Original Article

Journal of Low Frequency Noise,

Vibration and Active Control
Assessment of a hydraulic bottle jack as an 2024, Vol. 43(1) 543–559
© The Author(s) 2023
effective device for controlling vibration and DOI: 10.1177/14613484231198969
journals.sagepub.com/home/lfn

mitigating the effects of earthquakes

Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig1 , Cibele Mota Menezes2 ,

Rodrigo Oliveira da Silva Conceiçao1 , Iago Goncalves de Oliveira1  and
Ozge Ozdemir3 

Abstract
The aim of this work was to assess the capability of a hydraulic bottle jack to control vibrations and the effects of
earthquakes. The first stage of the present investigation focused on determining the axial stiffness of the apparatus, in order
to relate its behavior to that of a linear elastic element. To do this, uniaxial compression tests were carried out using a
manually controlled servo system. In the second stage, a conceptual application based on the field of mechanical vibrations
was considered. The experimental results confirmed the hypothesis of linear behavior and showed that the stiffness
coefficient had distinct values of magnitude that depended on the cylinder height. Simulations were conducted in which the
frequencies and the peak displacements of an idealized SDOF system subjected to earthquake excitation were adjusted
based on the experimental stiffness. It was possible to conclude that the equipment analyzed here is an effective tool for
controlling vibration and reducing displacement during a seismic event, and can be calibrated according to the specific
conditions of operation. This is an important aspect of safety and functionality for mechanical and structural systems.

Keywords
mitigation of mechanical vibrations, hydraulic jack, spring coefficient, axial stiffness, experimental activity, mathematical
simulation

Introduction
A hydraulic jack is a system designed for the application of mechanical forces, and is typically used for lifting loads. It is
often found in the automotive and industrial sectors, in a wide range of areas. Bottle models are used in various applications,
and have different lifting capacities ranging from 18 to 445 kN1 (∼2 to 50 tons, where the acceleration of gravity g is
assumed to be equal to 9.807 m/s2). This is one of the simplest and basic forms of hydraulic equipment; it is also very
versatile and has no load limitations in its current uses. Furthermore, the hydraulic jack is one of the most efficient types of
equipment for improving traditional construction processes and structural projects.2 The use of these jacks to lift heavy
civilian structures has become relatively common, especially in the field of repair and recovery,3 specific techniques have
been developed for using them with bridges4 and buildings,5 including in historic and heritage projects,6 and even as
support tools in constructive/excavation processes,7,8 rock breaking,9 and as movement stabilizers.10 Bottle-type jacks

1
Department of Construction and Structures, Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil
2
Graduate Program in Civil Engineering, Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil
3
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, İstanbul Technical University (ITU), Istanbul, Turkey

Corresponding author:
Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig, Department of Construction and Structures, Polytechnic School, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Rua Aristides
Novis, 02, 5° andar, Federação, Salvador, Bahia 40210-630, Brazil.
Email: alixa@ufba.br

Correction (March 2024): The graphics used in Tables 3 and 4 were swapped, which has been corrected in the article now.

Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without
further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/
en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
544 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

