10th Biology F

1.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
BIOLOGY
2. EXCRETORY SYSTEM CLASS 10
3. NERVOUS SYSTEM
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EDUHUNT
NOTES
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. Introduction C.1
2. Types Of Circulation C.1
3. Differences Between Open And Closed Circulatory System C.2
4. Circulatory System In Multicellular Animals C.2
5. Differences Between Single And Double Circulation C. 4
6. Heart Of Vertebrates C.5
7. Heart C.7
8. Differences Between Neurogenic Heart And Myogenic Heart C.13
9. Cradiac Cycle C.15
10. Heart Sounds C.16
11. Differences Between First And Seconds Heart Sounds C.17
12. Blood Vessels C.17
13. Types Of Blood Circulation In Human C.21
14. Lymphatic System C.23
15. Differences Between Lymph And Blood C.23
WORK SHEET - 1
IIT OLYMPIAD PROGRAMME BIOLOGY : 2023
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
This system is concerned with the circulation of body fluids to distribute various substances to various
body parts.
FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
Transport of various substances such as nutrients, waste products, respiratory gases, metabolic
intermediates (Such as lactic acid from muscle to liver), vitamins hormones etc.
 Regulation of body pH by means of buffer, body temperature homeostasis, water balance etc.
 Prevention of disease by means of antibodies and antitoxins.
 Support or turgidity to certain organs like penis and nipples.
TYPES OF CIRCULATION.
Circulatory system in various groups of animals can be classified as follows :
(i) Intracellular circulation : Occurs inside the individual cells where the distribution of substances is
through cyclosis of cell cytoplasm. Example – Protozoans.
(ii) Extracellular circulation : When the distribution of the substances occurs inside the body through
extracellular or intracellular fluids. This is of following types –
(a) Extra organismic circulation : When the water of the external environment circulate through body.
This is also called as water circulation system. Example – canal system in porifera, water vascular system
in Echinoderms and gastrovascular system in coelenterates.
(b) Intra-organismic circulation : It involves circulation of body fluids. It is of following types :
(1) Parenchymal circulation : In platyhelminthes, the fluid filled spaces present in the mesodermal
parenchyma tissue between body wall and internal organs are used in the distribution of substances.
(2) Coelomic circulation : Coelomic fluid is concerned with the transport of substances. Example –
pseudocoelomic fluid in the roundworms and haemolymph in Arthropods.
(3) Blood vascular system : It contains blood and a pumping structure (heart) for circulation of materials
inside the body. It is of following types –
(i) Open circulatory system
(ii) Closed circulatory system
CLASS : 10 Page No. C.1 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Differences between open and closed circulatory system
Open circulatory system Closed circulatory system
(1) In open circulatory system blood flows (1) In closed circulatory system blood flows
through large open spaces and channels through a closed system of chambers called
called lacunae and sinuses among the tissues. heart and blood vessels.
(2) Tissues are in direct contact with the (2) Blood does not come in direct contact with
blood. tissue.
(3) Blood flow is very slow and blood has (3) Blood flow is quite rapid and blood has a
very low pressure. high pressure.
(4) Exchange of gases and nutrients takes (4) Nutrients and gases pass through the
place directly between blood and tissues. capillary wall to the tissue fluid from where
they are passed on to the tissues.
(5) Less efficient as volume of blood flowing (5) More efficient as volume of blood can be
through a tissue cannot be controlled as regulated by the contraction and relaxation of
blood flows out in open space.
the smooth muscles of the blood vessels.
(6) Open circulatory system is found in (6) closed circulatory system is found in
higher invertebrates like most arthropods echinoderms, some molluscs, annelids and all
such as prawn, insects,etc., & in some
vertebrates.
molluscs.
(7) Respiratory pigment, if present, is (7) Respiratory pigment is present and may
dissolved in plasma; RBCs are not present. be dissolved in plasma but is usually held in
RBCs.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN MULTICELLULAR ANIMALS
(i) In protozoans : Distribution of nutrients takes place by cyclosis (streaming movement) of cytoplasm.
(ii) In poriferans : The vascular system of poriferans is the canal system. A simplest canal system
involves ostia (mouth), spongocoel and on osculum (Anus).
Route followed by water current in sponges :
through through
Outside Incurrent canals Radial canals
Dermal ostia prosopyles
through
apopyles
through through
Spongocoel Excurrent canals
Osculum gastric ostia

(iii) In coelenterates : Hydra has a single large internal cavity called coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity.
It has single opening the mouth.
(iv) In platyhelminthes : Vascular system is absent but circulation occurs with the help of parenchyma
hence called parenchymal circulation. Example – Fasciola hepatica.
(v) In annelids : Vascular system in annelids is a closed circulatory or blood vascular system which
comprises four parts : blood, blood glands, blood vessels and hearts.
(vi) In arthropoda : Blood vascular system in arthropods is ‘Open type’ or “Lacunar type”.
Circulation of blood in cockroach :

Heart Aorta Head sinuses
Pericardial sinus Perivisceral sinus Perineural sinus
(vii) In echinoderms : A true blood vascular system is absent. It is represented by a haemal system which
is enclosed within a perihaemal system. haemal system includes oral haemal ring (a sinus), radical haemal
sinuses or strands (present in the arms), axial glands, heart, brown glands (present within axial sinus of
perihaemal system) and aboral haemal ring, from which arise, five pairs of genital haemal strands.
Important Tips
 Annelids are the first metazoans to have a well developed circulatory system.
 Nereis among annelids and amphioxus among chordates have no heart.
 Ampullary hearts are found in crustaceans, insects and cephalopods.
 Pulsating hearts are found in annelids and molluscs.
 The heart of cockroach contracts with the help of alary muscles at a rate of 50 times/minute.
 In Unio (fresh water mussel), rectum passes through the heart and the wastes are discharged into
the pericardial cavity by Keber’s organ (also called pericardial gland).
(viii) Blood circulation in vertebrates : Blood circulation was discovered by William harvey. In case of
vertebrates, blood circulation is of closed type, which can be grouped into two categories :
(a) Single circulation
(b) Double circulation

Differences between single and double circulation
Single circulation Double circulation
(1) Blood flows only once through the heart (1) Blood flows in two circuit pulmonary and
in a complete cycle. systemic.
Auricle Ventricle Right auricle Left auricle
Tissues
Lungs
Tissues Gills Right ventricle Left ventricle
(2) Heart pumps only deoxygenated blood, (2) Heart pumps both deoxygenated and
hence called Venous Heart. oxygenated blood to lungs and body
respectively, hence called arteriovenous
heart.
(3) Blood is oxygenated in gills. (3) Blood is oxygenated in lungs.
(4) Less efficient as gill capillaries slow down (4) More efficient as blood flows at higher
the blood flow. So, the body receives blood at pressure, especially in birds and mammals,
a low pressure which decreases the rate of O2 which increases the rate of food and O2
supply to the cells i.e. keeps the metabolic supply to the cell and also rapid removal of
rate low. wastes from them i.e. provides a higher
metabolic rate.
(5) Found only in fishes. (5) Found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammals.

Double circulation in mammals can be divided into three parts :

PULMONARY
CIRCULATION – 90%
(1) Cardiac circulation : The amount of blood present in the
SUPERIOR
VENA CAVA
heart. Its value is 7%. AORTA
(2) Pulmonary or lesser circulation : The amount of blood

HEART –7%
present in the surrounding of lungs and pulmonary blood
vessels. Its value is 9%.
ARTERIES –13%
(3) Systemic or greater circulation : The amount of blood
which circulates in the rest part of the body. Its value is 84%. It
INFERIOR
VENA CAVA
can be divided into three parts –
SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION
Arterial circulation – 15%
ARTTERIOLES
Capillary circulation – 5% AND
CAPILLARIES –7%
Venous circulation – 64%
Heart : The form, structure and function of heart exhibits much

variation. The characteristics of heart of fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals is presented in the following VEINS, VENULES AND
VENOUS SINUSOIDES –64%
table.
Fig. – Distribution of blood volume in
different parts of circulatory system
Heart of vertebrates
Class of vertebrates Characteristics Example Diagram

CONUS
Thick, muscular, made of cardiac Labeo ARTERIOSUS
muscles, has two chambers (i) Scoliodon VENTRICLE
(1) Pisces auricle and (ii) ventricle. The heart is Neocerato

AURICLE
(=Branchial called venous heart since it pumps dus SINUS

VENO SUS
heart) deoxygenated blood to gills for

Fig. – Bronchial heart of a fish
oxygenation. This blood goes ex. Labeo and scoliodon
directly from gills to visceral organs

(single circuit circulation). A sinus
venosus and conus arteriosus is
present. Lung fishes have 2 auricles
and 1 ventricle.
(2) Amphibians Heart consists of Frog

(a) Two auricles Toad

(b) Undivided ventricle
(c) Sinus venosus
LEFT
(d) Truncus arteriosus AURICLE
RIGHT
(conus + proximal part of aorta) AURICLE
VENTRICLE
Right auricle receives blood from all

the visceral organs (deoxygenated)
Fig. – Amphibian heart
via precaval and post caval.
Pulmonary artery carries
deoxygenated blood to lungs for
oxygenation. This blood returns to
left auricle via pulmonary vein
(Double circuit circulation)
(3) Reptiles Heart consists of : Lizards
(a) Left and right auricle Snakes
(b) Incompletely divided ventricle Turtles
(Ventricle in crocodiles gavialis and

alligator is completely divided)
(c) Sinus venosus
(d) Conus arteriosus divided into

right systemic, left systemic and
pulmonary arch.
(4) Aves Exhibit double circulation Pigeon PULMONARY ARCH
Heart consists of LEFT AURICLE
RIGHT
(a) Left and right auricle AURICLE
(b) Left and right ventricle LEFT

RIGHT
VENTRICLE VENTRICLE
(c) Complete separation of arterial
and venous circulation Fig. – Pigeon heart
(d) Only right systemic arch is

present
(e) Sinus venosus and truncus

arterisious absent

(5) Mammals Same as bird except that mammals Rabbit,

have left systemic arch. man
Important Tips
 Circulatory system develops from the mesoderm in vertebrates.
 Heart in fishes is 2-chambered, venous and branchial. Lung fishes have 3-chambered heart.
 Foramen of pannizae : Aperture between two systemic arches in reptiles.
 Gubernaculum cordis : White fibrous band which attaches apex of lizard heart to pericardium.
 Reptiles have incompletely 4-chambered heart except crocodiles, gavialis and alligators which
have completely 4-chambered heart.
 Branchial heart : Where purification of blood occurs in gills. Example – Fishes, tadpole (larva),
some amphibians.
 Pulmonary heart : Where oxygenation of blood takes place in lungs. Example – Some amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals.
HEART.
(i) Shape and position : Reddish, roughly conical, highly muscular, mesodermal hollow organ of the size
of one’s first. Its average weight in males is about 300 gm. and in females about 250 gm. It lies behind the
sternum in the mediastinum space of thoracic cavity in between the two lungs. The broader base faces
upward and backward. The narrower apex is directed downward, forward and slightly towards left, lying
between 5th and 6th ribs and rests on the diaphragm.
(ii) Protective covering : Heart is enclosed in a tough, 2 layered fibroserous sac, the pericardium. The outer
layer is non-distensible fibrous pericardium and inner layer is thin serous pericardium which further
consists of outer parietal layer (attached to fibrous pericardium) and inner visceral layer (adhered to the
heart).
Outer fibrous pericardium

Pericardium Outer parietal layer
Inner serous pericardium
Inner visceral layer

Between the parietal and visceral layers, occurs a

AORTA
narrow potential space, the pericardial cavity which is

FIBROUS
derived from coelom and is filled with serous PERICARDIUM
PERICARDIAL
CAVITY PARIETAL
pericardial fluid for frictionless movement and SEROUS
PERICARDIUM
protection from shock and mechanical injury.
HEART EPICARDIUM
MUSCLE
(iii) Histology : The heart wall consists of connective
tissue, blood vessels and cardiac muscle fibres in 3 DIAPHRAGM
different layers – Epicardium, Myocardium and

Endocardium. Fig. – Diagram to show the layers of the pericardium
(a) Endocardium : Innermost layer lining the cavity of heart and consisting of endothelium of squamous cells
resting on thin basement membrane of loose connective tissue.
(b) Myocardium : Middle, highly vascular layer, composed of cardiac muscle fibres joined together by
intercalated disc. The connective tissue in myocardium acts as cardiac skeleton. Endocardium is thickest
where the myocarduim is thinnest and vice-versa.
(c) Epicardium : Visceral pericardium, joined to myocardium by connective tissue.
DIAGRAM OF EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE HEART

(iv) External structure : Human heart is 4-chambered and is divided by septa into two halves – right and
left. Each half has one darker, thin walled auricle in the broader upper region and one lighter, thick-walled
ventricle in the narrower lower region.
(a) Auricles (Atria) : Two in no., demarcated externally from ventricles by irregular groove called
coronary sulcus and from each other by interatrial sulcus. When atria contract, small curtain like flaps
called auricular appendages or appendices project from sides of auricles and overhang the corresponding
ventricles.
(b) Ventricles : Two in no. demarcated externally from each other by an oblique groove called interventricular
sulcus which contains coronary blood vessels. The right ventricle does not reach apex.
(c) Sinus venosus and conus arteriosus : Sinus venosus and conus/truncus/bulbus arteriosus are
accessory chambers in the heart of lower vertebrates (fishes and amphibians). In rabbit, sinus venosus is
formed in the embryo but later it becomes a part of wall of right auricle.
In frog, sinus venosus spreads upon most of the dorsal side of heart and conus arteriosus lies obliquely
upon the ventral surface of right atrium.

(v) Internal structure
(a) Auricles : Atria are thin walled. They act as reserviors for blood entering the heart. Right auricle is
bigger than left auricle and both are separated by a myomembranous partition called Interatrial or
interauricular septum. During embryonic stage, at the place of this septum, there are present septum
primum and septum secondum having a gap (aperture) called foramen ovalis between them. From the
opening of inferior vena cava upto foramen ovalis, there is a flap called Eustachian flap which prevents
the blood in the foetal heart go to lungs because in foetal life, lungs are not functional purification of blood
is done by placenta.
At the time of birth, there is closure of foramen ovalis but there remains depression on posterior part of the
right surface of interauricular septum in rabbit. In man this depression is present on both the side. because
of least regenerative power in human being. The depression towards right atrium is called fossa ovalis and
depression towards left atrium is called fossa lunata.
(ii) Ventricles : The right and left

PULMONARY
ventricles are demarcated by an SEMILUNAR VALVE
AORTIC ARCH
PULMONARY
interventricular septum which is ARTERY
LIGAMENTUM ARTERIOSUM
obliquely curved towards right, so that SUPERIOR VENA CAVA TO LUNG
BRANCHES OF LEFT
the left ventricle is larger than right one. BRANCHES OF RIGHT
PULMONARY ARTERY
PULMONARY ARTERY BRANCHES OF LEFT
However, the cavity of left ventricle is TO LUNG
PULMONARY VEIN
LEFT ATRIUM
relatively smaller and nearly circular FROM LUNG
BRANCHES OF RIGHT FROM LUNG
because the myocardium of left PULMONARY VEIN
AORTIC SEMILUNAR
RIGHT ATRIUM VALVE
ventricleis 3 times thicker than right MITRAL VALVE
CORONARY SINUS
INTERVETNRICULAR
ventricle whose cavity is larger and FOSSA OVALIS SEPTUM
somewhat crescentic. TRICUSPID VALVE LEFT VENTRICLE

CHORDAE TENDINAE
MYCARDIUM
The walls of the ventricles are internally RIGHT VENTRICLE
DESCENDING AORTA
raised into a number of thick, muscular, INFERIOR VENA CAVA
PAPILLARY MUSCLE
column shaped projections called
columnae carnae or trabecular carnae; Fig. – Internal anatomy of human heart
and a few large muscular elevations called papillary muscles or musculli papillares which are 3 in right
ventricle and 2 in left ventricle. These muscles act as anchors for chordae tendinae.

Chordae tendinae : Numerous, strong, inelastic thread like tendons present in the mammalian heart but
absent in frog. One end of these threads is attached to the cusps of A.V. valves and the other end to the
papillary muscles of the ventricles. These muscles contract during ventricular systole and pull the valves
downwards, thus, preventing their everting into atria. The chordae tendinae hold the valves in place.
(vi) Major blood vessels associated with heart : The blood vessels that enter or leave the heart are called
Great Blood Vessels.
(a) Superior vena cava or precaval : Brings deoxygenated blood from head and upper parts of the body
into the right auricle through an opening which is single in human and cat and two in rabbit as there are 2
precavals – right and left in rabbit. In frog, right and left precavals open into sinus venosus.
(b) Inferior vena cava or post caval : Drains deoxygenated blood from middle and lower parts of the body
into the right auricle through a single opening which is bordered by a membranous, falciform fold which
is a remnant of the foetal valve of Eustachian. In frog, post caval opens into sinus venosus.
(c) Coronary sinus : Returns deoxygenated blood from heart wall into right auricle through a single
opening.
(d) Pulmonary vein : Four pulmonary veins, two from each lung, carry oxygenated blood from the lungs and
open into the left auricle through four openings. In rabbit, the pulmonary veins open in the left auricle through 2
openings.
(e) Pulmonary aorta/arch : Arises from upper left corner of right ventricle through a single opening and
divides into right and left pulmonary arteries which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs for
oxygenation.
(f) Systemic aorta : Arises from upper right corner of left ventricle through a single opening and has 3 regions –
ascending aorta, arch of aorta and descending aorta. It distributes oxygenated blood to various body parts
except lungs.
Ligamentum arteriosus : During foetal life, because the lungs are non-functional hence blood of
pulmonary aorta comes into systemic aorta through a small duct called ductus botalli or ductus arteriosus
soon after birth, deposition of elastin fibre blocks this duct, forming a new structure called ligamentum botalli
or ligamentum arteriosus.
PDA (Patient Ductus Arteriosus) : If the ligamentum arteriosus remains open, the condition is called
PDA. In this case, there is mixing of blood which leads to blue baby.
Valves : The valves present in the mammalian heart are tendinous cords.
(a) Eustachian valve : Present on the opening of inferior vena cava (post caval) in the right auricle in
rabbit, whereas in human, the vestige of eustachian valve is present over the opening of post caval vein. It
allows the passage of blood in right auricle.

(b) Haversian valve : Present in human but absent in rabbit. It is present over the opening of precaval vein
and allows the passage of blood in right auricle.
(c) Thebesian or coronary valve : Present over the opening of coronary sinus in right auricle in mammals
and allows the passage of blood in right auricle.
(d) Atrio-ventricular valves : Auricles open into the respective ventricles through wide passages called
auriculo ventricular apertures or A.V. apertures which are guarded by one-way A.V. valves or parachute
valves and are located dorsally or posteriorly. There are 2 types of valves in mammals.
(1) Right A.V. valve or Tricuspid valve : Present between right auricle and right ventricle. It consists of 3
membranous flaps or cusps.
(2) Left A.V. valve or Bicuspid or Mitral valve : Present DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
SUPERIOR OXYGENATED BLOOD
between left auricle and left ventricle. It consists of 2 flaps or VENA CAVA
PULMONARY
AORTA ARTERY
cusps. The bicuspid valve resembles mitre or topi of bishop,
PULMONARY PULMONARY
hence, also called as Mitral valve. VALVE VEINS
The upper edges of the flaps are attached to the margins of the
RIGHT LEFT ATRIUM
A.V. apertures while the lower edges project freely into the ATRIUM MITRAL VALVE
TRICUSPID
ventricles. The free edges of these flaps are connected by VALVE
AORTIC VALVE
INFERIOR LEFT
chordae tendinae to he papillary muscles of the ventricles. VENA CAVA VENTRICLE
These valves allow the passage of blood from auricles into RIGHT VENTRICLE
Fig. – Path of blood through the heart
ventricles but prevent backflow.
In frog, the A.V. valves are semilunar type and not of cuspid type. There is single row of A.V. valves due
to single ventricle.
(e) Semilunar valves : At the base of pulmonary arch and systemic aorta, three membranous, pocket-shaped
flaps called semilunar valves are present which are set in a ring with their cavities directed away from the
ventricles. They allow the passage of blood from ventricles to respective blood vessels, but prevent the
return of blood.
Sinus of valsalva : When the semilunar valves open towards aorta, there remains gap between the flaps
and the wall of aorta. This gap is called sinus of valsalva. When ventricles relax, blood is filled in this sinus
and is called Drooping of blood.
Corpora Arantii : Thick nodules present on the edges of the flaps of semilunar valves which prevent the
reverting of these valves into the ventricles.
(a) Heart beat : The spontaneous and rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart to pump out and
receive blood to and from the body is called Heart beat. Depending upon the nature of control of the heart
beat, hearts are of 2 types –
Neurogenic and Myogenic or autorhythmic.
Differences between Neurogenic heart and Myogenic heart
Neurogenic heart Myogenic heart
(1) The heart beat is initiated by a ganglion (1) The heart beat is initiated by a patch of
situated near the heart. modified heart muscle.
(2) The impulse of contraction originates (2) The impulse of contraction originates
from nervous system. itself in the heart.
(3) The heart normally stops beating (3) The heart removed from the body
immediately after removal from the body. continues to beat for some time. Therefore,
Therefore, heart transplantation is not heart transplantation is possible.
possible.
(4) Examples : Hearts of some annelids and (4) Examples : Hearts of molluscs and
most arthropods. vertebrates.
(b) Origin and conduction of heart beat : Initiation of

heart beat is under special bundles of cardiac muscles
SINU-AURICULAR
NODE
called nodal tissue. The cardiac muscles have less actin
RIGHT ATRIUM LEFT ATRIUM
and myosin. So, structurally they become more a nerve

INTERNODA
L
than muscle and functionally they are similar to AURICULO
VENTRICULAR
neurons. NODE
BUNDLE OF HIS
(1) Morphology of nodal tissue : The nodal tissue

RIGHT
consists of the following – BUNDLE OF
PURKINJE INTERVENTRICULA
(i) Sinu-auricular or S.A. node : Also called as FIBRES R
LEFT VENTRICLE
pacemaker, node of keith and flack, heart of heart, brain LEFT BUNDLE OF
RIGHT PURKINJE FIBRES
of heart, pulsation centre. It is located in the right wall VENTRICLE
of right atrium below the opening of superior vena cava. Fig. – Conducting system of rabbit's heart (ventral view)
(ii) Atrio-ventricular node or A.V. node : Also called reserve pacemaker, node of Twara and Aschoff.
Discovered by Lewis Kent. It lies in the right atrium near the junction of interauricular and
interventricular septum close to the opening of coronary sinus

(iii) Bundle of His or A.V. bundle : Discovered by His. It arises from A.V. node, descends in the
interventricular septum and bifurcates into two branches innervating the wall of right and left ventricle
respectively. The myocardium of atria and ventricles are discontinuous and this bundle is the only
muscular connection between the two. It is concerned with the conduction of impulse from atria to the tip
of ventricle but can also generate impulse at the rate of 35-40/minute. The impulses produced are non-
rhythmic.
RIGHT VAGUS
(iv) Purkinje fibres : Numerous, modified muscle fibres PARASYMPATHETIC
LEFT VAGUS
(PARASYMPATHETIC)
which act as sympathetic nerve fibres. They arise from
SYMPATHETIC
branches of bundle of His and provide impulse to GANGILA
AURICULO
myocardium of ventricles. They can also generate non- VENTRICULAR
NODE
rhythmic impulse at a rate of 30-35/minute. SINUATRIAL

NODE
Heart beat rate : Heart beat/minute or number of cardiac ACCELERATOR

NERVES
cycles/minute. Example – frog-64/min., rabbit-200/min.,
human-70-80/min. Females have higher heart rate than males.
Fig. – Innervation of human heart by autonomic nerves
Normal heart beat rate  Rhythmia
Abnormal heart rate  Arrhythmia
Decrease in heart rate  Bradycardia
Increase in heart rate  Tachycardia
Vagus escape : Stimulation of vagus nerve decreases the heart rate but its continuous stimulation shows
no further decrease. This phenomenon is called Vagus escape.
(d) Factors affecting heart rate
 Heart rate increases with increase in basal metabolic rate (BMR).

