2/19/2024

Qualitative &
Quantitative Research

2024-1

Fifth Session
Professor:
Carlos Alberto Moreno Ortiz, MBA, PhD.
Email: ca.moreno@javeriana.edu.co
X (Twitter): @carlosmo2750

Hypothesis Formulation

What are the hypotheses?

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What are the hypotheses?

➔ They are guides for a research study.

➔ Hypotheses indicate what we are trying

to prove and are defined as tentative
explanations of the phenomenon
researched.

➔ They must be formulated as propositions.

An Example of A Hypothesis……
➔ For example, we establish a research question:

"Will Paola like me?"

and a hypothesis:

"I am attractive to Paola."

➔ Then, we research whether the hypothesis is accepted or

rejected, by courting Paola and observing results obtained.

➔ “Hypotheses are the center, the core, or the axis of the

quantitative deductive method."

In All Quantitative Research Should

We Propose Hypotheses?
➔ Not all quantitative research raise or propose hypotheses.

Scope of the Study Hypothesis Formulation

Exploratory - No hypothesis is formulated.

- Hypotheses are only formulated when a fact or fact

Descriptive is predicted.

Correlational - Correlational hypotheses are formulated.

Explanatory - Causal hypotheses are formulated.

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Are the hypotheses always true?

➔ Hypotheses are not necessarily true, may
or may not be, and may or may not be
verified with data.

➔ Hypotheses are tentative explanations,

not the facts themselves.

➔ At the moment to formulate hypotheses,

researcher is not entirely sure that they will
be checked.

Are the hypotheses always true? (Cont.)

➔ A hypothesis is different from the affirmation
of a fact.

➔ If someone establishes the following

hypothesis:

"Families living in urban areas have fewer

children than families living in rural areas."

➔ This may or may not be verified.

Hypothesis Examples:
“Geographical proximity between couple homes is
positively linked to the satisfaction level provided by
their relationship."

“Lung cancer rate is higher among smokers than among

non-smokers."

"The greater variety at work, there will be greater

intrinsic motivation towards it."

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What are the variables?

➔ A variable is a property that can fluctuate and
whose variation is likely to be measured or
observed.

➔ The concept of variable applies to people or

other living beings, objects, facts and
phenomena, which acquire different values with
respect to the referred variable.

➔ Variables acquire value for scientific research

when they become related to other variables (if
they are part of a hypothesis or a theory). In this
case, they are often called hypothetical
constructs or constructions.

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Variables Examples:
• Gender,
• Intrinsic motivation towards work,
• Physical attractiveness,
• Learning of concepts,
• Religion,
• Strength of a material,
• Verbal aggression,
• Authoritarian personality,
• Exposure to a political propaganda campaign.

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Other variable examples:

• Productivity of a certain type of seed
• How quickly a service is offered
• Efficiency of a construction procedure
• Efficacy of a vaccine
• Time it takes to manifest a disease

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What characteristics should a

hypothesis have?
Five (5) Characteristics

1. A hypothesis must refer to a "real" situation.

➔ Hypotheses can only be tested in a well-defined

universe and context.

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What characteristics should a

hypothesis have? (Cont.)
2. Variables or terms of the hypothesis must
be understandable, precise, and as
concrete as possible.

➔ Vague or confusing terms have no place

in a hypothesis.

➔ Ex: Globalization of the economy and

organizational synergy are imprecise and
general concepts that must be replaced by
more specific and concrete ones.

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What characteristics should a

hypothesis have? (Cont.)
3. The relationship between variables proposed
by a hypothesis must be clear and credible
(logical or credible).

➔ It is essential clarity and the way in which

variables are related; and this relationship cannot
be illogical.

➔ The hypothesis: “The oil decrease

consumption in the United States is related to
the degree of algebra learning by children
attending public schools in Buenos Aires,” would
be implausible. It is not possible to consider it.

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What characteristics should a hypothesis

have? (Cont.)
4. Terms or variables of the hypothesis must be
observable and measurable, as well as the
relationship between them (having references in
reality).

➔ Scientific hypotheses do not include moral

aspects or issues that we cannot measure.