became popular in 1990 following developments in the automobile industry, but are also used in the medical area as
components of hydraulic stretchers and inpatient elevators, in the repair of agricultural machinery, and for testing and
construction operations.11 These applications illustrate the flexibility of the use of hydraulic jacks and their contribution to
various sectors of industry and construction.
During the application and removal of a force in the operation of a hydraulic jack, it is possible to observe its capacity to
recover from the deformation imposed on it, and when used in applications of a dynamic nature, to restore the oscillatory
movement induced in a system. Based on this observation, a hypothesis that a hydraulic jack can be represented
mathematically as a spring has been assumed. It would then be possible to directly associate the properties of a spring with
the behavior shown by a hydraulic jack when compressed. Even with oil inside, a hydraulic jack has been shown to undergo
elastic behavior similar to that of a spring, whose stiffness can be obtained experimentally.
If it can be represented as a spring, a hydraulic jack could be used to carry out tasks related to vibration control, including
the mitigation of harmful earthquake effects, as springs are widely used in the modeling and control of several kinds of
mechanisms.12,13 They are especially used for vehicular suspension,14,15 including devices based on the concept of air
springs, where the mechanical properties and the spring coefficient are determined experimentally.16 Air is a fluid, in the
same way as oil, but with much lower density and viscosity. Based on the concepts described above, a hydraulic device has
been used to change the structural stiffness of a thrust mechanism for geotechnical applications.17 To do this, its cylinders
were simulated as springs, based on Hooke’s law.18
Springs are essential elements in the field of vibration. They are used in the operation of several machines, especially
when it is necessary to restore a system to its equilibrium position.19 The stiffness of a spring (also known as the spring
index or elastic constant) is its main characterizing parameter or attribute.20 A spring is capable of converting the ac-
cumulated strain energy21 into work when the force is removed. This concept has found a wide range of applications in
engineering problems, where a typically elastic behavior is an intrinsic part of the process.22–27 In view of their properties,
springs have been used as energy absorbers, to command and revert mechanical systems, interceptors of static and dynamic
forces, to strengthen joints, as dampers in anti-vibration protection systems, and as devices for controlling and measuring
force.28 In mathematical terms, a system consisting of springs can be solved by numerical methods29 or through the use of
advanced analytical techniques.30
Based on the concepts outlined above, a control system formed of springs and an inertial mechanism, whose principle of
operation was based on the proportionality of applied forces, has been studied for suppressing the vibration of beams under
moving loads.31 Control systems based on applied forces have also been assessed by simulating a pulse-type ground
motion,32 they have been treated numerically by considering a hydraulic system with variable inertia (e.g., a valve-
controlled power hydraulic system as a vibration isolator)33 and experimentally by employing a jack as a control device.34
In addition, hydraulic jacks with variable stiffness have been computationally assessed for use as control devices to
attenuate the displacement of a building under seismic action.35
In this work, a device called a hydraulic bottle jack (model CJ8-8700, manufactured by Bovenau1) with a capacity of
71 kN (∼8 tons) has been investigated. It had a maximal hydraulic lift stroke of 147 mm and a cylindrical, bulky design, and
was versatile, practical, and simple to use. Laboratory tests were carried out to obtain the axial stiffness (or spring co-
efficient) of this apparatus, taking into consideration the real complexity of a mechanical system of this nature and its
internal interactions. The study consisted of a uniaxial compression test of a manually controlled system, adopting seven
levels of elevation for the cylinder height, to explore its behavior under quasi-static loading conditions. Following this, a
conceptual simulation based on mechanical vibrations was carried out to assess the capability of the device to mitigate the
harmful effects of an earthquake event.

Operational principles and main characteristics of the apparatus

The operation of a hydraulic jack is based on the movement of a piston located inside a hollow cylindrical body, which acts
as a hydraulic press according to Pascal’s principle.36 The first hydraulic press was developed by the mechanic Joseph
Bramah, who received recognition for his invention from the British Patent Office in 1795.37 The machine invented by
Bramah used water as a fluid to move the pistons; nowadays, however, mineral oil is used to fulfill the same function, as it is
an almost incompressible fluid, which enables the transmission of force almost instantly and contributes to a reduction in
friction due to the high lubrication it provides, consequently reducing the wear of moving parts in hydraulic components.
Following the invention presented by Joseph Bramah in 1795, Armstrong developed the first hydraulic crane in 1850,
together with the first hydraulic accumulator.38 Almost 50 years later, in the United States, Cooper and Hampton39
registered the first patent for an axial piston pump in 1893. The origin of the hydraulic jack can be traced to Richard
Wahrhaftig et al. 545

