Chapter 4

Unidirectional flow of groundwater

and well hydraulics

By Asmare Belay 1
4.1. One-dimensional flow of groundwater
❑Darcy’s law and the fundamental equations governing groundwater
movement can now be applied to particular situations. Solutions of
groundwater flow to wells rank highest in importance.
1. Steady unidirectional flow
Steady flow implies that no change occurs with respect to time change. Flow
conditions for confined and unconfined aquifers and hence need to be
considered separately, beginning with flow in one direction.

𝜕ℎ
=0
𝜕𝑡
By Asmare Belay 2
 A. Confined Aquifer
i) For a Constant Thickness

By Asmare Belay 3
 Cont.…..
• For one-dimensional flow in the X-direction only the continuity
equation for steady flow simplifies to:
• 2h / X2 = 0 Integrating twice
h = C1 X + C2 The boundary conditions are: At X= 0, h = H0 hence,
C2 = H 0
𝐻0 − 𝐻𝐿
• At X = L, h = HL hence, 𝐶1 = −
𝐿
• Up on substitution of the boundary conditions C1 and C2
𝐻0 − 𝐻𝐿 −𝑣
ℎ = 𝐻0 − 𝑋 ℎ= 𝑥 + 𝐻0
𝐿 𝐾
By Asmare Belay 4
 Cont..
• By Darcy Law, the discharge per unit width of the aquifer is:
𝜕ℎ 𝐻0 − 𝐻𝐿
𝑞 = −𝐾 = −𝐾 ∗ −
𝜕𝑋 𝐿
𝐻0 − 𝐻𝐿
𝑞=𝐾
𝐿
ii. For variable thickness
• Consider a confined aquifer with variable thickness and Flow
through a confined aquifer of variable thickness

By Asmare Belay 5
 Cont.….
• Let y = mx + a; a = y1 and 𝑚=
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝐿

𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑞 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑦. 1 −𝐾 = −𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−𝑞 −𝑞
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, ℎ1 = ln 𝑎 + 𝑐 ℎ2 = ln( 𝑎 + 𝑚𝐿) + 𝑐
𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚
At x = 0, h = h1; at x = L, h = h2

𝑞 𝑞
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = − (ln( 𝑎 + 𝑚𝐿) − ln( 𝑎) = −(ln( 𝑎 + 𝑚𝐿) + ln( 𝑎)
𝐾𝑚 𝐾𝑚
𝐾𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑞=
ln 𝑎ൗ(𝑎 + 𝑚𝐿
By Asmare Belay 6
 Cont.…
iii) Confined aquifer with vertical leakage (Semi- confined aquifer case)
2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑞 𝑑 ℎ 𝑑𝑞
𝑞 = −𝐾𝑏 ൗ𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = −𝐾𝑏 2 =𝑊
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 ℎ 𝑊 𝑊 2
𝑊 2
2
=− = − ⇒ 𝑑 ℎ = − 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑏 𝑇 𝑇
𝑊 𝑊𝑥 2
න 𝑑 ℎ = − න𝑑𝑥 2
2
ℎ=− + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
𝑇 2𝑇
From boundary conditions, at x = 0; h = h1 and at x = L; h = h2 Therefore, C2 = h1

