7 Seventh - Class - Q LQ - Research - JAVERIANA

4/1/2024
Qualitative &
Quantitative Research
2024-01
Seventh Session
Professor:
Carlos Alberto Moreno Ortiz, MBA, PhD.
Email: ca.moreno@javeriana.edu.co
X (Twitter) : @carlosmo2750
Conception or Choice of
Research Design
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What is a research design?
What is a research design?

➔ Once the problem statement was
defined, research initial scope was defined,
and hypotheses formulated; researcher must
visualize a practical and concrete way to
answer the research questions.
➔ The term design refers to the plan or

strategy designed to obtain desired
information.
In A QuantitativeResearchProcess:
What types of designs do we have to investigate?
Research
Design
Types of
Designs
Non-experimental
Experimental Research
Research
* Pre-experiments
* Cross designs
* "Pure"experiments
* Longitudinal
designs
* Quasi-experiments
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What is an experiment?
➔ Term experiment has at least two meanings, one
general and one particular. The general refers to
“choosing or performing an action” and then
observing the consequences (Babbie, 2009).
Scheme of Experiment & Variables

➔ An experiment refers to a study which one or more
independent variables (supposed causes-antecedents) are
intentionally manipulated, to analyze consequences that
manipulation has on one or more dependent variables
(supposed-consequent effects).
Cause Effect
(independent variable) (dependent variable)
X Y
➔ It is possible to experiment with human beings, living

beings, and certain objects.
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Examples: relationships of independent

and dependent variables
➔ Experiments manipulate treatments, stimuli, influences or interventions (called
independent variables) to observe their effects on other variables (the dependent
ones) in a control situation.
- Treatment, stimulus, influence,

- Dependent variable
intervention, etc. Independent It influences …
variable (cause) (supposed effect)
- A psychological Reduce … - Depression

treatment
- A medical treatment Improves … - Arthritis
- A new revolutionary Increases - Speed

engine
10
What is the First Requirement of an experiment?
➔ The first requirement is the intentional

manipulation of one or more independent
variables.
➔ Independent variable is the one considered as

the supposed cause in a relationship between
variables, it is antecedent condition, and the
effect caused by said cause is called the
dependent (consequent) variable.
➔ An experiment is a control situation in which

one or more independent variables (causes) are
intentionally manipulated to analyze the
consequences of such manipulation on one or
more dependent variables (effects).
11
Example of the first

requirement:
12
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Example:
➔ If a researcher wishes to
analyze the possible effect of
antisocial television content on
the aggressive behavior of certain
children.
➔ Researcher could make (1) one

group watch a television program
with antisocial content and (2)
second group watch a program
with pro-social content, and then
observe which of the two groups
shows greater aggressive behavior.
13
Example: (Cont.)
➔ The research hypothesis:
"Exposure by children to antisocial content will

tend to cause an increase in their aggressive
behavior."
14
Example: (Cont.)
➔ The researcher manipulates or makes the
independent variable fluctuate to observe the effect on
the dependent, and performs it by assigning two
values: presence of antisocial content on television
(antisocial program) and absence of antisocial content
on television (prosocial program).
15
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Example (Cont.)
➔ In an experiment, for a variable to
be considered as independent it must
meet three requirements:
1. That precedes the dependent

2. Vary or be manipulated
3. This variation can be controlled
16
Dependent variable is measured:

➔ Dependent variable is not manipulated, but measured
to see the effect that manipulation of the independent
variable has on it:
Manipulation of the Measurement of the effect

It influences …
independent variable on the dependent variable
XA Y
XB
.
.
17
Manipulation Degrees of the

Independent Variable
Level: presence-
Example
absence
Manipulation
Degrees
Level: More than

Example
two grades
18
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Example: Level-presence-absence
➔ One group of people with arthritis is
given medical treatment and the other
group is not given.
➔ The first group is known as the

experimental group, and the other, which
the independent variable is absent, is called
the control group.
➔ Control group: it is also known as a

witness group.
19
Example: Level-presence-absence (Cont.)