Dudgeon, a machinist, owner and inventor, who invented the so-called “portable hydraulic press”40 in 1851, receiving a
patent for this creation.41
The operation of a hydraulic jack occurs through the repeated application of a force via a lever, which results in the oil
flowing from the reservoir into the cylinder,42 thus raising the required load.43 The main advantages of a hydraulic system
are its easy handling, flexibility, and the possibility of fine adjustments when compared to mechanical and electrical ones.
Hydraulics also have a small weight: size: power consumption ratio compared to other systems, and provide security to the
user, since when they are overloaded, their operation is interrupted.44 Their principal elements include a pumping
mechanism, oil, and valves: the pumping mechanism supplies energy to the system, while the valves control the oil flow and
pressure,45,46 and the oil lubricates the internal parts and transmits the pressure imposed by the pump to the lifting
chamber.47 The pressure created in this way represents the reaction of the system to the applied (or sustained) force.
However, precise control over the pressure level has been a recurring challenge for manufacturers48 aiming to establish
reliability and good operating conditions.49–51
A hydraulic system provides constant power, works well in hot environments, and uses a high-density incompressible
fluid that reduces the possibility of leaks, thereby reducing maintenance costs. However, the selection of the hydraulic fluid
is an important aspect that should be considered because it may corrode parts that are essential for the functioning of the
system, such as the cylinder elevation. In addition, small impurities present in the fluid can result in permanent damage to
the device,52 which makes it necessary to install suitable filters. After use, fluids must be disposed of properly, as they are
harmful to the environment.53 Hydraulic machines use fluid energy to carry out work by transmitting a high-pressure liquid,
also known as hydraulic fluid, through hydraulic cylinders.54 Accurate determination of the hydraulic stiffness is critical in
the design and control of hydraulic mechanisms.55
Hydraulic bottle jacks have a shape that resembles a bottle, with a cylindrical body and a neck, hence their name. This
type of device features two concentric chambers, one of which is internal and the other external. The former is responsible
for actuating the piston, while the latter is used as a reservoir for oil. In the process of operation, the plunger is pushed
forward, the oil moves through an external discharge check valve to the chamber cylinder, and the suction valve closes,
resulting in increased pressure inside the cylinder. In this type of jack, the piston is vertical, and supports an extension screw
that is in direct contact with the object to be lifted.56
The hydraulic jack tested in this work (CJ-8700 model) was supplied by Bovenau Technical Metal Ltd1 It had a nominal
load capacity of 71.17 kN (8 tons of force), a construction height of 230 mm, base dimensions of (119 x 122) mm, a
hydraulic lift stroke of 147 mm, a spindle stroke of 80 mm, a total height of 457 mm, a support head diameter of 34 mm, a
lever length of 290 mm, and a weight (with lever) of 5.3 kg. The basic operating principles of a hydraulic bottle jack are the
same as those of the general hydraulic systems described above. The main components are shown in Figure 1.

Compression test and axial stiffness

Tests were carried out in a physical laboratory to obtain the axial stiffness of the hydraulic bottle jack described above. The
machine used to perform the test consisted of a manually controlled servosystem, and a press equipped with a hydraulic
actuator, which was fixed to a metal gantry, with a compression capacity of 142 kN (∼15 tons). This press is illustrated in
Figure 2, and was specifically designed to perform compression tests on hydraulic jacks in order to check their speci-
fications and load capacity. It was therefore appropriate for these experiments.

Figure 1. Hydraulic bottle jack (source: Bovenau).1

546 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

Figure 2. Details of the press: (a) frontal, (b) lateral, (c) superior views (dimensions in m).

During the test, the hydraulic jack was aligned with the central vertical line of the servosystem, with some shims where
necessary. This allowed for the positioning of the jack with the specified cylinder height for the test, and allowed the press to
compress it ideally, meaning with the force acting directly on the jack through the centroid of the upper plate of the press,
thus reducing any eccentricity effect. The imposed load and the test speed were manually controlled, and the desired force
level was established by directly observing the machine indicator dial. A loading plan was applied in which the compression
force started at 8.9 kN (∼1 ton) and was increased in intervals of 4.45 kN (∼0.5 ton) until the hydraulic jack’s loading
capacity was reached. This force was 3% below Euler’s critical load,57 which is an important checking parameter for the
structural stability of cylinders of hydraulic systems.58
The jack elevation cylinder was adjusted to the stroke height c, as shown in Table 1, in accordance with the test plan, and
a quasi-static load was applied. To register the displacement induced in the jack cylinder, an electronic meter or dial gauge
was used, with a resolution of one tenth of a millimeter. The components of the experimental setup can be seen in Figure 3.
The results from the compression tests are presented in Table 1, and are shown in graphical form in Figure 4.

