energies
Article
Enhanced Performance of Combined
Photovoltaic–Thermoelectric Generator and Heat Sink Panels
with a Dual-Axis Tracking System
Bagus Radiant Utomo 1,2 , Amin Sulistyanto 2 , Tri Widodo Besar Riyadi 2
Citation: Utomo, B.R.; Sulistyanto,
A.; Riyadi, T.W.B.; Wijayanta, A.T.
Enhanced Performance of Combined
Photovoltaic–Thermoelectric
Generator and Heat Sink Panels with
a Dual-Axis Tracking System.
Energies 2023, 16, 2658. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16062658
Received: 16 January 2023
Revised: 6 March 2023
Accepted: 10 March 2023
Published: 12 March 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062658
and Agung Tri Wijayanta 1,3, *
1 Research Group of Sustanable Thermofluids, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A, Kentingan,
Surakarta 57126, Indonesia
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta,
Jl. A. Yani Tromol Pos 1 Pabelan, Kartasura, Surakarta 57102, Indonesia
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret,
Jl. Ir. Sutarmi 36A, Kentingan, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia
* Correspondence: agungtw@uns.ac.id
Abstract: The photovoltaic panel has become the most promising alternative technology for energy
demand. Solar trackers have been used to improve the efficiency of a photovoltaic panel to maximize
the sun’s exposure. In high temperatures, however, the photovoltaic efficiency is significantly reduced.
This study observes photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator performance driven by a dual-axis solar
tracking system. A photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator panel was built and equipped with angle
and radiation sensors. A microcontroller processes the sensor signal and drives the motor to follow
the sun’s movement in two-axis directions. Thermocouples are mounted on the photovoltaic and ther-
moelectric generator surfaces to monitor the temperature. The result shows that the temperature of
the photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator is lower than that of the photovoltaic one. However, a con-
tradiction occurred in the output power. The efficiency of the combined photovoltaic/thermoelectric
generator was 13.99%, which is higher than the photovoltaic panel at 10.64% and the thermoelectric
generator at 0.2%. The lower temperature in the photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator is responsible
for increasing its performance. Although the thermoelectric generator contributes modest efficiency,
its role in reducing the temperature is essential. Analyses of some cooling techniques for photo-
voltaic panels prove that the combined thermoelectric generator and heat sink improves photovoltaic
performance with simplified technology.
Keywords: photovoltaic–thermoelectric generator; heat sink; cooling methods; efficiency
1. Introduction
Over the last decades, solar energy has emerged as a promising energy source technol-
ogy to partially address the growing global energy demand and environmental concerns of
fossil fuel power generation [1]. Solar energy as renewable energy is an effective way to
solve energy problems [2,3]. The amount of energy Earth receives from the sun is almost
1.8 × 1011 MW, which is one thousand times higher than the overall energy consumption
of all energy sources [4]. The photovoltaic panel is the most popular technology to directly
convert solar radiation into electricity [5–7]. However, the overall efficiency of conventional
photovoltaic (PV) technology can convert solar energy into electricity by approximately
17–18% [8,9]. Single-axis and dual-axis solar tracking systems have been used to increase
the efficiency of solar energy extraction by optimizing the operation of photovoltaic pan-
els [10]. Fathabadi [11] reported the effect of using fixed and dual-axis solar trackers on
PV performance. Experiments conducted on the KC200GT-type photovoltaic panel show
that using a dual-axis tracker produces higher electrical power and solar energy absorption
of 24.59%.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 2 of 20

Combining photovoltaic panels and thermoelectric generators (TEGs) has also in-
creased solar energy utilization efficiency [12,13]. The thermoelectric generator changes
the temperature difference on both sides to produce electricity [14,15]. The advantages
of a thermoelectric generator are that it is free from gas emissions, has broad application
capabilities, is free from maintenance operations, has clean energy production, has a long
life, and has high reliability [16]. Sark [17] studied a combination of photovoltaic panels
with a roof-integrated thermoelectric generator. The thermoelectric generator module used
has a figure of merit of 0.004 K−1 at a temperature of 300 K. The addition of a thermoelectric
generator module to a photovoltaic panel produces an efficiency of between 8% and 23%.
Ahsan et al. [18] used a polycrystalline photovoltaic panel and a thermoelectric generator
Bi2 Te3 type SP1848-27145 which produced 10.81 W of power, compared to a photovoltaic
panel only without a TEG, which produced power of 8.78 W. Adding a thermoelectric
generator to the photovoltaic panel also increases the efficiency by 2.4%.
Although a TEG system can convert heat into electrical energy, it can affect photo-
voltaic conversion efficiency. Each one-degree increase in the photovoltaic surface temper-
ature will reduce PV efficiency by 0.2–0.5% [19,20]. Therefore, the photovoltaic cooling
technique is essential in overcoming the increasing temperature effect [21–23]. Three groups
of photovoltaic cooling technology include passive cooling, which does not require extra
energy; active cooling, which requires additional energy consumption; and combined
active and passive cooling [24]. The last technique is the most effective method of main-
taining photovoltaic efficiency [25]. Sutanto et al. [26] reported the effect of the cooling
ratio on the performance of photovoltaic panels. Experiments use a 50 Wp polycrystalline
photovoltaic panel at an optimal angle of 25.5◦ , using a ground surface, floating, and
thermosiphon-floating–cooling media. The result showed that photovoltaic performance
with floating–cooling experienced a power increase of 4.52% and an efficiency increase of
4.53% compared to the implementation of photovoltaics at ground level. The performance
of photovoltaic panels with thermosiphon-floating coolers experienced a power increase
of 7.86% and increased efficiency of 7.76% compared to photovoltaic performance with
floating coolers. Grubišić-Čabo et al. [27] analyzed a passive air-based photovoltaic cooling
technique. Experiments were carried out on dual-photovoltaics of 260 Wp to produce
520 Wp, which use an aluminum fin cooler on the back of the photovoltaic panel. The
results show that using aluminum fin coolers reduces the photovoltaic panels’ surface
temperature and increases the power output by 5%. Kidegho et al. [28] investigated a
13 Wp polycrystalline photovoltaic combined with a clamped thermoelectric generator
with a pressure of 4.8 kPa, using air and water as the thermoelectric generator cooling
system. The result showed that using a hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator
with air cooling produced an additional power of 19.7%. In comparison, a combined
photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator (PV-TEG) with water cooling produced extra power
of 24.85%.
Based on a study in the literature on increasing photovoltaic efficiency via different
cooling methods, the application of a thermoelectric generator and a heat sink as a passive
cooling system in a photovoltaic panel with a dual-axis tracking system has yet to be found.
Because the role of cooling is crucial for increasing efficiency, it is necessary to develop a
cooling method for hybrid solar panels with a solar tracker. This study aimed to investigate
the effect of TEG and heat sink on the performance of photovoltaic panels driven by a
dual-axis solar tracking system. An experiment apparatus was built to adapt the TEG
attachment, tracking system, and data observation. Calculations were made on efficiency.
The theoretical consideration section presents the working principle of photovoltaic and
thermoelectric generators. The experimental methods describe the development of panel
manufacturing, including the experimental procedure, tool calibration, and uncertainty
analysis of the measured data. The result section reports the data obtained via observation
and the calculation. The results of this study are expected to increase the understanding of
the cooling system in solar panel design using a solar tracker to extract more solar energy
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 3 of 20