𝑊𝑥 2 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑊𝐿
ℎ=− + + 𝑥 + ℎ1
2𝑇 𝐿 2𝑇
What about there being no recharge(w=0)?
By Asmare Belay 7
 Cont.…
B. Unconfined Aquifers
❖ In unconfined aquifers the free surface of the water table, known as phreatic surface,
has the boundary condition of constant pressure equal to atmospheric pressure.
❖ Consider unconfined aquifer is above a horizontal impermeable base;
✓ The porous medium is homogeneous (K = constant);
✓ The aquifer receives uniform recharge (w = constant) on the top; w is defined as the
amount of water entering to aquifer per unit length and width per unit time.
✓ The aquifer is bounded by two rivers of constant stages h0 and hL.
✓ Although flow is two-dimensional in the cross-section, the vertical flow velocity is
much smaller than the horizontal flow. So, the flow is assumed to be a one-dimensional
horizontal flow (Dupuit's assumption).
By Asmare Belay 8
 Dupuit assumption
❖The boundary of an unconfined aquifer (z) is indeed the solution (h)
that needs to be determined.
❖ Dupuit assumptions: First developed by Dupuit (1863) and then
advanced by Forchheimer (1930), or called Dupuit Forchheimer
theory
➢From observations, the slope of the phreatic surface (water table) is
very small (commonly 1/1000)
➢Two assumptions
✓ The hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the free surface and
is invariant with depth
✓ The equipotential lines are vertical, i.e., the flow lines are
horizontal, i.e.,
By Asmare Belay 9
Dupuit assumption

By Asmare Belay 10
 Dupuit assumption
• For the horizontal bottom and 3-D steady-state, free-surface flows

By Asmare Belay 11
 Cont.….
i) Simple water table condition

By Asmare Belay 12
 Cont..
•𝑞 𝐾 2 2
𝑞=− ℎ2 − ℎ1
• 𝑞 = flow per unit width 2𝐿

• At any x value from x = 0, the head h is given by:

𝐾
𝑞=− ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2
2𝑥
𝑥
ℎ = ℎ1 + ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2
2
2

By Asmare Belay 13
 Cont.….
ii)Flow into horizontal galleries
• The flow into horizontal galleries dug down to the impervious soil
layer is shown below.
H = depth of GWT above impervious layer
h1 = depth of WT in the gallery
• The quantity of water flowing in to the gallery from both sides is
𝐾 2 𝐾ℓ 2
𝑄 = (2𝑞ℓ) = 2ℓ 2
𝐻 − ℎ1 𝑄= 𝐻 − ℎ1 2
2𝐿 𝐿
• Where 𝑙-the length of the gallery and L is the water flow path

14
By Asmare Belay
 Cont.…
iii) Steady Unconfined aquifer with recharge
• If the aquifer is being recharged by rainfall and if steady infiltration rate, W is
maintained

−𝐾 𝑊𝐿 2
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑊𝑑𝑥 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑊𝑥 + (ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 ) +
2𝐿 𝐾
By Asmare Belay 15
 Well Hydraulics
❖ A water well is a hydraulic structure that is designed and constructed to permit
the economic withdrawal of water from an aquifer.
❖ Water well construction includes:
✓Selection of appropriate site
✓Selection of appropriate drilling methods
✓Selection of appropriate completion materials
✓Analysis and interpretation of well and aquifer performance
❖Objective of Well hydraulics
✓ Provide the demand that meets the needs of the owner
✓ Obtain the highest possible yield with minimal drawdown (consistent
with aquifer capabilities)
✓ Provide good quality water (potable and low turbidity)
✓ Provide long service life (25+ years)
✓ Minimize the impacts on neighboring wells and aquatic environments
By Asmare Belay 16
Well Hydraulics

By Asmare Belay 17
 Well Pump 1.5 HP 220V Submersible
Well Pump 335ft Head

By Asmare Belay 18
 4.2. Well Hydraulics
4.2.1. Steady radial flow to a well
❖Steady state implies that the drawdown is a function of location only.
❖The drawdown at a given point is the distance the water level is lowered.
❖ In three-dimensional the drawdown curve describes a conic shape known as
the cone of depression.
❖ Also the outer limit of the cone of depression defines the area of influent of
the well.
❖ The derivation of the well flow equation is generally based on the following
assumptions:-
✓ The well is pumped at a constant rate or discharge(Q = Constant)

By Asmare Belay 19
 Cont.…
✓ The well is fully penetrating the aquifer and the screen is perforated or
otherwise open for the height of the aquifer
✓ The aquifer is homogenous, isotropic, uniform thickness and infinite areal
extent
✓ Water is released from storage in aquifer in immediate response to a drop in
water table or piezometric surface.
✓ The well diameter is sufficiently small so that storage within the well can be
neglected