➔ La presencia de la variable
independiente suele denominarse
"tratamiento experimental",
"intervención experimental" o "estímulo
experimental".
- Experimental group receives

experimental treatment or stimulus or,
which is the same, is exposed to the
independent variable;
- Control group does not receive

experimental treatment or stimulus.
20
Example: Level-more than two degrees

➔ It could be done:
- A group was exposed to a highly

violent television program (with the
presence of physical and verbal
violence).
-A second group was exposed to a

moderately violent program (only with
verbal violence).
-A third group was exposed to a

program without violence or prosocial.
21
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Example: Level-more than two degrees (Cont.)
➔ In this example, there would be three

levels or quantities of the independent
variable, which is represented as follows:
X1 (extremely violent program)
X2 (moderately violent program)
X3 (absence of violence, prosocial

program)
22
How many independent and dependent variables

should be included in an experiment?
➔ There are no rules for it; it depends
on how research problem has been raised
and limitations exist.
➔ Ex: If a researcher interested in

contrasting effects of emotional appeals
against rational television commercials in
the predisposition to buy a product is
only interested in this problem, they will
have a single independent variable and
only one dependent.
23
Commercial black & white Commercial in color
Group 1
exposed to
emotional and
commercial
appeal
Group 2
exposed to
rational and
commercial
appeal
24
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What is the Second Requirement of

an experiment?
➔ Measure the effect that the independent
variable has on the dependent variable.
➔ When planning an experiment, it is necessary to

specify how the independent variables are going to
be manipulated and how to measure the dependent
ones.
25
What is the Third Requirement of an

experiment?
➔ The third requirement that every experiment must
meet is the internal control or validity of the
experimental situation.
➔ Internal validity: degree of confidence that the

results of the experiment are properly interpreted and
valid (achieved when there is control).
26
Homework – Online Workshop

➔ We will have:
A Workshop Online,
Monday, March 18th at 2:00pm.
➔ Professor Carlos Moreno will

email you to inform characteristics
about it:
*Online Workshop
27
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Playing Kahoot
29
Quiz
1. The Quiz #1 will be on your smartphone
2. Go to Google and type “Play Kahoot”
3. Click on “Play Kahoot! – Enter game PIN here”
4. Enter the “Game PIN” and then click – “Enter”
5. Then, type “Your Name and Last Name”
6. First, You have to read the question on the board
7. Then, answer your question on your smartphone.
30
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31
32
Main sources of internal validation

* History
* Maturation
* Instability of the measuring instrument
* Instability of the experimental environment
* Test administration
* Instrumentation
* Regression
* Selection
* Mortality
* Dissemination of treatments
* Compensation
* Experienced behavior
33
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History
Treat Description In response, researcher must:
- External events occur during the experiment - Ensure that participants in the experimental
and only influence some of the participants. and control groups experience the same
events.
34
Maturation
- Participants can change or mature during - Select participants for groups that mature or
the experiment and this will affect the results. change similarly during the experiment.
35
Instability of measuring instrument

- Little or no reliability of the instrument. - Develop a stable and reliable instrument.
36
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Instability of experimental environment

- The environment conditions or experiment - Ensure that environmental conditions are
environment are not the same for all the same for all groups.
participating groups.
37
Test administration

- Application of a test or measuring instrument - Have equivalent and reliable tests, but that are not
before the experiment influences responses of the same and that the groups that are compared
individuals when the test is re-administered after are comparable.
the experiment (remember their answers).
38
Instrumentation

- Tests or instruments applied to the different - Administer same test or instrument to all
groups participating in the experiment are not participating individuals or groups.
equivalent.
39
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Regression

- Select participants who have extreme scores on - Choose participants who do not have extreme
the measured variable (extreme cases) and whose scores or go through an abnormal time.
actual assessment is not measured.
40
Mortality

- Participants leave the experiment. - Recruit enough participants for all groups.
41
Dissemination of treatments

- Participants from different groups communicate - During the experiment keep the groups as
with each other and this affects the results. separate from each other as possible.
42
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Compensation