Assessment of vibration control and mitigation of seismic effects

One possible application that opens up is the use of hydraulic devices for vibration control and the mitigation of undesirable
earthquake effects.59,60 To assess this approach, a mass-spring-damper system with a single degree of freedom (SDOF), as
shown in Figure 5, was considered. Many practical engineering problems are associated with SDOFs, such as those
involving columns,61 control systems62 and absorbers,63 beams,64,65 buildings,66 bridges,67 and machine foundations.68
In the representative model, K is the spring stiffness associated with the hydraulic jack, C is the structural damping, and
M is the generalized mass of the system. Mathematically, C can be set proportional to M and K when necessary.69 The
oscillatory motion is defined by u(t), and u0 is the initial displacement. A force F(t) characterizes an excitation that makes
the system vibrate under damped conditions during and after its application. This force may be of any type, including
impulsive, periodic, and seismic. Friction is not considered in that model.
With the appropriate transformations,70 the horizontal displacement can be obtained as

uðK, tÞ ¼ u0 eξωðKÞ cosðωD ðKÞtÞ, (1)

where ξ is the damping ratio, t is time, ω(K) and ωD ðKÞ are the natural undamped and damped frequencies of the system,71
respectively, and are defined as functions of K as follows
Wahrhaftig et al. 547

Table 1. Results for cylinder displacement from compression test (values in mm).

Cylinder height c (m)

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

Force (kN) Displacement Cylinder height c

8.90 1.051 1.301 1.244 1.100 1.385 1.267 1.438

13.34 1.199 1.518 1.519 1.400 1.734 1.691 1.910
17.79 1.333 1.743 1.776 1.675 2.084 2.049 2.328
22.24 1.463 1.978 2.034 1.969 2.405 2.398 2.823
26.69 1.591 2.167 2.284 2.242 2.707 2.751 3.280
31.14 1.709 2.366 2.527 2.508 3.037 3.160 3.678
35.59 1.832 2.586 2.787 2.753 3.355 3.427 4.132
40.03 1.948 2.781 2.956 3.019 3.621 3.776 4.560
44.48 2.062 2.960 3.193 3.260 3.941 4.124 4.984
48.93 2.185 3.167 3.437 3.508 4.231 4.442 5.359
53.38 2.302 3.344 3.638 3.729 4.547 4.768 5.779
57.83 2.411 3.557 3.818 3.957 4.853 5.065 6.164
62.28 2.529 3.701 4.007 4.191 5.115 5.356 6.523
66.72 2.643 3.921 4.223 4.446 5.445 5.696 6.948
71.17 2.758 4.113 4.429 4.675 5.753 6.033 7.372
kN = kilonewton; m = meter; mm = millimeter.

Figure 3. Test setup.

rffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
K
ωðKÞ ¼ and ωD ðKÞ ¼ 1  ξ 2 ωðKÞ: (2)
M
An important consideration related to the mitigation of earthquake effects is the use of hydraulic jacks to control the
undesirable vibration effects that arise from this kind of excitation. For instance, consider the seismic event known as the
“El Centro Earthquake,” which occurred in North America in 1940. Its seismographic signal was recorded, and has been
used to simulate the effect of seismic waves in applied sciences72–75 since then.
548 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

Figure 4. Force versus displacement for different cylinder heights c (in m): (a) 0.02; (b) 0.04; (c) 0.06; (d) 0.08; (e) 0.10; (f) 0.12; (g) 0.14;
(h) diagram showing cylinder height.
Wahrhaftig et al. 549

Figure 5. SDOF mass-spring-damper system.

The time series acceleration data for the north-south component76 and the spectrum of frequencies obtained by using the
fast Fourier transform (FFT)77 of this component are represented in Figures 6(a) and (b), respectively. The peak acceleration
apk, with a value of 3.13 m/s2, occurs 2.02 s after the event starts. The largest normalized amplitude n corresponds to
1.17 Hz, over a spectrum from 0 to 25 Hz.

Results and discussion

The results obtained in this study are summarized and discussed in this section.