 Heart increases as the size of the animals body decreases.
 Decrease in pH also increases heart rate.
 Heart rate increases with increase in temperature.
 Increase in Na+ ions in blood or in cardiac muscles, increase heart rate.
 Increase in Ca2+ ions in blood increase heart beat but if they are injected in cardiac muscles, heart
stops in contracted phase which is called Systolic Arrest.
 Injection of K+ ions in heart muscles stop impulse generation. So, heart stops in diastolic or Relax
phase.
 H+ ions reduce force of contraction of heart.

 Increased inspiration, muscular exercise, low oxygen tension, injection of adrenaline, thyroxine,
sympathin – all increase heart rate.
 Increased expiration, during sleep, injection of acetylcholine decrease heart rate.
 Stenosis – Narrowing of valve is called stenosis.
CRADIAC CYCLE
A regular sequence of three events :
(i) Auricular systole (0.1 sec)
(ii) Ventricular systole (0.3 sec)
(iii) Joint Diastole or complete cardiac diastole (0.4 sec)
During the completion of one heart beat is called as cardiac cycle. These events are repeated in a cyclic
manner during each heart beat.
(i) Auricular systole : The atria contract due to wave of contraction stimulated by S.A. node contraction of
auricles drives most of their blood into respective ventricles as the A.V. valves are open. There is no
backflow of blood into the large veins as the contraction begins at the upper end and passes towards
ventricles and moreover, the valves present at the opening of these veins close. Also, blood is already
present in large veins which offers resistance to the blood that may return from the atria. At the end of a
atrial systole, there starts the relaxation of auricles (auricular diastole) and contraction of ventricles
(ventricular systole) simultaneously. Atrial systole takes 0.1 second while atrial diastole is of about 0.7
seconds.
(ii) Ventricular systole : The ventricles begin to contract due to a wave of contraction stimulated by A.V.
node. Due to ventricular systole, the pressure of blood in ventricles immediately rises above that in the
auricles. With this pressure, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves close rapidly to prevent the backflow of
blood. This closure of A.V. valves at the start of ventricular systole produces first heart sound called
“Lubb” or Systolic sound. The semilunar valves are also close at this time. When the pressure of blood in
the ventricles exceeds that in the great arteries, the semilunar valves open and blood enters into the great
arteries. This marks the end of ventricular systole which takes about 0.3 seconds. Now the ventricles start
relaxing (ventricular diastole which lasts for about 0.5 sec.)
(iii) Joint diastole : The ventricles and auricles are in the diastolic phase simultaneously. As the ventricular
diastole progresses, the pressure in the ventricles falls below that in the great arteries. So, to prevent
backflow of blood from great arteries into ventricles, the semilunar valves close rapidly. This rapid closure
of semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole produces second heart sound “Dup” or
diastolic sound.

During joint diastole, blood from great veins and coronary sinus flows into the atria and some blood also
passes from auricles into the respective relaxing ventricles due to less pressure in ventricles. This phase
takes only 0.4 seconds and is also called as blood receiving period of heart. Thus a cardiac cycle is
completed in 0.8 seconds.
Cardiac output : Volume of blood pumped from heart (left ventricle) into the systemic aorta in one minute
is called cardiac output. It is also called minute volume. It is calculated as the product of stroke volume
(amount of blood pumped by left ventricle each time it contracts) and rate of heart beat.
i.e. Cardiac output = Stroke volume  Rate of heart beat
= 70 ml  75 times/minute = 5040 ml/minute ≃ 5 litres/minute
Total amount of blood in human body is about 6.8 litres (7% of body weight). During mild exercise, the
cardiac output rises to about 11 litres. Cardiac output is directly proportional to the size of the organism,
metabolic rate etc. but is inversely proportional to age.
(i) Fractions of cardiac output : Amount of pure blood going to an organ per minute is called as fraction of
the organ.
 Cardiac fraction – 200 ml/min.
 Hepatic fraction – 1500 ml/min. (28% of blood as liver is the busiest organ of body and has
maximum power of regeneration).
 Renal fraction – 1300 ml/min (25% of blood)
 Myofraction – 600-900 ml/min.
 Cephalic organs – 700-800 ml/min.
 Remaining organs – Remaining blood.

HEART SOUNDS
In normal heart, four sounds are heard. First and second sounds have audible frequencies, so, they can be
heard very easily. 3rd and 4th sounds are having very less frequency (less than 20 Hertz). So, they can’t be
heard easily. Third heart sound is running water sound. Fourth heart sound is also called Atrial sound as
it appears when blood flows from atria into ventricles due to atrial contraction.

Differences between first and seconds heart sounds
First heart sound (Lubb) Second heart sound (Dup)
(1) It is produced by closure of bicuspid and (1) It is produced by closure of semilunar

tricuspid valves at the start of ventricular valves at the start of ventricular diastole.
systole.
(2) It is low pitched, less loud and of long (2) It is higher pitched, louder, sharper and of
duration. short duration.
(3) It lasts for 0.15 seconds. (3) It lasts for 0.1 second.
(4) Its principal frequencies are 25 to 45 cycles (4) Its principal frequency is 50 cycles per
per second. second.
BLOOD VESSELS
The study of blood vessels is called Angiology. The blood vessels are of following types :
(i) Arteries (ii) Capillaries (iii) Veins

Vasa vasorum : Supply blood to the wall of large blood vessels.
(i) Arteries : Thick walled, carrying oxygenated blood (deoxygenated in pulmonary artery) from heart to
various parts of body. These blood vessels are grouped as Aorta which branches to form arteries which
further divides into thinner branches called arterioles inside the organ. Average diameter of arteriole is 120
m. the arterioles further divide into smaller vessels called meta-arterioles (70 m) which divide into
capillaries. At the beginning of capillary, the arterioles posses circular muscles called precapillary
sphincter which regulates flow of blood into the capillaries which is called vasomotion.
Muscleless end of meta-arteriole is called thoroughfare channel or preferential channel.
The largest artery is dorsal / abdominal aorta (systemic aorta).
Elastic or conducting arteries receive blood from heart and do not provide it to any organ rather they
provide blood to other atreries and are pressure reservoirs of blood.
Muscular arteries show vasoconstriction and vasodilation and provide blood to the organs.
(ii) Capillaries : Smallest blood vessels, discovered by Marcello Malpighl (also layered nucleated
squamous epithelial cells called endothelium resting on a basement membrane. Diameter of capillary is
about 8. These are also called as exchange vessels as they are the site of exchange of material between
blood and tissue because of least barrier in them. The capillaries can be grouped into two categories :
(iii) Veins : These are thin walled, carrying deoxygenated blood (oxygenated in pulmonary vein) from
tissues to the heart. Venules, smallest branches, unite to form veins which in turn unite to form vena cava.

The largest vein is inferior vena cava/post caval. Varicose veins is stout, blood filled painful veins
specially of the limbs due to defective watch pocket valves.
(a) Histology of arteries and veins :
TUNICA
TUNICA MEDIA
ENDOTHELI
TUNICA
INTERNA
LUME
DIRECTION OF BLOOD VEIN ARTER

FLOW CAPILLAR
ENDOTHELIU
TUNICA EXTERNA
VENOU TUNICA MEDIA

S
TUNICA
VEINS (A (B
(C (D
Differences between arteries and veins
S.No. Characters Arteries Veins
(1) Wall Thick, more elastic, non Thin, less ealstic, collapsible.
collapsible.
(2) Tunica externa Less developed, so less strong. More developed, so more
strong.
(3) Tunica media More muscular and has many Less muscular and only a few
elastic fibres. elastic fibres.
(4) Tunica interna Endothelial cells more Endothelial cells less flat.
elongated. Elastic membrane Elastic membrane less
more developed. developed.
(5) Lumen Narrow Wider
(6) Position Deep seated except wrist, neck Superficial

etc.
(7) Valves Without valves. With valves to prevent back

flow.
(8) Direction of blood flow From heart to body organs From body organs to heart
(9) Nature of blood Oxygenated except pulmonary Deoxygenated except

artery. pulmonary vein

(10) Blood pressure More, generally 120/80 mm of Less, generally 0 mm of Hg.

Hg.
(11) Speed of blood Fast Slow
(12) After death Becomes empty Contain blood
(13) Amount of blood 15% at any given time. 64% at any given time
(14) Colour Pink Dark red
(15) Disintensibility Less More
(b) Blood pressure : The pressure exerted by the blood on the wall of the blood vessels in which it is
present is called blood pressure. It is usually measured in brachial artery by an instrument called
sphygmomanometer (invented by Riva-Rocci). Arterial blood pressure is of 2 types :
(1) Systolic blood pressure : It is the pressure exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels due to the
systole of ventricles and is equal to 120 mm Hg. During ventricular systole, there is expansion in the artery
due to the uncoiling of elastic layer. Hence, the pressure is maximum in arteries but gradually decreases in
capillaries and veins.
(2) Diastolic blood pressure : It is the pressure exerted on walls of blood vessels when the ventricles are
relaxed. During ventricular diastole, the uncoiled elastic layer recoils leading to normalization of artery.
Hence, blood pressure drops down to 80 mm Hg. Thus, blood pressure in normal person is systolic/diastolic
pressure i.e. 120/80 mm Hg.
(3) Pulse pressure : The difference between systolic and diastolic pressures is called pulse pressure and its
normal value is 120 – 80 mm Hg = 40 mm Hg. It provides information about the condition of arteries.
Pulse : It is the pressure wave of distension and recoiling felt in the radial artery due to the contraction of
left ventricle which force about 70-90 ml of blood in each cardiac cycle to aorta. This perssure wave of
contraction travels down to the wall to the arteries and is called the pulse.
The pulse is measured in the radial artery in the wrist but can be felt in the temporal artery over the
temporal bone or the dorsal pedis artery at the bind of ankle. The pulse normally travels at the rate of 5-8
m/second.
Since each heart beat generates one pulse in the arteries so the pulse rate per minute indicates the rate of
heart beat. So the normal pulse rate in a normal adult person is 72/minute.
The normal ratio of systolic pressure to diastolic pressure to pulse pressure is about 3 : 2 : 1.

Important Tips
There is an inverse relationship between heart rate and blood pressure. The process is called Marey’s law of
heart.
During measurement of blood pressure, a sound is heard in the cubital artery with the help of stethoscope.
This sound is called Karot Koff sound.
Blood pressure means arterial blood pressure.
(c) Factors affecting blood pressure :
(1) Age : With the advancing age, BP increases after the age of 60 years, it is calculated as 100 + age of the person.
(2) Cardiac output : BP increases with the increase in cardiac output.
(3) Elasticity of blood vessels : BP is inversely related to the elasticity of the blood vessels.
(4) Total peripheral resistance : Constriction of the blood vessels increases BP whereas dilation of the
blood vessels decreases BP.
Hypotension : Low blood pressure with systolic below 110 mm Hg and diastolic below 70 mm Hg. It is
caused by low metabolic rate, starvation, anaemia, chronic vasodilation of arterioles, lower pumping
activity of heart, loss of blood in haemorrhage, valvular defects, nervous disorders and Addison’s disease. It
may cause fainting.
Hypertension : Persistent high blood pressure with systolic more than 140 mm Hg and diastolic more than
90 mm Hg. It is caused by decrease in extensibility of the artery due to atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis.
Sclerosis means hardening and narrowing of blood vessels which may be due to the deposition of
cholesterol or calcium or lipid or any other compound in the wall of the arteries and arterioles.
In atherosclerosis deposition is mainly in tunica interna of the blood vessels which prevents their dilation.
The atherosclerosis is, infact, the beginning of thickening and hardening of blood vessels but later, the
deposition of cholesterol and other compounds takes places in both tunica media and tunica interna
leading to arteriosclerosis.
Hypertension caused by hormones (epinephrine, aldosterone, renin) is called secondary hypertension,

other forms of hypertension are known as primary or essential hypertension.
A blood pressure of 220/120 mm Hg may cause internal haemorrhage due to rupturing of some blood
vessels. Cerebral haemorrhage due to rupturing of some blood vessels cerebral haemorrhage or complete
cessation or great decrease in blood supply to some part of brain causes stroke or CVA (Cerebrovascular
accident). Hypertension is commonly called as silent killer.

High density lipoproteins (HDL) are responsible for excretion of cholesterol and thus, reduce the risk of
coronary heart diseases. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) cause
deposition of cholesterol in the wall of the arteries and thus, increase the risk of coronary heart diseases.
The blood pressure was first measured by Stephen Halls in horse. Highest blood pressure is recorded in
giraffe.
TYPES OF BLOOD CIRCULATION IN HUMAN
The physiology of blood circulation was first described by Sir William Harvey in 1628. The blood
circulation in our body is divisible into 3 circuits –
(i) Coronary circulation : It involves blood supply to the heart wall and also drainage of the heart wall.
Coronary arteries : One pair, arising from the aortic arch just above the semilunar valves. They break up
into capillaries to supply oxygenated blood to the heart wall.
Coronary veins : Numerous, collecting deoxygenated blood from the heart wall and drains it into right
auricle through coronary sinus which is formed by joining of most of the coronary veins. But some very
fine coronary veins, called venae cordis minimae open directly in the right auricle by small sized openings
called foramina of Thebesius.
(ii) Pulmonary circulation : It includes circulation between heart and lungs. The right ventricle pumps
deoxygenated blood into a single, thick vessel called pulmonary aorta which ascends upward and outside
heart gets divided into longer, right and shorter, left pulmonary arteries running to the respective lungs
where oxygenation of blood takes place. The oxygenated blood from lungs is returned to the left auricle by
four pulmonary veins. Left auricle pumps this blood into the left ventricle.

EXTERNAL CAROTID LEFT COMMON

(iii) Systemic circulation : In this, CAROTID
INTERNAL CAROTID
circulation of blood occurs between LEFT SUBCLAVIAN
VERTEBRAL
heart and body organs. The left
PULMONARY ARTERIES
ventricle pumps the oxygenated RIGHT COMMON CAROTID
RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN PULMONARY TRUNK

blood into systemic arch which
BRANCHIOEPHALIC
CORONARY ARTERY
supplies it to the body organs other
AORTA
INFERIOR PHRENIC
than lungs through a number of AXILLARY
COELIAC
arteries. The deoxygenated blood HEART
BRACHIAL LEFT RENAL

from these organs is returned to the
SUPERIOR GENITAL
MESENTRIC
right auricle through two large veins INFERIOR
RIGHT RENAL MESENTERIC
(precaval and post caval). Right
ULNAR
LUMBAR
auricle pumps this blood into the COMMON
RADIAL
ILIAC
right ventricle. Thus, the sytemic INTERNAL
ILIAC
circulation involves two circuits – EXTERNAL ILIAC

FEMORAL
(a) Arterial circulation or Arterial
DEEP FEMORAL
system
(b) Venous circulation or Venous POPLITEAL
system
ANTERIOR
Time taken by blood to circulate in POSTERIOR TIBIAL TIBIAL
the body from heart to heart to heart

is called circulation time. The amount
of blood flowing per minute in
pulmonary and systemic circulation
is same. Fig. – Arterial system in human body
(a) Arterial system : It involves aorta, arteries, arterioles and meta-arterioles. It supplies oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body except lungs.
The left ventricle of the heart pumps the oxygenated blood into a single, question marked shaped, long
vessel called left carotid-systemic aorta. It is the largest blood vessel of the body. The initial part of
systemic aorta is dilated and is called aortic sinus. It possess some baroreceptors and some CO2 sensitive
cells. Barroreceptors are supplied with 9th cranial nerve (glossopharyngeal).

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
It is a part of greater circulation which begins in the tissue fluid with lymphatic capillaries which are
always terminally closed. This system terminates into venous system near heart. The main components of
this system are :
(i) Lymph
(ii) Lymphatic system in frog
(iii) Lymphatic system in human
(iv) Lymphatic organ
(i) Lymph : Lymph can be defined as blood minus RBC's. In addition to the blood vascular system all
vertebrate possess a lymphatic system. It is colourless or yellowish fluid present in the lymph vessels. It is
a mobile connective tissue like blood and is formed by the filtration of blood. This process involves the
diffusion of substances from blood capillaries into the interstitial space which is, thus, the primary site of
lymph formation. Two forces bring about a steady filtration of plasma fluid into the tissue spaces :
capillary pressure (30-35 mm Hg) and colloid osmotic pressure in tissue fluid (8 mm Hg). Most of the
compounds come out by filtration and few such as glucose come out by diffusion. These compounds get
collected in the intercellular space as Tissue fluid or Interstitial fluid which is, infact, a part of blood. So, it
must return to blood otherwise blood volume will decrease. For this, the outflux of plasma fluid into
capillaries is prevented by colloid osmotic pressure in plasma (28 mm Hg) which counteracts the above
two forces. When the blood flows from arteriolar to venous part of the capillaries, the capillary pressure
falls to 10-15 mm Hg due to which the blood capillaries absorb waste material and CO2 from filtered blood.
Thus, at the side of veinlets, net diffusion pressure = 28 – 15 = 13 mm Hg. After absorption by veins, a small
amount of CO2 and waste material still remains in the tissue fluid which is absorbed in the lymphatic
capillaries as lymph. So, we can say that lymph is modified tissue fluid.
Differences between lymph and blood
S.No. Characters Blood Lymph
(1) RBC Present Absent
(2) Blood platelets Present Absent
(3) WBC Persent, generally 7000/cu mm Persent, generally 500-75000/cu mm
(4) Plasma Present Present
(5) Albumin : globulin Albumin > Globulin Albumin > Globulin
(6) Fibrinogen More Less

(7) Coagulation More Less

property
(8) Direction of flow Two way, heart to tissues and One way, tissues to heart
tissues to heart
(9) Rate of flow Fast Slow
(10) Glucose, urea and Less More

CO2
Hence, lymph can be represented as :

Lymph = Blood – [RBC + platelets + plasma proteins of high molecular weight]
Composition of lymph : Microscopic examination of lymph depicts that is contains a large number of
leucocytes (mostly lymphocytes) ranging from 500 to 75,000 per cubic mm. No blood platelets present. The
composition of the non cellular part of lymph (fasting) is as follows :
(1) Water 94% (2) Solids 6%
(a) Proteins : Protein content is roughly half of the plasma and varies from 2.0 – 4.5%. It varies according
to the part of the body from which is collected, i.e. in liver 6%, in limb 2% of intestinal part 4%. The
varieties of proteins are found – albumin, globulin and fibrinogen. In addition to this, traces of
prothrombin, fibrinogen.
(b) Fats : In fasting condition fat content is low but after a fatty diet it may be 5.0 – 15%.
(c) Carbohydrates : Sugar, 132.2 mgm per 100 ml.
(d) Other constituents : Urea, creatinine, chlorides, phosphorus, calcium, enzymes and antibodies.