- Participants of the control group perceive they - Provide benefits to all participating groups.
receive nothing and demoralizes them and affects
results.
43
Experienced Behavior

- The experimenter's behavior affects the results. - Act the same with all groups and be “objective”.
44
Sources of external validity

1. Reactive or test interaction effect
2. Effect of interaction between selection errors and
experimental treatment
3. Reactive effects of experimental treatments
4. Interference of multiple treatments
5. Impossibility of replicating treatments
6. Insufficient descriptions of experimental treatment
7. Effects of novelty and interruption
8. The experimenter
9. Interaction between history or place and the effects of
10. Measurements of the dependent variable
45
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46
Research
Design
Types of
Designs
Non-experimental
Research
* Pre-experiments
* Cross designs
* "Pure"experiments
* Longitudinal
designs
* Quasi-experiments
47
In Summary …
➔ The first requirement is the intentional
manipulation of one or more independent
variables.
➔ The second requirement is to measure the

effect that independent variable has on the
dependent variable.
➔The third requirement that every

experiment must meet is the control or
internal validity of an experimental situation
48
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A Typology about Experimental Designs
➔ For this we will build on the typology of

Campbell and Stanley (1966), who divide
the experimental designs into three
classes:
a) Pre-experiments,
b) “Pure" experiments
c) Quasi-experiments.
49
Symbology of experimental designs

R ➔ Random or random assignment. When it appears, it means that the
subjects have been randomly assigned to a group (it comes from English
randomization).
G ➔ Group of subjects (G1, group 1; G2, group 2; etc.).
X ➔ Treatment, stimulus or experimental condition (presence of some

level or modality of the independent variable).
0 ➔ A measurement of the subjects of a group (test, questionnaire,

observation, etc.). If it appears before the stimulus or treatment, it is a
pre-test (prior to treatment). If it appears later. The stimulus is a post-test
(post treatment).
--- ➔ Absence of stimulus (level "zero" in the independent variable).

Indicates that it is a control or witness group.
50
Pre-experiments
➔ Pre-experiments are called that because their
degree of control is minimal.
1. Case study with a single measurement:
G X 0
➔ It consists of administering a stimulus or treatment
to a group and then applying a measurement of one
or more variables to observe the level of the group in
these.
51
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Pre-experiments (Cont.)
2. Pre-test / post-test design with a single group:
G 01 X 02
➔ This design offers an advantage over the previous

one: there is an initial reference point to see what level
the group had in the dependent variable (s) before the
stimulus.
➔ On some occasions pre-experimental designs serve

as exploratory studies, but their results should be
observed with caution.
52
"Pure" Experiments
➔ "Pure" experiments are those that meet two requirements to
achieve internal control and validity:
1. comparison groups (manipulation of the independent variable)
2. equivalence of the groups.
➔ Designs:
1. Design with post-test only and control group.

2. Design with pre-test post-test and control group.
3. Design of four Solomon groups.
4. Experimental designs of multiple chronological series.
5. Factorial designs
53
1. Design with post test only and control

group
➔ This design includes two groups: one receives the
experimental treatment and the other does not
(control group).
➔ Manipulation of the independent variable reaches

only two levels: presence and absence.
➔ Subjects are assigned to groups randomly. When

the manipulation concludes, both groups are
administered a measurement on the dependent
variable under study.
54
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1. Design with post test only and control group

(Cont.)
55
2. Design with pre-test post-test and control group
➔ This design incorporates the administration of pre-

tests to groups that make up the experiment.
➔ Participants are randomly assigned to the groups,

then the pre-test is applied to them simultaneously;
one group receives the experimental treatment, and
another does not (it is the control group).
56
2. Design with pre-test post-test and control group
57
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3. Design of four Solomon groups

➔ Solomon (1949) described a design that was the
mixture of the previous two (design with post-test
only and control group plus pre-test / post-test
design with control group).
➔ Solomon design controls all sources of internal

invalidation for the same reasons that were explained
in previous “pure” designs.
➔ Test administration undergoes a thorough analysis.
58
3. Design of four Solomon groups
➔The original design includes only four groups and an experimental

treatment.
➔The effects are determined by comparing the four post-tests.
➔Groups one and three are experimental, and groups two and four are
control.
59
4. Experimental designs of multiple time series