Compression test and axial stiffness

The axial stiffness of the jack depends on the stroke height c of the cylinder. The stiffness K for each value of the
cylinder height c is obtained based on a linear relationship. The results obtained are presented in Table 2 together with
the corresponding relationship curve and the equation representing the behavior described from a power regression.
After establishing a representative equation, the results can be extrapolated to any intermediate position, or for values
above or below those defined in the present investigation. From the graph in Figure 7, it is possible to observe that there
is a tendency of convergence for the value of stiffness around 7.5 kN/m when the height of the elevation cylinder is
close to 0.1 m.
By applying Pascal’s law to the system in Figure 8, it is known that for equilibrium, it is necessary that the force
acting at the base of the piston Lf is equal to the raising force Sf, which is normally gravitational. Lf depends on the fluid
under pressure acting on an area larger than that of the opposite end of the cylinder, thus producing a force of the same
intensity but using much less pressure. Hence, the pressures at both extremities are different. Using equation (3), the
force and pressure at the base of the piston pb can be found when the force at the top of the cylinder is known, as in the
corresponding tests
Ta Lf
Lf ¼ Sf → pb  Ba ¼ pt  Ta → pb ¼ pt  , with pb ¼ (3)
Ba Ba
where Lf, Ba, and pb are the force, area, and pressure at the cylinder base, respectively, and Ta and pt are the area and the
pressure at the top of the piston. The value of Ta/Ba in this case is 0.063. The areas of the cylinder base and tip are given in
equation (4)

πB2d πT 2
Ba ¼ , and Ta ¼ d , (4)
4 4
where Bd is the diameter of the piston base (107 mm), and Td is the piston tip diameter (27 mm). Each component is shown
in Figure 8. All dimensions are based on the information from the manufacturer’s technical catalog.1 The operation of the
device shown in Figure 8 can be described as follows:

(i) The flow control valve (1), which is initially in the pressure relief position, is placed in the suction-hold condition.
(ii) The check valve control lever (2) is manually operated.
(iii) The flow of oil (3) in the storage chamber (4) is directed (5) into the elevation chamber (6), which increases the
pressure inside it.
(iv) The pressure generated by the oil acts on the base of the elevation cylinder (7).
(v) The movement of the oil leaves an empty space (8).
550 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

Figure 6. “El Centro Earthquake”: (a) time series data; (b) spectrum of frequencies.

Table 2. Results for equivalent experimental stiffness.

c K
(m) (kN/m)

0.02 36,924
0.04 22,331
0.06 19,678
0.08 17,562
0.10 14,428
0.12 13,246
0.14 10,561

Representative equation: KðcÞ ¼ 3662:2  c0:588

c = cylinder height, K = stiffness, kN = kilonewtons; m = meters.

Figure 7. Plot of the representative equation.

(vi) The piston (9) is raised due to the internal force Lf created by the pressure inside the elevation chamber, which
modifies the relationship between the dimensions a, b and c.
(vii) The external load Sf in contact with the upper end of the elevation cylinder (10) is lifted and sustained while the
valve is kept in the hold condition.
Wahrhaftig et al. 551

Figure 8. Simplified scheme for a bottle hydraulic jack.

Figure 9. Relationships between: (a) force and pressure on the base of the elevation cylinder; (b) stiffness and the volume of the
elevation chamber; and (c) cylinder height and the volume of the elevation chamber.

Figure 10. Results for (a) damped natural frequency in rad/s, and (b) frequency spectrum in Hz.

During the movement of the lever, the oil leaves the reservoir and is directed to the lift cylinder through the suction-hold
valve. The movement of the lever triggers the opening of the valve directing the flow of oil into the lift chamber, which
provides sufficient pressure to lift the piston to the desired height. To empty the chamber and allow the oil to return to the
reservoir, it is necessary to turn the valve counterclockwise, which permits the oil to flow into the reservoir, thus relieving
the pressure inside the elevation chamber and causing the piston to be retracted.
552 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

Figure 11. Damped response for varying values of Κ (in kN/m): (a) 36924, (b) 22,331, (c) 19678, (d) 17562, (e) 14428, (f) 13246, (g)
10561, (h) diagrams showing the spring model of the hydraulic jack.
Wahrhaftig et al. 553

Table 3. Results for peak displacement.

c K upk
(m) (kN/m) (mm)

0.02 36,924 0.08

0.04 22,331 0.14
0.06 19,678 0.16
0.08 17,562 0.18
0.1 14,428 0.22
0.12 13,246 0.24
0.14 10,561 0.30

Representative equation: f ðcÞ ¼ 0:9362  c0:6216

c = cylinder height, K = stiffness, kN = kilonewtons; m = meters, upk = peak displacement, mm = millimeters.

It is important to highlight that along the path taken by the oil, it leaves the reservoir, where it behaves as an in-
compressible fluid, and enters the elevation chamber, a region that gives the fluid a certain compressibility. At the same
time, there is an adjustment of parts during loading. The stiffness of the jack is therefore a result of the interaction between
the components and the fluid, readjusting and repositioning of moving parts under charge, and the deformation of the piston
and chambers when the system is compressed.
Researchers have sought to establish estimates of the compressibility of hydraulic systems with cylinders of different
diameters. The studies have associated this aspect with the small movements of moving parts in existing clearances and the
deformation of components, which influences the hydraulic fluid flow rate between chambers, altering, for that reason, the
response of the system (i.e., the displacement of the piston). The stiffness coefficient of a hydraulic jack therefore tends to be
variable, due to the influence of these factors.78,79
Figure 8 shows the dependence of the dimension of the lifting chamber a on the height of the cylinder c, which can be
expressed as in equation (5)
aðcÞ ¼ 100 þ c: (5)

The volume of the elevation chamber therefore becomes a function of the dimension c
volðcÞ ¼ aðcÞ  Ba , (6)

where Ba is the area of the elevation cylinder base in equation (4). The relationship between the force applied at the top of
the cylinder, the pressure at the base, and the volume of the lifting chamber in equation (6) can be seen in Figure 9. From the
graphs in Figure 9, it is possible to observe the direct dependence of the sustainable force on the pressure at the base of the
cylinder, and the inverse relationship between the stiffness and the volume of the lifting chamber. Finally, a linear variation
between the volume of the lifting chamber and the height of the elevation cylinder can be seen.

Vibration control assessment and seismic effects mitigation

By adopting the values for K from Table 2, with a damping ratio of ξ = 1% (a conservative value found for weakly damped
systems,80 as for buildings it is typically 2% for concrete constructions and less than 5% for steel)81 and a mass M =
1000 kg, and varying the time from zero to a convenient final instant, it is possible to obtain the frequencies and dis-
placements of the system. The frequencies are given in Figure 10, and displacements in Figure 11.
From the results presented here, it can be seen that when the stiffness is reduced by 71%, the frequency of the system
decays by 47%, which follows from the increase in the cylinder height c. The higher and lower limits for the frequency are
46 Hz and 14 Hz, respectively.
554 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

Table 4. Natural frequency damping.

c K ωD fD
(m) (kN/m) (rad/s) (Hz)

0.02 36,924 192.16 30.58

0.04 22,331 149.44 23.78
0.06 19,678 140.28 22.33
0.08 17,562 132.52 21.09
0.1 14,428 120.12 19.12
0.12 13,246 115.09 18.32
0.14 10,561 102.77 16.36

Representative equation: f ðcÞ ¼ 9:6363  c0:294 (in hz)

c = cylinder height, K = stiffness, kN = kilonewtons; m = meters, ω and f = frequencies, D = damped, rad = radians, s = seconds, Hz = Hertz.

Figure 12. Frequency of variation with cylinder height.

Figure 13. Peak displacement according to the representative equation.

The system response is shown in Figure 11 in regard to the inertial forces associated with the mass M and earthquake
acceleration a, as found from equation (1) with u0(K) = Ma/K. The peak displacement upk occurs at the peak acceleration
apk, and since (upk(K) = Mapk/K), the damped movement of the system can be obtained over the earthquake event. It is
important to highlight that peak acceleration, peak velocity, and peak displacement are the most frequently used and best-
known time-domain parameters in seismic engineering,82 and are considered the most sensitive indicators when analyzing
facilities subject to earthquakes.83
Wahrhaftig et al. 555

As can be seen from Figure 11, the motion of the SDOF system ceases before the earthquake event is completed. It takes
less than 5 s to stop, while the seismic event takes more than 50 s. The peak displacement results for each stiffness
coefficient are given in Table 3.
For the parameters adopted here, such as the mass and damping ratio, the frequency of the SDOF system falls into the
range of frequencies caused by the earthquake. This means that some type of resonance in the SDOF system could be
produced by the earthquake.84 Hence, the introduction of an apparatus which could control the displacements and modify
the period of vibration would be important in terms of the safety and functionality of mechanical systems.85
The results are summarized in Table 4. In Figure 12, the values are extrapolated based on the representative equation for
the problem regarding the specified cylinder height. The difference between the extreme and lower values is 71.40%
following the stiffness reduction, and the value increases with the cylinder height. The peak displacement with the cylinder
height according to the tendency equation is presented in Figure 13.
It can be noted that Figure 7, Figure 12, and Figure 13, and their respective equations can be used in association with each
other in order to find a specific cylinder height to meet a particular need. Hydraulic jacks can also be arranged in series to
increase the equivalent stiffness, and can be applied to the diagonals of building frames to control the displacement.86

Conclusions
In this study, an experiment was performed to determine the axial stiffness of a hydraulic bottle jack, with the aim of relating
its behavior to that of a linear elastic element. The stiffness is an essential parameter that can be used to assess the
effectiveness of the device in the field of vibration control. In this experiment, a uniaxial compression test using a manually
controlled press was carried out. Seven positions for the cylinder elevation were adopted for its determination, with a quasi-
static load. A numerical simulation of the field of vibration of the mechanical system was then conducted for a particular
earthquake excitation.
Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded as follows:

· The hypothesis of linear behavior was experimentally confirmed. For all of the cylinder elevation heights considered
in the tests, the corresponding displacements were linearly proportional to the applied forces. In the same direction,
the sustainable force had a linear relationship with the pressure generated inside the lifting chamber.
· The stiffness coefficient was shown to have an inverse dependence on the height of the elevation cylinder. As the
volume of the lifting chamber increases linearly with the height of the elevation cylinder, the spring coefficient is
inversely proportional to it. For this reason, the axial stiffness depends on the height of the cylinder, as it determines
the greater or lesser volume of oil in the compression chamber.
· The stiffness coefficient was found to have distinct levels of magnitude. Factors such as the characteristics of the
elevation chamber (which causes some compressibility of the oil), the tight of parts and components during the
loading operation, the interaction between the components and the fluid, the adjustment of moving parts, and the
deformation of solid components, may be associated with this result.
· The frequencies were modified according to the experimental stiffness of the hydraulic jack in simulation. The results
obtained for the free-damped vibration showed that the device investigated could be used as a tool for adjustment of
the frequency. The simulation results indicated that the frequency varied inversely with the height of the elevation
cylinder, following a power law with a negative exponent.
· Displacement was reduced under seismic action. The stiffness of the hydraulic jack was shown to be capable of
reducing the peak displacement of an idealized SDOF system. This is an important finding in terms of the safety and
functionality of mechanical and structural systems. The results indicated that the displacement varied nonlinearly
with the height of the elevation cylinder, following a power law with a positive exponent.
· The results obtained here are valid when the hydraulic jack works in compression, but traction forces and cyclical
loads were not investigated. In addition, using this equipment in a sloped or horizontal direction may not give the
same results.
· The hydraulic jack can be used with other jacks, and/or in combination with other devices. Since the equipment
behaves as a translational spring, it can be used in a series or parallel arrangement to meet the needs of a specific
application.

The main contribution of this work is that it was possible to demonstrate the possibility of representing a hydraulic bottle
jack, a mechanical device whose operation is based on communicating vessels with numerous internal interactions, as a
translational spring. With a knowledge of the main parameter related to this conception, the apparatus can find applications
556 Journal of Low Frequency Noise, Vibration and Active Control 43(1)

in relatively complex systems, including as a vibration control tool in dynamic problems and to mitigate the harmful effects
of earthquakes.
Future work may include new experiments in which the jack is tested in horizontal and inclined positions. Hydraulic
jacks subjected to traction forces and cyclical loading should also be investigated to widen the scope of this investigation.
Buildings and other structural systems could be simulated based on the hypothesis presented here. Systems under periodic
force and free vibration movement from an initial displacement could also be considered in future studies.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work
was supported by the research relied on funding in the form of research scholarships from the National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq), the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB), and the Coordination of
Superior Level Staff Improvement (CAPES), all of them Brazilian agencies for supporting research.

ORCID iDs
Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7144-1917
Cibele Mota Menezes  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3559-1803
Rodrigo Oliveira da Silva Conceição  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4631-8116
Iago Gonçalves de Oliveira  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4753-8062
Ozge Ozdemir  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4755-2094

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