WORK SHEET - 1
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
1. Poikilothermic (cold blooded) or exothermic animals are those in which
(a) Body freezes (b)Body temperature remains constant
(c) Body temp. changes according to surroundings (d)None of the above

2. An open circulatory system occurs in
(a) Man (b) Reptiles (c) Animals (d) Insects

3. William Harvey is known for the discovery of
(a) Blood transfusion (b) Blood clotting
(c) Blood circulation (d) Blood purification
4. The blood vascular system of mammals is known as double vascular system because
(a) A group of veins carry oxygenated and other group conduct deoxygenated blood
(b) Oxygenated blood runs from heart to different organs by one set of veins while deoxygenated
blood runs from heart to lung by another set
(c) The two different systems never meet
(d) All of the above
5. Which one of the following does not have an open circulatory system
(a) Chelone (b) Cockroach (c) Frog's tadpole (d) (a) and (b) both
Advance Level
6. Mammals are said to have a "double circulatory system". This means
(a) That the blood vessels are paired
(b) That there are two types of blood vessels attached to every organ; an artery and a vein
(c) That there are two system; one from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart and other to
and from rest of the body
(d) That the blood circulates twice as quickly

7. The heart of fish is different from the other group because
(a) It has lymph only (b) It pumps only arterial blood
(c) It pumps only venous blood (d) It pumps only lymph

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
8. The heart of a crocodile consists of
(a) A single auricle and two ventricles (b) wo auricles and a single ventricle
(c) Two auricles and two ventricles (d) A single auricle and a single ventricle
9. Open vascular system is found in
(a) Man (b)Fish (c) Prawn (d) Snake
10. In amphibia, the heart has
(a) Two auricles and two ventricle (b) Two auricles and one ventricle
(c) One auricle and two ventricles (d) One auricle and one ventricle
11. Which of the following is the correct statement about the circulatory system of cockroach
(a) It is closed type of circulatory system
(b) It is a complicated type of circulatory system
(c) It takes place without the participation of tissue
(d) It has 13 chambered heart and in each segment one pair of ostia are present
12. In Pheretima lymph glands produces
(a) Phagocytic cells (b) Lymphocytic cells (c) Amoebocytic cells (d) Oxyntic cells
13. How many lateral hearts are in pheretima
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 16 (d) 12

14. Four pairs of pulsatile heart in pheretima are located in seg
(a) 7, 9, 12 and 13 (b) 11, 14, 17 and 18 (c) 10, 13, 16 and 17 (d) 4, 5, 10 and 13
15. Open circulatory system is observed in
(a) Cockroach (b) Frog (c) Fish (d) Reptiles

16. Single circuit circulatory system is characteristic of
(a) Fishes (b) Amphibians (c) Aves (d) Mammals

17. Double circuit circulation is seen in
(a) Humans and rabbit (b) Pigeon and rat (c) Lizard and crocodile (d) All of the above
18. Blood of periplaneta does not carry oxygen because
(a) O2 is transported by respiratory tubules (b) Its respiration is anaerobic
(c) There is no cells in its blood (d) Periplaneta does not has any blood vessel
19. In the evolution of animals a heart to pump the blood is found for the first time in
(a) Annelids (b) Roundworms (c) Arthropods (d) Flat worms

20. Regarding blood circulation, it may be said that in Pheretima the dorsal vessel is a
(a) Collecting vessel in first two segments and distributing vessel in other
(b) Distributing vessel in first five segments and collecting vessel in other
(c) Collecting vessel in first thirteen segments & distributing vessel in intestinal region
(d) Distributing vessel in first thirteen segments & collecting vessel in intestinal region
21. Identify the animal which has neurogenic heart
(a) Rat (b) Rabbit (c) Hamster (d) Periplaneta
22. Which of the following has myogenic heart
(a) Frog (b) Humans (c) Rabbit (d) All of the above
23. Which of the following chordata does not have a heart
(a) Petromyzon (b) Lung fishes (c) Branchiostoma (d) Herdmania
PHYSIOLOGY OF HEART
24. Heart beat can be recorded and displayed as
(a) ECG (b) EEG (c) ERG (d) EMG
25. Innervation of heart in the intact animals is primarily meant for
(a) Initiation of heart beat (b) Regulation of heart beat
(c) Release of acetylcholine only (d) Release of adrenalin only

26. Purkinje's fibres are special types of
(a) Muscle fibres located in heart (b) Nerve fibres located in cerebrum
(c) Connective tissue fibres joining one bone to another bone
(d) Sensory fibres extending from retina into optic nerve
27. Identify the cardiac inhibitor
(a) Y-aminobutyric acid (b) 5' Hydroxytryptamine (c) Adrenaline (d) Acetylcholine
28. Identify the wrong statement
(a) The arterial and venous pressure of blood constitutes the blood pressure
(b) Defective heart valve are the cause of heart murmur

(c) When the semilunar valves close the DUP sound is produced
(d) Contraction of right ventricle pumps blood into pulmonary vein

29. Identify the correct statement

(a) The lubb-dup sound of heart beat is due to closure of mitral-tricuspsid valve followed by
semilunar valve
(b) The passage of blood from post caval to diastolic right auricle is due to gravity
(c) One heart beat in man lasts for 0.2 sec.
(d) Pulmonary artery originates from left ventricle

30. Regulation of heart beat in mammals is due to
(a) The volume of blood in the circulatory system (b) The presence of excess of oxygen in blood
(c) The presence of thyroxine in blood (d) The presence of pacemaker in the heart
31. Purkinje's fibres of the vertebrate heart are modified
(a) Parasympathetic nerves (b) Sympathetic nerves
(c) Motor nerves (d) Muscle cells

32. The nerve like modified muscle in the right auricle is known as
(a) Lymph node (b) Atrio-ventricular node

(c) Pacemaker (d) Bulbus arteriosus
33. Pace maker of the heart is
(a) S.A. node (b) A.V. node (c) A.V. septum (d) I.A. septum
34. The first heart sound is
(a) 'Lubb' sound at the end of systole (b) 'Dub' sound at the end of systole
(c) 'Lubb' sound at the beginning of systole (d) 'Dub' sound at the beginning of systole
35. How many times does the heart of humans beat per minute
(a) 80 (b) 120 (c) 72 (d) 60
36. The heart of a healthy man beats normally per minute
(a) 60–70 times (b) 70–80 times (c) 80–90 times (d) 85–95 times
37. Heart beat can be initiated by
(a) Sinu-auricular node (b) Sinu-ventricular node (c) Sodium ion (d) Purkinje's fibres
38. Which one is the correct route through which pulse making impulse travels in the heart
(a) SA node  Purkinje fibres  Bundle of His  AV node  Heart muscles
(b) AV node  SA node  Purkinje fibres  Bundle of His  Heart muscles

(c) AV node  Bundle of His  SA node  Purkinje fibres  Heart muscles
(d) SA node  AV node  Bundle of His  Purkinje fibres  Heart muscles

39. The rate of heart beat per minute is highest in case of

(a) Elephant (b) Whale (c) Man (d) Mouse
40. The viscosity of blood is important in maintaining
(a) Acid-base balance (b) Diastolic blood pressure
(c)Systolic blood pressure (d) Osmotic pressure
41. Regulation of heart beat in mammals is due to
(a) Presence of excess of oxygen in blood
(b) The presence of pacemaker in the heart
(c) The presence of thyroxin in blood
(d) The volume of blood in the circulatory system
42. Pace maker of the heart is situated
(a) In wall of right atrium close to eustachian valve
(b) On intra-auricular septum
(c) On inter-venticular septum
(d) In wall of left atrium close to the opening of pulmonary veins
43. Stimulation of the vagus nerve will make the heart beat
(a) Faster (b) 70 times / minute (c) Slower (d) Normal
44. During systole
(a) Auricles and ventricles contract simultaneously
(b) Auricles and ventricles contract separately
(c) Only auricles contract (d) Only ventricles contract
45. What is the maximum efficiency of heart
(a) 10 – 15 % (b) 20 – 25 % (c) 40 – 60% (d) 100%
46. Blood leaving and moving to heart has higher concentration of
(a) Glucose (b) Urea (c) Bile (d) Erythrocytes
47. If the vagus branch of frog is stimulated, the heart will show
(a) Stoppage of heart beat (b)Decreased heart beat
(c) Increased heart beat (d)No change
48. Artificial pace maker is transplanted in
(a) Inter ventricular septum (b)Below the collar bone
(c) Inter auricular septum (d)Right auricle

49. The rate of heart beat is controlled by

(a) CNS (b) SN (c) CN (d) Autonomic nervous system
50. Assertion (A) : Smaller the organism, higher is the rate of metabolism per gm weight.
Reason (R) : Heart rate of six month old baby is much higher than an old person
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true but (R) is wrong
(d) (A) and (R) both are wrong
51. Bundle of HIS is found in
(a) Muscles (b) Brain (c) Heart (d) Liver
52. In rabbit oxygenated blood flows from
(a) Left auricle to left ventricle during auricular systole
(b) Right auricle to right ventricle during ventricular systole
(c) Right ventricle to aorta during ventricular systole
(d) Pulmonary vein to left auricle during auricular systole
53. Systole refers to the contraction of
(a) SA node (b) AV node (c) Major arteries (d) Atria and ventricles
54. Heart beat is initiated by
(a) AV node (b) SA node (c) Purkinje fibres (d) Papillary muscles
55. Impulse originating from sinu-atrial node are transmitted to the
(a) Atrio-ventricular node (b)Bundle of His (c) Pacemaker (d) Purkinje system
56. Heart beats are controlled by a nodal tissue which is composed of
(a) Purkinje fibres (b) Myonemes (c) Collagen fibres (d) Telodendrites
57. During diastole
(a) Blood enters lungs (b) Blood leaves the ventricle
(c) Blood leaves the heart (d) Blood enters the heart
58. During systole of ventricle
(a) Blood enters the heart (b) Blood leaves the heart
(c) Blood leaves the ventricle (d) Blood enters lungs
59. Acetylcholine is secreted by
(a) Adrenal cortex (b) Adrenal medulla
(c) Parasympathetic neuron (d) Sympathetic neuron

60. Heart beat originates from

(a) Pacemaker (b) Cardiac muscles (c) Left atrium (d) Right ventricle
61. Heart beat of humans is controlled by
(a) Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
(b) Medullary hormones
(c) Hypothalamus (d) (a) and (b)
62. Which one of the following is a matching pair
(a) Lubb – sharp closure of AV valves at the beginning of ventricular systole
(b) Dupp – sudden opening of semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole
(c) Pulsation of the radial artery-valves in the blood vessels
(d) Initiation of the hear beat Purkinje fibres
63. First heart sound occurs at
(a) Opening of semilunar valve (b) Closing of semilunar valve
(c) Onset of auricular systole (d) Sudden closure of A.V. valves
64. The pace-setter in the heart is called
(a) Purkinje fibres (b) Sino-aterial node (SAN)
(c) Papillary muscle (d) Atrio-ventricular node (AVN)
65. Apex beat of heart is synchronous with
(a) First sound (b) Second sound (c) Third sound (d) Fourth sound
66. The typical Lubb-Dup sounds heard in the heart beat of a healthy person are due to
(a) Closing of the tricuspid and bicuspid value (b) Blood flow through the aorta
(c) Closing of the tricuspid and semilunar valves (d) Closing of the semilunar valves
67. If heart of a mammal was injected with 2% CaCl 2 solution, then
(a) Heart beat will increase (b)Heart beat will decrease

(c) Heart beat will stop (d) No effect
68. The auriculo-ventricular node in human heart was discovered by
(a) Hiss (b) Loewis (c) Ringer (d) William Harvey
69. The murmuring sound in heart takes place due to
(a) The defective and leaking valve (b) The thrombosis in coronary artery
(c) Defect in SA node (d) The arterial pulse

70. The beating of heart of man is heared on the left side because
(a) The left ventricle is towards the left side (b) Both the ventricles are towards the left side
(c) Entire heart is on the left side (d) The aorta is on the left side
71. The cardiac output of human heart per min is
(a) 4320 ml (b) 5000 ml (c) 1500 ml (d) 2000 ml
72. What is the volume of blood drained by heart in one ventricular stroke
(a) 1 l (b) 800 ml (c) 500 ml (d) 80 ml
73. In terms of heart function, epinephrine is antagonistic to
(a) Norepinephrine (b) Acetylcholine (c) Dopamine (d) Prostaglandin
74. The heartbeat is regulated by
(a) Pacemaker (b) Vagus nerve (c) Sympathetic nerve (d) All the above
HEART
75. Which of the animal has only deoxygenated blood in its heart
(a) Scoliodon (b) Rabbit (c) Pigeon (d) Snake
76. Blood returns from lungs to heart through
(a) Right auricle (b) Right ventricle (c) Left ventricle (d) Left auricle
77. In the heart of mammal the bicuspid valve is situated between
(a) Left auricle and left ventricle (b) Post caval and right caval
(c) Right auricle and left auricle (d) Right ventricle and pulmonary aorta
78. Nature of valves in the heart is
(a) Membranous (b) Muscular (c) Tendinous (d) Ligamentous
79. Chordae tendinae are found in
(a) Ventricle of heart (b) Atria of heart (c) Joints (d) Ventricle of brain
80. Covering of heart is called
(a)Pericardium (b) Peritoneum (c) Perineurium (d) Periostium
81. The middle layer of heart is known as
(a) Endocardium (b) Pericardium (c) Epicardium (d) Myocardium
82. Post caval in right auricle is guarded by
(a) Eustachian Valve (b) Bicuspid valve
(c) Tricuspid valve (d)Atrio-ventricular valve

83. Tricuspid valve are present between

(a) Right auricle and right ventricle (b)Sinous venosus and right auricle
(c) Left auricle and left ventricle (d) Superior and inferior vena cava
84. Auricles of human heart contains
(a) Columnae carnae (b) Chordae tendenae (c) Papillary muscles (d) Purkinje's fibres
85. Right auricle of mammalian heart receives blood from
(a) Sinus vinosus (b) Pulmonary veins (c) Precavals (d) Pre and postcavals
86. During ventricular diastole
(a) The auricles relax (b) The heart contracts
(c) The heart pumps blood (d) The ventricles relax
87. In rabbit, the four chambered heart promotes
(a) Double circulation (b) Single circulation
(c) Systematic circulation (d) Venous circulation
88. Trilobed valve present between right atrium and ventricle in mammalian heart is
(a) Triac (b) Triad
(c) Tricuspid or besian (d) Trigeminal
89. For reaching left side of heart, blood must pass through
(a) Liver (b) Kidneys (c) Lungs (d) Brain
90. Which one of the statement is correct with reference to the circulation of blood in a mammal
(a) Left auricle receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
(b) Pulmonary artery returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left auricle
(c) Pulmonary vein carries venous blood from right auricle to lungs
(d) Venous blood is returned to the left auricle
91. Mixing up of arterial and venous blood does not take place in a heart having
(a) Two chambers (b) Four chambers (c) Three chambers (d) None of the above
92. Tricuspid valve is present in
(a) Right auricle (b) Right ventricle (c) Left ventricle (d) Left auricle
93. Mitral valve in mammals guards the opening between
(a) Stomach and intestine (b) Pulmonary vein and left auricle
(c) Right auricle and right ventricle (d) Left auricle and left ventricle
94. Tunica media of an elastic artery is made up of mainly
(a) Smooth muscle fibre (b) Loose alveolar tissue (c) Elastic fibres (d) Collagen fibres

95. Which of the following statements is false

(a) Blood from the right side of the heart is carried to the lungs by the pulmonary artery
(b) The term 'pleura' refers the double layered covering of the kidney
(c) Pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland
(d) Scurvy is caused by the deficiency of vitamin C
96. Histology of heart superficially shows the following structure except
(a) Endocardium (b) Cardiac muscle
(c) Fibrous pericardium (d) Tunica intima
97. Cardiac muscle is composed of
(a) Striated, branched and voluntary muscle fibres
(b) Unstriated (smooth), spindle shaped and voluntary muscle fibres
(c) Unstriated (smooth), spindle shaped and involuntary muscle fibres
(d) Striated, branched and involuntary muscle fibres
98. How much of the total blood volume is present in heart
(a) 2.5% (b) 17% (c) 9% (d) 15%
99. Bicuspid valve is also called as
(a)Mitral valve (b) Eustachean valve (c) Pulmonary valve (d) Ventricular valve
100. Largest heart is found in
(a) Elephant (b) Giraffe (c) Crocodile (d) Lion
101. Which of the following has the thickest wall
(a) Left auricle (b) Left ventricle (c) Right auricle (d) Right ventricle
102. The blood returning to the heart from lungs via pulmonary vein has more
(a) RBC per ml of blood (b)Haemoglobin per ml of blood
(c) Oxygen per ml of blood (d) Nutrient per ml of blood
103. Which of the following structure is absent in rabbit's heart
(a) Left auricle (b) Left ventricle (c) Sinus venosus (d)Pace maker
104. Heart of elephant is
(a) Neurogenic (b) Myogenic (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
105. What is correct about sinus venosus
(a) It is situated on dorsal surface of rabbit heart (b) It is situated ventrally in frog heart
(c) It sends blood to dorsal aorta (d) It opens into right auricle

106. The wall of heart is made up of

(a) Epicardium (b) Myocardium (c) Endocardium (d) All of the above
107. Pylangium is part of
(a)Truncus arteriosus (b)Left atrium (c)Right atrium (d)Ventricles
108. The contraction of the heart of frog commences from
(a) Sinus venosus (b) Right auricle (c)Left auricle (d)Interauricular septum
109. Heart is simple tubular and ventral in
(a)Urochordata (b)Cyclostomata (c)Cephalochordata (d)Verteb
110. Valve of Thebesius occurs in the heart of
(a)Fish (b)Frog (c)Rabbit (d)Chameleon
111. Heart of prawn carries
(a)Oxygenated blood (b)Deoxygenated blood (c)Mixed blood (d)No blood
112. In frog's heart, there are muscular ridges which consist of fibres called
(a)Myonemes (b)Purkinjee fibres (c)Telodendria (d)Columneae carnae
113. Even the ventricles of reptiles are partitioned but there is mixing of blood
(a) Due to common ejection and entrance of blood in lungs
(b) Auricles are non-separated
(c) Heart is partially four-chambered (d) None of these
114. In the mammalian heart, ventricular filling of blood takes place due to
(a) Relaxation of right ventricle (b) A higher blood pressure in right auricle
(c) Adequate blood in the right auricle (d) All the above actions
115. The thick muscular projections on the walls of the ventricle are called
(a)Chordae tendinae (b)Columnae carnae (c) Conus arteriosus (d) Truncus arteriosus
116. Atherosclerosis refers to the ailment of
(a)Lungs (b)Heart (c)Kidney (d)Liver
117. Inter-auricular septum in the embryonic stages has a/an
(a) Fossa ovalis (b) Fenestra ovalis
(c) Fenestra rotunda (d) Inter-auricular aperture
118. The sinu-auricular valve occurs
(a) In the sinus venosus (b) In the edges of sinu-auricular aperture
(c) In the truncus arteriosus (d) At the auriculo-ventricular aperture

119. The coronary sinus in the heart is situated along its

(a)Left margin (b) Right margin
(c) Diaphragmatic surface (d) Lower boarder of the heart
120. Purkinje fibre is found in
(a) Conduction system of heart (b) Brain
(c) Nephrons of kidneys (d) Sensation of skin
121. Neurogenic heart is characteristic of
(a)Lower vertebrates (b)Humans (c)Rat (d)Rabbit
122. Eustachian valve which is of no significance in the adult mammal, is a vestigial organ, a vestige
of
(a) Spiral valve (b) Sinus venosus
(c) Sino-auricular valve (d) Semilunar valve
123. Which is not true for cardiac muscles
(a)Presence of intercalated disc (b) Striated nature
(c) Involuntary (d) Voluntary
124. The pericardium and the pericardial fluid help in
(a)Protecting the heart from friction, shocks and keeps it moist
(b)Pumping the blood
(c) Receiving the blood from various parts of the body

(d) None of the above
125. The atrio-ventricular valves of the heart is prevented from turning inside out by tough strands of
connective tissue is called as
(a) Tendinous cords (b) Tricuspid (c) Pocket valve (d) Mitral valve
126. Wenckebach phenomenon is seen in
(a) Complete heart block (b)Partial heart block
(c) Ventricular fibrillation (d)Myocardial infarction
127. Since it is the sinu-auricular node which initiates the impulses the heart of mammal is called
(a) Cholinergic (b) Adrenergic (c) Neurogenic (d) Myogenic
128. Which one of the following doctors performed the first heart transplant
(a) Hargovind Khorana (b) Christian Bernard (c) Watson (d) William Harvey
129. The tricuspid valve is present at the origin of
(a) Carotid arch (b) Pulmonary arch (c) Truncus arteriosus (d) Systemic arch

130. Bicuspid and tricuspid valve are supported by

(a) Columnae carnae (b) Endocardium (c) Chordae tendinae (d) Epicardium
131. What happens if the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated
(a) Heartbeat increases (b) Cardiac output decreases
(c) Blood pressure is lowered (d) Pulse becomes erratic and falls steadily
132. Sinus venosus is spread over
(a) Dorsal surface of the heart of frog (b) Dorsal surface of the heart of rabbit
(c) Ventral surface of the heart of frog (d) Ventral surface of the heart of rabbit
133. In the diagram of the vertical section of human heart given below certain parts have been
indicated by alphabets; choose the answer in which these alphabets have been correctly
matched with the parts they indicate
A
B
K
C
J
D
E
I
H
G F
(a) A = Aorta, B = Pulmonary vein, C = Pulmonary arteries, D = Left ventricle, E = Semilunar valves, F =
Left auricle, G = Right auricle, H = Superior vena cava, I = Right ventricle, J = Tricuspid valves, K =
Inferior vena cava.
(b) A = Aorta, B = Pulmonary artery, C = Pulmonary veins, D = Left auricle, E = Tricuspid and Mitral
valves, F = Left ventricle, G = Right ventricle, H = Inferior vena cava, I = Right auricle, J = Semi lunar
valves, K = Superior vena cava.
(c) A = Aorta, B = Superior vena cava, C = Inferior vena cava, D = Right ventricle, E = Tricuspid and Mitral
valves, F = Left auricle, G = Left auricle, H = Pulmonary veins, I = Left ventricle, J = Semilunar valves, K =
Pulmonary artery.
(d) A = Aorta, B = Superior vena cava, C = Inferior vena cava, D = Left ventricle, E = Semilunar valves, F =
Left auricle, G = Right auricle, H = Pulmonary artery, I = Right ventricle, J = Tricuspid valves, K =
Pulmonary vein.