By Asmare Belay 20
 Cont.…
✓Prior to pumping, the initial water level (the piezometric
surface) is horizontal.
✓Darcy’s law is valid
✓All flow is radial toward the well
✓Groundwater flow is horizontal

By Asmare Belay 21
 Cont.…
I. Steady radial flow in Confined Aquifer

22
By Asmare Belay
 Cont.…
✓ Using the plane polar coordinates for the well and its surrounding; the well
discharge at any distance r from the well equals:-
𝑑ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑏𝐾 ∗
𝑑𝑟
✓ Integrating the above equation yields
𝑟𝑜 ℎ𝑜
𝑑𝑟
𝑄න = 2𝜋𝑏𝐾 න 𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑤 𝑟 ℎ𝑤
2𝜋𝑏𝐾(ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑤 )
𝑄= ro
ln( )
rw
✓ If the values of head(h) are known (h1 and h2) at the respective positions of
distance r1 and r2 respectively from the well, then the flow equation can be
written as :-
By Asmare Belay 23
 Cont.…
2𝜋𝑏𝐾(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
𝑄= r2 Where r > r1
and h > ℎ1
ln( ) 2 2
r1

By Asmare Belay 24
 Cont.…
• The above equation is an equilibrium equation or Theim Equation
enables one to determine the values of hydraulic conductivity (K)
and Transmissivity (T) of a confined aquifer from pumping test
data. 𝑇 = 𝑏𝐾
• Prove that the equation for the flow of water in a confined aquifer
towards a well is given by:
2𝜋𝑇(𝑆1 − 𝑆2 )
𝑄= r2
ln( )
r1
By Asmare Belay 25
 Cont.…
II. A well in Unconfined Aquifer for steady flow

26
By Asmare Belay
 Cont.…
✓Using Dupuit’s equation, the well discharge Q is given by:-
𝑑ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = −2𝜋𝑟ℎ𝐾 ∗
𝑑𝑟
✓when integrated between the limits h= hw at r = rw and h = h0 at r = ro yields
2 2
𝜋𝐾(ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑤 )
Therefore , 𝑄 = ro
ln( )
rw
✓Converting heads and radii at two observation wells (as shown in figure above)
𝜋𝐾(ℎ2 2 −ℎ1 2 )
✓Therefore, 𝑄 = r
ln(r2 )
1

By Asmare Belay 27
 Cont.…
✓ In practice drawdowns should be small in relation to the saturated thickness
of the confined aquifer.
✓ Then the average Transmissivity can be estimated from the equation:-
(ℎ2 + ℎ1 )
𝑇𝑎𝑣 = 𝐾
2
✓ And the Transmissivity for the full thickness becomes:

𝑄 𝑟2
𝑇 = ℎ𝑜 𝑘 = ln ൗ𝑟1
𝑠𝐼 2 𝑠2 2
2𝜋 𝑠1 − − 𝑠2 −
2ℎ0 2ℎ0

By Asmare Belay 28
 Cont.…
4.2.2. Unsteady radial flow to a well
A. for a well in confined aquifer
➢The primary importance of well hydraulics is to determine the
aquifer parameters Transmissivity (T) and Storage coefficient (S).
➢Since flow towards well consists mainly of unsteady state and it
takes time for the flow to come to steady state (equilibrium state)
after a long period of pumping.
➢Besides this, the parameters T and S obtained from steady state
computation are more approximate than that of the unsteady state
case.
By Asmare Belay 29
 Cont.…
✓ The non-steady GW flow equation in two dimensions is given by
𝜕 2 ℎ 𝜕 2 ℎ 𝑆 𝜕ℎ
2
+ 2=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑇 𝜕𝑡