➔ Hypotheses such as: "The happiest man go to

heaven" or "freedom of spirit is related to the
angelic will" imply concepts or relationships that do
not have empirical references and are not useful as
hypotheses and cannot be tested in the reality.

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What characteristics should a

hypothesis have? (Cont.)
5. Hypotheses must be related to available
techniques to test them.

➔ This requirement refers to the fact that

when formulating a hypothesis, we have
to analyze if there are research techniques
or tools to verify it, if it is possible to
develop them and if they are within our
reach.

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What types of hypotheses can be

established?
➔ There are several ways to classify the
hypotheses:

1. Research hypotheses
2. Null hypotheses
3. Alternative hypotheses
4. Statistical hypotheses

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1. Research hypotheses
➔ Research hypotheses are defined as tentative
statements about the possible relationship
between two or more variables.

➔ They are usually symbolized as Hi or H1, H2,

H3, etc. (when there are several).

➔ The research hypotheses can be:

a) Descriptive of a predicted value or data

b) Correlational
c) Group difference
d) Causal

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a. Descriptive Hypotheses
➔ These hypotheses are used to try to
predict a data or value in one or more
variables to be measured or observed.

➔ Ex: Hi: "The increase in the number of

divorces of couples whose ages range
between 18 and 25 years, will be 20% next
year."

Hi: "Inflation next semester will not exceed

3%."

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b. Correlational Hypotheses
➔ These hypotheses specify relationships
between two or more variables and
correspond to correlational studies:

➔ Ex: Hi: "Smoking is related to the presence

of lung conditions."

Hi: "The motivation for achievement is linked

to job satisfaction and morale at work."

Hi: "Physical attraction, demonstrations of

affection, similarity in values and satisfaction
in dating are associated with each other."

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b. Correlational Hypotheses(Cont.)
➔ It is necessary to add the following:

- In a correlation hypothesis, the order in which we

place the variables is not important (no variable
precedes the other; there is no causal relationship).

➔ It´s the same to indicate:

- “the greater X, the greater Y”; that "to greater Y,
greater X"; or

- "to greater X, minor Y"; that "the lesser Y, the

greater X."

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c. Group Difference Hypotheses

➔ These hypotheses are formulated in
research whose purpose is to compare
groups.

➔ For example, suppose that a publicist

thinks that a television commercial in
black and white, which aims to persuade
teenagers who start smoking to stop doing
so, has a different efficiency than one in
colors.

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c. Group Difference Hypotheses (Cont.)

Examples:

Hi: "The persuasive effect of quitting smoking

will not be the same in adolescents who
watch the color television commercial version,
as the effect in adolescents who see the black
and white version of the commercial.“

Hi: "Millenials attach more importance to

physical attractiveness in their relationships,
than generation z to theirs."

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d. Causality Hypothesis
➔ This type of hypothesis not only affirms the
relationship (s) between two or more variables
and the way they manifest themselves, but also
proposes a “sense of understanding” of the
relationships.

➔ All of these hypotheses establish cause-

effect relationships.

➔ Ex: Hi: "The disintegration of marriage

causes low self-esteem in sons and daughters."

Hi: "A negative organizational climate creates

low levels of innovation in employees."

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d. Causality Hypothesis (Cont.)

➔ Correlation and causality are associated
but different concepts.

➔ If two variables are correlated, this does

not necessarily imply that one will be the
cause of the other.

➔ Talking about hypotheses:

- supposed causes are known as
independent variables, and
- effects are known as dependent
variables.

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d. Hypotheses that Establish Causal

Relationships (Cont.)
➔ The following are different types of causal
hypotheses:

1. Bivariate causal hypotheses.

2. Multivariate causal hypotheses.

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d. Hypotheses that Establish Causal

Relationships (Cont.)
1. Bivariate causal hypotheses: in these a relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable is proposed.

➔ Ex: Hi: “To perceive that another person of the opposite

gender is similar to one (a) in terms of religion, values, and
beliefs causes us greater attraction to her.”

Similarity perception
in religion, values, Attractive
and beliefs

“X
Usually, the independent variable is Y”
symbolized as X in causal hypotheses,
(Dependent variable, it is
while in correlational hypotheses it
does not mean independent variable, symbolized as Y)
since there is no supposed cause.