➔ Sometimes a researcher is interested in analyzing effects in
medium or long term, because it has grounds to assume that the
influence of the independent variable on the dependent takes
time to manifest.
➔ In other situations, the evolution of the effect is sought in

short, medium, and long term (not just the result).
➔ These designs are known as experimental time series.
➔ This design is made over time several observations or

measurements on one or more variables, whether or not
experimental.
60
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5. Factorial designs
➔ A researcher intends to analyze experimentally the
effect that manipulation of more than one
independent variable has on the dependent
variable(s).
➔ Factorial designs manipulate two or more

independent variables and include two or more levels
or modalities of presence in each of the independent
variables.
61
Quasi-experiments
➔ Quasi-experimental
designs also deliberately
manipulate, at least, an
independent variable to
observe its effect and
relationship with one or
more dependent variables,
only that they differ from
“pure” experiments in the
degree of security or
reliability.
62
Sources of external validity

1. Reactive or test interaction effect
2. Effect of interaction between selection errors and
3. Reactive effects of experimental treatments
4. Interference of multiple treatments
5. Impossibility of replicating treatments
6. Insufficient descriptions of experimental treatment
7. Effects of novelty and interruption
8. The experimenter
9. Interaction between history or place and the effects of
10. Measurements of the dependent variable
63
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Research
Design
Types of
Designs
Non-experimental
Research
* Pre-experiments
* Cross designs
* "Pure"experiments
* Longitudinal
designs
* Quasi-experiments
64
Non Experimental Designs
65
What is Quantitative Non-experimental

Research?
➔ It could be defined as research that is done
without deliberately manipulating variables.
➔ These are studies where we do not intentionally

vary independent variables to see their effect on
other variables.
➔ The main idea in non-experimental research is to

observe phenomena as they occur in their natural
context, to later analyze them.
66
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What Is Quantitative Non-experimental

Research? (Cont.)
➔ In a non-experimental study, no situation is
generated, but existing situations are observed, not
intentionally provoked in the research by the person
who performs it.
➔ In non-experimental research independent

variables occur and it is not possible to manipulate
them, there is no direct control over these variables,
nor can they be influenced, because they already
happened, as well as their effects.
67
Example:
➔ We will assume that a researcher wishes to analyze the
effect produced by alcohol consumption on human reflexes.
What would be the hypothesis?
➔ The hypothesis would be: “The higher the consumption

of alcohol, the slower the reflexes of people."
➔ If you decide to follow an experimental approach,

randomly assign the subjects to several groups.
68
Example (Cont.) ➔ Assume 4 groups:

1) A first group where participants ingested
high alcohol consumption (seven glasses of
tequila or brandy)
2) A second group that had an average alcohol

consumption (four glasses)
3) A third group that drank a low alcohol

consumption (a single glass); and
4) A fourth control group that did not drink

any alcohol.
➔ It would control the period in which all

subjects consume their "ration" of alcohol
(drinks), as well as other factors (same drink,
amount of alcohol served in each cup, etc.).
69
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Example (Cont.):
➔ Finally, you would measure the
quality of the response of the
reflexes in each group and compare
the groups, to determine the effect of
alcohol consumption on human
reflexes, and to test or not approve
their hypothesis.
➔ Of course, the approach could be

quasi-experimental (intact groups) or
assign the subjects to the groups by
pairing (in terms of gender, which
influences alcohol resistance, since
most women usually tolerate less
amounts than men).
70
In Conclusion
➔ In An Experimental Study, the context is
constructed and the independent variable is
intentionally manipulated (in this case, alcohol
consumption), then the effect of this
manipulation on the dependent variable is
observed (here, the quality of the reflexes).
That is, the researcher directly influenced the
degree of alcohol consumption of the
participants.
➔ In Non-Experimental Research there is

neither intentional manipulation nor
randomization. Subjects had already consumed
a certain level of alcohol and in this fact the
researcher had nothing to do: it did not
influence the amount of alcohol consumption
of the participants.
71
In Conclusion (Cont.)
➔ Experimental research has initial and final
correlational and explanatory scopes.
➔ Non-experimental research is systematic and

empirical in which independent variables are not
manipulated because they have already happened.
Experimental -Make a person intentionally angry and see their reactions.