in a combined PV-TEG and heat sink. Table 1 shows the power and efficiency of some
PV systems.

Table 1. Power and efficiency of some PV systems.

Author Type PV System Cooling Power Efficiency

Sark [17]
Ahsan et al. [18]
Sutanto et al. [26]
Grubišić-Čabo et al. [27]
Kidegho et al. [28]
Not mentioned TEG
Polycrystalline TEG
Floating and
Polycrystalline
thermosiphon-floating
Fin and passive
Not mentioned
air-based cooler
TEG combination air
Polycrystalline
and water cooler
Not mentioned
Increases by 19%
The floating PV
increases by 4.52%
from PV ground;
thermosiphon-floating
PV increases by 7.86%
from PV.
Increases by 5%
Air cooling increases by
19.7%; water cooling
increases by 24.85%.
8–23%
Increases by 2.4%
The floating PV
increases by 4.53%
from PV ground;
thermosiphon-floating
PV increases by 7.76%
from PV.
Not mentioned
Not mentioned

2. Theoretical Consideration
2.1. Photovoltaic Panels
A photovoltaic panel is essential in solar energy generation systems where sunlight
is converted directly into electrical energy [29]. French physicist Edmond Becquerel dis-
covered the photovoltaic panel in 1839 and used it for industrial applications in 1954 [30].
Figure 1 shows the working mechanism of a photovoltaic panel. When two semiconductor
layers, p-type and n-type, absorb photon energy from the sun, an electric potential occurs
between the semiconductor layers. The electrons will be free to cross the junction and
jump to the p-type semiconductor leaving a static positive charge. At the same time, the
holes move across the junction, leaving a static negative charge behind. Free electrons and
holes will combine and disappear. At a certain level, a depletion zone forms at the p-n
junction where migration is no longer possible. Separating positive static
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW and
4 of 22 negative
charges creates an electric field across the depletion zone. The generation of an electric field
provides the force or voltage needed to move current through an external circuit.

Figure
Figure 1. 1. Principle
Principle of photovoltaic
of photovoltaic effecteffect for a photon
for a photon to electrical
to electrical energy energy conversion
conversion (e: electron, and
(e: electron,
h: hole)
and [31].
h: hole) [31].

2.2. Combined Photovoltaic/Thermoelectric Generator Panels

Increasing the efficiency of the thermoelectric generator must be a significant concern
to maximize the hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator (PV-TEG) system.
Therefore, evaluating the heat flow and temperature distribution across the thermoelectric
 Energies 2023, 16, 2658
ies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER
4 of 20
2.2. Combined Photovoltaic/Thermoelectric Generator Panels
Increasing the efficiency of the thermoelectric generator must be a significant concern
to maximize the hybrid photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator (PV-TEG) system. Therefore,
evaluating the heat flow and temperature distribution across the thermoelectric generator is
REVIEW
necessary. The schematic diagram of a combined PV-TEG system is shown in Figure 2 [32].
The transport of solar energy is assumed to be one dimension only, perpendicular to the PV
surface. Consequently, the energy transport in the transverse direction is ignored. Solar ra-
diation is directed at the surface of a photovoltaic panel. Solar radiation transmits the glass
enclosure with τ g transmission and is absorbed by αs absorbance and effective thermal
emittance ε. The solar radiation received by the photovoltaic panels is converted into elec-
tricity, and the heat energy is absorbed and transmitted to the hot side of the thermoelectric
generator module. Some of the heat energy is lost to the surrounding environment.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator panels [32].
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the photovoltaic/thermoelectric generato
The heat flowing to the hot side of the thermoelectric generator is the sum of contribu-
tions from the Seebeck effect, Fourier conduction, and Joule heating without consideration
for heatThe
loss, asheat
definedflowing
by Equationto the hot side of the thermoelectric
(1) [32]. g
contributions from the Seebeck effect,
Th − Tc
Fourier conduction, and
I2 − Re
h = Nloss,
s (αTh I + − )
consideration for Qheat as defined
Rte by (1)
2 Equation (1) [32].
where α is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermoelectric generator, Ns is the number of
Qhflowing
semiconductor pairs, and I is the electric current in theI TEG
= Ns (αT + module. Rte and Re )
are the thermal and electrical resistance of the thermoelectric (TE) semiconductor couple,
respectively, which can be determined by Equations (2) and (3) [32,33].
where α is the Seebeck coefficient of the thermoelectric generat
L
semiconductor pairs, andRIte is
= the electric current flowing(2)
λATE
in the
are the thermal and electrical resistance of the thermoelectric (TE
ρL
e =
respectively, which can beRdetermined (3) (3) [3
by Equations (2) and
ATE
where ATE and L represent the cross-sectional area and length of the TEG semiconductor,
respectively. λ and ρ are the thermal and electrical conductivity of R = semiconductor. The
theteTEG
total heat at the cold side of the TEG module is formulated using Equations (4) and (5) [32].
!
Th − Tc I2 − Re
Qc = N αTc I +
Rte
−
2
Re = (4)
where ATE and L represent the cross-sectional area and length of t
respectively. λ and ρ are the thermal and electrical con
semiconductor. The total heat at the cold side of the TEG mod
Equations (4) and (5) [32].
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 5 of 20

Tc − Theatsink
Qc = (5)
Rc
where Rc is the total thermal resistance of the interface and the substrate on the TEG cold
side. The heat dissipated by the heat sink is defined by Equation (6) [32].

Tc − Ta
Qc = (6)
Rhs

where Rhs is the thermal resistance of the heat sink, which is related to the air convection
coefficient, area, and shape of the heat sink.
The energy generated by the TEG depends on the temperature difference between the
hot and cold sides of the TEG. The efficiency of a thermoelectric generator can be defined
as the ratio of the electrical energy generated by TEG, symbolized as PTEG , to the thermal
energy Qh entering the surface of the hot side of the thermoelectric generator. Considering
the temperature dependence of the TEG property, the TEG efficiency calculation is carried
out by first determining the figure of merit (ZT). The Harman method can be used to
determine ZT. This method is conducted by applying a direct current to the terminals
of a thermoelectric circuit over a period of time and measuring the voltage across the
terminals [33–36]. The TEG module works as a thermoelectric cooler and starts pumping
heat from one side to the other due to the Peltier effect. The temperature difference between
the TEG surfaces generates an electricity generator due to the Seebeck effect. When a
current flows across the TEG circuit, the voltage caused by the flowing current between the
terminals is called the Joule voltage, VJ , and the generated voltage due to the temperature
difference induced by the Seebeck effect is called the Seebeck voltage, VS . The voltage
difference between VJ and VS . is called the Harman voltage. The figure of merit can be
defined by Equation (7) [37–39].
Vs
ZT = (7)
Vj
The TEG efficiency is calculated by Equation (8) [40].
√
∆T 1 + ZT − 1
ηTEG = .√ (8)
Th 1 + ZT + Tc Th

where ∆T is the temperature difference between the hot and cold sides, Th is the hot side
temperature, Tc is the cold side temperature, and ZT is the temperature-dependent figure
of merit.
The equivalent model used to combine the power of the PV and TEG is shown
in Figure 3a,b, where both modules can be electrically connected in series or parallel
circuits [22]. The total efficiency of the combined PV-TEG system can be calculated based
on the power generated by the photovoltaic panel and the thermoelectric generators.
Equation (9) expresses the energy the system produces, where the electrical power loss is
negligible. Equation (10) is the formula to calculate the electrical efficiency of a photovoltaic
panel which depends on the output of electric power and the amount of solar energy per
area unit [41].
PPV-TEG = PPV +PTEG (9)
PPV-TEG
ηPV-TEG = (10)
A.G
where Ppv and PTEG are the output power of the photovoltaic module and thermoelectric
generator, respectively. A is the area of the PV cell. G is the input energy of solar irradiation
on the surface above the photovoltaic module per area unit [18].
 PPV−TEG
ηPV−TEG = (10)
A.G

where Ppv and PTEG are the output power of the photovoltaic module and thermoelectric
generator, respectively. A is the area of the PV cell. G is the input energy of6 ofsolar
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 20
irradiation on the surface above the photovoltaic module per area unit [18].

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. Equivalent circuit ofcircuit
Figure 3. Equivalent an electrically connected
of an electrically PV-TEG
connected PV-TEGinin(a)
(a) series and(b)(b)
series and parallel.
parallel.

3. Experimental Methods
3. Experimental Methods
3.1. Photovoltaic/Thermoelectric Generator Panels
3.1. Photovoltaic/Thermoelectric Generator
The equipment of the Panels
PV-TEG panels with a dual-axis tracking system used for
the experiment is shown in Figure 4. The main component of the panel consists of
The equipment of the PV-TEG panels with a dual-axis tracking system used for the
two photovoltaic modules. One PV module was operated without any cooling systems;
experiment the
is shown
second was in operated
Figure 4. by The main component
a thermoelectric generator of the panel
module consists of
and an aluminum heattwo
photovoltaicsink
modules. One PV of
with a dimension module
40 × 40 was
× 11 operated without
mm. A thermal pasteany
was cooling systems;
inserted between thethe
second was thermoelectric
operated bygenerator and the heatgenerator
a thermoelectric sink to increase heat absorption.
module The paste thickness
and an aluminum heat sink
was 0.5 mm, and its thermal conductivity was 1.2–2.0 W/m.K. This work used an HY1-49
with a dimension of 40 × 40 × 11 mm. A thermal paste was inserted between the
photovoltaic panel made of monocrystalline materials. The parameter specification of the
thermoelectric generator
photovoltaic andisthe
panel heat
given sink 2.
in Table toAn
increase
SP1848 heat
27145absorption. The pastegenerator
SA-type thermoelectric thickness
was 0.5 mm,module,
and itsmadethermal
of Bi2conductivity was 220
Te3 and containing 1.2–2.0 W/m.K. This
semiconductor work
couples, wasused an HY1-49
also used. The
photovoltaicparameter
panel made of monocrystalline
specification materials.
of the TEG is given The
in Table parameter
3 [14,42,43]. Thespecification
TEG module was of the
stacked to the rear surface of the PV module. The
photovoltaic panel is given in Table 2. An SP1848 27145 SA-type TEG was positioned in the middle of the
thermoelectric generator PV
area. As the surface area of the TEG area was 40 × 40 mm2 and the PV was 110 × 60 mm2 , a
module, made of Bi2Te3 and containing 220 semiconductor couples, was also used. The
part of the PV surface remained uncovered.
parameter specification of the TEG is given in Table 3 [14,42,43]. The TEG module was
Table 2. The manufacturer’s specification of the photovoltaic panel.

Parameters Unit Value

Dimension mm 110 × 60
Max. working voltage V 5
Max. working current mA 200
2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Energies 2023, 16, 2658 7 of 20

Figure 4. Experimental setup.

Figure 4. Experimental setup.

Table 3. The manufacturer’s specification of the thermoelectric generator.

TableParameters
2. The manufacturer’s
Unit specification of the photovolta
Value
Dimension mm 40 × 40 × 3.9
Operation temperature ◦C 0–150
Seebeck coefficient Parameters V/K 0.054
Working voltage at ∆T 100 ◦ C V 6.4
Working current at ∆T 100 ◦ C Dimension A 0.969

An MPU5060 sensor Max. working

with gyroscope ranges voltage
of 250, 500, 1000, and 2000/s and accel-
eration ranges of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 16 g was utilized for reading angles on the system tracker.
Max.
The solar radiation received working
by the current
photovoltaic panel was measured using a BH1750 light
intensity sensor with the specifications in Table 4. Because the BH1750 sensor has a solar
radiation output in a unit of lux, it is necessary to convert from illuminance units to spectral
irradiance by multiplying the flux by 0.0079 W/m2 per lux to produce the solar radiation
Table 3. The manufacturer’s specification of the thermoelec
in a unit of W/m2 [44]. A K-type thermocouple cable with operating temperatures from
–200 to 1250 ◦ C was used to measure the temperature of the photovoltaic surface and the
Parameters
temperature of the TEG hot and cold sides. A MAX6675 temperature sensor with operating
temperatures of 0–1024 ◦ C and an accuracy of 0.25 was used to read the temperature signal
Dimension
Operation temperature
Seebeck coefficient
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 8 of 20

of the thermocouple cable and this was sent to the Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller as
the data logger.

Table 4. The manufacturer’s specification of the BH1750 sensor.

Parameters Specification
Working voltage 4.5 V
Operation temperature 40–80 ◦ C
Accuracy +/− 20%
Sensor’s build 16 bitAD
Chip ROHM

A MAX471 sensor with a voltage range of 0–25 V and a current range of 0–3 A was used
to measure the electrical power output of the photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator system.
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) was used to detect the sun’s position by reading the
light intensity in the form of resistance. The LDR has a bright resistance of 5–10 kOhm and a
dark resistance of 0.5 MOhm. Two motors with a torque of 10 kg-cm and a rotational speed
of 3.33 m/s were used to drive the panel’s axis to follow the sun’s movement after receiving
resistance signals from the LDR. The Arduino UNO microcontroller with 2 kb SRAM, 1 kb
EEPROM, and a clock speed of 16 Hz was used as a tracker system microcontroller through
the coding commands uploaded to Arduino. The Arduino MEGA 2560 microcontroller
with 8 kb SRAM, 4 kb EEPROM, and 16 Hz clock speed was used to control the data logger
system through coding commands uploaded to Arduino. In this work, the external load
used in the photovoltaic/thermoelectric generator panel was a battery with specifications
of 4 V 4 Ah.

3.2. Experimental Procedures

This research was conducted in Indonesia with latitude S 7◦ 340 36.8300 and longitude
E 111◦ 250 55.5600 . The weather on the day of testing showed clear, cloudless conditions.
Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental tools consisting of two PV
systems. One system was only a PV panel; another was a combined photovoltaic panel,
thermoelectric generator, and heat sink. Both PV systems were united in a panel driven by
a dual-axis tracking system. The heat sink was made of aluminum, with a dimension of
4 × 4 × 1 mm. The number of the fin in the heat sink was 130. A solar radiation sensor was
installed in the photovoltaic panel to measure solar radiation intensity. For temperature
measurement, thermocouples were mounted on the surface of both photovoltaic panels,
the heat sink, and the TEG hot and cold sides. Three thermocouples were used to measure
the temperature on each surface. The result data were averaged. A Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR) was placed between the two photovoltaic panels. The tracking control
system processed the data signal from the LDR in the form of resistance and sent it to the
Arduino microcontroller. Two motors in the vertical and horizontal axes drove the motor
according to the specified conditions after receiving the signal from the microcontroller. An
angle sensor was mounted on the panel to observe the sun’s position regarding the altitude
and azimuth angles. A data logger was used to store the output data, which included the
angle, solar radiation, temperature, and power. Data collection was carried out from 05:00
to 18:00 West Indonesia Time.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 9 of 20

Theschematic
Figure5.5.The
Figure schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofthe
theexperimental
experimentaldata
datameasurement.
measurement.

3.3. Solar Tracking Mechanism

3.3. Solar Tracking Mechanism
This work used a dual-axis tracking system to control the panel movement. The
panelThis
waswork used a with
equipped dual-axis
two tracking
couples ofsystem
LighttoDependent
control theResistors.
panel movement.
The LDR The panel
east and
was equipped with two couples of Light Dependent Resistors. The LDR east
west were mounted to the vertical axis, whereas the LDR north and south were attached and west
were
to themounted to the
horizontal vertical
axis. axis, whereas
The LDRs captured the LDR
the north and
sunlight southas
intensity were attached to
a resistance the
signal,
horizontal axis. The LDRs captured the sunlight intensity as a resistance
and subsequently sent it to the Arduino microcontroller. The microcontroller actuated signal, and
subsequently sent on
the motors based it to
thethe Arduino
resistance microcontroller.
difference. The axis
The vertical microcontroller
movement was actuated
driventhe
by
motors based on the resistance difference. The vertical axis movement was driven
the resistance difference received by LDR east and LDR west. Similarly, the resistance by the
resistance
difference difference
between LDR received by LDR
north and east and
LDR south droveLDR west. Similarly,
the horizontal the resistance
axis movement.
difference between LDR north and LDR south drove the horizontal axis movement.
3.4. Tool Calibration
3.4. Tool
AnCalibration
Arduino-based data logger was built as a microcontroller to read the measured
An solar
angles, Arduino-based data logger was
radiation, temperature, and built as a output
electrical microcontroller
data, whichto read
were the
thenmeasured
stored on
a micro-SD.
angles, solarAll tools were
radiation, calibrated before
temperature, being used
and electrical for the
output measurement.
data, which wereThe MPU5060
then stored
sensor
on used for measuring
a micro-SD. the altitude
All tools were and azimuth
calibrated before beingangles was for
used calibrated by a protractor
the measurement. Theof
360◦ . The sensor
MPU5060 result of sensor
used calibration the
for measuring is shown
altitudein and
Figure 6a. The
azimuth calibration
angles of the BH1750
was calibrated by a
sensor used
protractor of to measure
360°. the solar
The result radiation
of sensor intensityiswas
calibration conducted
shown using
in Figure 6a.AS803-type tools.
The calibration
Figure 6b shows the result of the solar radiation calibration. The temperature
of the BH1750 sensor used to measure the solar radiation intensity was conducted using calibration
of the thermocouple
AS803-type was 6b
tools. Figure carried
shows outtheusing
resulta standard
of the solarthermometer
radiationby measuringThe
calibration. the
temperature of
temperature water from
calibration of cold
the conditions
thermocouple in thewasformcarried
of ice toout
boiling conditions.
using The
a standard
result of the by
thermometer temperature
measuringcalibration is shown
the temperature in Figure
of water from 6c.
coldThe MAX471
conditions in sensor
the formused
of
ice to boiling conditions. The result of the temperature calibration is shown in Figure 6c.a
to measure the electrical output of the PV and PV-TEG systems was calibrated using
WH5000
The MAX471 multimeter.
sensor used Both tools were
to measure theconnected to a 12VDC
electrical output 2A and
of the PV lamp charged
PV-TEG by the
systems
LW-301KDS DC power supply. The result of the power calibration
was calibrated using a WH5000 multimeter. Both tools were connected to a 12VDC 2A is shown in Figure 6d.
 lamp charged by the LW-301KDS DC power supply. The result of the power calibratio
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 shown in Figure 6d. 10 of 20

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Cont.
ergies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 o

Energies 2023, 16, 2658 11 of 20

(c)

(d)
Figure 6. The
Figure calibration
6. The calibrationof
of tools usedtoto
tools used measure
measure (a) altitude–azimuth
(a) altitude–azimuth angles,
angles, (b) (b) solar radiat
solar radiation
intensity, (c) temperature, and (d) electrical power.
intensity, (c) temperature, and (d) electrical power.

3.5. Uncertainty Analysis

3.5. Uncertainty Analysis
An uncertainty analysis was conducted to support the data analysis using a formula
An uncertainty
described by Moffatanalysis
[45]. Thewas conducted
uncertainty to was
analysis support the data
calculated analysis
to estimate using
the error of a form
the experimental data. Experimental errors typically exist in the measurement,
described by Moffat [45]. The uncertainty analysis was calculated to estimate the error and the
value depends on the tool’s accuracy. If there is an N number of the observed data, their
the experimental data. Experimental errors typically exist in the measurement, and
mean denoted using x is calculated using Equation (11). The symbol i is any integer value
value depends on the tool’s accuracy. If there is an N number of the observed data, th
mean denoted using 𝑥̅ is calculated using Equation (11). The symbol i is any integer va
from 1 to N. The standard of deviation (SD) representing the level of scatter data ab
the mean value is given in Equation (12). The uncertainty, which is symbolized using
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 12 of 20

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

from 1 to N. The standard of deviation (SD) representing the level of scatter data about the
mean value is given in Equation (12). The uncertainty, which is symbolized using σm , was
determined using the deviation standard of the mean value, as provided in Equation (13).
The results of the uncertainty analysis for all tools are given in Table 5.
𝑁
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 1
𝑥̅ =x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn = 1 ∑ 𝑥𝑖N (11)
x= 1
N
𝑁 ∑
= 𝑁 𝑖=1
N i =1
xi (11)

s ∑𝑁 (𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ )2
𝑆𝐷 =∑√N 𝑖=1 x i − x )2
(12)
i =1 (𝑁−1
SD = (12)
N−1
∑𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ )
2 𝑆𝐷
𝜎𝑚 = N√ x − x 2 = (13)
s
∑ i =1 i
(𝑁(𝑁−1) ) √𝑁SD
σm = = √ (13)
N ( N − 1) N
Table 5. Uncertainty of mean analysis of the measured data.
Table 5. Uncertainty of mean analysis of theUncertainty
Parameters measured data.
of Mean
Angle
Parameters ±0.176°Uncertainty of Mean
Solar radiation ±0.759 W/m2 ◦
Angle ±0.176
Temperature
Solar radiation ±0.574 C
±0.759 W/m2
Voltage
Temperature ±0.043 V
±0.574 C
Voltage
Power ±0.043 V
±0.067 W
Power
Efficiency ±0.250%±0.067 W
Efficiency ±0.250%

4. Results and Discussion

4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Harman Methods
4.1. Harman Methods
Before conducting the experimental work using the combined PV-TEG panels, it is
Before conducting the experimental work using the combined PV-TEG panels, it is
necessary to identify the figure of merit (ZT) value of the TEG using the Harman method.
necessary to identify the figure of merit (ZT) value of the TEG using the Harman method.
The test was performed by connecting a thermoelectric generator to an external source
The test was performed by connecting a thermoelectric generator to an external source with
with a constant direct current of 10 mA. After reaching a constant voltage output, the
a constant direct current of 10 mA. After reaching a constant voltage output, the power was
power was turned off. The voltage drop was monitored during the thermoelectric
turned off. The voltage drop was monitored during the thermoelectric generator operation.
generator operation. The result of the Harman test is shown in Figure 7. The voltage curve
The result of the Harman test is shown in Figure 7. The voltage curve shows two voltage
shows two
profiles: thevoltage profiles:and
Joule voltage the Joule voltage voltage.
the Seebeck and the Seebeck voltage.
The Joule The Joule
and Seebeck and Seebeck
voltages were
voltages were used to calculate the figure of merit (ZT) using Equation (7). The
used to calculate the figure of merit (ZT) using Equation (7). The calculation result calculation
indicates
result indicates
that the that
figure of the figure
merit value of
ofmerit value of the thermoelectric
the thermoelectric module is 0.407.
module is 0.407.

Figure 7. The voltage profile of the TEG obtained via the Harman method.
Figure 7. The voltage profile of the TEG obtained via the Harman method.
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

Energies 2023, 16, 2658 13 of 20

4.2. Solar Angles

4.2. Solar Angles
Figure88shows
Figure showsthe thealtitude
altitudeandandazimuth
azimuthangles
anglesobtained
obtainedvia viathe
themovement
movementof ofthe
the
dual-axistracking
dual-axis trackingsystems.
systems.TheThealtitude
altitudeand andazimuth
azimuthangleangledata
datadisplay
displaythe themovement
movementof of
the vertical axis and the horizontal axis following the sun’s movement.
the vertical axis and the horizontal axis following the sun’s movement. For comparison For comparison
purposes, the
purposes, the angle
angle data
data obtained
obtained from fromthe thecalculation
calculationare areadded
addedtotothe thefigure.
figure. The
The
measurement results show that the altitude angle reaches its peak at
measurement results show that the altitude angle reaches its peak at 12:00, called the zenith 12:00, called the
zenith point, the perpendicular line to Earth’s surface. The altitude
point, the perpendicular line to Earth’s surface. The altitude curve demonstrates that thecurve demonstrates
that the dual-axis
dual-axis tracker
tracker panel panel its
can move canhorizontal
move its axis
horizontal
to followaxis
thetosun’s
follow
motionthe sun’s motion
according to
according to the altitude angle from the east to the zenith point, and
the altitude angle from the east to the zenith point, and it ends in the west. The azimuth it ends in the west.
The azimuth
angle increasesangle
slowlyincreases
from 06:00 slowly from 06:00 to
to approximately approximately
10:00 and then rises10:00
sharplyanduntil
then14:00.
rises
sharply until 14:00. From here, the azimuth angle increases gradually
From here, the azimuth angle increases gradually to 18:00. The azimuth curve indicates to 18:00. The
azimuth curve indicates that the horizontal axis of the panel has moved
that the horizontal axis of the panel has moved following the sun from the east to the west. following the sun
from
The the east to
comparison the west.
between the The comparison
altitude and azimuth between
anglesthe altitude
obtained andthe
from azimuth angles
experimental
obtained
and from the experimental
the calculation results shows and the calculation
a difference results shows
with a maximum valuea difference
of 3.51 andwith6.4◦a.
maximum
The altitudevalue of 3.51 and
and azimuth angle6.4°. The altitude data
measurement and azimuth angleagree
in this study measurement data in
with the results
this study agree with
conducted by Fathabadi [11].the results conducted by Fathabadi [11].

Figure8.8.Measured
Figure Measuredand
andcalculated
calculateddata
data[46]
[46]of
ofthe
thealtitude
altitudeand
andazimuth
azimuthangle
anglein
inthe
thedual-axis
dual-axissolar
solar
tracking system.
tracking system.

4.3.
4.3.Solar
SolarIrradiation
Irradiation
Figure
Figure99shows
showsthe thesolar
solarradiation
radiationmeasured
measuredusing
usingthetheBH1750
BH1750sensor
sensorattached
attachedto tothe
the
photovoltaic panel. The data obtained by calculation [47] are included
photovoltaic panel. The data obtained by calculation [47] are included in the figure for in the figure for
comparison
comparisonpurposes.
purposes.The Theresult shows
result thatthat
shows solarsolar
radiation starts starts
radiation to rise to
at 05:00
rise at and reaches
05:00 and
areaches
peak at a12:00.
peakThe solar radiation
at 12:00. The solarthen decreases
radiation thento decreases
zero at 18:00
to as theatday
zero darkens.
18:00 as theAs a
day
comparison,
darkens. Asthe calculated data
a comparison, theshow a similar
calculated trend
data showto the currenttrend
a similar experimental result.
to the current
Aexperimental
slight difference only
result. A occurs at the peakonly
slight difference of solar radiation.
occurs This difference
at the peak is causedThis
of solar radiation. by
the input for calculating the elevation angle that does not consider the geographic
difference is caused by the input for calculating the elevation angle that does not consider latitude
and
the longitude
geographic angles,
latitudecausing the sun’s orbit
and longitude difference.
angles, causing Thethe intensity
sun’s orbit of solar radiation
difference. The
obtained in this study is in line with research by Das [48] and McCormick et
intensity of solar radiation obtained in this study is in line with research by Das [48] and al. [49].
McCormick et al. [49].
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 14 of 20

Figure 9. Solar
Solar radiation
radiationmeasured
measuredon
onthe PVPV
the panel compared
panel to the
compared datadata
to the obtained via calculation
obtained [47].
via calculation
[47].
4.4. Temperature Profile
Figure 10 shows
4.4. Temperature Profile the temperature profile measured on the PV and PV-TEG panels,
including the surface
Figure 10 shows the of the TEG hot and
temperature coldmeasured
profile sides. Theontemperature of the heat
the PV and PV-TEG sink
panels,
is not displayed in the figure because it is similar to the TEG cold side.
including the surface of the TEG hot and cold sides. The temperature of the heat sink is The surface
temperature
not displayedof inthethePV figure
and PV-TEG
because panels
it is increases
similar toatthe
around
TEG05:00
cold and
side.peaks
The at 12:00.
surface
The temperature then drops to the environment temperature at about 29.30–30.34 ◦ C at
temperature of the PV and PV-TEG panels increases at around 05:00 and peaks at 12:00.
18:00 h. This temperature fluctuates according to the sunlight from its rise until it sets.
The temperature then drops to the environment temperature at about 29.30–30.34 °C at
Comparing the PV temperatures, the temperature of the PV alone is higher than that of
18:00 h. This temperature fluctuates according to the sunlight from its rise until it sets.
the PV-TEG panel. The high magnification image shows that the maximum temperature
Comparing the PV temperatures, the temperature of the PV alone is higher than that of
of PV and PV-TEG is 53.36 ◦ C and 51.65 ◦ C, respectively. The lower temperature in the
the PV-TEG panel. The high magnification image shows that the maximum temperature
PV-TEG occurs due to heat absorbed by the TEG module and the heat sink installed under
of PV and PV-TEG is 53.36 °C and 51.65 °C, respectively. The lower temperature in the
the photovoltaic panel. The temperature of the TEG cold side is much lower than that of
PV-TEG occurs due to heat absorbed by the TEG module and the heat sink installed◦under
the TEG hot side. The maximum temperature of the TEG hot and cold sides is 48.71 16
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW C and
the photovoltaic
◦ panel. The temperature of the TEG cold side is much lower than◦thatof of 22
44.49 C, respectively, which produce a maximum temperature difference of 4.22 C. The
the TEG hot side. The maximum temperature of the TEG hot and cold sides is 48.71 °C
temperature difference between the TEG hot and cold sides produces electrical energy due
and 44.49 °C, respectively, which produce a maximum temperature difference of 4.22 °C.
to the Seebeck effect. The decrease in the photovoltaic surface temperature due to the TEG
The temperature
attachment difference
in this study is between
similar tothe TEG
that hot andby
reported cold sideset
Sharaf produces
al. [50], electrical energy
Idoko et al. [51],
due to the Seebeck
and Khan et al. [18]. effect. The decrease in the photovoltaic surface temperature due to the
TEG attachment in this study is similar to that reported by Sharaf et al. [50], Idoko et al.
[51], and Khan et al. [18].

Figure10.
Figure 10.The
Thetemperature
temperatureon
onthe
thesurface
surfaceof
ofthe
thePV,
PV,PV-TEG,
PV-TEG,and
andTEG
TEGhot
hotand
andcold
coldsides.
sides.

4.5. Power Output

Figure 11 shows the power generated by the PV and the PV-TEG panels. The power
comparison indicates that the PV-TEG produces a greater power than the PV panel alone.
The maximum power on the PV-TEG panel is 1.12 W, whereas the PV panel is 0.81 W. The
power difference between the PV and PV-TEG panels is 0.31 W. The thermoelectric
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 15 of 20

4.5. Power Output

Figure 11 shows the power generated by the PV and the PV-TEG panels. The power
comparison indicates that the PV-TEG produces a greater power than the PV panel alone.
The maximum power on the PV-TEG panel is 1.12 W, whereas the PV panel is 0.81 W.
The power difference between the PV and PV-TEG panels is 0.31 W. The thermoelectric
generator itself produces maximum power of 0.22 W. This discrepancy proves that the
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22
additional power of the PV-TEG panel is not only obtained from the addition of TEG
power but also the increased PV power due to the lower temperature. The increasing
power due to decreasing temperature has also been reported by Sutanto et al. [26]. In
contrast, the expanding power due to the addition of TEG is in line with that observed by
Khan et al. [18].

Figure 11. Power output of PV, PV-TEG,

PV-TEG, and
and TEG.
TEG.

4.6. Efficiency
4.6. Efficiency
Figure 12
Figure 12 shows
shows thethe efficiency
efficiency of of the
the PV,
PV, PV-TEG,
PV-TEG, andand TEG
TEG panels. The result
panels. The result shows
shows
that the highest efficiency of all systems occurs at 12:00. The total efficiency of the
that the highest efficiency of all systems occurs at 12:00. The total efficiency of the PV-TEG PV-TEG
panel is
panel is higher
higherthan
thanthat
thatofofeither
eitherthethe
PVPVoror
TEGTEG panels.
panels. TheThe average
average efficiency
efficiency of PV,
of the the
PV, PV-TEG, and TEG panels is 6.77%, 9.67%, and 0.14%, respectively.
PV-TEG, and TEG panels is 6.77%, 9.67%, and 0.14%, respectively. In comparison, the In comparison, the
maximum efficiency of PV-TEG and PV systems is 13.99% and 10.64%, respectively. This
maximum efficiency of PV-TEG and PV systems is 13.99% and 10.64%, respectively. This
result shows that adding TEG increases the PV’s total efficiency. As a comparison, the
result shows that adding TEG increases the PV’s total efficiency. As a comparison, the
maximum efficiency of TEG is only 0.2%. The TEG efficiency is low since it is determined
maximum efficiency of TEG is only 0.2%. The TEG efficiency is low since it is determined
by dividing the amount of heat by the amount of electrical energy. Differently, the total
by dividing the amount of heat by the amount of electrical energy. Differently, the total
PV efficiency is calculated from the light intensity energy and electrical energy ratio. The
PV efficiency is calculated from the light intensity energy and electrical energy ratio. The
enhanced efficiency of the PV-TEG, therefore, comes from the addition of power associated
enhanced efficiency of the PV-TEG, therefore, comes from the addition of power
with a decreased temperature of the PV. The increased PV efficiency with the addition of
associated with a decreased temperature of the PV. The increased PV efficiency with the
TEG in this work is in line with the study by Khan et al. [18], although Khan’s work did
addition of TEG in this work is in line with the study by Khan et al. [18], although Khan’s
not apply a solar tracker.
work did not apply a solar tracker.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 16 of 20

Figure 12. Efficiency of PV,

PV, PV-TEG,
PV-TEG,and
andTEG.
TEG.

Table
Table 66compares
comparesthe theperformance
performance of of
several cooling
several coolingtechniques
techniques in photovoltaic sys-
in photovoltaic
tems.
systems. Sutanto
Sutanto et etal.al.
[26]
[26]used
useda floating–cooling
a floating–coolingsystem
systemon onthe
thePV PVsurface.
surface. TheThe results
showed that that the
thefloating
floatingmethod
methodcouldcouldreduce
reducethethe
PVPV surface
surface temperature
temperature by by between
between 2.4
2.4 and 29 ◦ C to increase the PV efficiency by 7.76%. Sutanto also uses the thermosiphon-
and 29 °C to increase the PV efficiency by 7.76%. Sutanto also uses the thermosiphon-
floating–cooling ◦ C to increase the
floating–cooling technique
technique to to lower
lower thethe temperature
temperature between
between 3.2 3.2 and
and 34
34 °C to increase the
PV
PV efficiency
efficiency by by 4.53%.
4.53%. DidaDida etet al.
al. [52]
[52] used
used aa water-cooling evaporative cooling
water-cooling evaporative cooling system.
system.
The result showed that the PV temperature decreased by 17.1 ◦ C to increase efficiency by
The result showed that the PV temperature decreased by 17.1 °C to increase efficiency by
1.46%.
1.46%. Adipour
Adipour et al. [53]
et al. [53] developed
developed aa PV-PCM
PV-PCM cooling
cooling system
system to reduce the
to reduce temperature
the temperature
by 9.1 ◦ C and increase the efficiency by 4.6%. The fin cooling system was developed by
by 9.1 °C and increase the efficiency by 4.6%. The fin cooling system was developed by
Čabo ◦ C, and the PV efficiency increased
Čabo et et al.
al. [27]. The PV
[27]. The PV temperature
temperature decreased
decreased byby 1–2
1–2 °C, and the PV efficiency increased
by
by 0.4%.
0.4%. A A cooling
cooling system
system withwith TEG
TEG waswas developed
developed byby Babu
Babu andand Ponnambalam
Ponnambalam [33] [33] and
and
Khan et al. [18] to reduce the PV surface temperature by 2–3 ◦ C so that the PV efficiency
Khan et al. [18] to reduce the PV surface temperature by 2–3 °C so that the PV efficiency
would
would increase
increaseby by1.4–6%
1.4–6%depending
depending onon
thethe
amount
amountof TEG
of TEGused. In this
used. In work, adding
this work, TEG
adding
and a heat sink reduced the PV surface temperature by 1.5 ◦ C and increased PV efficiency
TEG and a heat sink reduced the PV surface temperature by 1.5 °C and increased PV
by 3.36%. by 3.36%.
efficiency
The analysis of various existing PV cooling systems proves that thermosiphon-
Table 6. Comparison of some cooling systems in photovoltaic panel.
floating media produces better temperature reduction and generates higher power and
efficiency. However, thermosyphon-floating media coolingSolar
Temperature is categorized as active
Efficiency
Reference Type PV Cooling System
cooling, which requires additional energy and other equipment
Reduction in its operation
Tracker [24,26,51].
Increase
Čabo et al. [27] Meanwhile,
Polycrystalline 520the
Wp TEGFinand heat sink for the
cooling 2 ◦ Ccooling systems Noare categorized 0.40%as passive
Babu and Ponnambalam [33] cooling, so they do not
Crystalline TEGrequire additional Not energy. Therefore, No
mentioned adding a combined6% passive
Evaporative water
Dida et al. [52] heat sink 80
Polycrystalline andW TEG combination in this study 17.1 ◦ C becomes a simple
No solution
1.46%to increase
cooling
Adibpour et al. [53] photovoltaic
Monocrystalline 60power
W and efficiency
PV-PCM system without9.1 requiring
◦C extra energy.
Yes In addition,
6.80% using the
◦C
Khan et al. [18] TEG–heat sink system requires only simple equipment and low costs. It is1.40%
Polycrystalline TEG 3 No worth noting
Floating and ◦C
Sutanto et al. [26] that the improvement
Polycrystalline 50 Wp in the total efficiency
thermosiphon-floating
of
1–4 PV in this workNois due to the contributions
7.76%
Present work of the cooling
Monocrystalline 5 V technique andheat
TEG and the solar tracker.
sink 4.23 ◦ C Further detailed
Yes analysis 3.35%is required to
separate each component’s contribution to the efficiency improvement. However, the use
of a combined TEG–heat sink for the cooling system on the PV operated using a solar
The analysis of various existing PV cooling systems proves that thermosiphon-floating
tracker has shown a significant improvement.
media produces better temperature reduction and generates higher power and efficiency.
However, thermosyphon-floating media cooling is categorized as active cooling, which
requires additional energy and other equipment in its operation [24,26,51]. Meanwhile,
the TEG and heat sink for the cooling systems are categorized as passive cooling, so
they do not require additional energy. Therefore, adding a combined passive heat sink
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 17 of 20

and TEG combination in this study becomes a simple solution to increase photovoltaic
power and efficiency without requiring extra energy. In addition, using the TEG–heat
sink system requires only simple equipment and low costs. It is worth noting that the
improvement in the total efficiency of PV in this work is due to the contributions of the
cooling technique and the solar tracker. Further detailed analysis is required to separate
each component’s contribution to the efficiency improvement. However, the use of a
combined TEG–heat sink for the cooling system on the PV operated using a solar tracker
has shown a significant improvement.

5. Conclusions
This work has successfully attached the thermoelectric generator and heat sink on
a photovoltaic panel driven by a dual-axis solar tracking system. An LDR sensor was
mounted on the PV panel to receive the signal from the sun. A microcontroller controls the
panel axis rotation in the vertical and horizontal direction, following the sun’s movement
in altitude and azimuth angles. The solar radiation, PV temperature, and electrical power
were measured using calibrated tools. The result shows that the temperature of the PV-TEG
is lower than that of the PV alone. The power and efficiency of the PV-TEG, however,
are higher than those of the PV. The enhanced performance of the PV-TEG comes from
the contribution of the TEG extra power and the higher power of the PV with a lower
temperature. This study compares many different cooling techniques of the PV. Combining
TEG and heat sink as the PV cooling system is a simple tool and it is less expensive to
increase the PV efficiency driven by a solar tracker. This method’s disadvantage might
be the extra energy required to drive the solar tracker. Further work is recommended to
use the power generated by the PV and TEG to support the tracking system, including
self-cooling if a water block is used on the TEG cold side. The combined TEG and heat sink
in this work is expected to improve the design of the PV with a low-cost cooling system.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.W.B.R. and A.T.W.; Methodology, A.T.W.; Software,

A.S.; Validation, B.R.U.; Formal analysis, B.R.U.; Investigation, B.R.U. and A.S.; Data curation, B.R.U.
and A.S.; Writing—original draft, B.R.U. and T.W.B.R.; Supervision, T.W.B.R. and A.T.W.; Project
administration, T.W.B.R.; Funding acquisition, T.W.B.R. and A.T.W. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge the facilities in the Research Group of Sustainable
Thermofluids, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Indonesia (through HGR UNS 2023 type A), and the
Institute of Research and Innovation, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

ATE Cross-section of TEG element [m2 ]

LDR Light dependent resistor [-]
P Power [W]
PV Photovoltaic [-]
PPV Output power of PV [W]
PPV-TEG Combined power of PV and TEG [W]
PTEG Output power of TEG [W]
Rc Thermal resistance at the cold side of TEG [K]
Re Electrical resistance of TEG element [Ω]
Rte Thermal resistance of TEG element [K/W]
Ta Ambient temperature [K]
Tc Temperature at the TEG cold side [K]
Th Temperature at the TEG hot side [K]
Energies 2023, 16, 2658 18 of 20

Theat sink Temperature at the heat sink [K]

TPVS Temperature at the PV surface [K]
TPVR Temperature at the PV rear [K]
TEG Thermoelectric generator [-]
Q Input energy per area unit of PV [W]
Qh Heat flux at the TEG hot side [K]
Qc Heat flux at the TEG cold side [K]
Ns Number of semiconductor pairs
VJ Voltage due to Joule effect [V]
VS Voltage due to Seebeck effect [V]
PV Photovoltaic panel
TEG Thermoelectric generator
τg Transmittance
α Seebeck coefficient
as Absorbance
ε Thermal emittance
ηPV-TEG Efficiency of PV-TEG [%]
ηTEG Efficiency of TEG [%]
ρ Electrical resistivity
λ Thermal conductivity
∆T Temperature gradient
N Number of measurement
x Mean of value
SD Standard of deviation
σm Uncertainty of mean
Bi2 Te3 Bismuth telluride

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