law, (mathematically expressed as Fres = ma) also states that the acceleration of
the system will be in the direction of the resultant force that causes it.

Consider the following example:

An applied force of 12 N acts on an object of weight 19,62N to slide it across a surface. Friction
between this object and the surface with which it is in contact is 7N.

The resultant force on the object is 5N to the left

FT =12N
So in this case we can say Fres = FT – Fμ, ie:
Fμ = 7N Fres = 12 – 7 = 5 N (to the left)

How would we work out the acceleration of this system?

46
 Example 5 a = 2m/s2

30°
An object of weight 158 N rests on a plane inclined at 30° as shown. Determine the applied
force necessary to accelerate the object up the plane at 2m/s2. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between these surfaces is 0,68.

Example 6
A block of weight 250 N accelerates at 5m/s2 down an inclined plane under the influence of an
applied force. The plane is inclined at 20° to the horizontal. The coefficient of friction for the surfaces
involved is 0,4. Calculate the value of the applied force.

47
LINKED MASS SYSTEMS

(NB: These problems must always be done by starting with a free body diagram of each of the
masses/objects involved. Each mass must then be dealt with separately. NEVER EVER add the
mass values together and attempt to work with the mass of the system as a whole.)

Example 7
Two crates are connected to each other by a light rope and are pulled along a factory floor by an
applied force, FT. Calculate the value of the applied force if:
a) the crates travel at constant velocity
b) if they accelerate to the right at 0,35 m/s2 and
c) If they accelerate at 0,14 m/s2 and FT is applied to crate A upwards at an angle of 25° to the
horizontal.
Crate A has a mass of 47 kg and μ between crate A and the floor is 0,28. Crate B has a mass of
29kg and μ between B and the floor is 0,22.

A
B FT

48
49
Example 8
A block of mass 35 kg must continue accelerating at 0,5m/s2 up an inclined plane of 25 °under the
influence of a falling mass of 44 kg. The two masses are connected by a light rope which passes
over a frictionless pulley as shown in the diagram below.
In order to achieve this acceleration, it is necessary to choose the surfaces of the block and of the
inclined plane carefully.
A table of coefficients of friction between various surfaces follows. Based on your calculations, make
a choice from the table as to which surfaces are likely to give the desired result.
NB: you must draw free body diagrams for each of the masses. Marks will be awarded for
these
Coeff of
MATERIALS kinetic
friction, μk
Steel on steel
0.57 44 kg
Aluminium on steel
0.47
35 kg
Copper on steel
0.36
25°
rubber on concrete
0.8
wood on wood
0.2
glass on glass
0.4

50
ANSWERS: UNIT 5 : FRICTION

Example 2.
2.2 m = 3,426 kg

Example 3
3.1 µ = 0,34
3.2 you would need to compare Wsinθ with Fµ. If Wsinθ is greater than Fµ, then block will slide

Example 4
T = 188,1N

Example 5
FT = 204,3 N

Example 6
FT = 135,9 N

Example 7
a) FT = 191,7 N
b) FT = 218,3 N
c) FT = 197,5 N

Example 8
µ = 0,79 ; therefore best choice for surfaces would be rubber and concrete

51
UNIT 6: LINEAR MOTION

All motion is relative. For example, if you are sitting still on a moving train, are you moving or not?
Well, it depends what you measure it relative to. If you measure relative to the train, no you are not
moving with respect to the train. But if you compare yourself with a fixed point outside of the train, yes you
are moving.

So we can loosely describe motion as the change of position of an object either with respect to an
observer or some other fixed point.
Clearly, there are many and various ways in which the position of an object can change.

DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is a vector quantity and is defined
as the (straight line) change in position of an
object with respect to its starting point.

VELOCITY
The velocity of an object (also a vector) measures the rate of change of its displacement. In other words,
velocity measures the change of an object’s displacement w.r.t time.

ACCELERATION
The acceleration of an object measures its rate of change of velocity. So an acceleration of 4m/s2 (4
metres per second per second) means that the velocity of the object is changing by 4m/s every second.
Hence if the velocity of an object is unchanging, (as is the case with a constant velocity) then the
acceleration of the object is zero. (Remember that accelerations arise because of the presence of
unbalanced (ie: resultant) forces.

THE GRAPHS OF MOTION

The graphs of motion show how various quantities to do with motion (eg: displacement, velocity and
acceleration) change with respect to time.

The most commonly used graph of motion (for our purposes anyway) is the velocity-time graph.

 The shape of the graph shows the type of motion taking place.

 The area between the graph line and the x-axis gives the displacement that the object has
experienced.
(NB: formula for area of a trapezoid : Area = ½ b x (h1 + h2)

 The gradient of the graph gives the object’s acceleration.

A graph of motion should also clearly show when the direction of motion has changed.

52
Examples:

1. Study the following velocity-time graphs. What kind of velocity is being illustrated by each of them?

A B

0 t 0 t

C D

0 t 0 t

E F
0 t 0 t

2. A moving object experiences zero acceleration. Which of the graphs below best show:
2.1 its displacement-time graph, and
2.2 its velocity-time graph?

A B C D

0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t

3. The table below gives the velocity of a car at two second intervals.

Time (s) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Velocity (m/s) 0 2 4 6 8 8 8 8 8

The acceleration of the car: (choose the answer that you think describes the acceleration of the car)

3.1 increases for 8s then remains constant

3.2 is constant for 8 s then becomes zero
3.3 is constant for 8 s then decreases
3.4 increases for 8 s then becomes zero

53
4. A truck, initially moving to the right, is slowing down because its brakes are applied.

Direction of motion

While the truck is slowing down, which of the following gives the correct directions for its velocity v,
acceleration a, and the resultant force F, acting on the car?

4.1 v a F 4.2 v a F

4.3 v a F 4.4 v a F

4.5 v a F

5. The following velocity time graph shows the motion of an object over a period of 80 seconds.

5.1 Describe the object’s motion from start to

20 finish.
5.2 Use the graph to calculate the objects
deceleration between 75 and 80 seconds.
5.3 Use the graph to determine how far the
object travels in the 80 seconds.
8

45 75 80

54
55
6. A train travels between two stations 5 km apart and completes the journey in 4¾ minutes. During the
first 50 seconds the train moves with constant acceleration. A uniform retardation brings the train to rest
in the last 20 seconds. For the remaining portion of the journey the train moves with constant velocity.

6.1 Sketch (neatly) the Velocity/Time graph for the journey between the two stations.
Determine: (using the graph)
6.2 the constant velocity; (20m/s)
6.3 the acceleration; (0,4 m/s2)
6.4 the retardation; and (-1m/s2)
6.5 the distances travelled during the first and last minute of the journey. (700m and 1000m)

56
THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

These are all derived from the graphs of motion. One of the most important things when using the
equations of motion, is to make sure that the input data is in fact the correct data.

s = (u + v) t
v = u + at V2 – u2 = 2as 2 s = ut + ½at2

7. A motorcyclist accelerates uniformly from rest at 4 m.s-2 for 3 s in a southerly direction. He then
maintains his speed for another 10 s before slowing down uniformly to stop in 2s. The total time for the
journey is 15 s. Calculate :
7.1 the maximum velocity attained by the motorbike (12 m/s)
7.2 the deceleration over the last 2 seconds, (6 m/s2) and
7.3 the motorbike's total displacement after 15 s.(150m)
7.4 Draw a fully labelled velocity-time graph representing the entire journey.

57
58
59
 UNIT 7: ANGULAR MOTION

In this section we will be looking at the motion of objects that rotate

or move in a circle– motors, pulleys, gears, shafts, etc.
If one wanted to examine and analyse the motion of the Ferris wheel shown below, there would be many
ways in which you could do it.

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT
If one wanted to measure how far one of the cars on the edge of the Ferris wheel had travelled in a
certain time, you could measure the linear distance it has traveled on the circumference of the wheel in
metres (arc length), or you could measure it in degrees, or you could measure it in number of
revolutions, but the most common measure of angular displacement is radians.

WHAT IS A RADIAN?

When the linear displacement s, on the circumference of a

circle has the same value as r, the radius of the circle, the
angular displacement, θ, is said to be 1 radian (rad).

s=r

In any one circle or in 1 revolution, there are 2π radians

Example 1 Ø=4m X1
Consider a point on the revolving stage shown, that moves from x1 to x2.
X2
1.1 What is its angular displacement in metres?
(ie: linear or circumferential displacement)

1.4 What is its angular displacement in radians?

1.2 What is its angular displacement in degrees?

1.3 What is its angular displacement in

revolutions
(revs)?

60
ANGULAR VELOCITY
Angular velocity measures how fast or how quickly an object rotates or spins. It is usually measured in
radians per second (rad/s), and is given the symbol ω, ‘omega’.
Angular velocity is often also measured in rpm or rps – revolutions per minute or revolutions per second.
Rpm’s and rps’s are also known as rotational frequencies and are usually given the symbols N and n,
respectively.

ANGULAR ACCELERATION
Angular acceleration measures the rate of change of an objects angular velocity.
It is measured in rad/s2, and is given the symbol α, ‘alpha’.

LINEAR MOTION AND ANGULAR MOTION

When something rotates, one can consider its motion in terms of its angular motion as well as its linear
motion, or one could consider the linear effects that a rotating object could have. (eg a fishing reel and
line)

Assume that the pulley shown on the left has a circumference of 1m.
If this pulley rotates once in 1 second, (ie: its angular velocity in rps = 1rps) then
its angular displacement in radians in 1 second will be 2π radians (6,283 rad) and
its angular velocity in radians/s will be 6,283 rad/s.

Its linear displacement in metres however, will be the value of its circumference,
ie: 1m. So its linear velocity in metres per second will be 1m/s.

v m/s The linear speed (v m/s) at which the fish is

reeled in, is going to depend directly on the
speed at which the reel is rotating.

c = 4m
c = 1m Assume that the large motor shown on the left has a circumference of
4m and that the smaller has a circumference of 1m.
If they both rotate at 1rps ; then the angular velocity of both of them will
be 2πrad/s, but their linear velocities will be 4m/s and 1m/s respectively.
n = 1rps So the linear displacement and linear velocity of a rotating object
ω = 2π rad/s will always depend in its size.
n = 1rps v = 1m/s
ω = 2π rad/s
v = 4m/s

VERY USEFUL FORMULAE

s=θr

v=ωr

a=αr 61
Conversions:

Convert the following:

1. 10 r.p.m to rads/s
2. 6,7 rad/s to m/s
3. 45 r.p.m to m/s
4. 24 rad/s to r.p.m
5. 45° to radians
6. 6 π radians to degrees.

Example 2
An ant sits on the edge of an old 33⅓ rpm record while it is playing. If the radius of the record is 10cm,
calculate:
2.1 the ant’s orbital velocity (ie: its circumferential velocity)
2.2 the angular displacement of the ant after the record has been playing for 2,5 minutes.

THE EQUATIONS OF ANGULAR MOTION

θ = (ω1 +ω2) t
ω2 = ω1 + αt ω2 – ω1 = 2αθ
2 2 2 θ = ωt + ½αt2

More examples

3. One end of a light inelastic rope is fixed to a lift and the other end is wound around the overhead
winding drum which is 700mm in diameter. The drum is now uniformly accelerated from 4 rads/s to
12rads/s during 5 seconds.
Calculate:
3.1 the angular acceleration of the drum
3.2 the linear acceleration of the lift
3.3 the number of revolutions made by the drum in 6 seconds
3.4 The increase in height and the speed of the lift at the end of 6 seconds.

4. The angular velocity of a rotating pulley increases from 38 rpm to 115 rpm in 16 second. Calculate the
angular acceleration of the pulley as well as the number of revolutions that it has made in the 16
seconds.

5. A fisherman reels in a fish at a rotational frequency of 120rpm. If the diameter of the reel is 12cm,
calculate the linear velocity of the fish.

6. The spindrier of a washing machine accelerates uniformly from 10 r/min to 800r/min during 4 s.

Calculate:
6.1 the angular acceleration
6.2 the linear acceleration of a point 0,2 m from the centre of the spindrier
6.3 the angular displacement during the 4 seconds
6.4 the number of revolutions that the drier has made in the 4 seconds
6.5 the distance in metres that a soapflake on the edge of the drier would have travelled after 4 seconds
if the drier has a diameter of 45 cm.

62
ANSWERS : UNIT 7 Angular Motion (1)

Example 1
1.1 3,142 m
1.2. 90°
1.3. ¼ or 0,25 revolutions
1.4. ½ π or 1,571 radians

Conversions:
1. 1,047 rad/s
2. 6,7r m/s
3. 0,75 x 2πr m/s ; ie: 4,712r m/s
4. 229,2rpm
5. 0,7854 radians
6. 360° x 3 (1080°)

Example 2
2.1 0,3492 m/s
2.2 523,6 radians

More Examples:

3
3.1 1,6 rad/s2
3.2 0,56 m/s2
3.3 8,276 revs
3.4 h = 18,2 m ; speed = 4,2 m/s

4. 0,5040 rad/s2 ; 20,40 revs

5. 0,7540 m/s

6
6.1 20,68 rad/s2
6.2 4,136 m/s2
6.3 169,6 rads
6.4 27 revolutions
6.5 38,16 metres

63
UNIT 7: ANGULAR MOTION – Gears, Torque and Drive
Systems

Flat bed truck

4m

For any vehicle or piece of machinery to be able to operate as a moving system, it must include a variety
of drive systems that transfer and convert torque, angular motion and linear motion interchangeably at
various and many places in that piece of machinery or vehicle.
Some examples of drive systems would be gears, shafts, axles, driveshafts, wheels, belt drives etc

TORQUE

Torque is exactly the same as the moment of a force (in other words it is the turning ability of a force)
except that it is the term specifically used with respect to rotating objects like motors, pulleys, flywheels
gears and so on.
The force applied at a tangent to the wheel causes torque, and in this case the perpendicular distance
between the point of application of the force and the pivot point is the radius of the wheel.

F = 20 N
T=Fxr
r

So if the wheel shown here has a radius of 0,1m, the torque caused
by the 20N force would be 20 x 0,1 = 2N.m

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Example 1

A wheel of radius 1m has forces applied to it as shown in the sketch below. Find the torque produced by
the force of:
1.1 2 N 1.2 7N 1.3 5 N 1.4 4 N

7N

30º 1m
O

4N
2N

5N

DRIVE SYSTEMS – GEARS AND BELT DRIVES

Belt drives are generally used in the context where

one rotating motor or shaft or pulley, drives another because they are
connected to each other by means of a belt.
Gears are generally used to convert rotational energy into higher rotational speed
and lower torque, or lower rotational speed and higher torque.
Gears and belt drives operate on the same principle of ‘size or number of teeth ratio’.
The speed of one, is directly affected by the other.
(remember: i) smaller things must go faster and ii) a belt that runs over 2 pulleys must have one linear
speed.)

Very Useful (and easily remembered) Formula:

Where n is the angular velocity or rotational

nA x dA = nB x dB frequency in rpm or rps and d is the diameter or
number of teeth of a gear.
Diameter can be replaced by radius, and angular
velocity in rpm can be replaced by ω in rad/s , α in
rad/s2 and so on.

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Gear Ratio
The term gear ratio is used to compare the speed of rotation of 2 gears, and will depend directly on their
relative number of teeth or their diameters.

A 1:1 ratio means that both gears are rotating at the same speed (and most likely are identical gears)

A 2:1 ratio means that a small driving gear is in mesh with a bigger gear and must rotate twice to turn the
bigger gear once

A 1:5 ( or 0,2:1) ratio means that a bigger gear is in mesh with, and is driving a smaller gear which turns 5
times for every 1 rotation of the larger gear. Ie: the big gear only has to make 1 fifth of a revolution to turn
the smaller gear once.

Gear ratios are always written with the first number representing the driving gear and the second number
representing the driven gear. Also they are usually written so that the first number shows how many times
the driving gear must turn to make the driven gear turn or rotate once (eg 0,2:1)

What would be the gear ratio of the gears shown below if a) the smaller gear is the driver and b) the larger
gear is the driver?

2. Pulley A and B are connected by a belt drive. Attached to pulley B is a shaft C. The system is driven by
pulley A and which rotates at 900 r.p.m. The diameter of pulley A is 150 mm and that of pulley B is 450
mm.

2.1. Calculate the belt speed in m/s.

2. 2 Calculate the angular velocity of shaft C.
2. 3. The system runs like this for 20 s and then decelerates to rest over a further 15 s.
2. 3.1 Draw a graph of angular velocity versus time for pulley B.
2. 3.2 Calculate the number of revolutions that pulley B has gone through in this time

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3. The input shaft S of the gearbox shown below is connected to an electric motor that rotates it at 1750
r/min. This shaft turns gear A (r = 28 mm), which turns gear B (r = 80 mm) and then gear C (r = 15 mm).
This gear turns another gear, D, which is attached to an output shaft E, which is required to turn at 50
rad/s. Determine the required radius of gear D in order for the output shaft to turn at the required angular
velocity.

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ANSWERS : UNIT 7 Angular Motion (2)

1.
1.1 2 N.m clockwise
1.2 7 N.m anticlockwise
1.3 0
1.4 4 N x perpendicular distance to pivot = 4 x OP = 4(1 x sin30°) = 2 N.m clockwise

2.
2.1. 7,069 m/s
2. 2 31,42 rad/s
2. 3.2 137,5 revs

3. 19,24mm

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UNIT 8: WORK, POWER and ENERGY

Energy and work are interchangeable, ie: they are essentially the same thing. If you do work on
something it then gains energy and can then do work on something else and so on.

(Gravitational) POTENTIAL ENERGY : EP = mgh

KINETIC ENERGY : EK = ½mv2

SPRING ENERGY: ES = ½kx2

The MECHANICAL ENERGY of a system would usually comprise the sum of its kinetic and potential
energy. In an isolated system (which rises, swings or falls) the mechanical energy remains constant.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The total amount of energy in a system must stay constant, ie: what you started with, must be what you
finish with although it might not be in the same form (eg: electrical energy might change to light energy,
potential to kinetic and so on)
Even energy that is ‘lost’ due to friction or heat must be accounted for and must keep the ‘energy balance
sheet’ balanced..

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EXAMPLES

1. A block of mass 1,5kg sliding along a level surface at 2m/s, slides down an incline (assume no tumbling
or rolling) and onto level grass as shown. The height of the incline is 3,5 m and the work done against
friction as the block slides down the incline is 7J.
v = 2m/s m = 1,5 kg

3,5m

GRASS µ = 0,4

Calculate:
a) the velocity of the block at the bottom of the slope
b) how far the block will slide along the grass if the coefficient of friction, µ, between the block and the
grass is 0,4.

2. A block of mass 1 kg is raised through a height of 3m and placed on a sloped surface as shown, so that
it slides down the surface for 5m until it reaches the ground. Its velocity at ground level is 3m/s. Calculate
the coefficient of friction between the surface and the object.

5m

3m

4m

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3. A spring of stiffness 150N/m is compressed and used to shoot a spherical bearing of mass 25g
upwards.
At point A which is 30mm above the original position of the compressed spring, the bearing is found to
have a velocity of 1m/s.
Calculate:
3.1 the amount (distance) by which the spring was compressed and (5)
3.2 the maximum height above the original position that the bearing will reach. (2)
[7]

A v = 1 m/s

30 mm

4. A rollercoaster cart of mass 1500 kg has a tractive resistance of 840N. It starts its journey at A with a
velocity of 14m/s and travels 15m along the track till it gets to B. From B it travels to C along level track
and then starts to climb again till D
Determine how long the level stretch (B → C) can be if it needs to climb another 6m while travelling 8m
along the track from C to D, and still have a velocity of 6,5m/s when it reaches D.

D
9,5 m [12]

6m

B C

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POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done.

P=W
t

A power rating of 1 watt therefore means that 1 joule of work can be done every second.

P = Fv
If a vehicle or object travels with constant velocity, then this formula can also be used, where F is the
driving force of the vehicle and v the constant velocity.

P = Tω
is also useful when dealing with vehicle power. T being torque (F x radius) and ω the angular velocity.

EXAMPLES

1. A truck has a mass of 5 tonnes. Its resistance to motion is 65N/t.

1.1 How much work is done in moving the truck for 0,25 km up a slope of 1 in 100?
1.2 If the truck travels at a constant velocity of 80km/h, calculate the power developed in the engine.

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2. A 10 tonne (10t) truck travelling at 108km/h on a straight level road approaches a long hill which has a
gradient of 1 in 50. The tractive resistance to motion is 100N per tonne. Do diags wherever necessary.

2.1 What percentage slope is this? (1)

2.2 The driver decides to take his foot off the accelerator at the bottom of the hill and see how far he can
climb. (This is known as free-wheeling) How high vertically will the truck be able to go up the hill without
any force being applied to the accelerator (ie: to the engine)?
(9)
2.3 If the driver didn’t free-wheel up the hill, but decided instead that he wanted to maintain his speed of
108km/h all the way,
2.3.1 how much EXTRA driving force from the engine would be required to do this and (2)
2.3.2 what would be the power developed in the engine? (3)
v = 108 km/h

2.4 If the driver free-wheels as in 2.1, calculate the magnitude of his deceleration. (2)

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3. A 3 tonne truck travelling at a velocity of 72km/h free-wheels for 1,5km down a hill from point A to point
B as shown. The tractive resistance of the truck is 120N/tonne. The truck then travels 1km along
the level ground from B to C while still free-wheeling and comes to a slope of 1 in 200 at C as shown.
How many kilometers up along the slope to D, (ie: s km) will the truck be able to travel before coming to
a stop?

V = 72km/h A

1,5km
90m
s km D

B C

4.
4.1 A motor vehicle of mass 480 kg is travelling along a flat level road at constant velocity, in top gear.
The tractive resistance to motion is 368 N. The gearing is 80% efficient. If the engine is developing 23 kW,
what is the vehicle’s velocity? Ignore air resistance.

4.2 The same vehicle arrives at the bottom of an incline of 1 in 50, doing 108 km/h. The moment it
reaches the incline, the driver puts it into neutral, and allows it to cruise gradually to a stop, without
applying brakes. What distance, d, will it travel up the incline before coming to rest?

4.3 What percentage of the vehicle’s kinetic energy at the bottom of the incline went into work done
against the tractive resistance?

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5. The diagram below shows a pendulum of mass 4 kg which hangs vertically on a light rod pivoted at P.
The mass and rod of length 3m is pulled back to form an angle of 60° with the vertical and then released
from rest.
5.1 Calculate the velocity of the mass at point C when it reaches its lowest point.
5.2 The mass then collides with an obstacle at C on its upswing and loses some
energy . If the angle θ at which it comes to rest before swinging back is 45°, calculate how much energy
the mass lost at C. P

θ 60°

m = 4kg

6. A car has a mass of 1200 kg. When it is on a flat surface and with the brakes off and not in gear, it
requires an externally applied force of 250N to just get the car rolling.

6.1 What is the magnitude of the driving force needed to get this car travelling on a level road at a
constant velocity of 72km/h, if air resistance of 300N is taken into account as well?
6.2 What power output must the engine have in order to accomplish this?
6.3 If the same car is to be driven at the same speed up an incline of 1 in 20, what would the power output
of the engine need to be then. (Assume that there are no losses in power)

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ANSWERS : UNIT 8 Work, Power and Energy

Examples 1 to 4 pg 70 and 71

1.
a) 7,958 m/s
b) 8,070 m

2. µ = 0,6353

3
3.1 x = 16,27mm
3.2 h = 80,97 mm

4. 175,6 m

Power: and other examples pg 72 to 75

1
1.1 203,9 kJ
1.2 18,12 kW

2
2.1 2%
2.2 30,38 m
2.3.1 1962 N
2.3.2 88,86kW
2.4 0,2964 m/s2

3 4631 m

4
4.1 50 m/s (180 km/h)
4.2 467,4 m
4.3 79,63%

5
5.1 5,425 m/s
5.2 24,38 J

6
6.1 550 N
6.2 11 kW
6.3 22,77 kW

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