Non-experimental -See the reactions of that person when he arrives angry.
72
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Research
Design
Types of
Designs
Non-experimental
Research
* Pre-experiments
* Cross designs
* "Pure"experiments
* Longitudinal
designs
* Quasi-experiments
73
What are the types of Non-

experimental Designs?
➔ Non-experimental designs can be classified into
cross-sectional and longitudinal.
Exploratory
Cross-sectional Descriptives
Correlational-causal
Non-experimental designs
Trending
Longitudinal Group assessment (cohort)
Panel designs
74
Cross-sectional Research Designs

➔ Cross-sectional research designs collect
data in a single moment, in a single time.
➔ Its purpose is to describe variables and

analyze their incidence and interrelation at a
given moment.
➔ In turn, cross-sectional designs are divided

into three :
Exploratory
Cross-sectional Descriptives
Non-experimental
designs Correlational-causal
Longitudinal
75
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Exploratory Cross-sectional Designs

➔ The purpose of exploratory cross-sectional
designs is to begin to know a variable or a set of
variables, a community, a context, an event, a
situation.
➔ This is an initial exploration at a specific time.
➔ These designs are applied to new or little-known

research problems and are also the preamble to other
designs (non-experimental and experimental).
76
Descriptive Cross-sectional Designs

➔ Descriptive cross-sectional designs aim to
investigate the incidence of the modalities or levels of
one or more variables in a population.
➔ It consists of locating in one or several variables a

group of people or other living beings, objects,
situations, contexts, phenomena, communities; and
thus provide a description.
➔ They are purely descriptive studies and when they

establish hypotheses, they are also descriptive (one-
digit forecast or values).
77
Ejemplo:
78
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Correlational-causal Cross-sectional
Designs
➔ These designs describe relationships between two or
more categories, concepts, or variables at a given time.
➔ Correlational-causal designs can be limited to

establishing relationships between variables without
specifying a sense of causality or attempting to analyze
causal relationships.
Descriptives Correlational-causal
- Data is collected and category is described, - Data is collected and relationship is described
concept, variable (X1) (X1 – Y1)
concept, variable (Xk) (X3 – Y3)
79
Designs (Cont)
Descriptives Correlational-causal
concept, variable (Xk) (X3 – Y3)
80
Designs (Cont)
➔ A correlational-causal design can be limited to
two categories, concepts or variables, or even
encompass such complex models or structures.
81
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Longitudinal Research Designs

➔ Longitudinal research designs collect data
at different points in time to make inferences
about evolution, its causes, and its effects.
➔ Longitudinal designs are usually divided

into three types:
*Trending
*Group assessment (cohort)
*Panel designs
Cross-sectional
Non-experimental Trending
designs
Longitudinal Group assessment (cohort)
Panel Designs
82
Longitudinal Research Designs - Trending

➔ Trend designs are those that analyze changes over time
(in categories, concepts, variables or their relationships),
within a general population.
➔ A distinctive feature is that the focus is on the

population.
Collecting data in a Collecting data in a Collecting data in a Collecting data in a

population population population population
Different samples, same population
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
83
Longitudinal Research Designs - Group

Assessment (Cohort)
➔ Group assessment designs examine changes over
time in specific subpopulations or groups.
➔ His attention is the cohorts or groups of individuals

linked in some way or identified by a common
characteristic, generally age or time.
➔ Trending and group assessment designs monitor

changes in a population or subpopulation over time,
using a series of samples that encompass different
participants each time.
84
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Longitudinal ResearchDesigns - Group