Or in polar coordinates 𝜕 2 ℎ 𝜕ℎ 𝑆 𝜕ℎ
2
+ =
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑇 𝜕𝑡
✓ The solution of this equation, in which the flow near a well is governed by, when referred
to an aquifer of infinite extent, is given by: ∞
𝑄 −𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑠= න𝑒
4𝜋𝑇 𝑢
𝑢
✓ Where s = drawdown, Q = well discharge and u = dummy variable (dimensionless). u is
given by: 𝑟2𝑆
𝑢=
4𝑇𝑡

30
By Asmare Belay
 Cont.…
• The above equation is called the Theis equation and it is non-linear equation.
∞
𝑑𝑢
• The integral term W (u) = න𝑒 −𝑢 . it is the well function defined by W (u) and
𝑢
𝑢
can be expressed by a convergent series as:
−𝑢2 𝑢3 𝑢𝑛
𝑊(𝑢) = −0.577216 − ln( 𝑢) + 𝑢 − + −. . . . . . . . . . +
2.2! 3.3! 𝑛. 𝑛!
𝑛
(−1)𝑛+1 𝑢𝑛
= −0.577216 − ln( 𝑢) + ෍
𝑛. 𝑛!
𝑖=1
• Because of the mathematical difficulties encountered in applying the above
equation, several investigators developed simpler approximate solutions that
can be readily applied for field purposes.
31
By Asmare Belay
A.Theis curve matching Cont.…
B.Jacob approximate method(With Time- DD relationship)
C.Jacob approximate method(With distance – DD relationship)
D.Chow method of solution
A. Theis curve matching (Time- DD relationship)
•The drawdown in an observation well due pumping occurred in a test well at
𝑄 𝑟2
any time can be given by: 𝑠 = 𝑊(𝑢) 𝑟2𝑆 4𝑇
𝑢=
4𝜋𝑇 𝑢= ⇒
4𝑇𝑡 𝑆 𝑡

•It can be seen that the relation between W (u) and u and also (r2/t) and s are
similar. Having these trend of similarities in mind, Theis developed a curve
(log- log plot) called Theis type curve.
• which is a plot of W (u) and u and suggested to develop a field curve ( log –
log plot of s vs r2/t) to be matched each other so that the values of S and T can
be computed.
32
By Asmare Belay
 Cont.…
❖Procedure to determine T and S using Theis Curve matching (From pumping
test data)
I. Prepare or obtain the logarithmic plot of W (u) vs u or W (u) vs 1/u (graph
after Theis).
II. Prepare a field curve from the observed DD, s, vs (r2/t) or (t/r2) vs s.
III. Superimpose field curve over type curve
IV. Select match point by making the abscissa and ordinates of the two
curves/graphs quite parallel.
V. Obtain the values of W (u), u, r2/t and s on the match point.
VI. Determine the values of T and S by inserting the values (step 5) in the
above equations.

By Asmare Belay 33
Cont.…

Data Pts Well Fcn

W(u) vs u
s' vs r2/t

By Asmare Belay 34
 Cont.…
B. Cooper and Jacob Approximate method (Time- DD relationship)
• For small values of u (u < 0.01) or large values of t (t > (r2S/0.04T), keeping r
constant, the series in the original Theis equation can be approximated by the first
two terms That is, W (u) = -0.577216-lnu = ln (0.56146/u), therefore, s, can be given
as 𝑄 𝑄
𝑠= −0.577216 − ln 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑠 = ln 0.56146ൗ𝑈
4𝜋𝑇 4𝜋𝑇

0.183𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡
𝑠= log10
𝑇 𝑟2𝑠

By Asmare Belay 35
 Cont.…
• The value of T can be obtained from a time draw down plot. For drawdowns at a well in
different times, t1 and t2 the draw downs are s1 and s2 can be given as:
0.183𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡1
𝑠1 = log10 0.183𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡2
𝑇 𝑟2𝑠 𝑠2 = log10
And the change in draw down can be given as 𝑇 𝑟2𝑠
0.183𝑄 𝑡2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = Δ𝑠 = log10
𝑇 𝑡1
• For per log cycle plot, from large data points, t2/t1 =10 →log10 (10) = 1, The
value of T can be computed from :
0.183𝑄
Δ𝑠 =
𝑇
By Asmare Belay 36
 Cont.…
• The storage coefficient can also be obtained from
0.183𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡0
𝑠=0= log10
𝑇 𝑟2𝑠
C) Cooper and Jacob Approximate method (Distance- DD Relationship)
• The case in (B) was for draw down observed in a well at a fixed distance
from the pumping well.
• It is also possible to determine the aquifer parameters from the distance –
DD relationship derived from the original Theis equation and approximated
by Cooper and Jacob.
• From above relation, s (drawdown) is given as

2.303𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡
𝑠= log10
4𝜋𝑇 𝑟2𝑠
By Asmare Belay 37
 Cont.…
• For a fixed time t, the draw down at distances r1 and r2 is s1 and s2 respectively.
Thus in terms of r, s can be determined as:
2.303𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡
2.303𝑄 2.25𝑇𝑡 𝑠2 = log10
𝑠1 = log10 4𝜋𝑇 𝑟2 2 𝑠
4𝜋𝑇 𝑟1 2 𝑠
2 4.606𝑄 𝑟1
2.303𝑄 𝑟1 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = Δ𝑠 = log10
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = log10 4𝜋𝑇 𝑟2
4𝜋𝑇 𝑟2 2

• Then for a per log cycle, i.e., (r1/r2 = 0.1 and log10 (0.1) = -1) ∆s can be
determined from a plot of r-s graph and T or S can be determined.

−4.606𝑄
Δ𝑠 =
4𝜋𝑇

By Asmare Belay 38
 Cont.…
B. For a well in unconfined aquifer
• The first and by far the simplest approach is to use the same flow situation as for the case
of confined aquifer provided the basic assumptions are satisfied.
• If the drawdown in the monitoring well does not exceed 25% of the saturated thickness,
the Theis equation can be applied to unconfined aquifers with certain adjustments. i.e
s<25%h
• For the drawdown that is less than 10% of the aquifer’s pre-pumping thickness, it is not
necessary to adjust the recorded data since the error introduced by using the Theis equation
is small. i.e s<10%h
• When the drawdown is kept between 10% and 25% (10%h<s<25%h), it is
recommended to correct the measured values using the following equation derived by
Jacob:-
S’ = s- s2/2h
Where s’ = is the corrected drawdown
s = measured drawdown in monitoring well
h = the saturated thickness before pumping started
By Asmare Belay 39
 Cont.…
• If the DD in the monitoring well is more than 25% (s>25%h), the equation
(Theis and Theis based) should not be used in the unconfined aquifer analysis.
• There are different methods of analysis for unconfined aquifer, when the
drawdown due to pumping is remarkably large. Neuman, Boulton, Hantush
etc…
4.3. Recovery of a well/aquifer
➢ At the end of a pumping test, when the pump is stopped, the water levels in
the pumping and observation wells will begin to rise.
➢ If the well is pumped for a known period of time and then shut down, the
draw down there after will be identically the same as if the discharge had been
continued and a hypothetical recharge well with the flow were superposed on
the discharging well at the instant the discharge is shut down.

By Asmare Belay 40
 Recovery of a well
0
.
Water level
below original non- 2
pumping level

Drawdown (m)
4

10

12
-6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time (hrs)

41
By Asmare Belay
 Cont.…
• From this principle, Theis showed that, the residual draw down s’ can be given
as
𝑄 𝑟2𝑆 𝑟2𝑆
𝑠′ = 𝑊(𝑢) − 𝑊(𝑢′) 𝑢= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢′ =
4𝜋𝑇 4𝑇𝑡 4𝑇𝑡′
• And t and t’ are defined in figure. For r small and t’ large, the well functions
can be approximated by the first two terms of the Theis equation and can be
written as 2.30𝑄 𝑡
𝑠′ = log10
4𝜋𝑇 𝑡′
• Thus, a plot of residual draw down s’ versus the Logarithm of t/t’ forms a
straight line. The slope of the line equals 2.30Q/4 𝜋 T so that for ∆s’, the residual
draw down per log cycle of t/t’, the transmissivity becomes
2.30𝑄
𝑇=
4𝜋Δ𝑠′
By Asmare Belay 42
 4.4. Partially penetrating wells
• The discharge from a partially penetrating well depends up on the depth of
penetration of the well in the aquifer.
• The partially penetrating well may be gravity well or an artesian well depending up
on the type of aquifer

By Asmare Belay 43
 Cont.…
• Discharge from a partially penetrating artesian well/confined, Qp is given by:
2𝜋𝐾𝑆𝑤
𝑄𝑝 =
1 𝜋𝐿 0.1 1 𝑅
ln + + ln
𝐿 2𝑟𝑤 𝑏 𝑏 2𝑏
• In a partially penetrating gravity well/unconfined the Kozeny’s equation for
discharge is given as follows. 𝐿 𝑟𝑤 𝜋𝐿
𝑄𝑝 = 𝑄 1+7 cos
𝐻 2𝐿 2𝐻

Where Q= Discharge for a fully penetrating well

By Asmare Belay 44
 4.5.Multiple well system
❖Multiple well systems are used for lowering the groundwater level in a given
area to facilitate subsurface drainage or excavation for foundation work,
mining, etc.
❖Steady-state solutions for multiple well systems are determined using three
major cases:
I. drawdown for the well systems parallel to a line source,
II. well discharges for different well configurations, and
III. required drawdown for the well systems used for dewatering.

By Asmare Belay 45
Example of multiple wells

By Asmare Belay 46
 Cont.…
4.6. Well Losses and Specific Capacity
A. Well Loss
• The total DD (sw) at the well face is made up of:
i. Head loss resulting from laminar flow in the formation, sf
ii. Head loss resulting from turbulent flow in the zone close to the well face
where Re > 1.
iii.Head loss through the well casing and screen
• The components under (ii) and (iii) are contributing to the so called well loss.
• Therefore, well loss can be expressed as the difference between the actual
measured(observed) DD in the pumping well and the theoretical(estimated) DD
which is expressed by the Theis equation and as the result of GW flow through
the aquifer in the undisturbed zone only.
By Asmare Belay 47
 Well Loss
Aquifer losses: drawdown due to laminar flow in the aquifer

Well loss is divided in to two linear and non linear well loss

Linear well loss is caused by changing the hydraulic characteristics

of the aquifer during drilling and completion of the well.

 Nonlinear well loss: drawdown due to turbulent flow in the

immediate vicinity of the well through the screen and/or gravel pack

By Asmare Belay 48
 Cont.…
• The additional DD , or well loss, which is always present in pumping wells, is
created by a combination of various factors such as :
✓ improper well development ( drilling fluid left in the formation, mud cake
along the bore hole is not removed, fines from formation are not removed,
poorly designed gravel pack and well screen),
✓ turbulent flow near the well and others.
• Therefore, taking the well loss in to account, the total DD at the pumping
well(St or Sw) can be given as:
𝑠𝑡 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑡 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑄 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛

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 Cont.…
𝑠𝑓 is loss in the formation due to laminar flow ( expressed by Theis)
𝑠𝑒 is the well loss ( can be observed near the pumping well)
𝑐𝑓 is the formation loss constant due to laminar flow.
𝑐𝑤 is the well loss constant
n is the exponent due to turbulent
Jacob suggested n = 2; Rorabough given n = 2; Linnox(1966) n = 3.5. And if Q =
is small and if there is small turbulence near the pumping well, then n< 2.
Evaluation of Well Loss
❖ To evaluate the well loss, we can have two methods:-
➢ Analysis of time – DD data of pumping and monitoring wells.
➢ Step DD test

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 Cont.…
i.Analysis of time – DD data of pumping and monitoring wells
• Procedure:-
a) Have or obtain the time- DD data of pumping and monitoring
well ( at least three monitoring wells)
b)Compute the ratio t/r2 for each well
c)On the semi-logarithmic paper plot DD vs t/r2 (DD – linear and
t/r2 –Log) and draw the best fit line across the data points.
d) Observe the line of the curves. The line due to the plot of DD vs
t/r2 for the pumping well is above the best fit line of the DD vs
t/r2 plot for the monitoring wells.
e)Measure the vertical distance between the two lines and obtain
the well loss
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 Cont.…
ii.Step Draw down Test
• This can be done in the pumping well itself
• The equation from above can be further given as:
• Sw=St, total draw dawn of the well

𝑠𝑤 = 𝑠𝑓 + 𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑤 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑄 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛
𝑠𝑤
ൗ𝑄 = 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛−1
𝑠𝑤
ൗ𝑄 − 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛−1
𝑠𝑤
log10 ൗ𝑄 − 𝑐𝑓 = log10 𝑐𝑤 + (𝑛 − 1) log10 𝑄
𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑥
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 Cont.…
• Therefore, plot of (sw/Q – cf) vs Q on a double logarithmic paper enables one
to determine the values of cf, n and cw. Thus this needs different values of Q and
sw which could be available from step draw down tests.
• Procedure:-
a) Obtain step – DD data, i.e., different Q values versus different draw down
values (conducted at different time intervals) such as for example 30 sec, 60
sec, 120 sec etc).
b) Assume different values of cf
c) Plot log10 𝑠𝑤ൗ𝑄 − 𝑐𝑓 𝑣𝑠 log10 𝑄( for different cf values)
d) If a plot gives a straight line, consider that value of cf as correct value and
read the value of cw and (n-1) from the graph from which it is possible to
compute the well loss coefficient.
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 Cont.…
B. Specific Capacity
• It is the ratio of discharge(Q) to drawdown in a pumping well(Sw).
• It is the measure of the productivity of a well.
• The larger the specific capacity, the better the well is.
S. C. = Q/sw
• Starting from the non – equilibrium equation and including the well losses;

𝑠𝑤 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑄 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛
𝑠𝑤 = 𝑄(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛−1 )
𝑠𝑤/𝑄 = 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄 𝑛−1
• But the value of cf can be determined from the theoretical Theis equation.

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 Cont.…
𝑄 𝑅
ln( 𝑅/𝑟𝑤 )
𝑠𝑓 = ln and since sf = cfQ; 𝑐𝑓 =
2𝜋𝑇 𝑟𝑤 2𝜋𝑇

( if steady state flow condition near the well is achieved)

ln( 2.25𝑇𝑡ൗ 2 )
𝑟𝑤 𝑆
𝑐𝑓 =
4𝜋𝑇 ( if unsteady sate case is considered)
Therefore,
1
𝑠𝑤 /𝑄 = 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄𝑛−1 ⇒ 𝑄/𝑠𝑤 =
𝑐𝑓 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑄𝑛−1
1
𝑄/𝑠𝑤 =
ln( 2.25𝑇𝑡ൗ 2 )
𝑟𝑤 𝑆
+ 𝑐𝑤 𝑄𝑛−1
4𝜋𝑇
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 Cont.…
C. Well Efficiency
✓ Well efficiency, usually expressed in percentage, is the ratio b/n
theoretical(estimated) drawdown and the actual drawdown(observed)
measured in the well.
✓ Well efficiency = Theoretical DD/Measured DD*100%

𝑒𝑤 = 𝑠𝑒 /𝑠𝑤
✓ An efficiency of 70 or 80% is considered good.
✓ If a newly developed well has less than 65% efficiency, it should not be
accepted.

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