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d. Hypotheses that Establish Causal

Relationships (Cont.)
2. Multivariate causal hypotheses: these propose a relationship between various
independent variables and one dependent, or one independent and several
dependent, or various independent and several dependent variables.

➔ Ex: Hi: “Cohesion and centrality in a group subject to dynamics, as well as the
type of leadership that is exercised within the group, determine its effectiveness in
achieving its primary goals.”

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Cohesion
Effectiveness in achieving
Centrality
primary goals
Type of Leadership

Symbolized as:
X1
X2 Y
X3

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d. Hypotheses that Establish Causal Relationships

(Cont.)
2nd. Multivariate causal relationship scheme with two dependent variables.

➔ Ex: Hi: “Variety and autonomy at work, as well as feedback from its
development, generate greater intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction”

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Variety at work
Intrinsic motivation

Autonomy at work
Work satisfaction

Feedback from work

Symbolized as:

X1 Y1
X2
X3 Y2

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2. Null Hypotheses
➔ Null hypotheses are propositions that deny or
refute the relationship between variables. The null
hypotheses are symbolized as follows: Ho.

➔ Ex: If the research hypothesis proposes:

Hi: "Teenagers attach more importance to

physical attractiveness in their relationships than
teenage girls."

➔ Null hypothesis would apply:

Ho: "Teenagers do not attach more importance

to physical attractiveness in their relationships
than teenage girls."

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Examples of null hypotheses…

➔ Ex: Ho: "The increase in the number of divorces
of couples whose ages range between 18 and 25
years, will not be 20% next year."

Ho: "There is no relationship between self-esteem

and fear of success" (null hypothesis regarding a
correlation).

Ho: "The perception of similarity in religion,

values, and beliefs does not cause greater
attraction" (hypothesis that denies the causal
relationship).

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3. Alternative Hypotheses
➔ Alternative hypotheses are different or
“alternative” possibilities in the face of
research and null hypotheses.

➔ They also constitute propositions about

the relationship between variables, only
that they serve to refute or deny what the
research hypothesis states.

➔ Alternative hypotheses are symbolized

as “Ha” and can only be formulated when
there are indeed other possibilities, in
addition to the research and null
hypotheses.

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Examples of alternative hypotheses

➔ Ex: Hi: “Candidate A will obtain in the election
for the presidency of the school board between 50
and 60% of the total vote.”

Ho: "Candidate A will not get in the election for

the presidency of the school board between 50
and 60% of the total vote."

Ha: "Candidate A will obtain in the election for the

presidency of the school board more than 60% of
the total vote."

Ha: "Candidate A will obtain in the election for the

presidency of the school board less than 50% of
the total vote."

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Examples of alternative hypotheses

➔ Ex: Hi: “Young man people attach more
importance to physical attractiveness in their
relationships than young women people.”

Ho: "Young man people do not attach more

importance to physical attractiveness in their
relationships than young women people."

Ha: "Young man people attach less

importance to physical attractiveness in their
relationships than young women people."

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Any Question?

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Homework

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Task: research questions and hypotheses

Research Question Types of Hypotheses Hypothesis

H1
- Research hypotheses
1. What will be at the end of the year the Ho1
- Null hypotheses
unemployment rate in Bogotá? Ha1
- Alternative hypotheses
Ha2
2. What is the average rate of monthly family
income in Bogotá?
3. Are there differences between districts
(neighborhoods) in Bogotá regarding to the
unemployment rate? (Are there
neighborhoods or districts with higher
unemployment rates?)
4. Is unemployment rate related to increases
in crime in Bogotá)?
5. Does the unemployment rate cause a
rejection against government fiscal policy?

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Twitter

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Twitter

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Homework - Twitter
1. Identify (3) three hypotheses about the Bermuda
Triangle Research developed by scientists.

2. Identify what type of hypothesis have been

developed about the Bermuda Triangle Research by
scientists.

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First Test
Búsqueda 1 pregunta Valor 2.0 20 minutos
en bases:
Falso y 10 preguntas Valor 1,0 10 minutos
verdadero:
Selección 5 preguntas Valor 1.0 10 minutos
múltiple:
Apareamiento: 2 preguntas Valor 1.0 5 minutos

- Número de preguntas: 18

- Suma de puntos por pregunta: 2.0+1.0+1.0+1.0 = 5.0

- El tiempo máximo para la presentación del parcial será de cincuenta (50)

minutos.

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In a research, should we formulate

research, null, and alternative
hypotheses?
➔ There are no universal rules, not even
consensus among researchers.

➔ In studies that contain quantitative data

analysis, the most common option is to include the
specific research hypothesis (s).

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How many hypotheses should be

formulated in a research?
➔ Every investigation is different.

➔ Some contain a wide variety of

hypotheses because the research problem is
complex (Ex., they intend to relate 15 or
more variables), while others contain one or
two hypotheses.

➔ The quality of a research is not

necessarily related to the number of
hypotheses it contains.

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What is the usefulness of the

hypotheses?
➔ The main functions of the hypotheses:

1. They are guides of quantitative research approach.

Formulating them helps us know what we are trying to look for,
to try.

2. They have a descriptive and explanatory function, according

to the case. It tells us something about the phenomenon with
which it is associated or refers.

3. Test theories. When several hypotheses of a theory receive

positive evidence, the theory becomes more robust.

4. Suggest theories. Various hypotheses are not associated

with any theory; but it happens as a result that testing a
hypothesis, a theory can be built or at least the basis.

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No Variables Definition,
No Research.

➔ Without definition of the variables there

is no research.

➔ Variables must be defined in two ways:

a) conceptual and b) operational.

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a) Conceptual or Construct Definition

➔ A conceptual definition treats the variable with
other terms.

➔ Ex: - Proactive inhibition could be defined as:

"the difficulty of evocation that increases with
time"; and

- Power could be defined as: “influence more in

others than what they influence in one.”

➔ Such definitions are necessary but insufficient to

define the research variables, because they do not
link us directly with "reality" or with "the
phenomenon, context, expression, community or
situation."

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a) Conceptual or Construct Definition

Examples…
Variables Conceptual Definition
Ability to recognize and control our emotions, as well as manage our
Emotional intelligence relationships with more skill (Goleman, 1996).
Group of perceptions shared by employees regarding factors of their work
Organizational climate environment(Hernández Sampieri, 2005).
Prototype of a human being that individuals consider to have the
attributes most valued by them and that would represent the perfect
Ideal couple
option to get involved in a long-term romantic and intimate love
(in romantic relationships)
relationship (marry or at least live with her)(Hernández Sampieri y
Mendoza, 2008).
Set of the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy
during a given period, which can be quarterly or annual. GDP can be
Gross Domestic Product classified as nominal or real. In the first, the final goods and services are
(GDP) valued at the prices in force during the period in question, while in the
second the final goods and services are valued at the prices in force in a
base year. (CIDE, 2004).

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b) Operational Definitions
➔ An operational definition constitutes the set
of procedures that describes the activities that
an observer and/or researcher must perform to
receive sensory impressions, which indicate the
existence of a theoretical concept to a greater or
lesser degree.

➔ In other words, specify what activities or

operations should be performed to measure a
variable.

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Operational Definitions Examples

Variable Definición Operacional

Emotional EIT (Emotional Intelligence Test). Test with 70 items or
intelligence reagents.
Acceleration Accelerometer and/or speedometer.
Climate-UNI scale with 73 items to measure the following
dimensions of the organizational climate: moral,
Organizational management support, innovation, company perception-
climate identity-identification, communication, performance
perception, intrinsic motivation, autonomy, general
satisfaction, leadership, vision and rewards or retribution.

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Example…
Hi: "The more intrinsic motivation at work, the less
absenteeism."

Variable = "Intrinsic motivation at "Work Absenteeism."

work."

“Cognitive state that reflects the degree to which "The degree to which a
a worker attributes the strength of their behavior worker does not report to
at work to satisfactions or benefits derived from work at the time he was
Construct their work tasks themselves. That is, events that scheduled to do so."
Definition are not mediated by a source external to the
worker's work tasks. This state of motivation can
be indicated as a self-fulfilling experience.”

“Self-report of intrinsic motivation (self- "Review of work attendance

Operational administered questionnaire) of the cards during the last
Definition Inventory of Labor Characteristics, quarter."
Mexican version.”

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