Assessment (Cohort)(Cont)
Collection of Collection of Collection of Collection of

population data, population data, population data, population data,
subpopulation or subpopulation or subpopulation or subpopulation or
group group group group
(remain (remain (remain (remain
same individuals) same individuals) same individuals) same individuals))
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time K
85
Longitudinal Research Designs - Panel

Designs
➔ Panel designs are similar to the two classes of designs
seen above, except that the same participants are
measured or observed at all times or moments.
➔ Example: it would be a research that annually

observes the changes in the attitudes of a group of
executives in relation to a program to increase
productivity, for example, during five years.
➔ Every year the attitude of the same executives would

be observed; that is, the individuals, and not just the
sample, population or subpopulation, are the same.
86
Longitudinal Research Designs - Panel

Designs
Collecting data in a Collecting data in a Collecting data in a Collecting data in a

subpopulation subpopulation subpopulation subpopulation
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time K
87
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Research
Design
Types of
Designs
Non-experimental
Research
* Pre-experiments
* Cross designs
* "Pure"experiments
* Longitudinal
designs
* Quasi-experiments
88
Summary
89
Correspondence between types of study, hypothesis and

research design
Study Hipothesis Possible designs
-No se establecen, lo que se puede -Transeccional descriptivo
Exploratory
formular son conjeturas iniciales -Pre-experimental
-Pre-experimental
Descriptive -Descriptiva
-Transeccional descriptivo
-Cuasi-experimental
-Diferencia de grupos sin atribuir
Correlational -Transeccional correlacional
causalidad
-Longitudinal (no experimental)
-Cuasi-experimental
-Correlacional -Transeccional correlacional
-Longitudinal (no experimental)
-Experimental
-Cuasi-experimental, longitudinal y transeccional causal
-Diferencia de grupos atribuyendo (cuando hay bases para inferir causalidad, un mínimo de
Explanatory
causalidad control y análisis estadísticos apropiados para analizar
relaciones causales).
-Experimental
-Cuasi-experimental, longitudinal y transeccional causal
(cuando hay bases para inferir causalidad, un mínimo de
-Causales control y análisis estadísticos apropiados para analizar
relaciones causales).
90
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Any Question?
91
31

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4/1/2024

What is a research design?

What is a research design?

➔ The term design refers to the plan or

Scheme of Experiment & Variables

➔ It is possible to experiment with human beings, living

Examples: relationships of independent

- Treatment, stimulus, influence,

- A psychological Reduce … - Depression

- A medical treatment Improves … - Arthritis

- A new revolutionary Increases - Speed

What is the First Requirement of an experiment?

➔ The first requirement is the intentional

➔ Independent variable is the one considered as

➔ An experiment is a control situation in which

Example of the first

➔ Researcher could make (1) one

➔ The research hypothesis:

"Exposure by children to antisocial content will

1. That precedes the dependent

Dependent variable is measured:

Manipulation of the Measurement of the effect

Manipulation Degrees of the

Level: More than

➔ The first group is known as the

➔ Control group: it is also known as a

Example: Level-presence-absence (Cont.)

- Experimental group receives

- Control group does not receive

Example: Level-more than two degrees

- A group was exposed to a highly

-A second group was exposed to a

-A third group was exposed to a

Example: Level-more than two degrees (Cont.)

➔ In this example, there would be three

X1 (extremely violent program)

X2 (moderately violent program)

X3 (absence of violence, prosocial

How many independent and dependent variables

➔ Ex: If a researcher interested in

Commercial black & white Commercial in color

What is the Second Requirement of

➔ When planning an experiment, it is necessary to

What is the Third Requirement of an

➔ Internal validity: degree of confidence that the

Homework – Online Workshop

➔ Professor Carlos Moreno will

2. Go to Google and type “Play Kahoot”

3. Click on “Play Kahoot! – Enter game PIN here”

4. Enter the “Game PIN” and then click – “Enter”

5. Then, type “Your Name and Last Name”

6. First, You have to read the question on the board

7. Then, answer your question on your smartphone.

Main sources of internal validation

Treat Description In response, researcher must:

Treat Description In response, researcher must:

Instability of measuring instrument

Treat Description In response, researcher must: