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Peijun Wei
Theory of
Elastic Waves
Theory of Elastic Waves
Peijun Wei
Theory of Elastic Waves

Peijun Wei
Department of Applied Mechanics
School of Mathematics and Physics
University of Science and Technology
Beijing
Beijing, China
ISBN 978-981-19-5661-4 ISBN 978-981-19-5662-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5662-1
Jointly published with Science Press

The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the
print book from: Science Press.
© Science Press 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface
The theory of elastic wave propagation in complex media is of great importance. For
example, it is desired to understand the mechanism of propagation and attenuation
of seismic wave in the stratum for the seismic exploration. Based on the propagation
and attenuation law, the morphology and physical parameters can be obtained after
inverse analysis of the wave motion signals collected by seismic detector in the wild
field, and thus provide useful information about the distribution and the location
of underground oil and gas deposit. In the area of medical science, the ultrasound
inspection imaging also needs to understand the patterns of propagation and dissi-
pation of elastic wave in the bio-tissue. These laws can be used to design various
imaging algorithm to reconstruct the colored images of bio-tissue and organs based
on the inverse analysis of the reflection and attenuation information and thus help
clinical doctors to acquire the scientific evidence of disease diagnosis. In the area of
industrial manufacturing, the knowledge regarding elastic wave propagation char-
acteristics can be used in non-destructive testing (NDT) of materials and structures.
The information about the propagation constants in the interior, the reflection and
transmission at interface, the scattering at the inclusions and voids can be collected
by the sensor arranged at surface or interior of material. Further performing the
signal processing such as the de-noising and spectrum analysis by computer, the
location, distribution, geometry and size of the flaws inside the materials would be
available. This is crucial to maintain good quality of products and to guarantee the
security service of structures. No matter the seismic exploration, medical ultrasound
imaging and non-destructive testing of material, the basic scientific problem is the
law of elastic wave propagation in complex media. This book focuses on the basic
scientific problem. The contents are arranged by consideration of the completeness
of theory and research methods and the necessary involvement of latest research
results. Under such guideline, this book is finally finished and named Theory of
Elastic Waves.
Among all the books on elastic wave propagation theory, the Wave Propagation in
Elastic Solids (by J. D. Achenbach, Elsevier Science Publishers, 1973), Diffraction
of Elastic Waves and Dynamic Stress Concentrations (by Pao Y. H., Mao C. C. Grane,
Russak & Company Inc, 1973) and Ultrasonic Waves in Solid Media (by J. L. Rose,
v
vi Preface
Cambridge University Press, 1999) are of great influence. However, these books
were published early. Many new scientific problems and new analytic and numerical
methods have emerged during the past decades. It becomes necessary to recall and
summarize these analytic and numerical methods systematically which dispersed in
massive literatures. This is one motivation of writing this book. On the other hand,
the teaching experience of giving the lecture for graduate students for about ten
years makes me more and more feel that the advanced textbooks which are more
suited to the graduate students are rare and become the desideratum to accommodate
the research-type teaching. This is another motivation to write this book. Based on
my research efforts on the elastic wave propagation in complex media, I strive to
incorporate the latest research results into the contents of book. This book is finally
finished based on the lecture notes and after several addition and amendment.
This book focuses on the elastic wave propagation in isotropic media; no contents
of special subjects are included. If the basic theory and methods about elastic wave
propagation in the isotropic solid are grasped, then a firm and strong foundation
is established to further study the elastic wave propagation in anisotropic solid,
viscoelastic solid, porous solid, etc. With the consideration of systematicness and
completeness, the bulk wave, the surface wave and the guided wave are all involved in
this book. Firstly, the dispersion and attenuation features of elastic wave propagating
in elastic media of infinite extension are addressed. Many important conceptions
about elastic wave propagation are provided in this chapter. Then, the reflection and
transmission problems at interfaces are addressed. The reflection and transmission
of single interfaces is first discussed. Apart from flat interfaces, the periodic undula-
tion interfaces are also involved. Moreover, the various imperfect interfaces are also
involved beside the perfect interface. The layered media are often met in actual engi-
neering fields as a common type. Then, the elastic wave propagation through layered
structure is addressed based on the reflection and transmission investigation at single
interface. Consider the fact that the reflecting and transmitting features of elastic wave
in layered media can be embodied in the sandwiched structure with two interfaces; we
addressed the reflection and transmission of sandwiched structure with two interfaces
with great interest. The simultaneous interface condition method, the transfer matrix
method, the stiffness matrix method, the multiple reflection/transmission method, the
super-interface method and the state transition matrix method, basically all main-
stream research methods, are all included. These methods can easily be extended to
the laminated structure with arbitrary N layers with appropriate modification. In the
chapter of surface wave, not only the classic Rayleigh wave, Love wave and Stanley
wave, but also the rotating surface wave is also addressed. The rotation surface wave
is a natural result in the cylindrical coordinate system of the surface waves studied in
the rectangular coordinates. In the chapter of guided wave, the guided wave propa-
gation in bar, pipe, beam, plate, cylindrical shell and spherical shell is all involved. In
particular, the elastic wave propagation in spherical shells is rarely mentioned in the
existing published books and literatures. The guided waves propagation in spherical
shell is addressed in this chapter, and the comparison with the vibration mode is also
made. Moreover, the leaky waves due to the liquid loads are also addressed in this
chapter. These contents make a distinguishing feature of this book.
Preface vii
The main focus of this book is the basic theory and analytic methods of elastic
wave propagation problem. This book is suitable for those who work in the field of
seismic survey, the material characterizing and non-destructive testing, the medical
ultrasound imaging, the phononic crystal/metamaterial and the structure health moni-
toring, especially for high-grade undergraduate and postgraduate students as textbook
for the systematic study of elastic wave propagation theory.
During the process of writing this book, my Ph.D. students, including Guo Xiao,
Zhang Peng, Li Yueqiu, Li Li, Wei Zibo, Xu Chunyu, Ma Zhanchun, Xu Yuqian,
Zhao Lingkang, Wang Ziwei, Zhao Lina, etc., did a great deal of work, including
but not limited to the typing and checking of manuscript, text layout and drawing
illustrations. Here, I’ll express my loyal thanks for their helpful works. Moreover,
I’ll also express my thanks for the financial support from “National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 11872105, No. 12072022)” and “Project of Graduate
Textbook Construction of University of Science and Technology Beijing.”
There are inevitably some mistakes existing in the book due to the author’s
limited level and careless omissions, and I’m pleased and encourage whoever to
give comments and correct mistakes.
Beijing, China Peijun Wei

September 2020
Introduction
The theory of elastic wave propagation in complex media is widely used in many
fields, such as geophysical exploration, seismic survey, medical ultrasound imaging
and non-destructive testing of material and structure. However, the books which
systematically introduce the theory of elastic wave propagation are rare. This book
systematically introduced the basic theory of elastic wave propagation in isotropic
solid media, including elastic wave propagation in infinite media, reflection and
transmission of elastic wave at interfaces, reflection and transmission of elastic wave
through layered structure with finite thickness, Rayleigh wave and Love wave prop-
agating along the surface of semi-infinite solid and covering layer, the guided waves
and leaky waves in flat plates and in cylindrical rods. The propagation patterns and
features of guided waves in cylindrical shells and spherical shells are also intro-
duced. The single scattering and multiple scattering of elastic waves, although very
important also, but are not included due to the limitation of length. The author has
been teaching the course of Theory of Elastic Wave for graduate students for over ten
years. At the same time, the author also has been conducting the research works on
the elastic wave propagation in complex media and the actual applications for over
two decades. Hence, this book is written based on the lecture notes of “elastic wave
theory” and has combined with the related research results. The entire book is divided
into six chapters and is mainly focused on the basic theory and the systematicness
of analytic methods.
This book is suitable to those who work in the fields of geophysical exploration,
non-destructive testing, medical ultrasound imaging, phononic crystal, metamate-
rial, structure health monitoring and so on. Especially, it is suited to the high-grade
undergraduate and graduate students to study the elastic wave theory systematically
as textbook.
ix
Contents
1 Fundamentals of Elastodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Basic Hypothesis of Elastodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Continuity Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Elasticity Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Small Deformation Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Homogeneous Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.5 Isotropic Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.6 Zero Initial Stress Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Basic Conservation Laws of Elastodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Law of Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Law of Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 The Law of Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Variational Principle of Elastodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 The Initial Boundary Value Problem of Elastodynamics . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Transient and Steady-State Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Elastic Waves in an Infinite Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Scalar Potential and Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Solution of Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Properties of Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.1 Propagation Mode of Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 The Stress Distribution on the Wavefront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.3 The Energy Flow Density of a Plane Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Inhomogeneous Plane Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5 Spectrum Analysis of Plane Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3 Reflection and Transmission of Elastic Waves at Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1 Classification of Interfaces and Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.1 Perfect Interface and Imperfect Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.2 P Wave, S Wave and SH Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2 Reflection of Elastic Waves on Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2.1 Reflection of P Wave on Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
xi
xii Contents
3.2.2 Reflection of SH Waves on Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

3.2.3 Reflection of SV Waves on Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.4 Incident P Wave and SV Wave Simultaneously . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3 Reflection and Transmission of Elastic Waves at the Interface . . . . . 95
3.3.1 Reflection and Transmission of P Waves at the Interface . . . 95
3.3.2 Reflection and Transmission of SH Waves
at the Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3.3 Reflection and Transmission of SV Waves
at the Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.4 P Wave and SV Wave Incidence Simultaneously . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4 Reflection and Transmission of Waves at the Periodic
Corrugated Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4 Reflection and Transmission of Elastic Waves in Multilayer
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.1 Simultaneous Interface Conditions Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.2 Transfer Matrix Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3 Stiffness Matrix Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.4 Multiple Reflection/Transmission Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.5 Super-Interface Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.6 The State Transfer Equation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.7 Bloch Waves in Periodic Layered Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5 Surface Wave and Interface Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.1 P-type Surface Waves and SV-Type Surface Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.2 Rayleigh Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.2.1 Rayleigh Wave’s Wave Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.2.2 Rayleigh Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2.3 The Displacement Field of the Ryleigh Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.2.4 Rayleigh Wave in Elastic Half-Space with Cover Layer . . . . 236
5.3 Love Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.3.1 The Displacement Distribution of Love Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.3.2 The Dispersion Equation of Love Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.4 Stoneley Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.4.1 Wave Function of Stoneley Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.4.2 Stoneley Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5.5 Torsional Surface Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6 Guided Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.1 Flexural Waves in Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.2 Flexural Waves in Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.3 Guided Waves in Plate (Lamb Wave) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.3.1 Mixed Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6.3.2 Free Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.3.3 Fixed Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.3.4 Liquid Load on Both Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Contents xiii
6.4 Guided Waves in Cylindrical Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

6.4.1 Axisymmetric Torsional Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.4.2 Axisymmetric Compression Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.4.3 Non-axisymmetric Guided Waves (Bending Waves) . . . . . . . 331
6.4.4 Surface with Liquid Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
6.5 Waves in Cylindrical Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.5.1 Axisymmetric Torsional Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.5.2 Axisymmetric Compression Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.5.3 Non-axisymmetric Waves (Bending Waves) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
6.5.4 Inner and Outer Surfaces with Liquid Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.6 Guided Waves in Spherical Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.6.1 Inner and Outer Free Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
6.6.2 Inner and Outer Surfaces with Liquid Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Elastodynamics
1.1 Basic Hypothesis of Elastodynamics
1.1.1 Continuity Hypothesis
The continuity hypothesis holds that the research object of elastic mechanics is the
elastic deformable body which is a continuous medium filled with material points
without any voids inside. In fact, all matter is composed of atoms and molecules,
and matter is not continuous at the microscopic level. Even at the macroscopic level,
the existence of internal cavities and cracks cannot be avoided. Continuity is only
an idealized model. When studying the macroscopic phenomena and motion laws
of objects, the continuity assumption makes it easier to deal with the problem. For
example, the physical quantities of stress, strain and displacement are all continuous
functions of coordinates, so that mathematical tools such as calculus can be used to
establish and solve mathematical models of dynamic problems.
1.1.2 Elasticity Hypothesis
Under the action of external load, the object will generate stress field and strain field
inside. When the amplitude of the stress field does not exceed the elastic limit of the
material, after the external load is removed, the stress field and the strain field will
disappear accordingly. This property is called the elastic property of the material.
When the external load is large enough, for example, the amplitude of the stress
field generated inside the object exceeds the yield limit of the material, there will be
residual deformation (i.e. plastic deformation) existing inside the object and cannot
be recovered when the external load is removed. The properties are called the plastic
properties of the material. The elasticity hypothesis assumes that the internal stress
field of the object is always in the elastic range under the action of external load.
© Science Press 2022 1

P. Wei, Theory of Elastic Waves,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5662-1_1
2 1 Fundamentals of Elastodynamics
1.1.3 Small Deformation Hypothesis
Small deformation means that the deformation at various points within the object due
to external load is small relative to the size of the object. In other words, the strain
components (including line strain and shear strain) are all quantities much smaller
than 1. Their second powers and products are small quantities of higher order relative
to the first-order quantity and can be ignored without large precision loss. Due to
the small deformation assumption, the stress field and strain field can be thought to
satisfy the generalized Hooke’s law. Moreover, when establishing the equilibrium
equation, the geometry before deformation (initial configuration) can be used instead
of the geometry after deformation (current configuration).
1.1.4 Homogeneous Hypothesis
Homogeneous hypothesis means that all points inside the object have the same elastic
properties, namely the material elastic parameters do not change with the spatial
coordinates. For non-homogeneous materials, the elastic parameters of the mate-
rial are functions of coordinates, such as functional gradient materials, where the
material parameters are continuous functions of coordinates. Another example is the
fiber or particle reinforced composites, where the material parameters are discon-
tinuous functions of coordinates or piecewise continuous functions. The assumption
of uniformity makes the mechanical properties of the material not depend on the
location, but does not guarantee that the material properties do not depend on the
direction. The direction-dependent character of the material properties is described
by isotropy or anisotropy. Therefore, the homogeneous assumption is not the same
thing as the isotropic assumption.
1.1.5 Isotropic Hypothesis
The isotropic means that each point inside object has the same elastic properties
along different directions, namely the material elastic parameters do not change with
the change of direction. For isotropic materials, only two independent elastic param-
eters are needed to describe the elastic properties of the material. The commonly used
elastic parameters are: modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, Lamé constants λ
and μ, Poisson’s ratio ν. However, they are not independent of each other, and there
are only 2 independent parameters. For completely anisotropic materials, where the
material has different properties along different directions, 21 independent parame-
ters are needed to describe the elastic properties of the material. Usually, materials
have certain symmetry, are not completely anisotropic, and their independent mate-
rial parameters are between 2 and 21. For example, transverse isotropic materials
1.2 Basic Conservation Laws of Elastodynamics 3
have five independent elastic parameters; Orthotropic anisotropic materials have

nine independent elastic parameters; Cubic crystalline systems have three indepen-
dent elastic parameters; triangular crystalline systems have seven independent elastic
parameters, etc.
1.1.6 Zero Initial Stress Hypothesis
The zero initial stress assumes that the object is in its natural state before the external
load is applied and that there is no stress field inside the object. When the initial stress
field exists, the equations of motion, the constitutive equation and the boundary
conditions should be modified, and in general, all three sets of equations contain
information about the initial stress. The initial stress field can be homogeneous or
non-homogeneous. For the initial stress problem, there are three deformation config-
urations, i.e. no stress configuration, initial stress configuration (the configuration
generated under the action of initial stress) and current configuration (the configura-
tion generated under the action of both initial stress and external load). Deformations
generated by initial stresses are usually relatively large and are taken into account as
finite deformations. In the case that the deformation produced by the external load is
not large, it can be considered as a small deformation. Therefore, the problem of the
existence of initial stress is attributed to the superposition of small deformations on
finite deformations. The incremental stress method is a common method for dealing
with initial stress problems. The equations of motion, the constitutive equations and
the boundary conditions satisfied by the incremental stresses are all related to the
initial stresses. Usually, initial stresses lead to the anisotropy of the material as well
as the change of equivalent modulus.
1.2 Basic Conservation Laws of Elastodynamics
1.2.1 Law of Mass Conservation
According to the assumption of continuity of objects, an object is a continuous

collection of moving particles. If there is no “source” that generates new matter
inside the object, and there also is no mass flux at the boundary of the object, the
mass of the object is constant before and after the deformation, which is the law of
mass conservation, i.e.
∮ ∮
ρdV = ρ0 dV0 , (1.2.1)
V V0
where V0 and V are the volumes of the space occupied by the object before and after
deformation; ρ0 and ρ are the mass density of the object before and after deformation.
Considering
dV = J dV0 , (1.2.2)
| |
| |
where J = det(xi , X j ) = | ∂∂Xxij | (xi is the spatial coordinate of the mass point,
i.e. Eulerian coordinates; X i is the co-moving coordinate or body-fitted coordinates
of the mass point, i.e. Lagrangian coordinate), is called Jacobi determinant. The
differential form of the conservation law, i.e. Eq. (1.2.1), can be expressed as
ρ J − ρ0 = 0. (1.2.3)
When there is a mass flux on the surface of an object, the law of conservation of
mass is expressed as
∮ ∮ ∮
d ∂ρ
ρdV = dV + ρ u̇ · ndS = 0. (1.2.4)
dt ∂t
V V S
Using the divergence theorem, we can obtain its differential form
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρ u̇) = 0, (1.2.5)
∂t
where u̇ denotes the velocity of motion of the material point and I = ρ u̇ denotes
flow density of mass, i.e. the mass passing through a unit area per unit time.
Equation (1.2.5) can also be written as
∂ρ
+ ∇ρ · u̇ + ρ∇ · u̇ = 0. (1.2.6)
∂t
For solid materials, ∇ρ is very small at small deformation. Equation (1.2.6) can be
approximated as
∂ρ
+ ρ∇ · u̇ = 0. (1.2.7)
∂t
The above equation indicates that when the volume of the micro-element of
the object expands (∇ · u > 0), the mass density of the micro-element decreases;
conversely, when the volume of the micro-element contracts (∇ · u < 0), the mass
density of the micro-element increases.
1.2 Basic Conservation Laws of Elastodynamics 5
1.2.2 Law of Conservation of Momentum
Defining the force acting on the boundary S of the object with volume V as ti , the
volume force and the body couple acting on the unit mass of the object as b(r, t)
and m(r, t) respectively, the resultant force acting on the object is
∮ ∮
F= tdS + ρbdV . (1.2.8)
S V
The resultant moment of the body forces, the boundary traction and the body
couple about the origin of the coordinates is [1]
∮ ∮ ∮
M= r × tdS + ρ r × bdV + ρmdV . (1.2.9)
S V V
Defining ρ u̇ as the linear momentum density per unit volume and r × ρ u̇ as the
angular momentum density about the coordinate origin, the law of conservation of
linear momentum and the law of conservation of angular momentum can be expressed
as, respectively,
∮
d
ρ u̇dV = F, (1.2.10)
dt
V
∮
d
(r × ρ u̇)dV = M. (1.2.11)
dt
V
Considering ti = σi j n j (σi j is the Cauchy stress tensor), inserting Eq. (1.2.8) into
Eq. (1.2.10) and using Gauss’ law yields the equation of conservation of momentum.
σi j, j + ρbi = ρ ü i . (1.2.12)
The component form of the law of conservation of angular momentum, i.e.

Eq. (1.2.11), is
∮ ∮ ∮ ∮
d
ei jk x j ρ u̇ k dV = ei jk x j tk dS + ρ ei jk x j bk dV + ρ mi d V . (1.2.13)
dt
V S V V
After using the divergence theorem, we get

∮ [ ] ∮
∂ ( ) d( )
ei jk x j σlk + ρx j bk − ρ x j u̇ k dV + ρm i dV = 0. (1.2.14)
∂ xl dt
V V
Considering
∂ ( ) ( )
ei jk x j σlk = ei jk δ jl σlk + x j σlk,l ,
∂ xl
d( ) ( )
ei jk ρ x j u̇ k = ρei jk ẋ j u̇ k + x j ü k = ρei jk x j ü k ,
dt
and using Eq. (1.2.12), Eq. (1.2.14) becomes
∮
( )
ei jk σ jk + ρm i dV = 0. (1.2.15)
V
The differential form of the law of conservation of angular momentum can be

expressed as
ei jk σ jk + ρm i = 0. (1.2.16)
This means that the Cauchy stress tensor is not symmetrical anymore when the
body couple is not zero. When the body couple is not included, the law of conservation
of angular momentum requires that the stress tensor must be a symmetric tensor.
1.2.3 The Law of Conservation of Energy
Defining the kinetic energy per unit volume of the object as T = 21 ρ u̇ i u̇ i and the
deformation energy per unit volume as A = 21 σi j εi j , the law of conservation of
energy can be expressed as
∮ ∮ ∮
d
(T + A)dV = ti u̇ i dS + ρbi u̇ i dV . (1.2.17)
dt
V S V
The left side of the equals sign represents the rate of the time change rate of the
total mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus deformation energy) of the object; the
right side of the equals sign represents the work power done by the boundary traction
and the volume force on the object. Using the divergence theorem, the differential
form of the energy conservation theorem can be obtained
d
(T + A) = (σi j u̇ i ), j + ρbi u̇ i . (1.2.18)
dt
The σi j u̇ i = I j in the above equation is generally referred to as the energy flow
density vector, which represents the inflow or outflow energy from the boundary of
the micro-volume element. Therefore, the first term at the right side of the equal sign
1.3 Variational Principle of Elastodynamics 7
of Eq. (1.2.18) represents the energy exchange between the micro-volume element
and the surrounding medium through the boundary, or the “source” of the energy
flow density vector field.
1.3 Variational Principle of Elastodynamics
We know that the value of univariate or multivariate functions depends on the values
of the independent variables. If the value of a function depends on the selection
of one or more functions, the function is called functional, and the function on
which the functional depends (corresponding to the independent variable of the
ordinary function) is called the argument function of the functional. Mathematically,
the argument functions that satisfy certain continuity conditions, boundary conditions
and certain constraints are called admissible functions. The variational method is to
find a specific function in a certain allowable function family, so that the given
functional takes a stationary value. For example, selecting a curve so that its length
is the shortest among all the curves that connect two given points is a variational
problem. All curves connecting two given points here are the family of admissible
functions, and the length of any curve is functional, which takes values that depend
on the particular curve selected.
The state of a physical system can usually be described by some kind of scalar
field, vector field or tensor field. A functional dependent on these physical fields can
be established, so that in a series of possible states, the real state (corresponding to
the equilibrium state of the physical system) makes the functional take a stationary
value. Therefore, the governing equation describing a certain physical process can
be obtained from the stationary value conditions of the functional. The principle
of minimum potential energy and the principle of minimum complementary energy
in elastic mechanics are the successful applications of the variational principle in
solid mechanics. For elastodynamics, in addition to considering deformation energy
and external force potential energy, the kinetic energy of the object should also
be considered when establishing an energy functionals. In Sect. 1.2, we derive the
governing equation Eq. (1.2.12) of the elastodynamic problem through the law of
conservation of linear momentum. Below we use the variational principle to clarify
that this governing equation can also be derived from the stationary value conditions
of the Lagrangian energy functional.
The displacement field is used to express the state of a certain mechanical system
under the action of external load, and the displacement fields that meets the following
conditions are called the allowable displacement fields
(1) Boundary conditions
u i (x, t) = u is (x, t), x ∈ Su , t > 0, (1.3.1)
(2) Strain–displacement relationship

1( )
εi j = u i, j + u j,i , (1.3.2)
2
(3) Stress–strain relationship
σi j = λεkk δi j + 2μεi j , (1.3.3)
(4) Time node conditions
u i (x, t)|t=0 = u i0 (x), (1.3.4a)
u i (x, t)|t=t1 = u i1 (x), (1.3.4b)
where x ∈ Su in Eq. (1.3.1) denotes the mass points on the boundary with the given
displacement. The symbol x ∈ Sσ will also be used below, which represents the mass
points on the boundary with the given surface force.
The kinetic energy, deformation energy and external force work corresponding to
any allowable displacement field can be expressed as, respectively [2],
∮ [ ]
1
T (u i ) = ρ u̇ i u̇ i d V , (1.3.5)
2
V
∮
1
A(u i ) = σi j εi j d V , (1.3.6)
2
V
∮ ∮
W (u i ) = t i u i dS + ρbi u i dV . (1.3.7)
Sσ V
Hamilton’s variational principle can be stated as, in all allowable displacement

fields, the actual displacement field u i∗ (x, t) makes the functional which is expressed
as
∮t1
π= [T (u i ) − A(u i ) + W (u i )]dt, (1.3.8)
0
take the stationary value, i.e.
δπ = 0. (1.3.9)
The explicit expressions of the stationary value condition of δπ = 0 are derived

as follow
1.3 Variational Principle of Elastodynamics 9
∮t1 ∮ [ ] ∮t1 ∮
1 1
δπ = δ ρ u̇ i u̇ i − σi j εi j + ρbi d V dt + δ t i u i dSdt, (1.3.10)
2 2
0 V 0 Sσ
where
∮t1 ∮ ∮t1 ∮
1
δ ρ u̇ i u̇ i dV dt = ρ u̇ i δ u̇ i dV dt
2
0 V 0 V
⎡ ⎤
∮ ∮t1
⎣ du i dδu i ⎦
= ρ · dt dV
dt dt
V 0
⎧ ⎫
∮ ⎨[ ]t1 ∮t1 2 ⎬
du i d ui
= ρ δu i − ρ 2 δu i dt dV
⎩ dt 0 dt ⎭
V 0
∮t1 ∮
=− (ρ ü i δu i )dV dt, (1.3.11)
0 V
(The time node conditions of the allowable displacement field are used here.)
∮t1 ∮ ( ) ∮t1 ∮
1 ( )
δ σi j εi j dV dt = σi j δεi j dV dt
2
0 V 0 V
∮t1 ∮ [ ]
1( )
= σi j · δu i, j + δu j,i dV dt
2
0 V
∮t1 ∮
= σi j δu i, j dV dt
0 V
(The symmetry of the stress tensor is used here.)
∮t1 ∮ [ ]
( )
= σi j δu i , j − σi j, j δu i dV dt
0 V
∮t1 ( ) ∮t1 ∮
= ∫ σi j δu i n j dS dt − σi j, j δu i dV dt
S
0 0 V
(The divergence theorem is used here.)
∮t1 ∮ ∮t1 ∮
= σi j n j δu i dSdt − σi j, j δu i dV dt
0 Sσ 0 V
(δu i = 0 on x ∈ Su )
∮t1 ∮ ∮t1 ∮
= ti δu i dSdt − σi j, j δu i dV dt. (1.3.12)
0 Sσ 0 V
Substituting Eq. (1.3.11) and Eq. (1.3.12) into Eq. (1.3.10) leads to
∮t1 ∮ ∮t1 ∮
[ ] ( )
δπ = σi j, j + ρbi − ρ ü i δu i dV dt + t i − ti δu i dSdt = 0. (1.3.13)
0 V 0 Sσ
Taking into account the arbitrariness of δu i , Eq. (1.3.13) requires
σi j, j + ρbi = ρ ü i , (inside the object x ∈ Su ) (1.3.14)
ti = t i , (on the boundary x ∈ Sσ with the given stress). (1.3.15)
Equation (1.3.14) is exactly the governing equation of the physical system to be

sought.
1.4 The Initial Boundary Value Problem of Elastodynamics
Using the law of conservation of linear momentum or the variational principle of

energy, the governing equations of elastodynamics can be obtained. The governing
equations together with the constitutive equation reflecting the properties of the mate-
rial and the initial and the boundary conditions of the physical problem constitutes
the initial boundary value definite solution problem of elastodynamics.
Governing equation
σi j, j + ρbi = ρ ü i . (1.4.1)
Constitutive equation
σi j = λεkk δi j + 2μεi j . (1.4.2)
Geometric equation
1( )
εi j = u i, j + u j,i . (1.4.3)
2
Initial conditions
1.4 The Initial Boundary Value Problem of Elastodynamics 11
u i (x, t)|t=0 = u i0 (x), (1.4.4a)
u̇ i (x, t)|t=0 = u̇ i0 (x). (1.4.4b)
Boundary conditions
u i (x, t)|x∈Su = u i (x, t), (1.4.5)
ti (x, t)|x∈Sσ = t i (x, t). (1.4.6)
In the above formula, we adopt the Einstein summation convention: when a certain
index appears twice in an item, it means that the index is summed from 1 to 3 (in
the case of a three-dimensional index). The index that appear repeatedly is called
dummy index. The index that does not appear repeatedly in one item is called the
free index. The dummy index and free index have the following properties [3].
1. The occurrence of a duplicate index (dummy index) in one term of the expressions
means that the index is summed. The index is not repeated in this item, which
means 1, 2, 3 can be taken, respectively. In the example Eq. (1.4.1), σi j, j means
Σ3
j=1 σi j, j (i can be arbitrarily selected as 1, 2, 3);
2. For different terms in the same equation, the number and signs of free indexes
must be the same. For example, three items in Eq. (1.4.1) all have a free index i;
3. Replacing the dummy index symbol with another symbol does not affect the
result. For example, changing j in Eq. (1.4.1) to k does not change the result of
this item, that is, σi j, j = σik,k ;
4. Changing all the free indices in the same equation to other symbols does not
affect the result. For example, changing all i in Eq. (1.4.1) to k does not change
the meaning of the formula.
According to the nature of the dummy index and the free index, it can be known
that the governing equation Eq. (1.4.1) is equivalent to three coupled differential
equations; the constitutive equation Eq. (1.4.2) is equivalent to nine differential equa-
tions; the geometric equation Eq. (1.4.3) is equivalent to nine differential equations.
These 21 differential equations involve a total of 21 physical quantities, namely three
displacement components, nine components of stress and nine components of strain
(only six independent components due to symmetry). Using geometrical relations
and constitutive relations, stress and strain can be eliminated, and a governing equa-
tion expressed only by displacement can be obtained. Substitute Eq. (1.4.3) into
Eq. (1.4.2) leads to
( )
σi j = λu k,k δi j + μ u i, j + u j,i . (1.4.7)
Substituting the above formula into Eq. (1.4.1), we get

( )
λu k,k j δi j + μ u i, j j + u j,i j + ρbi = ρ ü i ,
( )
λu k,ki + μ u i, j j + u j, ji + ρbi = ρ ü i ,
( )
λu j, ji + μ u i, j j + u j, ji + ρbi = ρ ü i ,
(λ + μ)u j, ji + μu i, j j + ρbi = ρ ü i . (1.4.8)
It also can be written in vector form
(λ + μ)∇(∇ · u) + μ∇ 2 u + ρb = ρ ü, (1.4.9)
where ∇ and ∇ 2 are the Hamilton differential operator and Laplace differential
operators, namely
∂
∇= ()e i , (1.4.10)
∂ xi
∂2
∇2 = (). (1.4.11)
∂ xi ∂ xi
Further, using the vector formula [3]
∇ 2 u = ∇(∇ · u) − ∇ × ∇ × u, (1.4.12)
Eq. (1.4.9) can be written in other form
(λ + 2μ)∇(∇ · u) − μ∇ × ∇ × u + ρ b = ρ ü. (1.4.13)
This is the famous Navier equation. The fundamental problem of elastodynamics

is to solve the Navier equation under the given initial and boundary value conditions.
Once the displacement field is known, the strain field and stress field inside the object
can be obtained by further using geometric relations and constitutive equations.
1.5 Transient and Steady-State Problems
Elastodynamics studies the time-dependent mechanical behavior of materials or

structures. According to the characteristics of mechanical behavior changing with
time, elastodynamic problems can be further divided into two categories: transient
problems and steady-state problems. The transient problem means that the change of
displacement field or stress field is a non-periodic function of time (such as displace-
ment field and stress field under impact load); steady-state problem means that the
change of displacement field or stress field is a periodic function of time (such as
1.5 Transient and Steady-State Problems 13
free vibration problem and wave propagation problem). The steady-state problem
can be divided into the standing wave problem and the traveling wave problem. The
standing wave problem is the problem of vibration (the velocity of the wave packet is
zero); the traveling wave problem is the wave propagation problem (the wave packet
has a certain velocity). The solution to the standing wave problem generally has the
form u(x, y, z, t ) = A(x, y, z)e−i ωt . The solution to the wave propagation problem
generally has the form u(x, y, z, t) = Aei(k·r−ωt) , that is, the displacement field is
also a periodic function with respect to space coordinates. For transient problems,
the displacement field can generally only be expressed as u(x, y, z, t). The following
are some examples of one-dimensional transient and steady-state problems.
Example 1 Suppose a soft and thin string with the length l and the density ρ. Both
ends of the thin string are fixed. The initial displacement and initial velocity of
the string are given. The self-weight of the string can be ignored. Solve the elasto
dynamics problem of the thin string. The elastodynamic problem can be expressed
as
c2 u x x − u tt = 0 (0 < x < l, t > 0), (1.5.1a)
u(0, t) = 0 (t ≥ 0), (1.5.1b)
u(l, t) = 0 (t ≥ 0), (1.5.1c)
u(x, 0) = u 0 (x) (0 < x < l), (1.5.1d)
u t (x, 0) = v0 (x) (0 < x < l), (1.5.1e)
where c2 = Tρ (T is the tension of the string). Here u t = u̇, u tt = ü, u x x = ∂ 2 u/∂ x 2 .

The solution to this problem will be given in the next chapter. Since the displace-
ment is always zero at the two end points x = 0 and x = l, the displacement distri-
bution between the two end points, that is, the initial disturbance, will not spread
to both sides with the increase of time and is always limited between the two end
points. This is the standing wave problem. In the standing wave problem, each mass
particle maintains the same phase during the vibration process, that is, reaches the
maximum and minimum at the same time.
Example 2 Solve the elastodynamic problem of an infinitely long soft thin string
under given initial conditions. The elastodynamic problem can be expressed as
c2 u x x − u tt = 0 (t > 0), (1.5.2a)
u(x, 0) = u 0 (x), x ∈ (−a, a), (1.5.2b)

u t (x, 0) = v0 (x) x ∈ (−a, a). (1.5.2c)
The process to get specific solution of example 2 will also be given in the next
chapter. It can be seen that the initial disturbance will spread to the left and right
sides of interval (−a, a) at a certain speed with the increase of time. This is the
traveling wave problem. In the traveling wave problem, the phases of the various
mass particles are different from each other during the vibration process, and they
will not reach the maximum or minimum displacement at the same time. This is an
important feature that distinguishes the wave problem from the vibration problem.
Example 3 Suppose a soft and thin string with the length l and the density ρ. Both
ends of the thin string are fixed. The thin string rests in a horizontal position at
the initial time. Now a uniform load p(t) = at is applied on the string. Find the
displacement and velocity of the string before it breaks. The elastodynamic problem
can be expressed as
T u x x − ρu tt = p(t) (0 < x < l, t > 0), (1.5.3a)
u(0, t) = 0 (t ≥ 0), (1.5.3b)
u(l, t) = 0 (t ≥ 0), (1.5.3c)
u(x, 0) = 0 (0 < x < l), (1.5.3d)
u t (x, 0) = 0 (0 < x < l). (1.5.3e)
Obviously, the displacement distribution u(x, t) of the soft thin string before
breaking always satisfies the characteristic that the two ends are zero and the middle
is the largest. Different from example 1 and example 2, the displacement u(x, t) that
changes with time is no longer a periodic function of time. This problem is neither
a vibration problem nor a wave motion problem, but a transient problem. If p(t)
is a periodic function of time, obviously u(x, t) is also a periodic function of time.
Then, the problem is a forced vibration problem. If p(t) suddenly withdraws at a
certain time t0 , after this time, the movement of the string becomes a problem of free
vibration.
Standing waves can be seen as the result of mutual interference of traveling waves
with the same frequency moving in opposite directions. The solution of the transient
problem can also be understood as the result of the mutual interference of countless
traveling waves of different frequencies. Therefore, transient problems are different
from the steady-state problems on the one hang but also related with the steady-state
problems on the other hand. The frequency spectrum analysis of the time domain
signal provides a good interpretation of the interrelationship between the transient
problem and the steady-state problem.
Chapter 2
Elastic Waves in an Infinite Medium
2.1 Scalar Potential and Vector Potential
The Navier equation Eq. (1.4.13) is a coupled system of differential equations about
three displacement components, i.e. u x , u y and u z . It is very difficult to solve Navier
equation directly. For the convenience of solving Navier equation, the scalar potential
ϕ(x, t) and the vector potential ψ(x, t) are introduced and the displacement field is
thus expressed as [4]
u(x, t) = ∇ϕ(x, t) + ∇ × ψ(x, t) = u(1) (x, t) + u(2) (x, t). (2.1.1)
According to the decomposition theorem of vector field, any single-value and

finite vector field can be decomposed into a field without divergence plus a field
without curl. There must be a scalar potential function ϕ(x, t) existing for the field
without curl, which can be expressed as ∇ϕ(x, t). And there must be a vector potential
function ψ(x, t) existing for the field without divergence, which can be expressed
as ∇ × ψ(x, t). The displacement field is a vector field, which can be decomposed
naturally. Therefore, Eq. (2.1.1) always holds. In the same way, the volumetric force
b(x, t) is also a vector field and can be decomposed similarly
b(x, t) = ∇q(x, t) + ∇ × Q(x, t) = b(1) (x, t) + b(2) (x, t). (2.1.2)
By substituting Eqs. (2.1.1) and (2.1.2) into the Navier equation Eq. (1.4.9), the
following equation can be obtained
(λ + μ)∇[∇ · (∇ϕ + ∇ × ψ)] + μ∇ 2 (∇ϕ + ∇ × ψ) + ρ(∇q + ∇ × Q)
( )
= ρ ∇ ϕ̈ + ∇ × ψ̈ . (2.1.3)
After merging similar terms, we obtain
© Science Press 2022 15

P. Wei, Theory of Elastic Waves,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5662-1_2
16 2 Elastic Waves in an Infinite Medium
[ ] [ ]
∇ (λ + 2μ)∇ 2 ϕ + ρq − ρ ϕ̈ + ∇ × μ∇ 2 ψ + ρ Q − ρ ψ̈ = 0. (2.1.4)
In the derivation of the above formula, the condition without divergence is used,
i.e.
∇ · (∇ × ψ) = 0. (2.1.5)
The conditions that Eq. (2.1.4) holds are
(λ + 2μ)∇ 2 ϕ + ρq − ρ ϕ̈ = c(t) (2.1.6)
and
μ∇ 2 ψ + ρ Q − ρ ψ̈ = A(x, t) = ∇φ(x, t), (2.1.7)
where c(t) is a uniform field independent of coordinates, and A(x, t) is a field

without curl. It should be pointed out that the theorem of vector decomposition only
emphasizes the existence of scalar potential ϕ(x, t) and vector potential ψ(x, t), but
does not emphasize the uniqueness of ϕ(x, t) and ψ(x, t). In general, a vector field
is determined completely by three scalar fields. However, Eq. (2.1.1) includes four
scalar fields, i.e. ϕ(x, t) and three components of ψ(x, t). This implies that there is a
large freedom for the selection of ϕ(x, t) and ψ(x, t) which satisfy the requirements
of the equation. In order to eliminate a degree of freedom, the standard condition
∇ · ψ = 0, (2.1.8)
is usually introduced. Similarly, there is
∇ · Q = 0. (2.1.9)
Performing divergence operation on both sides of Eq. (2.1.7) and considering

the standard condition Eq. (2.1.8), we know that the field without curl, A(x, t), in
Eq. (2.1.7) also satisfies
∇ · A(x, t) = 0. (2.1.10)
This indicates that the vector field A(x, t) has neither curl nor divergence, so it
is a harmonic field, which can be expressed as ∇φ(x, t) by the harmonic function
φ(x, t), and the harmonic function φ(x, t) satisfies
∇ 2 φ(x, t) = 0. (2.1.11)
Even if the standard condition is introduced, due to the arbitrariness of c(t) and
φ(x, t), the solutions of Eqs. (2.1.6) and (2.1.7) are still non-unique. According to
the solution structure of differential equations, it can be generally expressed as
2.1 Scalar Potential and Vector Potential 17
ϕ(x, t) = ϕ 0 (x, t) + ϕ ∗ (x, t), (2.1.12)
and
ψ(x, t) = ψ 0 (x, t) + ψ ∗ (x, t), (2.1.13)
where ϕ 0 and ψ 0 correspond to the general solution of the homogeneous equation,

and ϕ ∗ and ψ ∗ depend on the selection of functions c(t) and ϕ(x, t), which are the
particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation.
Considering
u(1) = ∇ϕ 0 + ∇ϕ ∗ , (2.1.14)
u(2) = ∇ × ψ 0 + ∇ × ψ ∗ , (2.1.15)
∇ϕ 0 and ∇ϕ ∗ satisfy the same equation, ∇ × ψ 0 and ∇ × ψ ∗ satisfy the same

equation. Therefore, considering ϕ ∗ and ψ ∗ doesn’t expand the function space of
u(1) and u(2) , so we just have to figure out ϕ 0 and ψ 0 .
Performing the gradient and curl operations on Eqs. (2.1.6) and (2.1.7), respec-
tively, leads to
(λ + 2μ)∇ 2 u(1) (x, t) + ρb(1) (x, t) − ρ ü(1) (x, t) = 0, (2.1.16a)
and
μ∇ 2 u(2) (x, t) + ρb(2) (x, t) − ρ ü(2) (x, t) = 0. (2.1.16b)
When the volumetric force is ignored, the above two expressions can be further
simplified as
cp2 ∇ 2 u(1) (x, t) = ü(1) (x, t), (2.1.17a)
cs2 ∇ 2 u(2) (x, t) = ü(2) (x, t), (2.1.17b)
where
λ + 2μ
cp2 = , (2.1.18a)
ρ
μ
cs2 = . (2.1.18b)
ρ
Thus, it can be seen that each component of u(1) (x, t) and u(2) (x, t), as well as
the scalar potential ϕ(x, t) and the vector potential ψ(x, t) satisfy the equation of
the same form, i.e.
c2 ∇ 2 F = F̈, (2.1.19)
where F can be either a vector or a scalar. For steady-state problems, all mechanical
quantities, including displacement field, strain field, stress field, etc., are harmonic
functions of time; that is, they all contain a time factor e−iωt . So the above equation
can be further rewritten
∇ 2 F + k 2 F̈ = 0, (2.1.20)
where k 2 = ω2 /c2 . Equations (2.1.19) and (2.1.20) play an important role in elasto-
dynamics and are basic field equations of elastodynamics. In particular, Eq. (2.1.20)
is often referred to as the elastic wave equation. Performing divergence and curl oper-
ations on Eqs. (2.1.17a) and (2.1.17b), respectively, and introducing the volumetric
strain and the angular displacement vector (the axis vector of rotational deformation)
of volumetric element, i.e.
θ = ∇ · u(1) (x, t), (2.1.21a)
1
Ω= ∇ × u(2) (x, t). (2.1.21b)
2
It is noted that the volumetric strain θ and the angular displacement vector Ω also
satisfy the wave equation, i.e.
cp2 ∇ 2 θ = θ̈ (x, t), (2.1.22a)
cs2 ∇ 2 Ω = Ω̈(x, t). (2.1.22b)
In the rectangular coordinate system, the general form of the solution of the wave
equation Eq. (2.1.20) can be expressed as
F(r, t) = Aei (k·r+ωt) . (2.1.23)
In the one-dimensional case, it can be expressed as
F(x, t) = Aei (k·x+ωt) , (2.1.24)
where the parameters k (module of the vector k) and ω satisfy the following relation,
i.e.
ω2
k2 = . (2.1.25)
c2
2.2 Solution of Wave Equation 19
This is often referred to as the dispersion equation of elastic wave. Given a

series of values of time t = t0 , t1 , t2 , . . ., corresponding curves for f = aei (k·x−ωt)
and g = bei (k·x+ωt) can be drawn. It can be seen that these curves are actually
sinusoid and cosinusoid curves moving in opposite directions, commonly referred to
as left and right traveling waves, where a and b represent the vibration amplitude
of particle. k is called the wave vector, and its direction represents the propagation
direction of the wave while its magnitude is called the wave number, and its relation
with the wavelength λ is k = 2πλ
. ω is called the circular frequency, which represents
the vibration frequency of particle, and its relation to the period T is ω = 2π T
. For
i (k·r+ωt) (1)
the displacement field u(r, t) = ae , consider that u (x, t) is a field without
curl, it is required
[ ]
∇ × u(1) = i k × aei (k·r−ωt) = 0. (2.1.26)
Thus, a must be in the same direction as k; that is, the vibration direction (also
known as the direction of polarization) of particle is the same as the propagation
direction of wave. The kind of wave that satisfies such condition is called longitudinal
wave. Consider that u(2) (x, t) is without divergence, namely
[ ]
∇ · u(2) = i k · aei (k·r−ωt) = 0. (2.1.27)
Therefore, a must be perpendicular to k, and such a wave is called a transverse

wave.
2.2 Solution of Wave Equation
Firstly, let’s discuss the solution of one-dimensional wave equation, i.e.
∂ 2ϕ 1 ∂ 2ϕ
− = 0. (2.2.1)
∂x2 c2 ∂t 2
Rewrite Eq. (2.2.1) as
( )( )
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂
− + ϕ = 0. (2.2.2)
∂x c ∂t ∂x c ∂t
Introducing new variables ξ and η, i.e.
ξ = x − ct, (2.2.3a)
η = x + ct, (2.2.3b)
and according to the derivative rule of function of functions, we can obtain [3]
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η ∂ ∂
= + = + , (2.2.4a)
∂x ∂ξ ∂ x ∂η ∂ x ∂ξ ∂η
( )
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η ∂ ∂
= + =c − . (2.2.4b)
∂t ∂ξ ∂t ∂η ∂t ∂η ∂ξ
From the above two equations, we can know

( )
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= − , (2.2.5a)
∂ξ 2 ∂x c ∂t
( )
∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= + . (2.2.5b)
∂η 2 ∂x c ∂t
Using Eqs. (2.2.5a) and (2.2.5b), Eq. (2.2.2) can be written as

( )
∂ ∂ϕ ∂ 2ϕ
= = 0. (2.2.6)
∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ ∂η
∂ϕ
The above equation shows that ∂η
is independent of ξ and is only a function of
η. Let
∂ϕ
= f (η). (2.2.7)
∂η
Performing integral operation on the variable η on both sides of the above equation,
we can obtain
∮
ϕ(ξ, η) = f (η)dη + ϕ2 (ξ ) = ϕ1 (η) + ϕ2 (ξ ). (2.2.8)
After recovering variables ξ and η in the above equation to variables x and t, we

get
ϕ(x, t) = ϕ1 (x + ct) + ϕ2 (x − ct), (2.2.9)
where ϕ1 (x + ct) and ϕ2 (x − ct) are functions of arguments x + ct and x − ct,

respectively.
Similarly, the solution of the three-dimensional wave equation, i.e.
∂ 2ϕ 1 ∂ 2ϕ
− 2 2 = 0, (2.2.10)
∂x j∂x j c ∂t
can be discussed. The above equation can be written as

( )( )
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂
− + ϕ = 0. (2.2.11)
∂x j c ∂t ∂x j c ∂t
Introducing new variables ξ and η, i.e.
ξ = n j x j − ct, (2.2.12a)
η = n j x j + ct. (2.2.12b)
According to the derivative rule of function of functions, we get
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η ∂ ∂
= + = nj + nj , (2.2.13a)
∂x j ∂ξ ∂ x j ∂η ∂ x j ∂ξ ∂η
∂ ∂ ∂ξ ∂ ∂η ∂ ∂
= + = −c +c . (2.2.13b)
∂t ∂ξ ∂t ∂η ∂t ∂ξ ∂η
From the above two equations, we further get

( )
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
− = nj + nj + − , (2.2.14a)
∂x j c ∂t ∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ ∂η
( )
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ = nj + nj − + . (2.2.14b)
∂x j c ∂t ∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ ∂η
Thus,
( )( )
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ 2 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ 2
− + ϕ = (n j + nj ) −( − )
∂x j c ∂t ∂x j c ∂t ∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ ∂η
∂ 2ϕ
=4 . (2.2.15)
∂ξ ∂η
Substituting the above equation into Eq. (2.2.11) leads to
∂ 2ϕ
= 0. (2.2.16)
∂ξ ∂η
The solution of the above equation is
ϕ(ξ, η) = ϕ1 (ξ ) + ϕ2 (η). (2.2.17)
After recovering variables ξ and η in the above equation to variables x and t, we

get
ϕ(x, t) = ϕ1 (n i xi − ct) + ϕ2 (n i xi + ct). (2.2.18)
Let
ω
k= . (2.2.19)
c
Equation (2.2.18) can also be rewritten as
ϕ(x, t) = ϕ1 (kn i xi − ωt) + ϕ2 (kn i xi + ωt)
= ϕ1 (k · r − ωt) + ϕ2 (k · r + ωt), (2.2.20)
where
k = kn 1 e1 + kn 2 e2 + kn 2 e3 , (2.2.21)
and
r = x 1 e1 + x 2 e2 + x 2 e3 . (2.2.22)
k and r are, respectively, the wave vector and the position vector of any point in
space. (e1 , e2 , e3 ) is the unit basis vector in the spatial coordinate system.
Example 1 Let the length of the soft thin string be l, the density be ρ, and the
two ends be fixed. The initial displacement and velocity of the string are given. The
self-weight of the string is ignored. Solving the elastodynamic problem, i.e.
c2 u x x − u tt = 0 (0 < x < l, t > 0), (2.2.23a)
u(0, t) = 0 (t ≥ 0), (2.2.23b)
u(l, t) = 0 (t ≥ 0), (2.2.23c)
u(x, 0) = u 0 (x) (0 < x < l), (2.2.23d)
u t (x, 0) = v0 (x) (0 < x < l), (2.2.23e)
where c2 = Tρ (T is the tension of the string), u x x and u tt represent the twice partial
derivatives with respect to coordinates x and time t, respectively.
Solution: Let the solution of the equation be

u(x, t) = X (x)T (t). (2.2.24)
Substituting it into Eq. (2.2.23a), we can obtain
c2 X '' (x)T (t) − X (x)T '' (t) = 0. (2.2.25)
Divide both sides by c2 X (x)T (t), and we can obtain
X '' (x) T '' (t)

= 2 . (2.2.26)
X (x) c T (t)
Note that the left-hand side of the equation is a function of the coordinate x and
the right-hand side is a function of the time. Equation (2.2.26) can only be true if the
left-hand side of the equation = the right-hand side of the equation = constant.
Let this constant be −λ, then Eq. (2.2.26) is decomposed into the following two
equations, i.e.
X '' (x) + λX (x) = 0, (2.2.27)
and
T '' (t) + λc2 T (t) = 0. (2.2.28)
Substituting the boundary condition into Eq. (2.2.24) leads to
X (0)T (t) = 0, (2.2.29)
X (l)T (t) = 0. (2.2.30)
Considering that the arbitrariness of T (t), X (x) has to satisfy
X (0) = 0, (2.2.31a)
X (l) = 0. (2.2.31b)
The combination of Eqs. (2.2.27) and (2.2.31a) constitutes the definite solution
problem of ordinary differential equations. According to the knowledge of ordinary
differential equations, the solution can be expressed as
⎧ √ √
⎪
⎨ Ae −λx + Be− −λx (λ < 0)
X (x) = Ax + B (λ = 0) . (2.2.32)
⎪
⎩ Aei √λx + Be−i √λx (λ > 0)
When λ < 0, the boundary condition requires
X (0) = A + B = 0, (2.2.33)
and
√ √
−λl
X (l) = Ae + Be− −λl
= 0, (2.2.34)
which results in
A = B = 0.
When λ = 0, the boundary condition requires
X (0) = B = 0, (2.2.35)
and
X (l) = Al + B = 0, (2.2.36)
which also results in
A = B = 0. (2.2.37)
In both cases, λ < 0 and λ = 0, X (x) can only be zero solution, thus
u(x, t) = X (x)T (t) ≡ 0. (2.2.38)
In order to obtain a nontrivial solution to the elastodynamics problem, let’s

consider the third case.
When λ > 0, the boundary condition requires
X (0) = A + B = 0, (2.2.39)
and
√ √
λl
X (l) = Aei + Be−i λl
= 0. (2.2.40)
Substituting Eq. (2.2.39) into Eq. (2.2.40) leads to

( √ √ )
A ei λl − e−i λl = 0. (2.2.41)
When A /= 0, the above equation is equivalent to the requirement

√
sin λl = 0. (2.2.42)
The above equation is true only if λ has to take the discrete values, i.e.
( nπ )2
λ= (n = ±1, ±2, . . .). (2.2.43)
l
Note that Eq. (2.2.27) has the same form as Eq. (2.2.28), thus
√ √
λct
T (t) = Cei + De−i λct
. (2.2.44)
Therefore, we have the solution of the elastodynamics problem of the thin string
( )( )
u n (x, t) = X n (x)Tn (t) = An ei l x + Bn e−i l x Cn ei l ct + Dn e−i l ct
nπ nπ nπ nπ
' '
(x+ct)
+ Bn e−i (x−ct)
nπ nπ
= A n ei l l
' '
(x−ct)
+ Dn e−i (x+ct)
nπ nπ
+ C n ei l l . (2.2.45)
Since the governing equation of the elastodynamics problem Eq. (2.2.23) is linear,
the superposition principle holds, and thus the general solution of the elastodynamics
problem can be generally expressed as
∞ [
Σ ]
(x+ct)
+ Fn e−i (x−ct)
nπ nπ
u(x, t) = E n ei l l , (2.2.46)
n=±1
where E n and Fn are combination coefficients whose values are determined by initial
conditions, i.e.
∞ (
Σ )
+ Fn e−i
nπ nπ
u(x, 0) = E n ei l x l x
= u 0 (x), (2.2.47)
n=±1
and
nπ ( )
∞
Σ
c E n ei l x + Fn e−i l x = v0 (x).
nπ nπ
u t (x, 0) = i (2.2.48)
n=±1
l
Let’s discuss the solution of the elastodynamics problem of a finite-length string

with two fixed ends, which is expressed by Eq. (2.2.46).
(1) Let f n = E n ei l (x+ct) and gn = Fn e−i l (x−ct) , then both f n and gn are periodic
nπ nπ
functions of spatial coordinates x and time coordinates t, and their linear combi-
nation forms the general solution of the elastodynamics problem. So u(x, t) is
also a periodic function of x and t.
(2) Given different values of time t, and plot the curves of f n and gn . We can see
that f n and gn are actually sine and cosine curves moving in opposite directions,
and they are usually called left and right traveling waves, where E n and Fn are
called the amplitude of the wave, kn = nπl is called the wave number, and its
relationship with wavelength λn is λn = 2π kn
, ωn = nπl c is called the circular
frequency of the wave, c is the moving speed of the left or right traveling wave,
and is called the propagation speed of the wave.
(3) The general solution u(x, t) of the elastodynamics problem is obtained by the
superposition of the left travelling wave f n and the right travelling wave gn
(usually called monochromatic wave) of different circular frequencies ωn ,
wave numbers kn and different amplitudes. u(x, t) is called the wave packet.
Its shape is the result of interference of these monochromatic waves, f n and gn ,
of different frequencies.
(4) For a bounded string, due to the limitation of the boundary condition,i.e.
u(0, t) = u(l, t) = 0, the wave packet u(x, t) has two nodes at x = 0 and
x = l. With the increase of time t, the shape of the wave packet changes, but the
position remains unchanged. Such kind of wave packet is called the standing
wave. The standing wave problem is also called the vibration problem. In fact,
Eq. (2.2.46) can also be written as
∞ [
Σ ]
+ Fn e−i
nπ nπ
u(x, t) = E n ei l x l x
eiωt
n=±1
∞
Σ ,
= eiωt G n ei (kn x+θn )
n=±1
=e iωt
F(x) (kn = nπ/l)
where F(x) is the wave packet whose shape does not change with time but
whose amplitude changes with time. For the soft thin string fixed at both ends,
if the initial displacement u 0 (x) = 2 sin πlx and the initial velocity v0 (x) =
−2 πlc sin πlx , then, the change of the wave packet with time is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Example 2 Solving the elastodynamics problem of an infinitely long soft thin string
under given initial conditions, i.e.
c2 u x x − u tt = 0 (t > 0), (2.2.49a)
u(x, 0) = u 0 (x), (2.2.49b)
u t (x, 0) = v0 (x). (2.2.49c)
Solution: Let the solution of the equation be

u(x, t) = X (x)T (t). (2.2.50)
Substituting the above equation into Eq. (2.2.49a), similar to Example 1, we get
X '' (x) + λX (x) = 0, (2.2.51)
T '' (t) + λc2 T (t) = 0. (2.2.52)
Their solutions are, respectively,

√ √
λx
X (x) = Aei + Be−i λx
, (2.2.53)
and
√ √
λct
T (t) = Cei + De−i λct
. (2.2.54)
For infinite long and thin strings, since there is no boundary condition, the value of λ
should be continuous, that is, any value within (0, +∞), not necessary to be discrete
values. Thus, the solution of the elastodynamics problem can be expressed as [3].
∮+∞ ( √ )
[ ]
u(x, t) = A(k)eik(x+ct) + B(k)eik(x−ct) dk k = λ
−∞
∮+∞
[ ]
= A(ω)ei (kx+ωt) + B(ω)ei (kx−ωt) dω, (ω = kc) (2.2.55)
−∞
where the values of A(ω) and B(ω) are determined by the initial conditions which
are
∮+∞
[A(k) + B(k)]eikx dk = u 0 (x), (2.2.56)
−∞
and
∮+∞
[A(k) − B(k)]ikceikx dk = v0 (x). (2.2.57)
−∞
Let
∮+∞
u 0 (k) = u 0 (x)e−ikx dx, (2.2.58)
−∞
∮+∞
v 0 (k) = v0 (x)e−ikx dx, (2.2.59)
−∞
where u 0 (k) and v 0 (k) are the Fourier transforms of u 0 (x) and v0 (x), respectively,
then
1 1 1
A(k) = u 0 (k) + · v 0 (k), (2.2.60)
2 2c ik
1 1 1
B(k) = u 0 (k) − · v 0 (k). (2.2.61)
2 2c ik
Consider the following properties of the Fourier transform
1) If f (x) = ∫ g(x)d x, then
1
f (k) = g(k). (2.2.62)
ik
∮ +∞
2) If f (k) = −∞ f (x)eikx d x, then
∮+∞
f (k)e ikct
= f (x + ct)e−ikx dx. (2.2.63)
−∞
Equation (2.2.55) can be further written as
∮+∞
[ ]
u(x, t) = A(k)eik(x+ct) + B(k)eik(x−ct) dk
−∞
∮+∞[ ] ∮+∞[ ]
1 1 1
= u 0 (k)e ikct
e dk +
ikx
v 0 (k)eikct eikx dk
2 2c ik
−∞ −∞
∮+∞[ ] ∮+∞[ ]
1 1 1
+ u 0 (k)e−ikct eikx dk − v 0 (k)e−ikct eikx dk
2 2c ik
−∞ −∞
∮
x+ct
1 1
= [u 0 (x + ct) + u 0 (x − ct)] + v0 (ξ )dξ . (2.2.64)
2 2c
x−ct
This is known as d’ Alembert’s formula. If we take

⎧
⎨ a + x x ∈ (−a, 0)
u 0 (x) = a − x x ∈ (0, a) , (2.2.65)
⎩
0 x∈ / (−a, a)
and
v0 (x) = 0 x ∈ (−∞, +∞). (2.2.66)
The profile of u(x, t) at different time, i.e. = t0 , t1 , t2 . . ., is as follows (Fig. 2.2).

The general elastodynamic solutions Eqs. (2.2.55) and (2.2.64) for infinite long
and thin strings can be summarized as follows
1) Wave packet u(x, t) is the result of superposition of left traveling wave f =
eik(x+ct) and right traveling wave g = eik(x−ct) of different frequencies. Different
from the bounded thin string, the wave packet of the infinite thin string contains
wavelets of arbitrary frequency or wave number. In other words, the frequency or
wave number of the wavelets is continuously distributed. However, the wavelet
frequencies or wave numbers of the wave packets of bounded strings are discrete.
2) The shape of the wave packet depends on the initial conditions. When the initial
velocity is 0, the wave packet keeps the same shape and moves to the left and
right respectively with the increase of time t. Since there is no boundary, the
Fig. 2.1 Displacement waveform of flexible thin string fixed at both ends (bounded string) at
different moments ti
Fig. 2.2 Evolution process of initial perturbation with time in infinite long soft thin string,
(movement of wave packet)
wave packet will propagate continuously without generating the reflected wave
packet. The velocity of wave packet propagation is called group velocity.
3) In a non-dissipative medium, the shape of the wave packet will remain
unchanged, while in a dissipative medium, the wavelets of different frequen-
cies will propagate at different velocities, and thus the shape of the wave packet
will change constantly during the propagation process. The propagation velocity
of the wave packet, namely the group velocity, is different from the propagation
velocity of each wavelet, namely the phase velocity.
The above Example 1 and Example 2 are all one-dimensional problems. For
the three-dimensional infinite domain elastodynamics problem, the solution can be
expressed as
˚
[ ]
u(x, t) = A(k)ei (k·x+ct) + B(k)ei(k·x−ct) dk, (2.2.67)
where
k = k1 i + k2 j + k3 k,
x = x1 i + x2 j + x3 k.
2.3 Properties of Plane Waves 31
For wavelets f = ei (k·x+ωt) and g = ei(k·x−ωt) , the values depend on the argument
k · x − ωt which is often called the phase of the wave, and the plane represented by
the equation is called the equiphase plane, i.e.
k · x − ωt = const. (2.2.68)
It is assumed that the spatial positions of A point on the equiphase plane at times
t1 and t2 are, respectively, x1 and x2 , and from Eq. (2.2.68), we get
k · dx − ωdt = 0. (2.2.69)
Notice that k goes in the same direction as dx, so
dx ω
= = c. (2.2.70)
dt k
This indicates that the moving velocity of the equiphase plane of the wavelet at
a certain frequency is the velocity of the wave, which is usually called the phase
velocity. Note that the phase velocity refers to the propagating velocity of the wavelet,
while the group velocity refers to the propagating velocity of the wave packet. In a
non-dissipative medium, the group velocity and the phase velocity are the same, but
they are different in a dissipative medium.
A plane of equal phase may or may not be a plane. If the equiphase surface is flat,
we generally call it a plane wave, as f = ei (k·x±ωt) . However, there are also cases
where the equal-phase plane is not a plane. For example, the equal-phase plane of
the wave excited by a line source and a point source is a cylindrical surface and a
spherical surface, respectively. Such waves are usually called cylindrical waves and
spherical waves [4, 6].
2.3 Properties of Plane Waves
2.3.1 Propagation Mode of Plane Waves
Let the displacement component of a plane wave propagating in the direction of n

be expressed as
( )
u i = ai f n j x j − ct , (2.3.1)
where
n j x j − ct = const. (2.3.2)
The above equation is an arbitrary plane in three-dimensional Euclidean space,

which is called the equiphase plane of the plane wave. ai represents the projection
of the particle vibration amplitude on the coordinate axis. Let
ξ = n j x j − ct. (2.3.3)
Then, we get from Eq. (2.3.1)
∂u i ∂ f (ξ ) d f (ξ ) ∂ξ
= ai = ai = ai n j f ' (ξ ), (2.3.4)
∂x j ∂x j dξ ∂ x j
∂ 2ui
= ai n j n j f '' (ξ ), (2.3.5)
∂ x 2j
∂ 2ui
= ai n i n j f '' (ξ ). (2.3.6)
∂ xi ∂ x j
Substituting Eqs. (2.3.4) and (2.3.6) into the Navier equation (ignoring the volume
force), i.e.
∂θ ∂ 2ui ∂ 2ui
(λ + μ) +μ =ρ 2 , (2.3.7)
∂ xi ∂x j∂x j ∂t
we obtain
( )
(λ + μ)a j n j n i + μ − ρc2 ai = 0, (2.3.8)
or
[ ( ) ]
(λ + μ)n j n i + μ − ρc2 δi j a j = 0. (2.3.9)
The matrix form of Eq. (2.3.9) is

⎡ ⎤
(λ +( μ)n 1 n 1 )
⎢ + μ − ρc 2 (λ + μ)n 2 n 1 (λ + μ)n 3 n 1 ⎥⎧ ⎫
⎢ ⎥⎪ a1 ⎪
⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬
⎢ (λ + μ)n 1 n 2 (λ +( μ)n 2 n 22 ) (λ + μ)n 3 n 2 ⎥ a2 = 0. (2.3.10)
⎢ + μ − ρc ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎢ ⎥⎩ ⎭
⎣ (λ +( μ)n 3 n 3 ) ⎦ a3
(λ + μ)n 1 n 3 (λ + μ)n 2 n 3
+ μ − ρc2
The condition that the above equation has a non-zero solution is that the
determinant of the coefficient matrix is equal to zero. The condition reduces to
( )( )2
λ + 2μ − ρc2 μ − ρc2 = 0. (2.3.11)
2.3 Properties of Plane Waves 33
This equation has two distinct real roots, i.e.

√
λ + 2μ
cp = , (2.3.12)
ρ
and
√
μ
cs = . (2.3.13)
ρ
These two eigenvalues physically represent two propagation velocities of a plane

wave in an infinite uniform medium. Substituting them back into Eq. (2.3.10), the
corresponding eigenvectors can be obtained. Here, the eigenvector physically repre-
sents the vibration amplitude and vibration direction of the particle. Substituting
Eq. (2.3.12) into Eq. (2.3.9) leads to
[ ]
(λ + μ)n j n i − (λ + μ)δi j a j = 0, (2.3.14)
or
( )
(λ + μ) n j n i a j − ai = 0. (2.3.15)
For the equation above to be true, it has to satisfy
n m am n i − ai = 0. (2.3.16)
The vector form of the above equation is
(n · a)n = a. (2.3.17)
By performing vector product on both sides of equation with n, we obtain
n × a = (n · a)n × n = 0. (2.3.18)
It can be seen that the particle vibration vector a is consistent with the wave
propagation direction n for a plane wave propagating at a velocity of cp . This kind
of wave is the longitudinal waves mentioned earlier. Substituting Eq. (2.3.13) into
Eq. (2.3.9), we obtain
(λ + μ)n j n i a j = 0, (2.3.19)
or
n j a j = n · a = 0. (2.3.20)
It can be seen that the particle vibration vector a is perpendicular to the wave
propagation direction n for a plane wave propagating at a speed of cs , which is the
shear wave mentioned above.
In summary, in the infinite isotropic homogeneous elastic medium, there are only
two possible modes of plane waves, namely longitudinal wave and transverse wave,
whose propagation velocities are cp and cs , respectively. Moreover, the propagation
velocity of longitudinal wave, i.e. cp , is greater than that of shear wave, i.e. cs , and
the direction of particle vibration of longitudinal wave is the same as that of wave
propagation. The particle vibration direction of the shear wave is perpendicular to
the wave propagation direction.
2.3.2 The Stress Distribution on the Wavefront
It has been discussed above that there are only two modes of plane waves in infi-
nite uniform elastic medium. No matter longitudinal wave or transverse wave, their
displacement fields can be uniformly expressed as [2]
( )
u i = ai f n j x j − ct . (2.3.21)
Substituting it into Hooke’s law, i.e.

( )
σi j = λu k,k δi j + μ u i, j + u j,i , (2.3.22)
we can obtain the stress on the wavefront (equal phase plane)[3]

[ ( )]
σni = σi j n j = λak n k δi j + μ ai n j + a j n i f ' (ξ )n j
[ ( )]
= λak n k n i + μ ai n j n j + a j n i n j f ' (ξ )
= [(λ + μ)ak n k n i + μai ] f ' (ξ ). (2.3.23)
For a plane longitudinal or compressional wave, the particle vibration vector a is in

the same direction as the wave propagation vector n. So there is
ak n k = a,
or
an i = ai .
Substituting them into Eq. (2.3.23), we can obtain
σni = (λ + 2μ)ai f ' (ξ ). (2.3.24)

Another random document with
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something about it himself. It’s a splendid letter; you would think that
even a coward like Governor Osborne would do something after
getting such a letter.”
“Didn’t he answer the letter?”
“Answer it? He never got it! Papa didn’t send it; that’s the reason!
Papa’s the kindest man in the world, and he must have been afraid
of hurting Governor Osborne’s feelings. He wrote the letter,
expecting to send it, but when he went off to New Orleans he told Mr.
Bassford to hold it till he got back. He had even signed it—you can
read it if you like.”
It was undoubtedly a vigorous epistle, and Ardmore felt the thrill of its
rhetorical sentences as he read. The official letter paper on which it
was typewritten, and the signature of William Dangerfield, governor
of North Carolina, affixed in a bold hand, were sobering in
themselves. The dignity and authority of one of the sovereign
American states was represented here, and he handed the paper
back to Miss Dangerfield as tenderly as though it had been the
original draft of Magna Charta.
“It’s a corker, all right.”
“I don’t much like the way it ends. It says, right here”—and she bent
forward and pointed to the place under criticism—“it says, ‘Trusting
to your sense of equity, and relying upon a continuance of the
traditional friendship between your state and mine, I am, sir, awaiting
your reply, very respectfully, your obedient servant.’ Now, I wouldn’t
trust to his sense of anything, and that traditional friendship business
is just fluffy nonsense, and I wouldn’t be anybody’s obedient servant.
I decided when I wasn’t more than fifteen years old, with a lot of
other girls in our school, that when we got married we’d never say
obey, and we never have, though only three of our class are married
yet, but we’re all engaged.”
“Engaged?”
“Of course; we’re engaged. I’m engaged to Rutherford Gillingwater,
the adjutant-general of this state. You couldn’t be my private
secretary if I wasn’t engaged; it wouldn’t be proper.”
The earth was only a flying cinder on which he strove for a foothold.
She had announced her engagement to be married with a cool
finality that took his breath away; and not realizing the chaos into
which she had flung him, she returned demurely to the matter of the
letter.
“We can’t change that letter, because it’s signed close to the
‘obedient servant,’ and there’s no room. But I’m going to put it into
the typewriter and add a postscript.”
She sat down before the machine and inexpertly rolled the sheet into
place; then, with Ardmore helping her to find the keys, she wrote:
I demand an imediate reply.
“Demand and immediate are both business words. Are you sure
there’s only one m in immediate? All right, if you know. I reckon a
postscript like that doesn’t need to be signed. I’ll just put ‘W. D.’ there
with papa’s stub pen, so it will look really fierce. Now, you’re the
secretary; you copy it in the copying press and I’ll address the
envelope.”
“Don’t you have to put the state seal on it?” asked Ardmore.
“Of course not. You have to get that from the secretary of state, and I
don’t like him; he has such funny whiskers, and calls me little girl.
Besides, you never put the seal on a letter; it’s only necessary for
official documents.”
She bade him give the letter plenty of time to copy, and talked
cheerfully while he waited. She spoke of her friends, as Southern
people have a way of doing, as though every one must of course
know them—a habit that is illuminative of that delightful Southern
neighbourliness that knits the elect of a commonwealth into a single
family, that neither time and tide nor sword and brand can destroy.
Ardmore’s humility increased as the names of the great and good of
North Carolina fell from her lips; for they were as strange to him as
an Abyssinian dynasty. It was perfectly clear that he was not of her
world, and that his own was insignificant and undistinguished
compared with hers. His spirit was stayed somewhat by the
knowledge that he, and not the execrable Gillingwater, had been
chosen as her coadjutor in the present crisis. His very ignorance of
the royal families of North Carolina, which she recited so glibly, and
the fact that he was unknown at the capital, had won him official
recognition, and it was for him now to prove his worth. The political
plot into which he had been most willingly drawn pleased him
greatly; it was superior to his fondest dream of adventure, and now,
moreover, he had what he never had before, a definite purpose in
life, which was to be equal to the task to which this intrepid girl
assigned him.
“Well, that’s done,” said Miss Jerry, when the letter, still damp from
the copy-press, had been carefully sealed and stamped. “Governor
Osborne will get it in the morning. I think maybe we’d better
telegraph him that it’s coming.”
“I don’t see much use in that, when he’ll get the letter first thing to-
morrow,” Ardmore suggested. “It costs money to telegraph, and you
must have an economical administration.”
“The good of it would be to keep him worried and make him very
angry. And if he told Barbara Osborne about it, it would make her
angry, too, and maybe she wouldn’t sleep any all night, the haughty
thing! Hand me one of those telegraph blanks.”
The message, slowly thumped out on the typewriter, and several
times altered and copied, finally read:
Raleigh, N. C.
The Honourable Charles Osborne,
Governor of South Carolina,
Columbia, S. C.:
Have written by to-night’s mail in Appleweight matter. Your
vacillating course not understood.
William Dangerfield,
Governor of North Carolina.
“I reckon that will make him take notice,” and Miss Jerry viewed her
work with approval. “And now, Mr. Ardmore, here’s a telegram from
Mr. Billings which I don’t understand. See if you know what it
means.”
Ardmore chuckled delightedly as he read:
Cannot understand your outrageous conduct in bond
matter. If payment is not made June first your state’s credit
is ruined. Where is Foster? Answer to Atlanta.
George P. Billings.
“I don’t see what’s so funny about that! Mr. Bassford was walking the
floor with that message when I came to the office. He said papa and
the state were both going to be ruined. There’s a quarter of a million
dollars to be paid on bonds that are coming due June first, and there
isn’t any money to pay them with. That’s what he said. And Mr.
Foster is the state treasurer, and he’s gone fishing.”
“Fishing?”
“He left word he had gone fishing. Mr. Foster and papa don’t get
along together, and Mr. Bassford says he’s run off just to let those
bonds default and bring disgrace on papa and the state.”
Ardmore’s grin broadened. The Appleweight case was insignificant
compared with this new business with which he was confronted. He
was vaguely conscious that bonds have a way of coming due, and
that there is such a thing as credit in the world, and that it is
something that must not be trifled with; but these considerations did
not weigh heavily with him. For the first time in his uneventful life
vengeance unsheathed her sword in his tranquil soul. Billings had
always treated him with contempt, as a negligible factor in the
Ardmore millions, and here at last was an opportunity to balance
accounts.
“I will show you how to fix Billings. Just let me have one of those
blanks.”
And after much labour, and with occasional suggestions from Miss
Jerry, the following message was presently ready for the wires:
Your famous imputation upon my honour and that of the
state shall meet with the treatment it deserves. I defy you
to do your worst. If you come into North Carolina or bring
legal proceedings for the collection of your bonds I will fill
you so full of buckshot that forty men will not be strong
enough to carry you to your grave.
“Isn’t that perfectly grand!” murmured Jerry admiringly. “But I thought
your family and the Bronx Loan and Trust Company were the same
thing. That’s what Rutherford Gillingwater told me once.”
“You are quite right. Billings works for us. Before I came of age he
used to make me ask his permission when I wanted to buy a new
necktie, and when I was in college he was always fussing over my
bills, and humiliating me when he could.”
“But you mustn’t make him so mad that he will cause papa trouble
and bring disgrace on our administration.”
“Don’t you worry about Billings. He is used to having people get
down on their knees to him, and the change will do him good. When
he gets over his first stroke of apoplexy he will lock himself in a dark
room and begin to think hard about what to do. He usually does all
the bluffing, and I don’t suppose anybody ever talked to him like this
telegram in all his life. Where is this man Foster?”
“Just fishing; that’s what Mr. Bassford said, but he didn’t know
where. Father was going to call a special session of the legislature to
investigate him, and he was so angry that he ran off so that papa
would have to look after those bonds himself. Then this Appleweight
case came up, and that worried papa a great deal. Here’s his call for
the special session. He told Mr. Bassford to hold that, too, until he
came back from New Orleans.”
Ardmore read Governor Dangerfield’s summons to the legislature
with profound interest. It was signed, but the space for the date on
which the law-makers were to assemble had been left blank.
“It looks to me as though you had the whole state in your hands,
Miss Dangerfield. But I don’t believe we ought to call the special
session just yet. It would be sure to injure the state’s credit, and it will
be a lot more fun to catch Foster. I wonder if he took all the state
money with him.”
“Mr. Bassford said he didn’t know and couldn’t find out, for the clerks
in the treasurer’s office wouldn’t tell him a single thing.”
“One should never deal with subordinates,” remarked Ardmore
sagely. “Deal with the principals—I heard a banker say that once,
and he was a man who knew everything. Besides, it will be more fun
to attend to the bonds ourselves.”
He seemed lost in reverie for several minutes, and she asked with
some impatience what he was studying about.
“I was trying to think of a word they use when the government has
war or any kind of trouble. It’s something about a corpse, but I can’t
remember it.”
“A corpse? How perfectly horrid! Can it be possible, Mr. Ardmore,
that you mean the writ of habeas corpus?” The twinkle in his eye left
her unable to determine whether his ignorance was real, or assumed
for his own amusement.
“That’s it,” beamed Ardmore. “We’ve got to suspend it if worst comes
to worst. Then you can put anybody you like into a dungeon, and
nobody can get him out—not for a million years.”
“I wonder where they keep it?” asked Jerry. “It must be here
somewhere. Perhaps it’s in the safe.”
“I don’t think it’s a thing, like a lemon, or a photograph, or a bottle of
ink; it’s a document, like a Thanksgiving proclamation, and you order
out the militia, and the soldiers have to leave their work and
assemble at their armouries, and it’s all very serious, and somebody
is likely to get shot.”
“I don’t think it would be nice to shoot people,” said Jerry. “That
would do the administration a terrible lot of harm.”
“Of course we won’t resort to extreme measures unless we are
forced to it. And then, after we have exhausted all the means at our
command, we can call on the president to send United States
troops.”
He was proud of his knowledge, which had lingered in his
subconsciousness from a review of the military power of the states
which he had heard once from Griswold, who knew about such
matters; but he was brought to earth promptly enough.
“Mr. Ardmore, how dare you suggest that we call United States
troops into North Carolina! Don’t you know that would be an insult to
every loyal son of this state? I should have you know that the state of
North Carolina is big enough to take care of herself, and if any
president of the United States sends any troops down here while I’m
running this office, he’ll find that, while our people will gladly die, they
never surrender.”
“Oh, I didn’t mean anything like that by what I said,” pleaded
Ardmore, frightened almost to tears. “Of course, we’ve got our own
troops, and we’ll get through all our business without calling for help.
I shouldn’t any more call on the president than I’d call on the Czar of
Russia.”
She seemed satisfied with this disclaimer, and produced a diary in
which Governor Dangerfield had noted his appointments far into the
future.
“We’ll have to break a lot of engagements for papa. Here’s a speech
he promised to make at Wilmington at the laying of the corner-stone
of the new orphan asylum. That’s to-morrow, and papa can’t be
there, so we’ll send a telegram of congratulation to be read instead.
Then he was to preside at a convention of the Old Fiddlers’
Association at Goldsboro the next day, and he can’t do that. I guess
we’d better telegraph and say how sorry he is to be delayed by
important official business. And here’s—why, I had forgotten about
the National Guard encampment, that’s beginning now.”
“Do you mean the state militia?” Ardmore inquired.
“Why, of course. They’re having their annual encampment over in
Azbell County at Camp Dangerfield—they always name the camp for
the governor—and father was to visit the camp next Saturday for his
annual inspection. That’s near your county, where your farm is; didn’t
you know that?”
Ardmore was humble, as he always was when his ignorance was
exposed, but his face brightened joyfully.
“You mustn’t break that engagement. Those troops ought to be
inspected. Inspecting his troops is one of the most important things a
governor has to do. It’s just like a king or an emperor. I’ve seen
Emperor William and King Humbert inspect their soldiers, and they
go galloping by like mad, with all the soldiers saluting, and it’s
perfectly bully. And then there have to be manœuvres, to see
whether the troops know how to fight or not, and forced marches and
sham battles.”
“Papa always speaks to the men,” suggested Jerry, a little abashed
by the breadth and splendour of Ardmore’s knowledge. His
comparison of the North Carolina militia with the armies of Europe
pleased her.
“I think the ladies of the royal family inspect the troops too,
sometimes,” he continued. “The queens are always honorary
colonels of regiments, and present them with flags, which is a
graceful thing to do.”
“Colonel Gillingwater never told me that, and he’s the adjutant-
general of the state and ought to know.”
“What’s he colonel of?” asked Ardmore gloomily.
“He was colonel in the Spanish war, or was going to be, but he got
typhoid fever, and so he couldn’t go to Cuba, and papa appointed
him adjutant-general as a reward for his services; but everybody
calls him Colonel just the same.”
“It looks like a pretty easy way of getting a title,” murmured Ardmore.
“I had typhoid fever once, and nearly died, and all my hair came out.”
“You oughtn’t to speak that way of my fiancé. It’s quite impertinent in
a mere private secretary to talk so.”
“I beg your pardon. I forgot that you were engaged. You’ll have to go
to Camp Dangerfield and inspect the troops yourself, and they would
a lot rather have you inspect them than have your father do it.”
“You mustn’t say things like that! I thought I told you your
appointment carried no social recognition. You mustn’t talk to me as
though I was a girl you really know——”
“But there’s no use of making-believe such things when I do know
you!”
“Not the least little tiny bit, you don’t! Do you suppose, if you were a
gentleman I knew and had been introduced to, I would be talking to
you here in papa’s office?”
“But I pretend to be a gentleman; you certainly wouldn’t be talking to
me if you thought me anything else.”
“I can’t even discuss the matter, Mr. Ardmore. A gentleman wouldn’t
lie to a lady.”
“But if you know I’m a liar, why are you telling me these secrets and
asking me to help you play being governor?” and Ardmore,
floundering hopelessly, marvelled at her more and more.
“That’s exactly the reason—because you came poking up to my
house and told me that scandalous fib about meeting papa in New
Orleans. Mr. Bassford is a beautiful liar; that’s why he’s papa’s
secretary; but you are a much more imaginative sort of liar than Mr.
Bassford. He can only lie to callers about papa being engaged, or
write encouraging letters to people who want appointments which
papa never expects to make; but you lie because you can’t help it.
Now, if you’re satisfied, you can take those telegrams down to the
telegraph office; and you’d better mail that letter to Governor
Osborne yourself, for fear the man who’s running the lawn-mower
will forget to come for it.”
The roll of drums and the cry of a bugle broke in upon the peace of
the late afternoon. Miss Jerry rose with an exclamation and ran out
into the broad portico of the state house. Several battalions of a tide-
water regiment, passing through town on their way to Camp
Dangerfield, had taken advantage of a wait in Raleigh to disembark
and show themselves at the capital. They were already halted and at
parade rest at the side of the street, and a mounted officer in khaki,
galloping madly into view, seemed to focus the eyes of the gathering
crowd. He was a gallant figure of a man; his mount was an animal
that realized Job’s ideal of a battle-horse; the soldiers presented
arms as the horseman rode the line. Miss Dangerfield waved her
handkerchief, standing eagerly on tiptoe to make her salutation carry
as far as possible.
“Who is that?” asked Ardmore, with sinking spirit.
“Why, Rutherford Gillingwater, of course.”
“Fours right!” rang the command a moment later, and the militiamen
tramped off to the station.
It was then that Ardmore, watching the crowd disperse at the edge of
the park, saw his caller of the morning striding rapidly across the
street. Ardmore started forward, then checked himself so suddenly
that Miss Jerry Dangerfield turned to him inquiringly.
“What’s the matter?” she demanded.
“Nothing. I have been robbed, as I hoped to be. Over there, on the
sidewalk, beyond the girl in the pink sunbonnet, goes my little brown
jug. That lank individual with the shabby hat has lifted it out of my
room at the hotel, just as I thought he would.”
CHAPTER VI.
MR. GRISWOLD FORSAKES THE ACADEMIC
LIFE.
Miss Osborne had asked Griswold to await the outcome of the day,
and, finding himself thus possessed of a vacation, he indulged his
antiquarian instincts by exploring Columbia. The late afternoon found
him in the lovely cathedral churchyard, where an aged negro,
tending the graves of an illustrious family, leaned upon his spade
and recited the achievements and virtues of the dead. Men who had
been law-makers, others who had led valiantly to battle, and
ministers of the Prince of Peace, mingled their dust together; and
across the crisp hedges a robin sang above Timrod’s grave.
As the shadows lengthened, Griswold walked back to the hotel,
where he ate supper, then, calling for a horse, he rode through the
streets in a mood of more complete alienation than he had ever
experienced in a foreign country; yet the very scents of the summer
night, stealing out from old gardens, the voices that reached him
from open doorways, spoke of home.
As he reached the outskirts of town and rode on toward the
governor’s mansion, his mood changed, and he laughed softly, for
he remembered Ardmore, and Ardmore was beyond question the
most amusing person he knew. It was unfortunate, he generously
reflected, that Ardmore, rather than himself, had not been plunged
into this present undertaking, which was much more in Ardmore’s
line than his own. There would, however, be a great satisfaction in
telling Ardmore of his unexpected visit to Columbia, in exchange for
his friend’s report of his pursuit of the winking eye. He only regretted
that in the nature of things Columbia is a modern city, a seat of
commerce as well as of government, a place where bank clearings
are seriously computed, and where the jaunty adventurer with sword
and ruffles is quite likely to run afoul of the police. Yet his own
imagination was far more fertile than Ardmore’s, and he would have
hailed a troop of mail-clad men as joyfully as his friend had he met
them clanking in the highway. Thus modern as we think ourselves,
the least venturesome among us dreams that some day some turn of
a street corner will bring him face to face with what we please to call
our fate; and this is the manifestation of our last drop of mediæval
blood. The grimmest seeker after reality looks out of the corner of his
eye for the flutter of a white handkerchief from the ivied tower he
affects to ignore; and, in spite of himself, he is buoyed by the hope
that some day a horn will sound for him over the nearest hill.
Miss Osborne met him at the veranda steps. Indoors a mandolin and
piano struck up the merry chords of The Eutaw Girl.
“My young sisters have company. We’ll sit here, if you don’t mind.”
She led the way to a quiet corner, and after they were seated she
was silent a moment, while the light from the windows showed
clearly that her perplexity of the morning was not yet at an end. The
music tinkled softly, and a breeze swept in upon them with faint
odours of the garden.
“I hope you won’t mind, Mr. Griswold, if I appear to be ashamed of
you. It’s not a bit hospitable to keep you outside our threshold; but—
you understand—I don’t have to tell you!”
“I understand perfectly, Miss Osborne!”
“It seems best not to let the others know just why you are here. I told
my sisters that you were an old friend—of father’s—who wished to
leave a message for him.”
“That will do first-rate!” he laughed. “My status is fixed. I know your
father, but as for ourselves, we are not acquainted.”
He felt that she was seriously anxious and troubled, and he wished
to hearten her if he could. The soft dusk of the faintly-lighted corner
folded her in. Behind her the vines of the verandah moved slightly in
the breeze. A thin, wayward shaft of light touched her hair, as though
searching out the gold. When we say that people have atmosphere,
we really mean that they possess indefinite qualities that awaken
new moods in us, as by that magic through which an ignorant hand
thrumming a harp’s strings may evoke some harmony denied to
conscious skill. He heard whispered in his heart a man’s first word of
the woman he is destined to love, in which he sets her apart—above
and beyond all other womenkind; she is different; she is not like
other women!
“It is nearly nine,” she said, her voice thrilling through him. “My father
should have been here an hour ago. We have heard nothing from
him. The newspapers have telephoned repeatedly to know his
whereabouts. I have put them off by intimating that he is away on
important public business, and that his purpose might be defeated if
his exact whereabouts were known. I tried to intimate, without saying
as much, that he was busy with the Appleweight case. One of the
papers that has very bitterly antagonized father ever since his
election has threatened to expose what the editor calls father’s
relations with Appleweight. I cannot believe that there is anything
wrong about that; of course there is not!”
She was controlling herself with an effort, and she broke off her
declaration of confidence in her absent father sharply but with a sob
in her voice.
“I have no doubt in the world that the explanation you gave the
newspapers is the truth of the matter. Your father must be absent a
great deal—it is part of a governor’s business to keep in motion. But
we may as well face the fact that his absence just now is most
embarrassing. This Appleweight matter has reached a crisis, and a
failure to handle it properly may injure your father’s future as a public
man. If you will pardon me, I would suggest that there must be some
one whom you can take into your confidence—some friend, some
one in your father’s administration that you can rely on?”
“Yes; father has many friends; but I cannot consider acknowledging
to any one that father has disappeared when such a matter as this
Appleweight case is an issue through the state. No; I have thought of
every one this afternoon. It would be a painful thing for his best
friends to know what is—what seems to be the truth.” Her voice
wavered a little, but she was brave, and he was aware that she
straightened herself in her chair, and, when wayward gleams of light
fell upon her face, that her lips were set resolutely.
“You saw the attorney-general this morning,” she went on. “As you
suggested, he would naturally be the one to whom I should turn, but
I cannot do it. I—there is a reason”—and she faltered a moment
—“there are reasons why I cannot appeal to Mr. Bosworth at this
time.”
She shrugged her shoulders as though throwing off a disagreeable
topic, and he saw that there was nothing more to be said on this
point. His heart-beats quickened as he realized that she was
appealing to him; that, though he was only the most casual
acquaintance, she trusted him. It was a dictum of his, learned in his
study and practice of the law, that issues must be met as they offer—
not as the practitioner would prefer to have them, but as they occur;
and here was a condition of affairs that must be met promptly if the
unaccountable absence of the governor was to be robbed of its
embarrassing significance.
As he pondered for a moment, a messenger rode into the grounds,
and Miss Osborne slipped away and met the boy at the steps. She
came back and opened a telegram, reading the message at one of
the windows. An indignant exclamation escaped her, and she
crumpled the paper in her hand.
“The impudence of it!” she exclaimed. He had risen, and she now
turned to him with anger and scorn deepening her beautiful colour.
Her breath came quickly; her head was lifted imperiously; her lips
quivered slightly as she spoke.
“This is from Governor Dangerfield. Can you imagine a man of any
character or decency sending such a message to the governor of
another state?”
She watched him as he read:
Raleigh, N. C.
The Honourable Charles Osborne,
Governor of South Carolina,
Columbia, S. C.:
Have written by to-night’s mail in Appleweight matter. Your
vacillating course not understood.
William Dangerfield,
Governor of North Carolina.
“What do you think of that?” she demanded.
“I think it’s impertinent, to say the least,” he replied guardedly.
“Impertinent! It’s the most contemptible, outrageous thing I ever
heard of in my life! Governor Dangerfield has dilly-dallied with that
case for two years. His administration has been marked from the
beginning by the worst kind of incompetence. Why, this man
Appleweight and his gang of outlaws only come into South Carolina
now and then to hide and steal, but they commit most of their crimes
in North Carolina, and they always have. Talk about a vacillating
course! Father has never taken steps to arrest those men, out of
sheer regard for Governor Dangerfield; he thought North Carolina
had some pride, and that her governor would prefer to take care of
his own criminals. What do you suppose Appleweight is indicted for
in this state? For stealing one ham—one single ham from a farmer in
Mingo County, and he’s killed half a dozen men in North Carolina.”
She paced the corner of the veranda angrily, while Griswold groped
for a solution of the problem. The telegram from Raleigh was
certainly lacking in diplomatic suavity. It was patent that if the
governor of North Carolina was not tremendously aroused, he was
playing a great game of bluff; and on either hypothesis a prompt
response must be made to his telegram.
“I must answer this at once. He must not think we are so stupid in
Columbia that we don’t know when we’re insulted. We can go
through the side door to father’s study and write the message there,”
and she led the way.
“It might be best to wait and see what his letter is like,” suggested
Griswold, with a vague wish to prolong this discussion, that he might
enjoy the soft glow of the student lamp on her cheek.
“I don’t care what his letter says; it can’t be worse than his telegram.
We’ll answer them both at once.”
She found a blank and wrote rapidly, without asking suggestions,
with this result:
The Honourable William Dangerfield,
Raleigh, N. C.:
Your extremely diverting telegram in Appleweight case
received and filed.
Charles Osborne,
Governor of South Carolina.
She met Griswold’s obvious disappointment with prompt explanation.
“You see, the governor of South Carolina cannot stoop to an
exchange of billingsgate with an underbred person like that—a big,
solemn, conceited creature in a long frock-coat and a shoestring
necktie, who boasts of belonging to the common ‘peo-pull.’ He
doesn’t have to tell anybody that, when it’s plain as daylight. The
way to answer him is not to answer at all.”
“The way to answer him is to make North Carolina put Appleweight
in jail, for crimes committed in that state, and then, if need be, we
can satisfy the cry for vengeance in South Carolina by flashing our
requisition. There is a rule in such cases that the state having the
heaviest indictments shall have precedence; and you say that in this
state it’s only a matter of a ham. I am not acquainted with the South
Carolina ham,” he went on, smiling, “but in Virginia the right kind of a
ham is sacred property, and to steal one is a capital offence.”
“I should like to steal one such as I had last winter in Richmond,” and
Miss Osborne forgot her anger; her eyes narrowed dreamily at an
agreeable memory.
“Was it at Judge Randolph Wilson’s?” asked Griswold instantly.
“Why, yes, it was at Judge Wilson’s, Mr. Griswold. How did you
know?”
“I didn’t know—I guessed; for I have sat at that table myself. The
judge says grace twice when there’s to be ham—once before soup,
then again before ham.”
“Then thanksgiving after the ham would be perfectly proper!”
Miss Osborne was studying Griswold carefully, then she laughed,
and her attitude toward him, that had been tempered by a certain
official reserve, became at once cordial.
“Are you the Professor Griswold who is so crazy about pirates? I’ve
heard the Wilsons speak of you, but you don’t look like that.”
“Don’t I look like a pirate? Thank you! I had an appointment at Judge
Wilson’s office this morning to talk over a case in which I’m
interested.”
“I remember now what he said about you. He said you really were a
fine lawyer, but that you liked to read about pirates.”
“That may have been what he said to you; but he has told me that
the association of piracy and law was most unfortunate, as it would
suggest unpleasant comments to those who don’t admire the legal
profession.”
“And you are one of those tide-water Griswolds, then, if you know
the Randolph Wilsons. They are very strong for the tide-water
families; to hear them talk you’d think the people back in the Virginia
hills weren’t really respectable.”
“It’s undeniably the right view of the matter,” laughed Griswold, “but
now that I live in Charlottesville I don’t insist on it. It wouldn’t be
decent in me. And I have lots of cousins in Lexington and through
the Valley. The broad view is that every inch of the Old Dominion is
holy ground.”
“It is an interesting commonwealth, Mr. Griswold; but I do not
consider it holy ground. South Carolina has a monopoly of that;” and
then the smile left her face and she returned to the telegram. “Our
immediate business, however, is not with Virginia, or with South
Carolina, but with the miserable commonwealth that lies between.”
“And that commonwealth,” said Griswold, wishing to prolong the
respite from official cares, “that state known in law and history as
North Carolina, I have heard called, by a delightful North Carolina
lady I met once at Charlottesville, a valley of humility between two
mountains of conceit. That seems to hit both of us!”
“North Carolina isn’t a state at all,” Miss Osborne declared spitefully;
“it’s only a strip of land where uninteresting people live. And now,
what do you say to this telegram?”
“Excellent. It’s bound to irritate, and it leaves him in the dark as to
our—I mean Governor Osborne’s—intentions. And those intentions
——”
During this by-play he had reached a decision as to what should be
done, and he was prepared to answer when she asked, with an
employment of the pronoun that pleasantly emphasized their
relationship,—
“What are our intentions?”
“We are going to catch Appleweight, that’s the first thing—and until
we get him we’re going to keep our own counsel. Let me have a
telegraph blank, and I will try my hand at being governor.” He sat
down in the governor’s chair, asked the name of the county seat of
Mingo, and wrote without erasure or hesitation this message:
To the Sheriff of Mingo County,
Turner Court House, S. C.:
Make every possible effort to capture Appleweight and any
of his gang who are abroad in your county. Swear in all the
deputies you need, and if friendliness of citizens to
outlaws makes this impossible wire me immediately, and I
will send militia. Any delay on your part will be visited with
severest penalties. Answer immediately by telegraph.
Charles Osborne,
Governor of South Carolina.
“That’s quite within the law,” said Griswold, handing Barbara the
message; “and we might as well put the thing through at a gallop. I’ll
get the telegraph company to hold open the line to Turner Court
House until the sheriff answers.”
As Barbara read the message he saw her pleasure in the quick
compression of her lips, the glow in her cheeks, and then the bright
glint of her bronze-brown eyes as she finished.
“That’s exactly right. I didn’t know just how to manage such a thing,
but I see that that is the proper method.”
“Yes; the sheriff must have his full opportunity to act.”
“And what, then, if the sheriff refuses to do anything?”
“Then—then”—and Griswold’s jaw set firmly, and he straightened
himself slightly before he added in a quiet tone—“then I’m going
down there to take charge of the thing myself.”
“Oh, that is too much! I didn’t ask that; and I must refuse to let you
take any such responsibility on yourself, to say nothing of the
personal danger. I merely wanted your advice—as a lawyer, for the
reason that I dared not risk father’s name even among his best
friends here. And your coming to the office this morning seemed so
—so providential——”
He sought at once to minimize the value of his services, for he was
not a man to place a woman under obligations, and, moreover, an
opportunity like this, to uphold the dignity, and perhaps to exercise
the power, of a state laid strong hold upon him. He knew little
enough about the Appleweight case, but he felt from his slight
knowledge that he was well within his rights in putting spurs to the
sheriff of Mingo County. If the sheriff failed to respond in proper spirit
and it became necessary to use the militia, he was conscious that
serious complications might arise. He had not only a respect for law,
but an ideal of civic courage and integrity, and the governor’s
inexplicable absence aroused his honest wrath. The idea that a mere
girl should be forced to sustain the official honour and dignity of a
cowardly father further angered him. And then he looked into her
eyes and saw how grave they were, and how earnest and with what
courage she met the situation; and the charm of her slender figure,
that glint of gold in her hair, her slim, supple hands folded on the
table—these things wrought in him a happiness that he had never
known before, so that he laughed as he took the telegram from her.
“There must be no mistake, no failure,” she said quietly.
“We are not going to fail; we are going to carry this through! Within
three days we’ll have Appleweight in a North Carolina jail or a flying
fugitive in Governor Dangerfield’s territory. And now these telegrams
must be sent. It might be better for you to go to the telegraph office
with me. You must remember that I am a pilgrim and a stranger, and
they might question my filing official messages.”
“That is perfectly true. I will go into town with you.”
“And if there’s an official coach that everybody knows as yours, it
would allay suspicions to have it,” and while he was still speaking
she vanished to order the carriage.
In five minutes it was at the side door, and Griswold and Barbara,
fortified by the presence of Phœbe, left the governor’s study.
“If they don’t know me, everybody in South Carolina knows Phœbe,”
said Barbara.
“A capital idea. I can see by her eye that she’s built for conspiracy.”
Griswold’s horse was to be returned to town by a boy; and when this
had been arranged the three entered the carriage.
“The telegraph office, Tom; and hurry.”

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Theory of Elastic Waves 1st Edition

Waves and Rays in Elastic Continua 4th Edition Michael

Diffraction Radiation and Propagation of Elastic Waves

Waves of Global Terrorism 1st Edition David Rapoport

Fluid Waves 1st Edition Manasseh

Breaking Waves 1st Edition Barry Litherland

Recent Developments in Using Seismic Waves as a Probe

Disaster Medicine 1st Edition Wei Zhonghai

Calculations and Simulations of Low Dimensional

Theory of Elastic Waves

ISBN 978-981-19-5661-4 ISBN 978-981-19-5662-1 (eBook)

Jointly published with Science Press

© Science Press 2022

Beijing, China Peijun Wei

3.2.2 Reflection of SH Waves on Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

6.4 Guided Waves in Cylindrical Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

1.1 Basic Hypothesis of Elastodynamics

1.1.1 Continuity Hypothesis

1.1.2 Elasticity Hypothesis

© Science Press 2022 1

1.1.3 Small Deformation Hypothesis

1.1.4 Homogeneous Hypothesis

1.1.5 Isotropic Hypothesis

have five independent elastic parameters; Orthotropic anisotropic materials have

1.1.6 Zero Initial Stress Hypothesis

1.2 Basic Conservation Laws of Elastodynamics

1.2.1 Law of Mass Conservation

According to the assumption of continuity of objects, an object is a continuous

Using the divergence theorem, we can obtain its differential form

1.2.2 Law of Conservation of Momentum

The component form of the law of conservation of angular momentum, i.e.

After using the divergence theorem, we get

The differential form of the law of conservation of angular momentum can be

1.2.3 The Law of Conservation of Energy

1.3 Variational Principle of Elastodynamics

u i (x, t) = u is (x, t), x ∈ Su , t > 0, (1.3.1)

(2) Strain–displacement relationship

σi j = λεkk δi j + 2μεi j , (1.3.3)

(4) Time node conditions

u i (x, t)|t=0 = u i0 (x), (1.3.4a)

u i (x, t)|t=t1 = u i1 (x), (1.3.4b)

Hamilton’s variational principle can be stated as, in all allowable displacement

take the stationary value, i.e.

The explicit expressions of the stationary value condition of δπ = 0 are derived

Taking into account the arbitrariness of δu i , Eq. (1.3.13) requires

σi j, j + ρbi = ρ ü i , (inside the object x ∈ Su ) (1.3.14)

ti = t i , (on the boundary x ∈ Sσ with the given stress). (1.3.15)

Equation (1.3.14) is exactly the governing equation of the physical system to be

1.4 The Initial Boundary Value Problem of Elastodynamics

Using the law of conservation of linear momentum or the variational principle of

σi j = λεkk δi j + 2μεi j . (1.4.2)

u i (x, t)|t=0 = u i0 (x), (1.4.4a)

u̇ i (x, t)|t=0 = u̇ i0 (x). (1.4.4b)

u i (x, t)|x∈Su = u i (x, t), (1.4.5)

ti (x, t)|x∈Sσ = t i (x, t). (1.4.6)

Substituting the above formula into Eq. (1.4.1), we get

(λ + μ)u j, ji + μu i, j j + ρbi = ρ ü i . (1.4.8)

It also can be written in vector form