134. Largest heart occurs in

(a) Lion (b) Crocodile (c) Horse (d) Giraffe
135. In India first successful heart transplant was performed at
(a) Escorts Hospital, New Delhi (b) Apollo Hospital, Madras
(c) AIIMS, New Delhi (d) Batra Hospital, New Delhi
136. First successful heart transplant was conducted by
(a) Dr. N. Trihan (b) Dr. Venugopal (c) Dr. M.S. Mani (d) Dr. Gambhir
137. Foramen of panizzae is found in the heart of

(a)Frog (b) Pigeon (c) Crocodile (d) Rabbit
CARDIAC CYCLE
138. What is not true about the pace maker
(a) It initiates and maintains heart beat at the rate of 72/min.
(b) It is present in the right auricle
(c) Its activity is modulated by various chemicals
(d) It is not a characteristic of myogenic heart
139. What is true about the pace maker present in human heart
(a) Initiates and regulates heart beat (b)Increases cardiac output
(c) Is not affected by acetylcholine (d)Does not respond to epinephrine
140. What is not true about human heart
(a) Myogenic (b) Rhythmicity
(c) Heart beat initiated and controlled by SA node
(d)AV node modulate and dominate the activities of pace maker
141. AV node was discovered by
(a) Loewis (b) His (c) Ringer (d) Harvey
142. Bundle of His is a network of
(a)Nerve fibres found throughout the heart
(b) Muscle fibres distributed throughout the heart walls
(c) Muscle fibres found only in the ventricle wall (d) Nerve fibres distributed in ventricles

143. If the pace maker is absent

(a) Only auricles will contract (b)Only ventricles will contract
(c)Cardiac muscles will contract in a coordinated manner
(d)Cardiac muscles will not contract in a coordinated manner
144. A pace maker is meant for
(a)Transplanting liver (b)Transplanting heart
(c)Initiation of heart beats (d)Regulation of blood flow
145. Identify the incorrectly matched pair
(a)Diastole – Phase of contraction of cardiac muscle (b)Systole – Dilation phase of cardiac muscle
(c)Duration of cardiac cycle in humans – 0.8 sec. (d)Haemoglobin – Respiratory pigment
146. QRST is related with
(a)Ventricular contraction or depolarization (b)Auricular contraction
(c)Auricular relaxation (d)Cardiac cycle
147. In an ECG, QRS wave represent
(a)Activity of pace setter (b)Auricular relaxation
(c) Ventricular contraction (d)Ventricular relaxation
148. In an old man's ECG, T-waves shall be
(a) Flat (b) Inverted (c) Very prominent (d) Same as in adults
149. Although much CO 2 is carried in the blood, yet blood does not becomes acidic. This is because
(a) In CO 2 transport, blood buffers play an important role
(b) CO 2 combines with water to form H 2 CO 3 which is neutralised by NaCO3
(c) CO 2 is continuously diffused through the tissues and is not allowed to accumulate
(d) CO 2 is absorbed by leucocytes
150. What is the end diastolic volume of blood in a normal adult heart
(a) 50 ml (b) 70 ml (c) 90 ml (d) 110 ml
151. Which of the following cardiac effects can be observed if the potassium concentration is
increased two to three times the normal value
(a)Weakness of heart (b)Abnormal rhythm (c)Death (d)All the above
152. In all the leads of ECG, all following are positive waves except
(a)P (b)Q (c)R (d)T
153. Which of the following is a repolarization wave
(a)P (b)T (c)QRS (d)None of these

154. ECG records

(a)Electric current of the body (b)Potential differences
(c)Pulse rate (d)Quantity of blood pumped per minute
155. Sinu-atrial node is innervated by branches of
(a)V cranial nerve (b) X cranial nerve
(c)IX cranial nerve (d) VI cranial nerve
BLOOD VESSEL AND PRESSURE

156. A man will be unconscious if the blood supply to the brain is stopped for more than
(a)2 second (b)5 second (c)10 second (d)30 second
157. The blood pressure is high in
(a)Arteries (b)Veins (c)Capillaries (d)Veins of portal system
158. Fall in blood pressure due to loss of blood is soon restored because the
(a)Blood vessels dilate (b) Blood cells decrease in number
(c) Heart beat is increased (d) Heart beat is decreased
159. Serotonin in the blood
(a)Relaxes blood vessels (b)Prevents clotting of blood
(c)Helps in clotting of blood (d) Constricts blood vessels
160. Systolic pressure is higher than diastolic pressure because
(a) Arteries are contracting during systole
(b) Blood is pumped with a pressure in the arteries by the heart during systole but not during
diastole.
(c) Arteries resist during systole only
(d) Volume of blood is higher in systole than that of diastole in the heart
161. In several vertebrates the rate of heart beat and increase in blood pressure is caused by a
hormone
(a) Thyroxin (b) Secretin (c) Noradrenalin (d) Adrenalin
162. In man, blood passes from the post caval into the diastolic right atrium of the heart because of
(a)Pushing of venous valves (b) Suction pull
(c) Beating of S.A. node (d) Pressure between post caval and atrium
163. Sphygmomanometer measure
(a)Nerve conduction rate (b)Heart beat rate (c)Blood pressure (d) Pulse rate

164. Renin is released by the kidney when the arterial blood pressure
(a) Gets elevated (b) Becomes low (c) Remains constant (d) Becomes high
165. Cardiac output signifies
(a)The amount of blood entering the heart per unit time
(b) The amount of blood entering the lung per unit time
(c) The amount of blood leaving the heart per unit time
(d)The amount of blood leaving the lung per unit time
166. Normal diastolic pressure in young man is about
(a)20 mm Hg (b)80 mm Hg (c)110 mm Hg (d)130 mm Hg
167. How much arterial pressure rises during arterial contraction (mm Hg)
(a)2 – 4 (b) 4 – 6 (c) 6 – 8 (d) Does not rise at all
168. If glucose is to be injected in human blood, the property to be matched with glucose is
(a) Density (b) Viscosity (c) Osmotic potential (d) Sugar group
169. For the diffusion to take place effectively in capillaries the blood stays there for how long
(a) 1 – 3 second (b) 5 – 9 second (c) 9 – 13 second (d) > 20 second
170. Heart rate is increased by all the following except
(a)Anoxia (b)Moderate CO 2 excess
(c)Elevated body temperature (d)Increased intracranial pressure

171. Ventricular contraction is preceded by atrial contraction by what duration
(a)1 second (b)1/2 second (c)1/4 second (d)1/6 second
172. Uremia disease is associated with
(a)High serum cholesterol (b)High blood glucose (c)High blood urea (d) Rh factor in blood
173. Heart beat and pulse rate is increased under conditions of
(a)Psychogenic stress (b)Fever (c)Muscular exercise (d)All of the above
174. The heart beat increases at the time of interview due to
(a)Corticotrophic hormone (b)Hyper secretion of renin
(c)Secretion of adrenaline (d)Antidiuretic hormone secretion
175. Pulse can easily be detected on superficial artery like that of
(a) Diaphragm (b) Thigh (c) Wrist (d) Humerus
176. An adult human with average health has systolic and diastolic pressure as
(a)80 mm Hg and 88 mm Hg (b) 70 mm Hg and 120 mm Hg
(c) 120 mm Hg and 80 mm Hg (d) 50 mm Hg and 80 mm Hg

177. The thickening of walls of arteries are called

(a)Arthritis (b)Aneurysm (c)Arteriosclerosis (d)Both (a) and (b)
178. Putting adrenaline on the heat will cause the heart beat to
(a)Retard (b)Accelerate (c)Produce louder sound (d)Stop
179. Average cardiac output is
(a)4 litres per minute (b) 6.3 litres per minute
(c) 5.3 litres per minute (d) 7.3 litres per minute
180. Heart beats are affected by
(a)Carbon dioxide (b)Oxygen (c)Vagus nerve (d)All the above
181. We feel sleepy just after taking meals because
(a)Blood pressure increases (b) Blood pressure decreases
(c) Body weight increases (d) We feel lethargic
182. The pulse beat is measured by the
(a)Artery (b)Capillary (c) Vein (d) None
183. Identify the correct statement
(a)When the ventricles contract, the pressure is highest
(b) Blood pressure in human varies with age
(c) Systolic pressure in human is 120 mm of Hg and diastolic is 80 mm of Hg
(d) All of the above
184. Blood clot inside a blood vessel is known as
(a) Thrombus (b) Fibrinolysis (c) Thrombosis (d) Clot
185. Heart beat are accelerated by
(a) Cranial nerves and acetylcholine (b) Sympathetic nerves and acetylcholine
(c) Cranial nerves and adrenaline (d) Sympathetic nerves and epinephrine
186. Blood capillaries are made of
(a) Endothelium and thin coat of connective tissue
(b) Endothelium and thin coat of muscle fibres
(c) Endothelium and thin coat of connective tissue and muscle fibres
(d) Only endothelium
187. Stethoscope was invented by
(a) Waksman (b) Koch (c) Laennec (d) Jenner

188. Below normal heart beat is called
(a) Bradycardia (b) Tachycardia (c) Hyperpiesis (d) All of these
189. Blood pressure increases and heart rate decreases in response to
(a) Exercise (b)Haemorrage
(c)Exposure to high altitude (d) Increased intracranial pressure
190. Deficiency of which of the following causes obesity, low plasma Na  , high K and increased
blood pressure
(a) Growth hormone (b) Adrenaline (c) Cortisol (d) Thyroxine

191. Starling's law is related to
(a) Venous return to heart (b)Force of heart beat
(c) Frequency of heart beat (d)Peripheral resistance
192. Oxygen-fick method is used to measure
(a) Blood pressure (b) Cardiac reserve
(c) Cardiac output (d) Capillary blood flow
193. Plethysomograph is used to measure
(a) Velocity of blood (b) Mean volume flow
(c) Excitability of heart (d) Conducting of stimuli in heart
194. Lymph flows in the lymph vessels due to
(a) Presence of valves in their walls (b) Gravity
(c) Contraction and dilation of heart
(d) Pressure exerted by the contraction of surrounding body tissue

195. In allergy and urticaria the local arterioles dilate due to increased substance from mast cells,
called
(a) Adrenaline (b) Antitoxin (c) Epinephrine (d) Histamine
196. In man, the normal blood pressure is maintained by the blood protein called
(a) Haemoglobin (b) Albumin (c) Fibrinogen (d) Heparin
197. Stimulating of sympathetic nerves of the heart accelerates it through
(a) Release of acetylcholine (b) Inhibition of adrenalin
(c) Release of adrenalin (d) Inhibition of rennin

198. pH of blood in artery and vein is
(a) Same (b) More in artery and less in vein
(c) More in vein and less in artery (d) Not definite
ARTERY AND VEINS

199. Identify the main systemic artery which originates from the left ventricle
(a) Carotid (b) Pulmonary (c) Jugular (d) Aorta
200. The artery which supplies blood to the diaphgram is known as
or
The diaphragm is supplied with blood by
(a) Cardiac artery (b) Phrenic artery (c) Lingual artery (d) Lumber artery
201. Diameter of capillaries for RBC to pass should be
(a) 4  (b) Less than 5  (c) More than 5  (d) More than 10 
202. Femoral artery supplies blood to

(a)Hind limb (b)Rectum
(c)Dorsal region of thigh (d)Ventral region thigh
203. Iliac artery carries blood to the
(a) Lungs (b) Ileum (c) Hind limbs (d) Brain
204. The wall of blood capillaries is made up of
(a) Mesenchymal cells (b) Connective tissues (c) Endothelial cells (d) Fibrocytes
205. Which of the following has no muscular wall
(a) Artery (b) Vein (c) Arteriol (d) Capillary
206. Select the correctly matched pair
(a) Papillary muscles – Blinking of eye lids (b) Carotid artery – Oxygenated blood to heart
(c) Blood vessels of diaphragm – Phrenic vessels (d) Systole – Causes entry of blood in heart
207. Smallest lumen blood vessel in the body is
(a) Capillary (b) Artery (c) Vein (d) Venacava
208. In which region the lymphatic system and blood circulatory system meet
(a) Liver (b) Precaval (c) Pulmonary artery (d) Systematic arch
209. The process of blood clot formation within the circulatory system is
(a) Thrombosis (b) Thrombocytes (c) Thrombin (d) Thrombocytopenia

210. Blood vessels that contain valves are called

(a) Arteries (b) Veins (c) Capillaries (d) All the above
211. Thrombin occurs in the vertebrates in
(a) The liver and is important for bile secretion (b) The stomach and digests proteins
(c) The blood and is important for clotting (d) The blood and gives it red colour
212. Blood leaving lungs is rich in
(a) Oxygen (b) Haemoglobin (c) Carbon dioxide (d) More number of RBC
213. Juxta glomerular cells are present in
(a) Afferent arteriole (b) Efferent arteriole (c) Between (a) & (b) (d) All the above
214. The artery can be distinguished from the vein in having
(a) Thicker walls (b) More blood cells (c) More plasma (d) Larger cavity
215. A vein differs from the artery in having
(a) Narrow lumen (b) Strong cuticular and muscular wall
(c) Valves to control direction of flow (d) Dark pigmented wall
216. Oxygenated blood is carried by
(a) Pulmonary vein (b) Pulmonary artery (c) Renal vein (d) Hepatic portal vein
217. Blood to the heart is brought by the venous system by
(a) Innominate and anterior abdominal (b) Subclavian alone
(c) Vena cavae (d) Anterior abdominal alone
218. What is blood pressure
(a) The pressure of blood on the heart muscle
(b) The pressure of blood exerted on the walls of arteries and veins
(c) The pressure of blood on the walls of veins only
(d) The pressure of blood on the walls of arteries only
219. The velocity of blood flow is minimum in
(a) Capillaries (b) Arterioles (c) Small arteries (d) Aorta
220. Valves are necessary in veins but not in arteries because
(a) Blood flows with greater force in veins (b) Blood in veins flows without jerk
(c) Blood from heart may not be pushed back into veins
(d) Pressure in veins is low, which can flow the blood
221. The blood coming out of lungs is richer than that entering into lungs in
(a) Oxygen (b) Carbon dioxide (c) (a) and (b) both (d) None of these

222. The veins

(a) Have thick elastic walls (b) Contain valves
(c) Are called resistance vessels (d) Store less blood than arteries
223. Which part of the circulatory system serves to supply blood to the heart
(a) Coronary (b) Portal (c) Pulmonary (d) Systemic
224. Pulmonary veins
(a) Carry pure blood from heart to lungs (b) Carry impure blood from lungs to heart
(c) Carry pure blood from lungs to heart (d) Carry impure blood to lungs
225. The posterior venacava
(a) Divides into the hepatic portal veins (b) Opens into the left auricle
(c) Commences at the kidney (d) Begins at the hind end of abdomen
226. Oxygenated blood is found in
(a) Pulmonary veins (b) Pulmonary arteries (c) Right atrium (d) Right ventricle
227. Which is correct about veins
(a) Valves are absent (b) Carry blood towards heart
(c) Always carry oxygenated blood (d) Always carry deoxygenated blood
228. The blood vessel which brings oxygenated blood from lungs towards the heart of frog is
(a) Pre caval (b) Post caval (c) Pulmonary vein (d) Pulmonary artery
229. When the right ventricle contracts the blood goes into
(a) Aorta (b) Brain (c) Pulmonary artery (d) None
230. Arteries are
(a) Thin-walled and blood flows under diminished pressure
(b) Thick-walled and blood flows under high pressure
(c) Thin-walled and blood flows under high pressure
(d)Thick-walled and blood flows under diminished pressure
*****

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
1. INTRODUCTION E.1
2. EXCRETORY ORGANS OF DIFFERENT ORGANISM. E.1
3. EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF MAN E.6
4. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CORTICAL
AND JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS E.8
5. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE URETHRA E.10
6. PHYSIOLOGY OF EXCRETION E.11
7. URINE CONSTITUANTS IN MAN (IN GRAM) E.17
8. URINE CONSTITUANTS IN MAN (IN %) E.18
9. EXCRETORY PRODUCTS IN DIFFERENT ORGANISMS . E.19
10. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMMONOTELISM,
UREOTELISM AND URICOTELISM E.20
11. DISORDERS OF KIDNEYS E.21
12. ACCESSORY EXCRETORY ORGANS E.23
WORK SHEET -1
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
The component structural and functional units of the bodies of all organism are cells which have been
looked as "miniature chemical factories" because of continuous metabolism taking place in these. It yields
certain waste products which are, not only useless, but harmful to the cells and the body. Cells, therefore,
throw out these wates, by diffusion, into their surrounding medium. Finally, these wastes are eliminated
by the body into its external environment. This is, thus an important vital activity of all organism. It is
called excretion.
Besides removing the metabolic wastes and impurities from the blood, the kidney also perform the
important function of osmoregulation by regulating the amount of water in body fluids. The normally
functioning kidneys produce a large volume of dilute urine when more water is taken, and a small
volume of concentrated urine when water intake by the body is poor.
EXCRETORY ORGANS OF DIFFERENT ORGANISM.
(i) Protozoans : In protozoans like Amoeba and

NETWORK OF
A SPONGIOME B
Paramecium carbon dioxide and ammonia are TUBULES
SPONGIOME
mostly excreted out by diffusion through general TUBULES
COLLECTING
body surface. It is considered that the contractile TUBULE
vacuoles also play some role in the removal of

excretory products. AMPULLA
CONTRACTILE
VACUOLE
(ii) Sponges : In sponges, the nitrogenous
SPONGIOME
metabolic waste (ammonia) leaves the body in the
TUBULES AND
outgoing water current by diffusion. VESICLES
C
SPONGIOME
Most of the sponges are marine and have no VESICLES
problem of surplus water in their cells. A few sponges lie in hypotonic fresh water and have contractile
vacuoles in most of their cells.
(iii) Coelenterates : Hydra also lacks special excretory organs. The nitrogenous waste products like
ammonia are removed through the general surface of the body by diffusion. Some nitrogenous waste
products are also thrown along with indigestible matter through the mouth.
CLASS : 10 PAGE NO E.1 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

(iv) Platyhelminthes : Planaria, liverfluke and tapeworm possess a large number of excretory cells called
the flame cells (solenocytes) and long excretory ducts (also called canals of vessels). The flame cells open
into the ductules which in turn open into the excretory duct.
Excretory canals are present on each lateral side or the collecting tubules of which one is dorsal and the
other ventral. In the last proglottid, they join to form a pulsatile caudal vesicle, which is open to a exterior
by excretory pore.
Excretory materials diffuse from the surrounding tissues into the flame cells. Vibrations of the cilia cause
these materials to remove in the excretory ducts. The walls of the ducts reabsorb useful
substances and remaining excretory materials (e.g., ammonia) are expelled out through the excretory
pores.
(v) Aschelminthes : The round worms such as Ascaris have H-shaped excretory system. It is made up of a
single Renette cell. It consists of two longitudinal excretory canals connected anteriorly by a network of
transverse canals. A short terminal duct opens outside via excretory pore. Ascaris is excretes both
ammonia and urea.
EXCRETORY
TERMINAL PORE
GLOBULES OF DUCT ANTERIOR
EXRETION CANAL
BASAL SMALLER
GRANULES NUCLEUS
GRANULES NUCLEI
CELL LUMEN NETWORK OF

TRANSVERSE
CILIA (FLAME) CANALS
EXCRETORY
PORE
DUCTULE
EXCRETORY
DUCT POSTERIOR LATERAL
LONGITUDINAL
EXCRETORY CANALS
Fig. – Flame cell of Platyhelminthes Fig. – Renette cell of Ascaris
(vi) Annelids : In annelids like Nereis, earthworm, leech, etc., the

TWISTED LOOP
ANTERIOR
tubular coiled structures, the nephridia are excretory organs. A CANAL DISTAL
LIMB
typical nephridium starts from a rounded ciliated funnel, the PROXIMAL
LIMB
CILIATED
nephrostome which opens into coelom (body cavity). The CANALS
NEPHROSTOME
nephrostome leads into a nephridial tubule with ciliated cells. A
TERMINAL
typical nephridium opens outside the body through a small FUNNEL DUCT
Fig. – Septal nephredium of

aperture called nephridiopore. However, in earthworm three Earthworm
types of nephridia are found. The septal nephridia situated on
the septa (behind 15th segment) and pharyngeal nephridia ( in three pairs of bundles in the 4th, 5th, and 6th

segments) open into the alimentary canal and pour their excretory materials there. It is an adaptation for
conservation of water. The integumentary nephridia (found scattered in the body wall in each segement
except the first two segments) open directly on the body surface. Excretory materials help the earthworm in
keeping the skin moist for cutaneous respiration.
RENAL
BLADDER
URETER PORES
(vii) Arthropods : (a) The excretory system of the adult Prawn
END SAC GREEN
(crustacean) consists of a pair of antennary or green glands, a pair of LABYRINTH GLAND
lateral ducts and a single renal sac. Each green gland consists of an
LATERAL DUCT
end sac, labyrinth (glandular plexus) and bladder. The end sac extracts TRANSVERSE
CONNECTIVE
nitrogenous waste products and excess water from the blood. The
excretory fluid is transferred from the sacs to the labyrinth in which RENAL SAC
useful materials are absorbed and carried to the blood. The remaining
excretory fluid called urine, flows from the labyrinth to the bladder.
The excretory fluid also comes here from the renal sac. Urine is
Fig. – Antennary gland of Prawn
temporarily stored in the bladders. Later on urine is expelled out
through ureters and renal pores.
(b) Spiders and scorpions possess Malpighian tubules or GUT
coxal glands or both for excretion. FACES URIC+H2O+BICARBONATES OF

ACID K+&Na+
(viii) Molluscs : They have one or two pairs of kidneys MALPIGHIAN TUBULE
which discharge excretory matter into the mantle cavity HAMEOLYMPH

(BLOOD)
which is finally passed out of the body along with the out FURTHER WATER
REABSORPTION
RECTUM
flowing water.
BODY WALL
(ix) Echinoderms : Specialized excretory organs are absent ANUS
Fig. – Malpighian tubule of insecta

in echinoderms (e.g., Starfish). The excretory products,
chiefly ammonia, are eliminated by diffusion through dermal branchae (primitive gills) and tube feet.
(viii) Molluscs : They have one or two pairs of kidneys which discharge excretory matter into the mantle
cavity which is finally passed out of the body along with the out flowing water.

(ix) Echinoderms : Specialized excretory organs are absent in echinoderms (e.g., Starfish). The excretory
products, chiefly ammonia, are eliminated by diffusion through dermal branchae (primitive gills) and
tube feet.
EFFERENT
SACCULE RENAL VEIN POSTERIOR
OR VESSICLE LABYRINTH RENAL CHAMBER
DIAPHRAGM
EFFERENT
RENAL VEIN INTESTINE
ENTERIOR
RENAL CHAMBER
BLADDER
ENTERIOR
RENAL SINUS
V VI APERTURE INTO
POSTERIOR RENAL
CHAMBER
EXCRETORY PORE AURICLE
RENO-PERICARDIAL
APERATURE PERICARDIUM
AORTIC
VENTRICLE AMPULLA
Fig. – Coxal gland or Scorpion
Fig. – Organ of Bojanus
(Pila – mollusca)
Excretory organs of different organisms

S.No. Phylum Excretory/osmoregulatory Function Example
Organ/Organelle and
principal N2-waste
I. Invertebrates
(1) Protozoa Contractile vacuole Ammonotelic Amoeba
Ammonia Osmoregulatory Paramecium
(2) Porifera General surface of body Ammonotelic Sycon,

Leucon
(3) Coelentera Ammonia, General surface of body Ammonotelic Hydra

ta
(4) Platyhelmi flame cells (=Solenocytes) Ammonotelic Taenia,

nthis form the protonephridial system fasciola
(5) Nematoda H-shaped excretory organ, Renette Ammonotelic Ascaris

cells

(6) Annelida Nephridial system, Ammonotelic Pheretima

(Metameric), various types
(7) Arthropoda
a. Class-Insecta Malpighian tubule Uricotelic Periplaneta
(Uric acid)
b. Class crustacea Antennary (=green) gland Uricotelic Palaemon
Uric acid
c. Class Arachnida Coxal glands Uricotelic Spider

Malpighian tubule
Hepato pancreas
Nephrocytes
(8) Mollusca (a) Kidney (=organ of Bojanus) or Pila

Renal organ
(b) Keber's organ
Aquatic forms excrete Ammonotelic Pulmonate
Ammonia Mollusc
Terrestrial forms Uricotelic Limax
Excrete uric acid
(9) Echinodermata Dermal branchiae (primitive gills) Ammonotelic Cucumaria

tube feet, Asterias
body surface (Ammonia)

EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF MAN.
Mammalian (human) urinary system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureter, a urinary bladder and a
urethra.
INFERIOR VENA
CAVA DORSAL AORTA
(i) Kidneys : The kidneys are dark-red, bean-shaped
SUPRARENAL GLAND
RENAL
organs about 11 cm long, 5 cm wide and 3 cm thick, ARTERY LEFT KIDNEY
RENAL
each weight about 150 gm in an adult male and about VEIN
PELVIS
135 gm in adult female. They are placed against the RIGHT

KIDNEY
back wall of the abdominal cavity just below the LEFT
URETER
RIGHT URETER
diaphragm, one on either side opposite the last
thoracic and first three lumber vertebrae. The lower
two pairs of ribs protect them. URINARY
BLADDER
The kidneys are covered by peritoneum on the front OPENING OF

TRIGONIUM URETER
(ventral) side only. thus, they are retroperitoneal. The VESICAE
URETHRA
right kidney is attached more anterior than the left in

Fig. – Human urinary system
rabbit. This asymmetry is just the reverse of that
found in man.
In man left kidney occurs at a slightly higher level than the right one, because right side has prominent
right liver lobe. In rabbit the condition is little differ due to quadropedilism i.e. left kidney is in normal
position while the right kidney shift ached to provide place for stomach below it.
In mammals, the kidney is bean-shaped i.e. concavo convex. The MINOR

MAJOR
CALYX
CALYX
center of concave inner surface is called as hilum or hilus which
CORTEX
gives out a ureter. From this hilus surface the renal artery enters
into the kidney, the renal vein comes out and the renal nerves
enter into the kidney. RENAL PAPILLAE
(a) Structure of kidney : The kidneys are metanephric in PELVIS
mammals. The kidney is divisible into two parts outer-cortex and HILUS
inner-medulla.
URETER
Renal pyramids or medullary pyramids : The medulla is
subdivided into 10 to 12 conical masses – the renal pyramid, each
MEDULLARY RENAL COLUMNS
having broad base towards the cortex and a narrow end called PYRAMIDS OF BERTINI
renal papilla towards the pelvis.

Fig. – H.L.S. of human kidney

Renal columns of bertini : Between the pyramids, the cortex extends into the medulla or renal columns of
bertini.
Calyx : Each renal papilla projects into the cavity of a minor calyx, minor calyx join to form major calyx.
The major calyx open into a wide funnel like structure, the pelvis.
The latter leads into the ureter. In rabbit, the pelvis is unbranched hence, it is without calyx.
In frog ventral surface of each kidney
DISTAL CONVOLUTED
TUBULE RENAL CAPSULE
has many ciliated funnels called PERITUBULAR
PROXIMAL CAPILLARY NET
nephrostomes. They drain wastes from CONVOLUTED WORK
TUBULE
body cavity (coelom) and connect to
renal veins in frog or to uriniferous MALPIGHIAN
CORPUSCLE RENAL
tubules in tadpoles. CORTEX
CORTICAL
Histology of kidney : Histologically a NEPHRON
BRANCH OF
kidney is made of innumerable thin, RENAL ARTERY
long, much convoluted tubular units BRANCH OF JUXTAGLOMERULAR

RENAL VAIN NEPHRON
called uriniferous tubule or nephron.
PYRAMID OF
THICK SEGMENT OF RENAL MEDULLA
Nephron is the structural and functional ASCENDING LIMB OF
HENLE'S LOOP COLLECTING
unit of kidney. One human kidney may TUBULE
VASA RECTA
contain about one million (10 lac
THIN SEGMENT OF BRANCH OF
nephron) nephron (In rabbit each kidney ASCENDING LIMB OF COLLECTING
HENLE'S LOOP TUBULE
bear about 2 lac nephron). In frog each DESCENDING LIMB OF
DUCT OF BELLINI
(=PAPILLARY DUCT)
HENLE'S LOOP
kidney bears about 2 thousand nephron. RENAL
VASA RECTA PAPILLA
(b) Structure and types of nephron : A PELVIS
nephron or uriniferous tubules is made Fig. – Position, structure and blood supply of cortical and
juxtamedullary nephrons is a mammalian kidney
of two parts –
(1) Malpighian body : The proximal end of each nephron forms a blind or closed, enlarged and double
walled cup, the Bowman's capsules in the cortex. (name Bowman's capsule is based on english physiologist
and histologist William Bowman).
Each capsule contains a network of blood capillaries the glomerulus which receives blood through
afferent arteriole and the blood comes out through the efferent arteriole .The diameter of the efferent
arteriole is comparatively lesser. (Bowman's capsule and glomerulus receives about 20 – 25% of the
cardiac out put (blood) at rest.

The composite structure of Bowman's capsule and glomerulus is known as Malpighian body or
Malpighian corpuscles after the Italian microscopist Marcello Malpighi.
(2) Tubule : The tubule is differentiated in to 3 parts P.C.T., Henle's loop and D.C.T.
The Bowman's capsule opens into a proximal convoluted tubule (P.C.T.) the anterior part of the P.C.T. is
more coiled where as its posterior part is almost straight. The P.C.T. opens into a Henle's loop. The Henle's
loop is a U- shaped structure which has a distinct descending limb and an ascending limb. The ascending
limb opens in to the distal convoluted tube. The D.C.T. is a coiled structure. Many D.C.T. unit to form a
collecting duct. The collecting ducts of one pyramid unit to form a duct of Bellini. The duct of Bellini lead
into the pelvis part.
Arrangement of nephron : The malpighian body and a part of P.C.T. and D.C.T. are situated in the cortex.
Most of the part of P.C.T. and D.C.T., Henle's loop and collecting ducts are found in the medulla.
Vasa recta : The efferent arteriole of juxta-glomerular nephron forms a peritubular capillary system
around the Henle's loop which is called vasa recta. Each of the vasa recta makes U turn at the inner most
part of the medulla and return to the venous circulation near the junction of medulla and cortex. The
efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries technically constitute a renal portal system. In all amniotes as
reptiles, birds and mammals have a renal portal system.
Types of nephron : Nephrons are of two types cortical and juxtamedullary, with regard to their
location in the kidney. The cortical nephrons form about 80% to 90% of total nephron. They lie in the
renal cortex and have very short loops of Henle that extend only little into the medulla.
The juxta medullary nephron have their Bowman's capsule close to (Juxta) the junction of the cortex
and the medulla and have very long loops of Henle, extending deep into the medulla. This type of
nephron is present in only birds and mammals. The cortical nephrons control the plasma volume
when water supply is normal. The juxtamedullary nephrons regulate the plasma volume when water
is in short supply (In advarse condition).
Differences between cortical and Juxtamedullary nephrons
Cortical Nephrons Juxtamedullary Nephron
1. Form 80% of total nephrons. 1. Form only 20% of total nephrons.
2. Are small in size. 2. Are large in size.
3. Lie mainly in the renal cortex. 3. Have Bowman's capsules in the cortex near
its junction with the medulla.
4. Henle's loops are very short and extend only a little 4. Henle's loop are very long and extend deep
into the medulla into the medulla.

5. Control plasma volume when water supply is 5. Control plasma volume when water supply
normal. is short.
c) Histology of nephron
NUCLEUS OF A
Glomerulus : Glomerulus is a network of up to 50 PODOCYTE
ENDOTHELIAL CELL
OF GLOMERULAR
parallel branching and anastomosing capillaries covered CAPILLARY
by endothelium, basement membrane and epithelium PODOCYTE
made of podocytes which has slit pores that restrict

passage of colloids. However, small molecules and water
can easily pass through them in to the P.C.T.
Bowman's capsule : The podocytes forming the inner
wall of the Bowman's capsule have gaps (about 25 nm FINGER LIKE
PROCESSES OF
PODOCYTES
wide) the slit pores. PODOCYTE NUCLEUS
The outer wall of the Bowman's capsule consists of

Fig. – A glomerular capillary
unspecialized squamous epithelium (flattened). entwined
Proximal convoluted tube : P.C.T. is made up of simple columnar epithelium. It has microvilli so it is also
known as brush border epithelium.
Loop of Henle : The epithelium of descending limb of loop of Henle is very thin and composed of
squamous epithelium and ascending limb is lined by cuboidal epithelium. The ascending limb is
impermeable to water and permeable to NaCl.
Distal convoluted tube : It is made up of cuboidal epithelium which is glandular in nature.
Collecting ducts : The collecting ducts are lined by cuboidal and columnar epithelium in different regions.
At intervals, the cuboidal cells are ciliated.
Juxta-glomerular apparatus : This specialized cellular
apparatus is located where the distal convoluted tube GLOMERULAR
EPITHELIUM
passes close to the Bowman's capsule and afferent
JUXTAGLOMERULAR
arteriole. Cells of the D.C.T. epithelium in contact with CELLS
AFFERENT
afferent arteriole are denser than other epithelial cells ARTERIOLE
EFFERENT
ARTERIOLE
known as maculla densa. Maculla densa has special
Lacis cell or Polkisson's cell. These cells secrete renin
INTERNAL
ELASTIC
hormone that modulate blood pressure and thus renal SMOOTH MACULA
LAMINA
MUSCLE CELLS DENSA
blood flow and G.F.R. are regulated.

DISTAL BASEMENT
TUBULE MEMBRANE (ii) Urete
Fig. Juxta glomerular apparatus

Urinary bladder and Urethra : The urinary

URETER
bladder is pear-shaped which is made up
of smooth and involuntary muscles. The
muscles is also known as detrusor muscles OPENINGS OF WALL OF
URETERS BLADDER
INNER LINING
(muscles that has the action of expelling a OF BLADDER
substance). The lower part or neck of the

TRIGONE INTERNAL
bladder leads into the urethra. There is a SPHINCTER
smooth triangular area, called trigonium EXTERNAL

SPHINCTER
vesicae. The lumen of the urinary bladder
URETHRAL URETHRA
is lined by transition epithelium which has ORIFICE
Fig. – Parts of ureters, trigone of the bladder,
great power of streaching. The neck of sphincters and urethra
bladder is guarded by two sphincters, inner is involuntary controlled by spinal reflex and outer is
voluntary controlled by cerebral cortex. A person feels the sensation of micturation when the quantity of
urine in the bladder is about 300 c.c.
Urethra : The urinary bladder leads into the urethra. In a female, it is quite short, only about 3 to 5 cm
long, and carries only urine. It opens by urethral orifice, or urinary aperture in the vulva infront of the
veginal or genital aperture. In a male urethra is much longer, about 20 cm and carries urine as well as
spermatic fluid. It passes through the prostate gland and the penis. It opens out at the tip of the penis by
urinogenital aperture.
Differences between male and female urethra
Male urethra Female urethra
1. It is about 20 cm long. 1. It is just 3 – 5 cm long.
2. It has 3 regions : prostatic urethra (3–4 cm), 2. It is not differentiated into regions.
membranous (1 cm) and penial (15 cm)
3. It opens out at the tip of the penis by 3. It opens into the vulva by urinary aperture.
urinogenital aperture.
4. It carries urine as well as semen to the 4. It carries only urine to the exterior.
exterior.
5. It has 2 sphincters. 5. It has a single sphincter.

PHYSIOLOGY OF EXCRETION.
Major nitrogenous excretory substance in frog, rabbit and human is urea, i.e. these are ureotelic animals.
The excretory physiology in these animals may be considered under two phases, viz urea synthesis and
formation and excretion of urine.
Digestionin alimentary Absorption

Protein  Aminoacid  Bloodcirculatio
canal intestine
Useful amino Harmful amino

acid acid
Assimillation Enter in liver

in cells and form urea
(i) Synthesis of urea in liver : Urea is formed in liver by two processes.
(a) Deamination (b) Ornithine cycle
(a) Deamination : The amino acid is oxidised using oxygen. This result in removal of the amino group
 NH 2  and leaves pyruvic acid. the pyruvic acid can enter the Krebs cycle and be used as a source of
energy in cell respiration. The amino group is converted to ammonia  NH 3  during deamination.
Deamination is also known as oxidative deamination.
CH 3 CH 3
| |
1
CH  NH 2  O2  CO  NH 3
2
| |
COOH COOH
 Amino acid  Pyruvic acid 
With the help of a number of enzymes and energy of A.T.P. two molecules of ammonia are combined with
CO2 to form urea according to the following cycle.

(b) Ornithine cycle (Kreb-Henseleit cycle) : In liver one molecule of CO2 is activated by biotin and
combines with two molecule of NH2 in the presence of carbamyle phosphate synthatase enzyme (C.P.S.)
and 2 ATP to form carbamyle phosphate and one molecule of H 2 O release. Carbamyle phosphate react
with ornithine and form citrulline. Citrulin combines with another molecule of ammonia and form
arginine. Arginine is broken into urea and arnithine in the presence of an enzyme arginase and water.
Arginase
2 NH 2  CO 2    NH  CO  NH  H O
2 2 2
(Urea)
H2O
ASPARTIC ACID
Pi
1 C.P.S.
BIOTIN CARBAMYL + ATP
ACTIVATOR CO2+NH3
PHOSPHATE
CITRULLINE
+
2 ATP 3 AMP+PPi
2 ADP
+NH3
2
H2O
OXALOSUCCINIC ACID
ORNITHINE
ARGINOSUCCINIC
ACID
5 4
NH
2 ARGININE
+
C  O
FUMARIC ACID
NH
2 H2O
UREA Fig. – Ornithine cycle
Liver cells, thus, continuously remove ammonia and some CO2 from blood and release urea into the
blood. Kidneys continuously remove urea from the blood to excrete it in urine.
(ii) Urine formation : Urine formation occurs in the kidneys. It involves three processes glomerular
filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion

(a) Ultra filtration or (Starlin hypothesis)

AFFERENT ARTERIOLE
(1) It is passive process which takes place from the
glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule. The EFFERENT ARTERIOLE
GHP65-75 MM HG
glomerular epithelium has various micropores

(diameter = 0.1 ) which increase the rate of
filtration. BCOP30 MM HG 15-25 MM HG EFP
(2) The non colloidal part of the plasma as urea,

water, glucose, and salts are forced out from the
10 MM HG
glomerular capillaries into the Bowman's capsule CHP 20 MM HG
10 MM HG
by the high pressure of the blood in the glomerular
capillaries. The pressure is high because the
Fig. – Ultra filtration
glomerular capillaries are narrower than the
afferent renal arteries.
(3) The effective filtration pressure that causes ultrafiltration is determined by three pressures.
Glomerular hydrostalic pressure : The G.H.P. is the blood pressure in glomerular capillaries due to the
efferent arteriole is narrower than afferent arteriole. It is the chief determinent of effective filtration
pressure, i.e. the main driving force to cause filtration.
G.H.P. = + 70 mm Hg.
Blood colloidal osmotic pressure : The B.C.O.P. is the osmotic pressure created in the blood of glomerular
capillaries due to plasma proteins (mainly albumin). It resists the filtration of fluid from the capillaries.
B.C.O.P. = – 30 mm Hg.
Capsular hydrostatic pressure : C.H.P. is the pressure caused by fluid (filtrate) that reaches into
Bowman's capsule and resists filtration.
C.H.P. = –20 mm Hg.
Effective filtration pressure : E.F.P. is glomerular hydrostatic pressure minus the colloidal osmotic
pressure of blood and capsular hydrostatic pressure.
E.F.P. = G.H.P. – (B.C.O.P. + C.H.P.)
= 70 mmg – (30 mmg Hg + 20 mm Hg)
= 70 – 50
E.F.P. = 20 mm Hg

Note : Net opposing filtration pressure (N.O.F.P.) = B.C.O.P.+C.H.P.

= 50 mm Hg.
Glomerular filtrate : The plasma fluid that filters out from glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule
of nephrons is called glomerular filtrate. It is a non colloidal part and possess urea, water, glucose, amino
acid, vitamins, fatty acid, uric acid, creatin, creatinine, toxins, salts etc.
R.B.Cs, W.B.Cs platelets and plasma proteins are the colloidal part of the blood and do not filtered out
from glomerulus. Glomerular filtrate is isotonic to blood plasma.
Glomerular filtrate or Nephric filtrate = Blood – (Blood cells + Plasma protein)
or
= Blood – (R.B.Cs + W.B.Cs+platelets + plasma protein)
or
= Plasma – Protein
Gomerular filtration rate (G.F.R.) : G.F.R. is the amount of filtrate formed per minute in all nephrons of
the paired kidney. There is a sexual difference. In male the rate is 125 ml/min, in female it is 110 ml/min.
G.F.R. is affected by volume of circulating blood, neural activity, stretch response to pressure of the wall
of the arteriole.
180 litre of filtrate is formed per day, out of it, only 1.5 litre of urine is produced per day which is 0.8% of
the total filtrate.
Renal plasma flow : About 1250 ml (25% of cardiac output or total blood) blood circulates through
kidneys each minute and of this blood, about 650 ml is the plasma. The latter is called the renal plasma
flow (R.P.F.)
R.P.F. = 650 ml.
Filtration fraction : This is the ratio of G.F.R. to R.P.F., and it is called filtration fraction.
G.F .R.
Filtration fraction =
R.P.F .
(b) Selective reabsorption : Discovered by Richard and supporters.
P.C.T. : P.C.T. is the pivotal site for reabsorption.
Glucose, amino acid and Na  , K  ions are reabsorbed by active transport.
Cl  are reabsorbed by passive transport following the positively charged ions.

Active uptake of ions reduces the concentration of the filtrate and an equivalent amount of water passes
into the peritubular capillaries by osmosis. (Here 80% water is reabsorbed by passive transport. It is also
known as obligatory water reabsorption). Most of the important buffer bicarbonate HCO3  is also

reabsorbed from the filtrate. P.C.T. absorb nearly 80–90% of filtered bicarbonate. Some urea is reabsorbed by
diffusion. The rest reman in the filtrate for removed in the urine.
Henle's loop : See counter current mechanism.
D.C.T. : When the level of plasma water falls, the posterior pituitary lobe release the antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) which increases the permeablity of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct to water. Water
is reabsorbed from the filtrate by osmosis and a reduced amount of concentrated urine is produced (Here 13%
water is reabsorbed by facultative reabsorption)
The distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct actively reabsorbed sodium from the filtrate under
influence of the adrenal hormone aldosteron which makes their walls permeuble to ions. The reabsorption
of Na  brings about the uptake of an osmotically equivalent amount of water. But duct of Bellini is
relatively impermeable to water. Bicarbonate ions are also reabsorbed in D.C.T.
(c) Tubular secretion : It occurs as under –
 Creatinine, hippuric acid and foreign substances (pigments, drugs including penicillin) are actively
secreted into the filtrate in the PCT from the interstitial fluid. Hydrogen ions and ammonia  NH 3  are also
secreted into the PCT.
 Potassium, hydrogen, NH 4 and HCO 3 ions are secreted by active transport, into the filtrate in the
DCT.
 Urea enters the filtrate by diffusion in the thin region of the ascending limb of Henle's loop.
Removal of H  and NH 4 from the blood in the PCT and DCT helps to maintain the pH of the blood
between 6 to 8. Any variation from this range is dangerous.

Tubular secretion probably plays only a minor role in the function of human kidneys, but in animals, such
as marine fish and desert amphibians which lack glomeruli and Bowman's capsules, tubular secretion is
the only mode of excretion. When the blood pressure, and consequently the filtration pressure, drop
below a certain level, filtration stops and urine is formed by tubular secretion only.
High threshold substances : Such substances are absorbed almost all. Example – Sugar, amino acids,
vitamins etc.
Low threshold substances : They are absorbed in low concentration. Example – Urea, creatinine, phosphate.
Non threshold substances : They are not reabsorbed. Example – Uric acid.

Summary of events occurring in a nephron
Materials transferred Nephron region Process involved Mechanism
1. Glucose, Amino acids, Bowman's capsule Glomerular Ultrafiltration

Vitamins, Hormones, Na+, K+, filtration
Mg2+, Ca+2, H2O, Urea, Uric Acid,
Creatinine, Ketone Bodies.
2. Glucose, Amino Acids, Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Active transport

Hormones, Vitamins, Na+, K+,
Mg2+, Ca+2
3. Cl– Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Passive transport
4. Water Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Osmosis
5. Urea Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Diffusion
6. H2O Narrow region of descending Reabsorption Omosis

limb of Henle's loop
7. Na+,K+,Mg+2,Ca+2,Cl– Narrow region of ascending limb Reabsorption Diffusion

of Henle's loop
8.Inorganic ions as above Wide part of ascending limb of Reabsorption Active transport
Henle's loop
9.H2O Distal convoluted tubule, Reabsorption Osmosis

collecting tubule, collecting duct with ADH Help
10. Na+ Distal convoluted tubule, Reabsorption Active transport

collecting tubule, collecting duct with aldosterone
help
reabsorption
secretion
11. Urea Last part of collecting duct Reabsorption Diffusion

with aldosterone
help
reabsorption

secretion
12. Creatinine, Hippuric Acid, Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Active transport
Foreign substances with aldosterone
help
reabsorption
secretion
13. K+, H+ Distal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Active transport

with aldosterone
help
reabsorption
secretion
14. NH3 Distal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Diffusion

with aldosterone
help
reabsorption
secretion
15. Urea Ascending limb of Henle's loop Reabsorption Diffusion

(Thin part) with aldosterone
help
reabsorption
secretion
Urine constituants in man (in gram)
1. Total volume 1,200 ml – per 24 h
2. Water 1,140 ml
3. Total solids 50 gm
4. Glucose 0
5. Protein 0
6. Ketones 0
7. Urea 30 gm

8. Creatinine 1.6 gm
9. Creatine 0.1 gm
10. Hippuric acid 0.7 gm
11. Urobilinogen 0.4 mg
12. Porphyrins 50 – 300 g
13. Uric acid 0.7 gm
14. NaCl 15.0 gm
15. K 3.3 gm
16. Ca 0.3 gm
17. Mg 0.1 gm
18. Fe 0.1 gm
0.2 0.005 gm
19. SO4 2.5 gm
20. PO4 2.5 gm

 pH of urine = 6
 Yellow colour of urine is due to Urochrome pigment.
 volume of urine is one day = 1 litre – 1.5 litre per day
 Specific gravity = 1 – 1.04
Urine constituants in man (in %)
1. Water 96%
2. Urea 2%
3. Uric acid 0.2%
4. NH3 0.25%
5. Creatinine 0.5%
6. Hippuric acid 0.025%
7. Salt 1%

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS IN DIFFERENT ORGANISMS.

(i) Waste products of protein metabolism
(a) Amino acids : These are end products of protein digestion absorbed into the blood from small
intestine. Certain invertebrates, like some molluscs (eg Unio, Limnae, etc.) and some echinoderms (eg
Asterias) excrete excess amino acids as such. This is called aminotelic excretion or aminotelism.
(b) Ammonia NH 4 or NH 3  : In most animals, excess amino acids are deaminated, i.e. degraded into their
keto and ammonia groups. The keto groups are used in catabolism for producing ATP, whereas ammonia
is excreted as such or in other forms. Ammonia is highly toxic and highly soluble in water. Its excretion as
such, therefore, requires a large amount of water. That is why, most of the aquatic arthropods, bony and
freshwater fishes, amphibian tadpoles, turtles, etc excrete ammonia. This type of excretion is called
ammonotelic excretion or ammonotelism.
(c) Urea CO  NH 2  2 : This is less toxic and less soluble in water than ammonia. Hence, it can stay for some
time in the body. Many land vertebrates (adult amphibians, mammals) and such aquatic animals which
cannot afford to lose much water (e.g. elasmobranch fishes), turn their ammonia into urea for excretion.
This type of excretion is called ureotic excretion or ureotelism.
(d) Uric acid : Animals living in dry (arid) conditions, such as land gastropods, most insects, land reptiles
(snakes and lizards), birds etc have to conserve water in their bodies. These, therefore, systhesize crystals
of uric acid from their ammonia. Uric acid crystals are nontoxic and almost insoluble in water. Hence,
these can be retained in the body for a considerable time before being discharged from the body. Uric acid
is the main nitrogenous excretory product discharged in solid form. This excretion is called uricotelic
excretion or uricotelism.
(e) Trimethylamine oxide : Certain marine molluscs, crustaceans and teleost fishes first form
trimethylamine from their ammonia by a process known as methylation. Then, the trimethylamine is
oxidised to trimethylamine oxide for excretion.This oxide is soluble in water, but nontoxic.
(f) Guanine : Spiders typically excrete their ammonia in the form of guanine. Some guanine is also formed
in amphibians, reptiles, birds and earthworms. It is insoluble in water. Hence, no water is required for its
excretion.
(ii) Wasteproducts of nucleic acid metabolism : As a result of nucleic acid digestion, nitrogenous organic
bases – purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine and uracil) – are absorbed
from intestine into the blood. Most of these are excreted out. About 5% of the total excretion of body
accounts for these substances. In man, purines are changed to uric acid for excretion. In most other

mammals, nitrogenous organic bases are excreted in the form of allantoin. Insects, amphibians, reptiles
and birds also excrete these bases in the form of uric acid. Some freshwater molluscs and crustacean
arthropods excrete these in the form of ammonia.
(iii) Some sundry excretory substances (Others excretory products)
(a) Hippuric and ornithuric acids : Sometimes food of rabbit and other mammals may contain traces of
benzoic acid, or this acid may be formed in small amounts during fat metabolism. It is highly toxic. As it is
absorbed in blood, it is combined with glycine and changed into less toxic hippuric acid for excretion. In
birds, benzoic acid is combined with ornithine and changed into ornithuric acid for excretion.
(b) Creatine and creatinine : Muscle cells contain molecules of creatine phosphate, which are high energy
molecules and serve for storage of bioenergy like ATP. It is synthesised by 3 amino acids (G.A.M.)
(Glycine, Argenine and Methionine). Excess amount of this phosphate is, however, excreted out as such,
or after being changed into creatinine.
Differences between ammonotelism, ureotelism and uricotelism
S.No. Ammonotelism Ureotelism Uricotelism
1. Means excretion of nitrogenous Means excretion of nitrogenous Means excretion of nitrogenous

waste mainly as ammonia. waste mainly as urea. waste mainly as uric acid.
2. Uses very little energy in Uses more energy in producing Uses far more energy in
forming ammonia. urea. producing uric acid.
3. Its product is very toxic. Its product is less toxic. Its product is least toxic.
4. Causes considerable loss of Causes less loss of body's water. Causes least loss of body's
body's water. water
5. Occurs in aquatic animals. Occurs in aquatic as well as Occurs in land animals.

land animals.
6. Examples : Amoeba, Scypha, Examples : Earthworm, Examples : Insects, land

Hydra, Earthworm, Unio, Prawn, Cartilaginous fishes, frog, crustaceans, land snails, land
Salamander, Tadpole or frog, turtles, alligators, mammals reptiles birds.
bonyfish. (man).
7. Animals excreting NH3 are Animals excreting urea are Animals excreting uric acid are
called ammoniotelic. termed uroetelic. called uricotelic.

DISORDERS OF KIDNEYS.
(i) Artificial kidney : Artificial kidney, called

haemodialyser, is a machine that is used to filter the
BLOOD
RADIAL PUMP
blood of a person whose kidneys are damaged. The ARTERY
process is called haemodialysis. It may be defined

as the separation of small molecules (crytalloids)
from large molecules (colloids) in a solution by SAPHENOUS
VEIN CELLOPHANE
MEMBRANE
interposing a semipermeable membrane between BUBBLE
TRAP
the solution and water (dialyzing solution). It
works on the principle of dialysis, i.e. diffusion of
small solute molecules through a semipermeable COMPRESSED
CO2 AND AIR CONSTANT USED
FRESH
membrane (G. dia = = through, lyo = separate). DIALYZING TEMPERATURE DIALYZING
BATH SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Haemodialyser is a cellophane tube suspended in a
Fig. – Flow of blood through an artificial kidney for haemodialysis
salt-water solution of the same composition as the
normal blood plasma, except that no urea is present. Blood of the patient is pumped from one of the
arteries into the cellophane tube after cooling it to 0oC and mixing with an anticoagulant (heparin). Pores
of the cellophane tube allow urea, uric acid, creatinine, excess salts and excess H+ ions to diffuse from the
blood into the surrounding solution. the blood, thus purified, is warmed to body temperature, checked to
ensure that it is isotonic to the patient's blood, and mixed with an antiheparin to restore its normal clotting
power. It is then pumped into a vein of the patient. Plasma proteins remain in the blood and the pores of
cellophane are too small to permit the passage of their large molecules. The use of artificial kidney
involves a good deal of discomfort and a risk of the formation of blood clots. It may cause fever,
anaphylaxis, cardiovascular problems and haemorrhage. Kidney transplant is an alternative treatment.
C.A.P.D. : Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis.
(ii) Kidney (Renal) Transplantation
Meaning : Grafting a kidney from a compatible donor to restore kidney functions in a recipient suffering
from kidney failure is called renal transplantation.
History : First kidney transplant was performed between identical twins in 1954 by Dr. Charles Hufnagel,
a Washington surgeon, India's first kidney transplant was done on December 1, 1971 at Christian Medical
College, Vellore, TamilNadu. The recipient was a 35 years old person Shaninughan.
Eligibility : All patients with terminal renal failure are considered eligible for kidney transplantation,
except those at risk from another life-threating disease.

Donors : A living donor can be used in a kidney transplant. It may be in identical twin, a sibling, or a close
relative. If the living donors are not available, a cadaveric donor may be used (cadaver is a dead body).
Over half of the kidney transplants are from cadavers.
Success rate : A kidney transplant from an identical twin, called isogeneic graft or isograft, is always
successful. A renal transplant from a sibling or a close relative or a cadaver, termed allogeneic graft or
homograft, is usually successful with the use of an immunosupressant that prevents graft rejection by
body's immune response. Many renal transplant recipients are known to have retained functional grafts
for over 20 years. Earlier, renal transplantation was limited to patients under 55 years. Now, however,
with better techniques, kidney grafting has been done in selected patients in the 7th decade of life.
Pretransplant preparation : It includes haemodialysis to ensure a relatively normal metabolic state, and
provision of functional, infection-free lower urinary tract.
Donor selection and kidney preservation : A kidney donor should be free of hypertension, diabetes, and
malignancy. A living donor is also carefully evaluated for emotional stability, normal bilateral renal
function, freedom from other systematic disease, and histocompatibility. Cadaveric kidney is obtained
from previously healthy person who sustained brain death but maintained stable cardiovascular and renal
function. Following brain death, kidneys are removed as early as possible, flushed with special cooling
solutions, such as mannitol and stored in iced solution. Preserved kidneys usually function well if
transplanted within 48 hours.
Recipient-Donor Matching : Recipient and donor are tested for 3 factors :
(iii) Kidney diseases
Pyelonephritis : It is an inflammation of renal pelvis, calyces and interstitial tissue (G.pyelos = trough, tub;
nephros = kidney; itis = inflammation). It is due to local bacterial infection. Bacteria reach here via urethra
and ureter. Inflammation affects the countercurrent mechanism, and the victim fails to concentrate urine.
Symptoms of the disease include pain the back, and frequent and painful urination.
Glomerulonephritis : It is the inflammation of glomeruli. It is caused by injury to the kidney, bacterial
toxins, drug reaction, etc. Proteins and R.B.Cs pass into the filtrate.
Cystitis : It is the inflammation of urinary bladder (G.kystis = bladder, –itis = inflammation). It is caused by
bacterial infection. Patient has frequent, painful urination, often with burning sensation.
Uremia : Uremia is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in the blood. It results from the decreased
excretion of urea in the kidney tubules due to bacterial infection (nephritis) or some mechanical
obstruction. urea poisons the cells at high concentration.

Kidney stone (Renal calculus) : It is formed by precipitation of uric acid or oxalate. It blocks the kidney
tubule. It causes severe pain (renal colic) in the back, spreading down to thighs. The stone may pass into
the ureter or urinary bladder and may grow, and cause severe pain of blackade. When in bladder, the
patient experiences frequent and painful urination and may pass blood in the urine. Surgery may be
needed to remove stone and relieve pain.
Kidney (Renal) failure (RF) : Partial or total inability of kidneys to carry on excretory and salt-water
regulatory functions is called renal or kidney failure. Result kidney failure leads to (i) uremia, i.e., an
excess of urea and other nitrogenous wastes in the blood (G.ouron = urine, haima-blood); (ii) Salt-water
imbalance; and (iii) stoppage of erythropoietin secretion.
Causes : Many factors can cause kidney failure. Among these are tubular injury, infection, bacterial toxins,
glomerulonephritis (inflammation of glomeruli) arterial or venous obstruction, fluid and electrolyte
depletion, intrarenal precipitation of calcium and urates, drug reaction, heammorrhage, etc.
ACCESSORY EXCRETORY ORGANS
(i) Skin : Many aquatic animals, such as Hydra and starfish, excrete ammonia into the surrounding water
by diffusion through the body wall. In land animals, the skin is often not permeable to water. This is an
adaptation to prevent loss of body's water. Mammalian skin retains a minor excretory role by way of its
sudoriferous, or sweat, glands and sebaceous, or oil glands.
(a) Sweat gland : Sweat glands pass out sweat. The latter consists of water containing some inorganic salts
(chiefly sodium chloride) and traces of urea and lactic acid. It also contains very small amounts of amino
acids and glucose. Sweat resulting from heavy muscular exercise contains a lot of lactic acid. The latter is
produced in the muscles by glycolysis. Loss of salt by sweating produces no immediate problem because
water is also lost, and the salt concentration of body fluids is not much changed. However, taking a lot of
water after heavy sweating dilutes the tissue fluid, causing 'electrolyte imbalance'. This may cause muscle
cramps. A dilute salt solution should be taken in case of heavy sweating.
(b) Sebaceous glands : Oil glands pass out sebum that contains some lipids such as waxes, sterols, other
hydrocarbons and fatty acids.
(ii) Lungs : Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products formed in respiration. Lungs remove the
CO2 and some water as vapour in the expired air. Lungs have access to abundant oxygen and oxidise
foreign substances, thus causing detoxification and also regulate temperature.

(iii) Liver : Liver changes the decomposed haemoglobin of the worn-out red blood corpuscles into bile
pigments, namely, bilirubin and biliverdin. These pigments pass into the alimentary canal with the bile for
elimination in the faeces. The liver also excretes cholesterol, steroid hormones, certain vitamins and drugs

via bile. Infected or damaged liver does not remove bile pigments which accumulate in the blood and
cause jaundice. The bile pigments impart yellowish tinge to the skin and mucosa (known as jaundice).
Liver deaminates the excess and unwanted amino acids, producing ammonia, which is quickly combined
with CO2 to form urea in urea or ornithine cycle. Urea is less toxic than ammonia. It is removed by the
kidneys.
(iv) Large intestine : Epithelial cells of the colon transfer some inorganic ions, such as calcium, magnesium
and iron, from the blood into the cavity of the colon for removal with the faeces.
(v) Saliva : Heavy metals and drugs are excreted in the saliva.
(vi) Gills : Gills remove CO2 in aquatic animals. They also excrete salt in many bony fish.
WORK SHEET - 1
EXCRETION AND EXCRETORY WASTE PRODUCTS
Basic Level
1. Which one is not correct
(a) Humans – Uriotelic (b) Birds – Uricotelic
(c) Lizards – Uricotelic (d) Whale – Ammonotelic

2. Which of the following are uricotelic animals
(a) Rohu and frog (b) Lizard and crow (c) Camel and frog (d) Earthworm and eagle
3. Uric acid is formed in human from
(a) Purines (b) Proteins (c) Glucose (d) Pyrimidines
4. Aquatic reptiles are
(a) Ammonotelic (b) Ureotelic over land (c) Ureotelic (d) Ureotelic in water
5. Those animals which excrete a large amount of NH 3 are
(a) Terrestrial (b) Egg laying (c) Amphibious (d) Aquatic

6. Biliverdin and bilirubin are excreted mainly alongwith
(a) Urine (b) Faeces (c) Sweat (d) Vitamins
7. Which of the following is the nitrogenous waste
(a) Creatinine (b) Creatine (c) Guanine (d) All the above
8. The least toxic nitrogen waste of urine is
(a) Ammonia (b) Allantois (c) Urea (d) Uric acid
9. Excretory product of mammals is
(a) Urea (b) Uric acid (c) Ammonia (d) All

10. Ascaris is
(a) Ammonotelic (b) Ureotelic (c) Uricotelic (d) Both (a) and (b)
11. Green glands, present in some arthropods, help in
(a) Respiration (b) Excretion (c) Digestion (d) Reproduction
12. Excretion in cockroach takes place by
(a) Nephridium (b) Coxal glands (c) Parotid gland (d) Malpighian tubules
13. The loop of Henle is most highly developed in
(a) Fresh water fishes (b) Salamanders (c) Desert lizards (d) Mammals
14. Which organ of earthworm is analogous to our kidney
(a) Clitellum (b) Nephridium (c) Ovary (d) Testis
15. Excretory organ of crustaceans are
(a) Uriniferous tubules (b) Green gland (c) Coxal gland (d) Malpigian tubules
16. Excretory system of housefly is
(a) Flame cells (b) Keber's organ (c) Nephridia (d) Malphigian tubules
17. Function of contractile vacuole in protozoa is
(a) Digestion of food (b) Locomotion
(c) Osmoregulation (d) Uptake of oxygen from water

18. The Malpighian corpuscle lies in the
(a) Medulla (b) Liver (c) Cortex (d) Pelvis
19. Each human kidney has nearly
(a) 10,000 nephrons (b) 50,000 nephrons (c) 1,00,000 nephrons (d) 1 million nephrons
20. Human kidney has
(a) Ciliated nephron (b) No loop of Henle
(c) Mesonephric duct (d) Glomeruli concentrated in the cortex

21. Dialysis is used when the patient suffers from
(a) Heart failure (b) Liver failure (c) Lung failure (d) Kidney failure
22. The artificial kidney is designed according to the principle of
(a) Hydrolysis (b) Dialysis (c) Lysis (d) Secretion
23. Diabetes is a disease in which the urine contains

(a) Sugar (b) Salt (c) Fat (d) Protein

24. Proximal and distal convoluted tubules are parts of a

(a) Nephron (b) Oviduct (c) Vas deferens (d) Caecum
25. ADH influences water permeability in the
(a) Proximal tubule (b) Distal tubule (c) Collecting tubule (d) Both (a) and (b)
26. The basic functional unit of human kidney is
(a) Nephron (b) Pyramid (c) Nephridia (d) Henle's loop

27. The two kidneys lie (In human)
(a) At the level of ovaries (b) At the same level
(c) Left kidney at a higher level than the right one
(d) Right kidney at a higher level than the left one

28. Length of female urethra is
(a) 15cm (b) 10 cm (c) 4 cm (d) 2 cm
29. Renals columns of Bertini are found in the kidney of man for the collection of
(a) Blood (b) Salt water (c) Urine (d) None of these
30. One of the following is not kidney disorder
(a) Pyelitis (b) Oedema (c) Bright's disease (d) Paget's disease
31. How many litres of blood is filtered in the kidney of man per 24 h
(a) 2500 ml (b) 100 litres (c) 500 litres (d)1800 litres
32. Match the following
'A' 'B'
A. Loop of Henle 1. Carries blood into the kidney

B. Renal artery 2. Area where a considerable amount of
reabsorption takes place
C. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Main area of secretion

D. Glomerulus 4. Filtration of blood
E. Distal convoluted tubule 5. Plays a role in concentration of urine
The correct pairing sequence is

(a) 5, 1, 2, 4, 3 (b) 5, 1, 2, 3, 4 (c) 1, 5, 3, 4, 2 (d) None of these
33. In the diagram of excretory system of human beings given below, different parts have been
indicated by alphabets; choose the answer in which these alphabets have been correctly
matched with the parts which they represent

B
A
(a) A = Kidney, B = Abdominal aorta, C=Ureters, D=Urinary bladder,E = Urethra, F = Renal pelvis
(b) A=Kidney, B=Abdominal aorta, C = Urethra, D = Urinary bladder, E = Ureters, F = Renal pelvis
(c) A=Kidney, B=Renal pelvis, C=Urethra, D = Urinary bladder, E = Ureters, F = Abdominal aorta
(d) A=Kidney, B=Abdominal aorta, C=Urethra, D = Urinary bladder, E = Renal pelvis, F = Ureters
34. Reabsorption of glucose from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney tubule is carried out by
(a) Active transport (b) Osmosis
(c)Brownian movement (d)Diffusion
35. Ultrafiltration takes place in
(a) Blood capillaries (b) Tissue fluid (c) Glomerulus (d) Urinary bladder
36. Glucose and 80% water is absorbed in
(a) Proximal convoluted tubule (b) Loop of Henle
(c) Distal convoluted tubule (d) Collecting tubule

37. In man, the urea is mainly produced in
(a) Liver (b) Kidneys (c) Gall bladder (d) Spleen

38. The Bowman's capsule is
(a) A part of uriniferous tubule and is the site of filtration of various blood constituents during the
formation of urine
(b) A part of uriniferous tubule and is the site of reabsorption of water and glucose
(c) Present in the liver and is the site of secretion of the bile juice
(d) The normal blood sugar is fructose
39. In public urinals, the urine on standing gives a pungent smell, due to
(a) Conversion of both urea and uric acid into ammonia
(b) Conversion of uric acid into ammonia by ornithine cycle
(c) Conversion of urea into ammonia by bacteria (d) None of these
40. A man excretes about ………. urine in 24 hours
(a) 1 litre (b) 1.5 litres (c) 2 litres (d) 2.5 litres

IIT FOUNDATION PROGRAMME BIOLOGY : 2023
NOTES
CLASS : 10 Page No. E.28 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. INTRODUCTION N. 1
2. NERVOUS SYSTEM IN VARIOUS ANIMALS N. 1
3. DEVELOPMENT OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
IN HUMAN N.2
4. PARTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM N. 10
5. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CEREBRUM AND CEREBELLUM N.12
6. SUBDIVISIONS, PARTS AND ASSOCIATED
STRCUTURES OF A VERTEBRATE BRAIN N. 13
7. CRANIAL NERVES OF MAMMAL AT A GLANCE N.22
WORK SHEET -1
NERVOUS SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
In all the multicellular animals above the level of sponges, the system meant to perceive stimuli detected
bythe receptors, to transmit these to various body parts, and to effect responses through effectors, is called
nervous system. In vertebrates, it is highly specialized and plays at least three vital roles
(i) Response to stimuli : By responding to all sorts of stimuli, it acquaints the organism with them so that
the organism may react and orient itself favourably in the surrounding environment.
(ii) Coordination : Along with endocrine system, the nervous system also serves to coordinate and
integrate the activities of various parts of the body so that they act harmoniously as a unit. This makes
possible the integrated control of the internal body environment (homeostasis). However, the nervous
system brings about rapid coordination by means of nerves, whereas the endocrine system does so
gradually and slowly by secreting hormones into blood.
(iii) Learning : By accumulating memories from past experiences, in higher vertebrates at least, the nervous
system serves as a centre for learning. The branch of medical science dealing with the structure (anatomy),
functions (physiology) and diseases (pathology) of nervous system is called neurology.
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN VARIOUS ANIMALS
(i) Coelenterata : True nerve cell or ganglion cells occur for the first time in coelenterates. They are derived
from interstitial cells of epidermis, forming nerve net or nerve plexus below whole epidermis.
(ii) Platyhelminthes : Nervous system of planarians marks the beginning of a centralized nervous system
encountered in higher animals. In Nematoda (e.g. ascaris) these system made up of central nervous system,
peripheral nervous system and rectal nervous system. Rectal nervous system more developed in male.
(iii) Annelida : Nervous system well developed and concentrated. It consists of three parts : central
nervous system, peripheral nervous system and sympathetic nervous system, central N.S. made up of
Nerve ring and ventral nerve cord. Nerves are of mixed type, consisting of both afferent (sensory) and
efferent (motor) fibres.
(iv) Arthopoda : The nervous system of prawn or arthopods is of the annelidan type. However it is
somewhat larger and has more fusion of ganglia. It consists of (i) The central nervous system including
brain connected with a ventral ganglionated nerve cord through a pair of circum-oesophageal
commissures, (ii) The peripheral nervous system including nerves and (iii) The sympathetic nervous
system.
CLASS : 10 Page no.N.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM

(v) Mollusca : In gastropodes (e.g. pila) consists of paired ganglia, commissures and connective uniting
them and nerves running from these central organs to all parts of the body.
(vi) Echinodermata : Echinodermates has simple and primitive type nervous system. It has the form of a
nerve net, consisting of nerve fibres and a few ganglion cells, all confined to the body wall except the
visceral nerve plexus situated in the gut wall.
(vii)Hemichordata : Nervous system is of primitive type resembling that of coelenterates and

echinodermates.
Chordates : Nervous system well developed and formed by ectoderm. It is formed by CNS, peripheral
nervous system and autonomous N.S.
DEVELOPMENT OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM IN HUMAN
The central nervous system of vertebrates includes the brain and the spinal cord. These are derived from a
longitudinal mid-dorsal ectodermal thickening of the embryo, called the meduallary or neural plate. This
neural plate or neural groove is converted by fusion into a closed mid-dorsal longitudinal neural tube lying
above the notochord. Histologically, the embryonic neural tube exhibits three zones of cells.
ENCEPHALON FOREBRAIN HINDBRAIN

(PROSENCEPHALON (RHOMBENCEPHALON)
SPINAL CORD
ECTODERM NEURAL PLATE NEURAL GROOVE NEURAL FOLD
SPINAL CORD
A MID BRAIN B
(MESENCEPHALON) NEURAL CREST
PINEAL BODY OPTIC LOBES
PARIETAL BODY CEREBELLUM A B
(METENCEPHALON) NOTOCHORD
CEREBRUM
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
(TELENCEPHALON)
(MYELENCEPHALON) ECTODERM NEURAL CREST GANGLION
PALLIUM
SPINAL CORD NEUROCOEL
NEURAL
OLFACTORY LOBE TUBE
CRUS CEREBRUM
(RHINENCEPHALON)
CORPUS STRIATUM DIENCEPHALON C
C NOTOCHORD D
OPTIC CHIASMA THALAMUS
HYPOPHYSIS PITUITARY INFUNDIBULUM Fig. – Stages in the embryonic development of central
BODY nervous system in T.S.
Fig. – Stages in development of brain. A – Anterior end of neural tube in
lateral view. B – M.L.S. of embryonic brain to show three primary cerebral
vesicles. C – Differentiation of brain from three vesicles.

PARTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is divided into three parts
(i) Central nervous system (CNS) : In all the vertebrates including man, CNS is dorsal, hollow and non-
ganglionated while in invertebrates when present, it is ventral, solid and ganglionated. CNS is formed of
two parts : Brain – Upper and broader part lying in the head; and Spinal cord – Lower, long and narrow
part running from beginning of neck to trunk.
(ii) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) : It is formed of long, thin, whitish threads called nerves which
extend between CNS and body parts (muscles, glands and sense organs). It controls the voluntary
functions of the body. It has cranial and spinal nerves.
(iii) Autonomic nervous system (ANS) : It is formed of nerve fibres extending upto visceral organs and
controls the involuntary functions of visceral organs of body like heart beat, peristalsis etc. It is again
formed of two systems: sympathetic and para-sympathetic nervous system which have opposing
functions.
(i) Central nervous system : Central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord. CNS is covered
by 3 meninges and its wall has two type of matter.
Types of matter : CNS of vertebrates is formed of two types of matter –
(a) Grey matter : It is formed of cell-bodies and non-medullated nerve fibres.
(b) White matter : It is formed of only medullated nerve fibres which appear white due to presence of
medullary sheath.
Meninges : The meninges are connective tissue membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord of
CNS. In the fishes, there is only one meninx called meninx primitiva. In amphibians, reptiles and birds, the
brain is covered by two meninges or membranes : inner pia-arachnoid and outer dura mater. In mammals,
CNS is covered by three meninges or membranes

(a) Duramater (Dura = tough; mater = mother): Outermost, thick, fibrous, 2-layered meninge. The outer
layer adheres to skull at many places while the inner layer follows the major convolutions (sulci and gyri)
of the brain and spinal cord. Meningeal artery traverses via duramater.
(b) Arachnoid (= spider-like web) : It is closely related to duramater on its outside and with piameter on the
inside. The space between the arachnoid and piameter is called sub-arachnoid space and is filled with cerebro-
spinal fluid.
(c) Piameter (Pia = soft = tender) : This is the innermost meninge and follows the convolutions of the outer
surface of brain and spinal cord. It is highly vascular and penetrates deeply in certain places bringing it
with its vasculature and placing it in contact with the ventricles of the brain and neurocoel of spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal fluid : All the ventricles of the brain are continuous and lined by a columnar, ciliated
epithelium, the ependyma. They contain lymph-like extracellular fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid
(C.S.F.)
The cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF) provides
(a) Protection to brain from mechanical socks.
(b) Optimum physiological fluid environment for neural functions e.g. conduction of nerve impulses,
transport of aminoacids, sugars, O2 etc.
(c) ‘Relief’ mechanism for the increase in intracranial pressure that occurs with each arterial pulse of blood to
brain.
(d) ‘Sink’ like facility for metabolites of brain.
(e) The blood CSF barrier for selective transport process between blood and CSF.
HUMAN BRAIN
PARIETA
L LOBE
FRONTAL LOBE GYRUS
SULCI
CORPUS
TEMPORAL CALLOSU
LOBE M
PINEAL
HYPOTHALAM
US GLAND
PITUITARY OCCIPITAL
GLAND LOBE
CEREBRAL
PEDUNCLE
CEREBELLU
PONS. M
MEDULLA
OBLONGATA
Fig. – Sagittal section of human brain

 Increased cerebrospinal fluid may result Meningites.
 Meningites may appear due to infection and inflamation of meninges or injury of meninges.
 Infection may be viral, bacterial or both. The most common cause of meningitis in the infection of
streptococcus and neumoniae, neisseria meningitidis and haemophilus influenzae.
 Lumber puncture is done for drainage of excess of cerebrospinal fluid during meningitis.
 Cerebro-spinal fluid is formed by choroid plexus (ACP and PCP).
There are three choroid plexus in humans
(a) Lateral choroid plexus : It is in the roof of I and II ventricle.
(b) Anterior choroid plexus : It is in the roof of III ventricle (diacoel).
(c) Posterior choroid plexus or pelochoroida : It is in the roof of IV ventricle.
(a) Brain (Encephalon) : It is soft, whitish, large sized and slightly flattened structure present inside cranial
cavity of cranium of the skull. In man, it is about 1200-1400 gm in weight and has about 10,000 million
neurons. Brain is made up of 3 parts

(1) Fore brain (Prosencephalon)
(i) Olfactory lobe – Rhinencephalon
(ii) Cerebrum – Telencephalon
(iii) Diencephalon – Diencephalon
(2) Mid brain (Mesencephalon)
(i) Optic lobes – Mesencephalon
(3) Hind brain (Rhambencephalon)
(i) Cerebellum – Metencephalon
(ii) Medulla oblongata – Myelencephalon
(1) Fore brain or Prosencephalon : It forms anterior two-third of brain and is formed of three parts.
(i) Olfactory lobes : These are one pair, small sized, club-shaped, solid, completely covered by
cerebral
hemisphere dorsally. Each is differentiated into two parts –
(a) Olfactory bulb : Anterior, swollen part, and
(b) Olfactory tract : Posterior and narrow part which ends in olfactory area of temporal lobe of
cerebral hemisphere.
Function : These control the smell.
 It is normal in frog, rabbit and man.
 It is well developed in dog. So power of smell is more in dog.
These are also well developed in dog fish and name dog fish is on the basis of well developed olfactory lobes.
(ii) Cerebrum : (a) Structure is divided into 5 lobes (i) frontal (ii) parietal, (iii) occipital, (iv) temporal and
(v) limbic. A lobe called insula is hidden as it lies deep in the sylvian fissure. The cerebral hemisphere are
separated from olfactory lobes by rhinal fissure. The median fissure divides the cerebrum into a right and a
left cerebral hemisphere. Two cerebral hemispheres are interconnected by thick band of transverse nerve
fibres called corpus callosum. The peripheral portion of each cerebral hemisphere is formed of grey matter
and is called cerebral cortex, while deeper part is formed of white matter and is called cerebral medulla.
Cerebral cortex is the highest centre for many sensations and activities and is with a number of sensory
areas.
White matter : It is inner part of brain. Its fibres are divide into 3 categories –

(i) Corpus striatum : Corpus striatum is the name given to caudate nucleus and lenticular nucleus. Caudate
is tail shaped while the lenticular nucleus is lenti shaped. The lenticular nucleus is sub-divided in putamen
(outer shell) and globus pallidus (ball).
Corpus callosum : It is the band of white neurons present between both cerebral hemisphere and connect
them on medial surface. It is present only mammal. It has anterior part genu, middle part trunchus and last
part splenium.
Below corpus callosum there are two fused band of white neurons called fornix. There anterior part is
called column and posterior part is called crura. Between column and genu a membrane is called septum
lucidum or septum pellicidum. Septum lucidum encloses a space called V5 or Pseudocoel, because it is not
possessing C.S.F. i.e. why it is called pseudocoel.
Limbic system : It is also called emotional brain or animal brain. Limbic system controlling emotion,
animal behaviour like chewing, licking, STRAE MEDULARIS
sniffing, rage, pain, plessure, anger, sexual

MAMILLARY BODY
feelings, grooming. It has following structure CAUDATE NUCLEUS

OCCIPITAL SIGNATURE GYRUS
(i) Singulate gyrus : It is a region of pre
central gyrus. OLFACTORY BULB
FRONTAL
AMYGDALOID BODY
(ii) Hippocampal gyrus : It is a region of HIPPOCAMPAL
GYRUS
temporal lobe near colossomarginal sulcus.

DENTATE
GYRUM
These two structure are combinely called
limbic lobe.
(vi) Diencephalon cavity is called, III vertricle or diacoel : The thin roof of this cavity is known as the
epithalamus, the thick right and left sides as the thalami, and floor as the hypothalamus.
(a) Epithalamus : The epithalamus is not formed of nervous tissue. It consists of piamater only. Hence, it is
of relatively little significance as a nerve centre. Its anterior part is vascular and folded. It is called anterior
choroid plexus. Behind this plexus, the epithalamus gives out a short stalk, the pineal stalk which hears a
small, rounded body, the pineal body, at its tip.
(b) Thalami : A pair of mass of grey matter formes the major part of the wall and floor of diancephalon. Its
nuclei have complex connection with the sensory area of the cerebral cortex. It receives and integrates
sensory impulses from the eye, ear and skin. It has nerve connection with motorcortex and act as relay
centre. Habenular commissure is a band of nerve fivers connecting two thalami.

(c) Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is visible in the ventral view of the brain and forms the floor of
diencephalon. Hypothalamus also gives a nervous process called infundibulum (forms pars nervosa)
which meets a rounded non-nervous pharyngeal outgrowth called hypophysis. Both collectively form
master gland called pituitary body. A stalked outgrowth of infundibulum combines with a pouch-like
epithelial outgrowth (Rathke’s pouch) of the roof of embryonic mouth (= stomodaeum), forming a
pituitary gland or hypophysis. Which secretes a number of hormones. In front of hypothalamus, there is
cross of two optic nerves called optic chiasma. Behind the hypothalamus, there is one pair of small,
rounded, nipple-like bodies called mammilary bodies or corpora mammillares. The hypothalamus consists
of many masses of grey matter, called hypothalamic nuclei, scattered in the white matter.
In man and some other mammals, most fibres of optic nerves cross, but some fibres do not cross and
innervate the eyes of their own respective sides. This arrangement enables man and these mammals to
have a binocular vision. Rabbits simply have a monocular vision.
(1) Olfactory lobe : It is centre of smell.

(2) Cerebrum : Cerebral cortex is made up of grey matter and differentiated into –
(i) Sensory area (ii) Motor area (iii) Associated area
Cerebrum is a centre for
(i) Intelligence (ii) Emotion (iii) Will power (iv) Memory
(v) Consciousness (vi) Imagination (vii) Experience (viii) Knowledge

(ix) Reasoning (x) Voluntary controls (xi) Weeping and laughing (xii) Micturition
(xiii) Defecation
If cerebrum is removed animal becomes simple reflax animal.
(3) Diencephalon : It is centre for

(i) Carbohydrate metabolism (ii) Fat metabolism
(iii) It relays impulses from posterior region of brain and also to posterior region of brain.
(iv) Its secretes neurohormone (v) From part of pituitary gland
(vi) Secrete cerebrospinal fluid
Hypothalamus : It is floor of diencephalon and centre for
(i) Hunger (ii) Thirst (iii) Sweating (iv) Sleep
(v) Fatigue (vi) Temperature (vii) Anger
(viii) Pleasure, love and hate
(ix) Satisfaction
(x) It is also centre to release factors for endocrine glands.
(xi) It also control A.N.S (autonomic nervous system)\
(xii) Centers for regulation of parasympathetic (cranio-sacral) activity. When stimulated, it causes
slowing
down of heart beat, contraction of the visceral muscles.
(4) Mid brain or mesencephalon : It is also completely covered by cerebral hemisphere. It is formed of two parts –
(i) Optic lobes : These are one pair, large sized lobes present on dorsal side. Each is divided transversely
into upper and larger superior coliculus and lower and smaller inferior coliculus. So there are four optic
TEGMENTUM OR CEREBRAL PEDUNCLE TECTUM
lobes, so called optic quadrigemina (only in mammals). In frog
these are known as bigemina. Valve of vieussens: It joins the
CRUS OF
optic lobe with cerebellum. CEREBRUM
ITER
(a) Superior optic lobe or superior celliculus : They are
PIGMENTUM
concerned with reflex action of eye, head and neck in response to
visual stimulus. Fig. –Lateral view
(b) Inferior calliculus : They are concerned with movement of head and trunk in response to hearing stimulus.

(ii) Cerebral peduncle (crura cerebri) : They are the pair of thick bands of longitudinal nerve fiber present
on the floor or ventral side of mid brain. The dorsal part of cerebral peduncle (white matter) is called
Tagmentum while most ventral part (gray
CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA
matter) is called crura cerebrae or crus of

LATERAL LEMNISCUS
cerebrum. Dorsal thick wall of mid brain is
CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT
known as optic tectum. Iter is between OCULOMOTOR
NUCLEUS MESIAL LEMNISCUS
tegmentum and tectum. Cerebral peduncle are SUBSTANTIA NIGRA

TEMPOROPONTINE TRACT
infect possessing assinding and desending tracts,
CORTICOSPINAL
(PYRAMIDAL) TRACT
connecting upper and lower region of brain. RED NUCLEUS FRONTOPONTINE TRACT
RUBROSPINAL
In white matter of cerebral peduncle these are DECUSSATION OCULOMOTOR NERVE
following sub cortical structure
Function of Mid brain
(a) Pair of anterior optic lobes (which are also known as superior collici) is related with vision.
(b) Pair of posterior optic lobe (known as inferior collici) related with auditory.
(c) These act as coordination centres between hind and fore brain.
(5) Hind brain : Consists of (i) cerebellum and (ii) medulla oblongata (iii) Pons varolii.
(i) Cerebellum: (Sandwitched brain) : Cerebellum is highly convoluted and well developed in mammals. It
controls the most intricate movements of the body. It coordinates sensory information received from
muscles/joints, visual, auditory and equilibrium receptors as well as flow of impulses from cerebral cortex.
Cerebellum is made up of –
(a) Vermis, (b) Cerebellar lobes (= floccular lobes), (c) Lateral lobes, (d) Pons.
The pons is a thick band of transverse nerve fibers. Cerebellum is joined to parts of brain by afferent and
efferent fibres. Mid brain, pons and medulla have several similar functions and they constitute the brain
stem. Peripheral part is formed of grey matter and is called cerebellar cortex while the central part is
formed of white matter and is called cerebellar medulla. The white matter forms a tree-like branching
pattern called arbor vitae, so the cerebellum is solid internally.

CORPUS
CALLOSUM
FORNIX ANTERIOR CHOROID
PLEXUS
CEREBRUM
THALAMUS
THIRD VENTRICLE
HYPOTHALAMUS
PINEAL
BODY
COLLICUS
MID BRAIN
CEREBRAL
MAMMILARY AQUEDUCT
BODY OF SYLVIUS
OPTIC FOURTH
CHIASMA VENTRICLE
HYPOPHYSIS
CEREBRI
(PITUITARY) CEREBELLU
M
PONS
ARBOR
MEDULLA VITAE
SPINAL CORD
Fig. – Sagittal section of human brain showing the structures

around third ventricle and parts of midbrain and hindbrain
(ii) Medulla oblongata

v4
Medulla oblongata is the hindest and posterior most part of brain.
(iii) Ponus Varolii : An oval mass, called the pons varolii, lies above the medulla oblongata. It consists
mainly of nerve fibres which interconnect the two cerebellar hemispheres and also join the medulla with
highrt brain centres, hence its name pons means bridge. Pons possess pneumotoxic and apneustic areas or
centre. From pons 5, 6, 7 and 8th cranial nerve originate.
Function of hind brain
(1) Cerebellum –
(i) Poorly developed in frog but well developed in mammal.
(ii) It is centre for co-ordination of muscular movement.
(iii) It is primary centre for balancing, equilibrium, orientation.
(2) Medulla oblongata contain centre for
(i) Heart beats (ii) Respiration (iii) Digestion

(iv) Blood pressure (v) Gut peristalsis (vi) Swallowing of food

(vii) Secretion of gland
(viii) Involuntory function – e.g. vomiting, coughing vasoconstrictor, vasodilater, sneezing, hiccouping.
(ix) It control urination, defecation.
Differences between Cerebrum and Cerebellum
Cerebrum Cerebellum
(1) It is the largest part of the brain, forming four- (1) It is the second largest part of the brain, forming
fifths of its weight. one-eighth of its mass.
(2) It covers the rest of the brain. (2) It covers the medulla oblongata only.
(3) It is a part of the forebrain. (3) It is a part of the hindbrain.
(4) It consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres each (4) It consists of two cerebellar hemispheres and a
comprising 4 lobes : frontal, occipital, parietal, median vermis.
temporal.
(5) It encloses 2 lateral ventricles. (5) It is solid.
(6) White matter does not form arbor vitae. (6) White matter form arbor vitae.
(7) It initiates voluntary movements, and is a seat of (7) It maintains posture and equilibrium.
will, intelligence, memory etc.
Cavities or ventricles the brain : The ventricles consist of four hollow fluid filled space inside the brain
and same duct for connection between these ventricte.
OLFACTORY
(i) Olfactory lobe – Rhinocoel CEREBRUM

FORAMEN OF
(ii) Cerebrum – I and II ventricle or lateral ventricle or paracoel. MONRO
THIRD
(iii) Foramen of monero : I and II ventricle communicating with VENTRICLE
LATERAL
IIIrd ventricle by foramen of monero. They are two in human VENTRICLE
and single in rabbit and frog. OPTIC LOBES
ITER
(iv) Diencephalon : Third ventricle or Diocoel.
CEREBELLUM
(v) Iter or cerebral aquiduct or aquiduct of sylvius : It is very FOURTH
VENTRICLE
MEDULLA
narrow cavity between III and IV ventricle.
Fig. Ventricles of brain of rabbi
(vi) Optic lobe : Optocoel.
(vii) Cerebellum : Solid.

(viii) Medulla oblongata : 4th ventricle or metacoel. METACOEL
Cavities of brain and spinal cord are modified

neurocoel. They are lined by low columnar ciliated
epithelium called ependyma.
FORAMEN OF
MONRO
FOURTH
THIRD CEREBRAL
VENTRICLE VENTRICLE
AQUEDUCT
Fig. Diagram showing ventricles of

human brain
Subdivisions, parts and associated strcutures of a vertebrate brain
Divisions Subdivisio Parts Cavity Associated strcutures

ns
(1) Rhinencephalon I Ventricle (Rhinocoel) Olfactory bulbs

Telencephalon Olfactory tracts
Olfactory lobes
Palaeocortex on pallium
Cerebral II or Lateral Corpora striata or basal

hemispheres Ventricles ganglia
(Paracoels) Corpus callosum

Formen of Monro Neocortex on pallium
Paraphysis
(I) (2) Diencephalon Epithalamus (roof)  Habenulae

III Ventricle (Diacoel)
Prosencep Pineal apparatus
halon Parapineal or parietal
(Forebrain)
Thalamus (sides)

Hypothalamus Hypothalamic nuclei

(floor) Optic chiasma
Median eminence
Infundibular stalk
Pituitary
Saccus vasculosus
Mamillary bodies
Anterior choroid plexus
(II) – Crura cerebri Iter or cerebral Optic lobes 

Tectum
Auditory lobes 
Mesencep (floor) aqueduct
Cerebral peduncles
halon
(Midbrain)
(III) (1) Cerebellum Trapezoid body

Rhombenc Metencephalon Pons
ephalon (2) Medulla oblongata IV Ventricle Restiform bodies
(Hind Myelencephalon (Metacoel) Pyramids
brain)
Salient or mammalian features of human brain
The salient or mammalian features in the human brain are
(1) Relatively small, solid olfactory lobes.
(2) Very large cerebral hemispheres divided into lobes and with highly folded surface, fully cover the rest of the
brain.
(3) Corpus callosum interconnecting the cerebral hemispheres.
(4) Very small pineal body.
(5) A pair of mammillary bodies joined to hypothalamus.
(6) Relatively small, solid optic lobes divided into 4 corpora quadrigemina.
(7) Large, solid cerebellum, with highly folded surface and divided into lobes.
(8) Pons varolii present anterior to the cerebellum.

Important Tips
 Tela choroidea is the term used for epithalamus and piamater fused.
 Tela choroidea is made up of epithelium and blood vessels.
 Ataxia mean lacks of muscle coordination. Damage to cerebellum is characterized by ataxia.
 Dyslexia involves an inability of an individual to comprehend written language.
 Multiple sclerosis is the destruction of myelin sheath of neurons of CNS.
 An American scientist Roger Sperry got Nobel Prize in 1981 for his outstanding work on split brain
theory.
 Parkinson’s disease or Paralysis agitans is a defect of brain.
 Parkinsonism is characterised by tremors and progressive rigidity of limbs caused by a degeneration
of brain neurons and a neurotransmitter called dopamine.
 Avian brain has large sized optic lobes to see the objects on the earth while flying so is called eye
brain, while fish brain has large sized olfactory lobes to smell the prey from a distance so is called
nose brain.
 In fishes : Cerebrum is not differentiated in two cerebral hemispheres.
 Hypothalamus has additional lobes to note pressure changes.
 In reptilian brain, pineal eye (parietal body) present in front of pineal body.
 In birds, instictive behaviour is well developed so corpora striata are well developed.
 Grey matter of spinal cord of frog is rectangular white it is butterfly-shaped in mammals.
 Central canal : Cavity of spinal cord.
 Optic bigemina : Two optic lobes in brain and are found from fishes to birds.
 Optic lobes of man are solid and have no optocoel but those of frog have optocoel.
 Optic tectum : Dorsal thick wall of optic lobe.
 Cerebellum is also called little brain.
 Thalami of diencephalon act as relay centres as well as gate keepers of brain.
 Optic chiasma is meant for binocular vision.
 Olfactory lobes of human brain have no rhinocoel while those of frog have rhinocoel.
 Man and birds are less dependent upon smell so olfactory lobes are small sized but are large sized in
cartilage fishes (dog fish), dogs and reptiles as are more dependent upon smell.
 Cerebellum is large sized in fishes, birds and rabbit due to their multidirectional movements and
increased dependency on balance.

 Stimulus for hunger : In February 1998, an American scientist Dr. Masashi Yanagisawa reported that
a drop of sugar level in blood stimulates the apettite centres of lateral hypothalamus to release oraxin
hormone (Gr. Oraxis = hunger) which stimulates hunger.
 Nervous disorders
Agnosia : Failure to recognize;
Alexia : Failure to read;
Agraphia : Failure to write;
Aphasia : Failure to speak (due to injury to Broca’s area)
Analgesia : Loss of sensation of pain;
Anaesthesia : Loss of feeling;
Insomnia : Inability to sleep;
Amnesia : Partial or complete loss of memory;
Coma : Complete loss of consciousness.
Aproxia : Inability to carry out purposeful movements.
Multiple sclerosis : Progressive degenerative disease of CNS and is characterized by many hard scar
tissues.
 Caudal equamma : Bundle of roots in last segment of spinal cord.
 Brain stem : Diancephalon + mid brain + pons medulla.
 Cerebro vascular accident (C.V.A) or stroke : Blocking of blood supply of a part of brain.
 Alzeimer : It is the disease appearing usually after 65 year. It is characterized by dementia usually.
Usually in this disease is ACH producing neurons of cerebral cortex and hippocampal lobe are
degenerated. It is also seen that a amyloid protein is accumulated in the brain. It is the matter of
research.
 Comissure : The band of neurons connecting similar structure of brain or spinal cord.
 Connective : The band of neurons connecting two different structure of brain and spinal cord.
 Associate fibres : If joining fiber are joining two similar structure in same halves then, they are called
associate fiber.
Spinal cord : Present in spinal canal or vertebral canal of vertebral column. It is extended from foramen
magnum to between I and II lumber vertebra. Spinal cord is swollen in cervical and lumber region which
are called cervical and lumber enlargement.

Structure of spinal cord
Conus medullaris : It is last tapering ends of spinal cord, its ciliated central canal is called Vth ventricle.
Cauda equine : Nearly upto birth the length of spinal cord corresponds the length of V.C. but after birth
there is vertically no growth of spinal cord but vertebral column grow upto I lumber vertebra in adult.
Spinal nerve come out through their respective intervertebral foramen, form horse tail hair like cluster
below conus medullaris it is called cauda equine.
Filum terminales : It is extension of piamater below conus up to coccyx. In frog spinal cord also extends
upto end of vertebral column.
Cisterna terminalis : It is last dilation of subarachnoid space below 1st lumbar vertebra. It is a proper site
for lumber puncture or spinal tap, which is done to drain C.S.F out (5 to 10 ml). This C.S.F is used in
diagnosing many diseases of CNS like meningitis, cyphalis, inter cranial pressure, menningococcal
inferaction etc.
Meninges : Like brain, spinal cord is also enclosed with in three membranes. In this case duramater does
not remain attached with the vertebra, instead there is a space between duramater and vertebra called
epidural space. The epidural space is filled with a fluid. The distribution of duramater and piamater in
spinal cord is the same as that of brain.
Reflex action
First of all Marshal Hall (1833) studied the reflex action. Best and Taylor defined reflex action “simplest
form of irritability associated with the nervous system is reflex actions or a reflex reaction is an immediate
involuntary response to a stimulus.” The reflex actions are involuntary actions because these are not under

the conscious control of the brain. The spinal cord and brain stem are responsible for most of the reflex
movements. A few examples of the reflex actions are withdrawal of hand or leg if pricked by a pin,
secretion of saliva as soon as one thinks of delicious food or mere its sight causes salivation, if the body
part is touched with acid or hot object it is automatically, without thinking and planning is withdrawn,
cycling, motor driving etc. Central nervous system is responsible for the control of reflex action.
Reflex arc is formed by the neurons forming the pathway taken by the nerve impulses in reflex action. The
simplest reflexes are found in animals involving a single neuron and the following pathway —
Neuron
Stimulus  Receptor     Effector  Response
The reflex areas in all the higher animals than coelenterates, include at least two neurons, an afferent or
sensory neuron carrying impulses from a receptor towards aggregation of nervous tissue which may be a
ganglion, nerve cord or central nervous system and an efferent or motor neuron carrying impulses away
from the aggregation to an effector.
(a) Component of reflex action : The whole of the reflex are includes six parts –
NERVE IMPULSE FROM
PAIN RECEPTOR
RELAY
PAIN CELL BODY NEURONE
RECEPTOR
SPINAL
NEEDLE NERVE
PRICK DORSAL
ROOT
RECEPTOR, e.g., FREE
NERVE ENDING
MOTOR NEURON
SPINAL CORD IN
WHITE MATTER TRANSVERSE
SYNAPSE SECTION
GRAY MATTER
EFFECTOR, e.g., MUSCLE FIBRES Fig. Reflex arc

(1) Receptor organs : Receptors are windows of the body or guards of the body. These are situated on all,
important organs, for example – eyes, nose, ear, tongue, integument etc. These perceive the stimuli from out side
the body.
(2) Sensory neurons : These are also termed afferent neurons. These carry the stimuli from receptors to
spinal cord. These neurons are situated in the ganglion on the dorsal side of spinal cord.
(3) Nerve centre : Spinal cord is termed as nerve centre. Synaptic connections are formed in it.
(4) Association neurons : These are also called intermediate neurons or interstitial neurons. These are
found in spinal cord. They transfer the impulses from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
(5) Motor neurons : These are situated in the ventral horn of spinal cord. These carry the impulses to
effector organs.
(6) Effector organs : These are the organs, which react and behave in response to various stimuli, for
example – muscles and glands.
(ii) Peripheral nervous system : It is formed of a number of long, thin, whitish threads called nerves
extending between central nervous system and body tissues. Each nerve is formed of bundles of nerve
fibres, fasciculi, held together by connective tissue and surrounded by a white fibrous connective tissue
sheath called epineurium.
The nerve fibres are classified into two categories on the basis of presence or absence of myelin (white
fatty) sheath.
(a) Medullated or Myelinated nerve fibres.

(b) Non-medullated nerve fibres.
On the basis of function, the nerves are of three types
(a) Sensory nerve (b) Motor nerve (c) Mixed nerve
(1) It contains only sensory nerve (1) It contains only motor nerve (1) It contains both sensory and
fibres. fibres. motor nerve fibres.
(2) It conducts nerve impulses (2) It conducts nerve impulses (2) It conducts both sensory and
from sense organs to CNS to from CNS to some muscles or motor impulses.
produce sensation. glands to control their activities. e.g. All spinal nerves, trigeminal
e.g. Optic nerve, auditory nerve. e.g. Occulomotor nerve, nerve.
hypoglossal nerve.
CLASS : 10 Page No. N.21 NERVOUS SYSTEM

On the basis of their origin, nerves are of two types

(a) Cranial or cerebral nerves which either arise from or end into brain.
(b) Spinal nerves which arise from spinal cord.
(a) Cranial nerves
(1) 10 pairs of cranial nerves are present in an anamniote (fishes and amphibians).
(2) Number of cranial nerves found in frog is ten pairs (20).
(3) 12 pairs of cranial nervers are present in an amniote (reptiles, birds and mammals).
(4) Number of cranial nerves found in rabbit and man is 12 pairs (24).
(5) The first 10 pairs are common for frog and rabbit. The additional pairs found in rabbit are spinal
accessory and hypoglossal.
(6) The smallest cranial nerbe is trochlear in human beings, but all animals smallest cranial nerve is
abducens.
(7) The largest cranial nerve is trigeminal in human beings but vagus is largest cranial nerve in all animals.
(8) Vagus supplies the regions other than head.
(9) The sensory cranial nerves are
I Olfactory – Smell
II Optic – Vision
VIII Auditory – Hearing and equilibrium
(10) The motor cranial nerves are : III, IV, VI, XI and XII.
(11) Extraocular muscle nerves are : III, IV and VI.
(12) The mixed cranial nerves are : V, VII, IX and X (4 pairs).
Cranial nerves of mammal at a glance
Name Nature Origin Distribution Function
(1) Olfactory Sensory Olfactory lobe Sensory Receive stimuli from the
Nerves epithelium of sensory epithelium of
olfactory sacs olfactory sac and carry them
to olfactory lobes
(2) Optic nerves Sensory Optic lobes Retina in Eyes Stimulus of light is carried to
optic lobes
(3) Occulomotor Motor Crura cerebri Eye ball Carry the impulses from

nerves muscles, except crura cerebri to the eye
superior oblique muscles
muscle
(4) Trochlear Motor From in between the Superior Carry the impulses from the
nerves optic lobes and oblique muscle brain to superior oblique
cerebellum of eye ball muscles of the eye
(5) Trigeminal Mixed From the gassarion — —

nerves galglia situated on
the lateral side of
medulla oblongata
(i) Ophthalmic Sensory ,, Skin of lips

nerve
(ii) Maxillary Sensory ,, Upper lip, skin Carry the stimuli from these
of nose, lower organs to brain
eye lid.
(iii) Mandibular Mixed ,, Lower lip and Carry the stimuli from these
nerve skin of jaw organs to brain
(6) Abducens Motor Medulla Eye muscles Carry the impulses from the
nerves brain (medulla) to eye
muscles
(7) Facial nerves Mixed Behind trigeminal — —

nerve, from
geniculate ganglion
(i) Palatinus Sensory — In the roof of Carry the impulses from roof
mouth cavity of mouth cavity
(ii) Hyoman Motor — Muscles of low Carry the impulses from

dibular jaw, muscles of brain muslces of lower jaws,
neck and pinna neck and pinna.
(external ear)
(iii) Chordotymp Mixed — In salivary Receives the stimuli from the

ani glands and taste taste buds and carry the
buds stimulus to salivary gland.
(8) Auditory Sensory Medulla — —

nerves
(i) Vestibular ,, ,, Utriculus, Receives impulses from the

nerve sacculus, internal ear and carry to
semicircular brain.
canals and
Cochlea.
(ii) Cochlear ,, ,, Cochlea —

nerve
(9) Glossopharyn Mixed ,, Taste buds Carry sound impulses to

geal nerve present in brain, to muscles of
tongue and oesophagus and carry the
muslces of taste impulse of tongue to the
oesphagus brain
(10) Vagus nerve Mixed After arising from — —

medulla, 9th and 10th
cranial nerves unite
to form vagus nerve
but become separate
and divide into
branches
(i) Superior Motor — Glottis Carry the impulse to muscle

laryngeal of glottis
nerve
(ii) Recurrent Motor — Glottis ,,

laryngeal
nerve
(iii) Cardiac nerve Motor — Heart Muscles From brain to heart muscles

(iv) Pneumogastri Motor — In the Carry impulse from these
c abdominal organs to brain and from
cavity, in brain to muscles of these
stomach and organs.
lungs.
(v) Depresser Motor — Diaphragm Carry the impulse to

nerve diaphragm
(11) Spinal Motor Medulla Muscles of neck From brain to muscles of

accessory and shoulders neck and shoulder
(12) Hypoglossal Motor ,, Muscles of From brain to their muscles

nerve tongue and
neck
SUPERIOR RECTUS
MUSCLE
CORNEA
INFERIOR
I – OLFACTORY (S) OBLIQUE
MUSCLE
II – OPTIC (S)
RING CARTILAGE
III – OCULOMOTER (M)
IV – TROCHLEAR (M)
SUPERIOR
V – TRIGEMINAL OBLIQUE MUSCLE
(MIXED)
VI – ABDUCENS (M)
VII – FACIAL INFERIOR
(MIXED) RECTUS MUSCLE
VIII – A
MEDIAL RECTUS
IX – GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL MUSCLE
(MIXED)
VAGUS (X) (MIXED)
XI – ACCESSORY (M) LATERAL RECTUS OPTIC NERVE

MUSCLE
XII–HYPOGLOSSAL (M)
Fig. Diagrammatic presentation of 12 (paired) cranial nerves Fig. The extraocularmuscles

in human. (3 sensory, 5 motor, 4 mixed), 30% of nerves
supply to eye indicating the importance of vision.

Nerve supply
Eyeball muscle
Superior rectus Oculomotor
Inferior rectus Oculomotor
Internal rectus Oculomotor
External rectus Abducens
Superior oblique Trochlear
Inferior oblique Oculomotor
(b) Spinal nerves : Spinal nerves arise from gray matter of spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal
nerves in man (37 pairs in rabbit). All spinal nerves are mixed. The spinal nerves in man are divided
into 5 groups.
(1) Cervical (C)  8 pairs –– in Neck region
(2) Thoracic (T)  12 pairs –– in thoracic region
(3) Lumbar (L)  05 pairs –– upper part of abdomen
(4) Sacral (S)  05 pairs –– lower part of abdomen
(5) Coccygeal (CO)  01 pairs –– represent the tail nerves
31 pairs
Number of spinal nerves in frog is 10 pairs. In some frog like Rana tigrina, 10th pair may reduced or
absent. The first pair of spinal nerves in frog is hypoglossal. The last pair of cranial nerves of mammals has
the same name. Brachial plexus is formed by 2nd and 3rd spinal nerves in frog. Sciatic plexus is formed by
7, 8 and 9 spinal nerves in frog. Glands of Swammerdam are calcareous glands found at the places of
emerging of spinal nerves in frog.

Spinal nerve formula can be written as : C8, T12, L5, S5, CO1, Spinal
CERVICAL NERVES
(1-8)
nerves exit via intervertebral foramen. Each spinal nerve arises
from spinal cord by 2 roots
(1) Dorsal (= Afferent = Sensory = Posterior) root is a continuation of
THORACIC
NERVES (1-12) SPINAL CORD
dorsal horn and is formed of gray matter. It presents a ganglionic
swelling in middle, called dorsal root ganglion. These transmit
sensory nerve impulses from the sense organs to spinal cord
END OF SPINAL CORD
(touch, pain, temperature). They activate involuntary reflexes. (CONUS MEDULLARIS)
LUMBAR NERVES
(2) Ventral (= Efferent = Motor) root are continuation of ventral root (1-5) CAUDA EQUINA
and is also formed of gray matter. No ganglion are present. It is

formed of only efferent nerve filers. They transmit motor nerve SACRAL NERVES
FILUM TERMINALE
(1-5)
impulses to effector organs e.g., glands and muscles. COCCYGEAL NERVE
fig. – spinal cord and spinal nerves
(iv) Autonomic nervous system : As mentioned

DORSAL ROOT
before, the visceral part of peripheral nervous
system regulates and co-ordinates the activities
RAMUS DORSALIS
of internal or visceral organs. Autonomic DORSAL ROOT
GANGLION
RAMUS
nervous system was discovered by Langley. SPINAL CORD VENTRIALS
VENTRAL ROOT
RAMUS
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) automatically COMMUNICANS
SYMPATHETIC
regulates the activities of smooth muscles, cardiac GANGLION
muscles and glands. This co-ordination is Fig. – Origin & distribution of spinal nerve
involuntary. Autonomic nervous system usually operates without conscious control. Autonomic nervous
system is entirely motor.
Autonomic nervous system consists of two divisions
(a) Sympathetic (= Thoracolumbar out flow)
(b) Parasympathetic (= Cranio-sacral out flow)

WORK SHEET - 1
1. The membranes enclosing the brain and spinal cord are known as
(a) Meninges (b) Meningitis (c) Nephron (d) Axon
2. The outermost layer of brain is called
(a) Piamater (b) Duramater (c) Pericardium (d) Grey matter
3. The arachnoid membrane covers the
(a) Spinal cord (b) Otic capsule (c) Piamater (d) None of the above
4. The correct sequence of meninges from outer to the inner side is
(a) Arachnoid – piamater – duramater (b) Arachnoid – duramater – piamater
(c) Piamater – arachnoid – duramater (d) Duramater – arachnoid – piamater
5. Sub-arachnoid space is found in between arachnoid and
(a) Piamater (b) Duramater (c) Blastocoel (d) None of the above
6. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by
(a) Ependymal cells (b) Choroid plexus (c) Neuroglial cells (d) Neurons
7. Lateral ventricles are found in
(a) Heart (b) Brain (c) Thyroid (d) Brain and heart
8. The medulla oblongata encloses the
(a) Fourth ventricle (b) Second ventricle (c) Optic lobe (d) Otic capsule
9. Foramen of Monro is
(a) Gap in pelvic girdle of rabbit (b)Foramen in the skull of frog
(c) Space in brain of frog and rabbit
(d)Pore in the inter-auricular septum in a mammalian heart
10. Brain is
(a) Ectodermal (b) Mesodermal (c) Endodermal (d) Mesendodermal
11. Corpus callosum is found in the brain of
(a) Elephant (b) Pigeon (c) Crocodile (d) Frog
12. In mammals, the corpus callosum connects
(a) Bone to a muscle (b) Bone to a bone
(c) The two cerebral hemispheres (d) The two optic lobes

13. Which is correct about human brain

(a) It is covered by two membranes (b) There is no blood-brain barrier
(c) Largest number of cranial nerves originate from cerebral hemisphere
(d) Cerebral cortex is highly developed
14. The control of blood sugar level, osmoregulation and thermoregulation are the function of
(a) Medulla oblongata (b) Cerebellum (c) Hypothalamus (d) Diencephalon
15. The thermoregulatory centre is situated in
(a) Spinal cord (b) Pituitary body (c) Cerebellum (d) Hypothalamus
16. An injury to diencephalon may result in
(a) Loss of understanding (b) Loss of learning
(c) Loss of intelligence (d) Loss of heat sensation
17. Other name of diencephalon is
(a) Thalamencephalon (b) Telencephalon (c) Rhombocephalon (d) Metencephalon
18. Which part of brain controls emotions like love, anger and pleasure
(a) Medulla oblongata (b) Hypothalamus (c) Cerebrum (d) Cerebellum
19. Floor of third ventricle is known as
(a) Optic thalami (b) Pallium (c) Hypothalamus (d) Epithalamus
20. The pineal body is considered as
(a) An endocrine gland (b) An organ concerned with voluntary actions
(c) An organ concerned with vision (d) A vestige of third eye and endocrine gland
21. Corpora striata is found in
(a) Paracoel (b) Metacoel (c) Cerebrum (d) Diocoel
22. Hypothalamus contains regulatory center for
(a) Feeding and satiety (b) Thermoregulation and water balance
(c) Sex drives (‘libido’) (d) All of the above

23. Match the pairs of the human being listed under Column I with the functions given under
olumn II; choose the choice which gives the correct combination of the alphabets of the two
column
Column I (Parts of the brain) Column II (Functions)
A Cerebral hemisphere p Relaying impulses
B Thalamus q Posture and balance
C Cerebellum r Movement of heart, stomach, lungs, etc.
D Medulla oblongata s Reflex actions
t Voluntary control, intelligence, hearing,

speech, etc.
(a) A = t, B = q, C = p, D = s (b) A = t, B = p, C = q, D = s
(c) A = r, B = s, C = q, D = t (d) A = r, B = q, C = p, D = s
24. In the diagram of section of brain given below, different parts are indicated by alphabets; choose
the answer in which these alphabets have been correctly matched with the parts they indicate
B A
E
F
(a) A = Cerebral hemisphere, B = Corpus callosum, C = Thalamus, D = Pineal gland, E =

Cerebellum, F = Pituitary, G = Medulla oblongata
(b) A = Cerebral hemisphere, B = Thalamus, C = Corpus callosum, D = Pineal gland, E =Pituitary,

F = Medulla oblongata, G = Cerebellum
(c) A = Corpus callosum, B = Cerebral hemisphere, C = Pituitary, D = Pineal gland, E =Thalamus
(d) A = Cerebral hemisphere, B =Corpus callosum, C = Thalamus, D = Pineal gland, E =Pituitary,

F=Cerebellum, G = Medulla oblongata

25. Cerebellum coordinates

(a) Creative thinking and consciousness (b) Hand-eye movement
(c) Peristalis of gastrointestinal tract (d) Pupil constriction in response to dim light
26. Hind brain consists of
(a) Olfactory lobe and frontal lobe (b) Occipital and parietal lobe
(c) Cerebellum and medulla (d) Hippocampal lobe and diencephalon

27. Which one is not a reflex action
(a) Closing of eye lids against fricking (b) Release of saliva seeing sweets
(c) Perspiration due to heat (d) Obeying the order
28. One common example of simple reflex is
(a) Tying your shoe laces while talking to another person and not looking at them
(b) Watering of mouth at the sight of a favourite food
(c) Climbing up a stairs in dark without stumbling

(d) Closing of eyelids when an object suddenly approaches the eye
29. A boy learns typewriting and harmonium at the same time. He finds harmonium more easy to
learn. This is
(a) Conditioned reflex (b) Short term homeostasis
(c) Long term homeostasis (d) Residual learning

30. The number of spinal nerves in man is
(a) 27 pairs (b) 31 pairs (c) 37 pairs (d) 47 pairs
31. Which is activated in stress condition
(a) Sympathetic (b) Parasympathetic (c) Somatic (d) WholeANS
32. Function of sympathetic system is to
(a) Decrease heart beat (b) Increase heart beat

(c) Contract respiratory organ (d) Secrete saliva

NOTES

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1.

HOW TO MAKE BEST OF THIS BOOK :

1. This book is designed sub conceptually

All the best.

2. Types Of Circulation C.1

3. Differences Between Open And Closed Circulatory System C.2

4. Circulatory System In Multicellular Animals C.2

5. Differences Between Single And Double Circulation C. 4

6. Heart Of Vertebrates C.5

8. Differences Between Neurogenic Heart And Myogenic Heart C.13

9. Cradiac Cycle C.15

10. Heart Sounds C.16

11. Differences Between First And Seconds Heart Sounds C.17

12. Blood Vessels C.17

13. Types Of Blood Circulation In Human C.21

14. Lymphatic System C.23

15. Differences Between Lymph And Blood C.23

FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

Circulatory system in various groups of animals can be classified as follows :

(b) Intra-organismic circulation : It involves circulation of body fluids. It is of following types :

(i) Open circulatory system

(ii) Closed circulatory system

CLASS : 10 Page No. C.1 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Differences between open and closed circulatory system

Open circulatory system Closed circulatory system

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN MULTICELLULAR ANIMALS

Route followed by water current in sponges :

CLASS : 10 Page No. C.2 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulation of blood in cockroach :

Pericardial sinus Perivisceral sinus Perineural sinus

(a) Single circulation

(b) Double circulation

CLASS : 10 Page No. C.3 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Differences between single and double circulation

Single circulation Double circulation

(3) Blood is oxygenated in gills. (3) Blood is oxygenated in lungs.

CLASS : 10 Page No. C.4 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Double circulation in mammals can be divided into three parts :

(2) Pulmonary or lesser circulation : The amount of blood

Venous circulation – 64%

Heart : The form, structure and function of heart exhibits much

Class of vertebrates Characteristics Example Diagram

muscles, has two chambers (i) Scoliodon VENTRICLE

(1) Pisces auricle and (ii) ventricle. The heart is Neocerato

(=Branchial called venous heart since it pumps dus SINUS

heart) deoxygenated blood to gills for

directly from gills to visceral organs

(2) Amphibians Heart consists of Frog

CLASS : 10 Page No. C.5 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

(a) Two auricles Toad

Right auricle receives blood from all

(3) Reptiles Heart consists of : Lizards

(a) Left and right auricle Snakes

(b) Incompletely divided ventricle Turtles

(Ventricle in crocodiles gavialis and

(c) Sinus venosus

(d) Conus arteriosus divided into

(4) Aves Exhibit double circulation Pigeon PULMONARY ARCH

Heart consists of LEFT AURICLE

(b) Left and right ventricle LEFT

(d) Only right systemic arch is

(e) Sinus venosus and truncus

CLASS : 10 Page No. C.6 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM