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Revised Syllabus
One Theory Paper Time: 3 Hours
Maximum Marks: 70
Units Topics No. of Periods Weightage in Marks
I. Variations in Psychological Attributes 20 12
II. Self and Personality 24 13
III. Meeting Life Challenges 14 10
IV. Psychological Disorders 24 13
V. Therapeutic Approaches 16 7
VI. Attitude and Social Cognition 12 8
VII. Social Influence and Group Processes 8 7
Total 118 70
Unit-I: Variations in Psychological Attributes 20 periods

The topics in this unit are:
1. Introduction
2. Individual Differences in Human Functioning
3. Assessment of Psychological Attributes
4. Intelligence
5. Theories of Intelligence: Psychometric Theories of Intelligence, Information Processing Theories,
Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, Planning, Attention-Arousal and
Simultaneous successive Model of Intelligence
6. Individual Differences in Intelligence
7. Culture and Intelligence
8. Emotional Intelligence
9. Special Abilities: Aptitude: Nature and Measurement
10. Creativity
Unit-II Self and Personality 24 periods
1. Introduction
2. Self and Personality
3. Concept of Self
4. Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self
5. Culture and Self
6. Concept of Personality
7. Major Approaches to the Study of Personality
OO Type Approach l Trait Approach
OO Psychodynamic Approach l Behavioural Approach
OO Cultural Approach l Humanistic Approach
8. Assessment of Personality
OO Self-report Measures l Projective Techniques
OO Behavioural Analysis
Unit-III: Meeting Life Challenges 14 periods
1. Introduction
2. Nature, Types and Sources of Stress
3. Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health
OO Stress and Health
OO General Adaptation Syndrome
OO Stress and Immune System
OO Lifestyle
4. Coping with Stress
OO Stress Management Techniques
5. Promoting Positive Health and Well-being
OO Stress Resistant Personality
OO Life Skills
OO Positive Health
Unit-IV: Psychological Disorders 24 periods
1. Introduction
2. Concepts of Abnormality and Psychological Disorders
OO Historical Background
3. Classification of Psychological Disorders
4. Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour
5. Major Psychological Disorders
OO Anxiety Disorders
OO Obsessive–Compulsive and Related Disorders
OO Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
OO Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
OO Dissociative Disorders
OO Depressive Disorder
OO Bipolar and Related Disorders
OO Schizophrenia Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders
OO Neurodevelopmental Disorders
OO Disruptive, Impulse–Control and Conduct Disorders
OO Feeding and Eating Disorders
OO Substance Related and Addictive Disorders
Unit-V: Therapeutic Approaches 16 periods
1. Nature and Process of psychotherapy
OO Therapeutic relationship
2. Types of therapies
OO Behaviour Therapy
OO Cognitive Therapy
OO Humanistic-existential Therapy
OO Alternative Therapies
3. Rehabilitation of the Mentally III
Unit-VI: Attitude and Social Cognition 12 periods
1. Introduction
2. Explaining Social Behaviour
3. Nature and Components of Attitudes
4. Attitude Formation and Change
OO Attitude Formation
OO Attitude Change
OO Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
5. Prejudice and Discrimination
6. Strategies for Handling Prejudice
Unit-VII: Social Influence and Group Processes 08 periods
1. Introduction
2. Nature and Formation of Groups
3. Type of Groups
4. Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour
OO Social Loafing
OO Group Polarisation
Practical 30 Marks 40 Periods

A. Test administration:
Students are required to administer and interpret three psychological tests related to various
psychological attributes like intelligence, aptitude, attitude, personality, etc.
B. In Practical examination, the student will be required to administer and interpret two psychological tests.
Distribution of Marks:
l Practical File 10 Marks
l Viva Voce (Practical) 05 Marks
l Two practicals
(5 Marks for conduct of practical and 10 Marks for report writing) 15 Marks
Design of Question Paper
PSYCHOLOGY, Class–XII (2020-21)
Code No.: 037
I. Board Examination: Theory
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 70
S. No. Competencies Total Marks % Weightage
1. Remembering and Understanding:

Exhibit memory of previously learned material by
recalling facts, terms, basic concepts, and answers;
25 35%
Demonstrating understanding of facts and ideas by
organising, comparing, translating, interpreting,
giving descriptions and stating main ideas
2. Applying:
Solving problems to new situations by applying
31 45%
acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a
different way.
3. Formulating, Analysing, Evaluating and Creating:

Examining and breaking information into parts by
identifying motives or causes; Making inferences and
finding evidence to support generalizations;
Presenting and defending opinions by making
14 20%
judgments about information, validity of ideas, or
quality of work based on a set of criteria; Compiling
information together in a different way by
combining elements in a new pattern or proposing
alternative solutions.
Total 70 100%
II. Practical: 30 Marks
Prescribed Books:
1. Psychology, Class XI, Publications by NCERT
2. Psychology, Class XII, Publications by NCERT
Note: The above textbooks are also available in Hindi medium.

DELETED PORTION OF THE SYLLABUS
(As per Revised Academic Curriculum for the Session 2020-21)
Date: 07 July, 2020
Circular No.: Acad 47/2020
CLASS – XII : PSYCHOLOGY (CODE NO. 037)
CHAPTER NO. & NAME Recommended portions for deletion

Chapter 5 Therapeutic Psychodynamic Therapy (pages 94 - 96)
Approaches Biomedical Therapy (pages 101 - 102)
Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Social Cognition (page 119 to 125)
Cognition
Chapter 7 Social Influence and Conformity, compliance, obedience – pages 138 - 144
Group Processes Cooperation& Competition – pages 144 - 146
Social Identity – Pages 146, 147
Intergroup Conflict – Nature & Causes – pages 147, 148
Conflict Resolution Strategies – Pages 148, 149
Chapter 8 Complete Chapter
Psychology and Life
Chapter 9 Developing Complete Chapter

Psychological Skills
Case Profile + Removal of Case Profile
Practical Tests Removal of any 2 Tests out of 5
Redistribution of marks for Class XII 2020-2021
THEORY PRACTICAL
Chapter I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Case VIVA Practical Tests Administration

Number Profile File
Existing 9 10 7 10 7 8 7 6 6 5 5 5 Out Of 5 Tests in
Mark the Curriculum
Distribution 2 tests were
evaluated in Board
Exam: 15 (5 for
conduct,
10 for reporting)
Proposed 12 13 10 13 7 8 7 0 0 × 5 10 Out of 3 Tests in the
Mark curriculum
Distribution 2 Tests will be
evaluated in Board
Exam:15 (5 for
conduct, 10 for
reporting)
PART–A
UU Chapter 1 : Variations in Psychological Attributes
UU Chapter 2 : Self and Personality
UU Chapter 3 : Meeting Life Challenges
UU Chapter 4 : Psychological Disorders
UU Chapter 5 : Therapeutic Approaches
UU Chapter 6 : Attitude and Social Cognition
UU Chapter 7 : Social Influence and Group Processes
UU Chapter 8 : Psychology and Life
UU Chapter 9 : Developing Psychological Skills

Variations in
Psychological 1
Attributes
Chapter At A Glance
The term ‘intelligence’ refers to individual’s abilities to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively
to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome
obstacles by careful thought. Ability tests include aptitude tests which measure capacity to learn and
predict what one can accomplish with training and achievement tests which measure accomplished
skills and indicate what one can do at present. Studies correlating IQs between persons with varying
degrees of genetic relationships show that heredity plays a role in intelligence. Estimates of heritability
vary, however, and such environmental factors as nutrition, intellectual stimulation, and emotional
climate of the home are important determinants of intelligence. Emotional intelligence is knowing our
own emotions, managing our emotions, motivating ourselves, recognizing the emotions of others and
handling relationships. The most advanced thought process, creativity, involves production of uncommon
and novel ideas that are highly relevant to the situation. Creativity is defined as something different
from intelligence and as a parallel construct to intelligence, but it differs from intelligence in that it
is not restricted to cognitive or intellectual functioning or behaviour. Although creativity requires a
minimum IQ of 120, but beyond that level relationship between intelligence and creativity is either not
clear or is very weak.
Answers to NCERT Textbook Questions

1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?
Ans. Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined
intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
According to Wechsler, intelligence is defined as the global and aggregate capacity
of an individual to think rationally, act with the environment purposefully and deal
effectively.
2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture)? Discuss.
Ans. Effects of heredity: Studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is
more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.
Effects of environment: Evidence shows that environmental deprivation lowers
intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increase
intelligence.
Studies show intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate 0.90. Intelligence
of identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72. Intelligence of
Variations in Psychological Attributes 9

fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60. Intelligence of brothers and sisters
reared together correlate 0.50. Intelligence of siblings reared apart correlate 0.25.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
Ans. Gardner in his theory of Multiple Intelligences described 8 types of intelligence:
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of Multiple Intelligences. According to him,
intelligence is not a single entity but distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these
intelligences are independent of each other which means that if a person exhibits one
type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of
intelligences. He described 8 types of intelligence. They are as follows:
(i) Linguistic: It is the capacity to use language fluently and be sensitive to different
shades of word meanings. This involves using language fluently and flexibly. Persons
high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’. Poets and writers are strong in this
component of intelligence.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical: This involves skills in scientific thinking and problem solving.
People high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically. They engage
in abstract reasoning and can manipulate symbols to solve mathematical problems.
Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are strong in this component.
(iii) Spatial: It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental
images. Pilots, sailors, sculptures, painters, architects, interior decorators and surgeons
are high in this type of intelligence.
(iv) Musical: It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Persons
high on this intelligence are sensitive to sounds and vibrations and in creating new
patterns of sounds and rhythms.
(v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: This involves using body flexibly and creatively. Athletes,
dancers, actors, sportsperson, gymnasts and surgeons are high in this intelligence.
(vi) Interpersonal: This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours
of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others. Psychologists,
counselors, social workers, religious leaders are high on this component.
(vii) Intrapersonal: This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations
and awareness of one’s own feelings, motives and desires. This relates to human
existence and finding meaning in one’s life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders are
high on this intelligence.
(viii) Naturalistic:This is recognizing the beauty of flora and fauna. Hunters, farmers,
tourists, botanists, zoologists, bird watchers are high on this component.
4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?

Ans. Robert Sternberg proposed the Triarchic theory of intelligence. He views intelligence
as the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and
those of one’s society and culture. Sternberg proposed the following three types of
intelligence:
(a) Componential or Analytical Intelligence: Componential or analytical intelligence is
the analysis of information to solve novel problems. It has 3 components:
(i) Knowledge acquisition component which is responsible for learning and
acquisition of the ways of doing things.
10 Xam idea Psychology–XII

(ii) Meta component which involves planning what to do and how to do.
(iii) Performance component which involves actually doing things.
(b) Experiential or Creative Intelligence: This specifies how experiences affect
intelligence and how intelligence affects a person’s experiences.
(c) Contextual or Practical Intelligence: This involves adapting to the present
environment or selecting a more favourable environment than the existing one or
modifying the environment to fit one’s needs. People high on this intelligence are
called ‘street smart’.
5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological
systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model.
Ans. According to the model developed by J. P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby, intellectual
activity involves 3 functional units of brain namely,
P-Planning, A-Arousal/Attention, S-Simultaneous processing, S-Successive processing:
(a) Arousal/Attention: An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant
aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.
(b) Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Information is integrated into our
knowledge system simultaneously or successively. In simultaneous processing relations
among various concepts is integrated into a meaningful pattern for comprehension.
For example, grasping the meaning and relationship between abstract figures in
Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially
so that recall of one leads to the recall of another. Learning of digits, alphabets,
multiplication tables are examples of successive processing.
(c) Planning: After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
For example, planning a time schedule of study by giving more time or studying with
a friend.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
Ans. Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one culture over
another, intelligence tests are classified as Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased tests. Culture-
fair tests are fair to a particular culture such as Non-verbal or Performance tests while
culture-biased tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. E.g. Tests
based on norms of urban society are culture-fair for urban society while culture-biased
for rural society. Similarly, tests made for western societies are culture-biased for Indian
societies.
7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
Ans. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) refers to mental age divided by chronological age and
multiplied by 100. Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a person’s intellectual development
relative to the people of his or her age group. Chronological Age (CA) is the biological
age by birth.
IQ = (MA/CA) × 100
For example, a 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 will have an IQ of 120
[(12/10) × 100].

Classification of people based on IQ:
Above 130 Very superior
120-130 Superior
110-119 High average
90-109 Average
80-89 Low average
70-79 Borderline
Below 70 Intellectually disabled
8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
Ans. On the basis of the nature of items used IQ tests are classified into Verbal and
Performance tests – Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses either orally
or in a written form they can be administered only to literate people. E.g. Binet-Simon
IQ test. Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects such as wooden blocks
to perform a task. Written language is not required for answering the items and it can
be administered to persons from different cultures. E.g. Koh’s Block design.
9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in
their intellectual ability? Explain.
Ans. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity; some are exceptionally bright
and some are below average. One practical use of intelligence test is to identify persons
at the extremes of intellectual functioning.
Above 130 Very superior
120-130 Superior
110-119 High average
90-109 Average
80-89 Low average
70-79 Borderline
Refer to the distribution of IQ scores above. About 2% of the population have IQ above
130, and a similar percentage has an IQ below 70. The persons in the first group are
called intellectually gifted; those in the second group are termed intellectually disabled.
These two groups deviate considerably from the normal population in respect of their
cognitive, emotional, and motivational characteristics.
10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and
why?
The notion of emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence beyond the
intellectual sphere/domain and considers that intelligence includes emotions. It builds
on the concept of intelligence in the Indian tradition.
The following competencies are identified as features of intelligence in the Indian
tradition:
OO Cognitive capacity: sensitivity to problem solving and effective communication.
OO Social competence: commitment to elders, concern for young and the needy and
understanding others’ perspective.

OO Emotional competence: self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty,
politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation.

OO Entrepreneurial competence: commitment, persistence, patience, hard-work,
vigilance and goal-directed behaviours.
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and
regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic
record is not enough to be successful in life. There are many people who are academically
talented, but are unsuccessful in their own life. They experience problems in family,
workplace and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists believe that the source of their
difficulty may be a lack of emotional intelligence.
This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered emotional
intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions”.
Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way
as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is used to express intelligence. Emotional intelligence is
receiving increasing attention of educators for dealing with students who are affected
by stresses and challenges of the outside world. Programmes aimed at improving
students’ emotional intelligence have beneficial effects on their academic achievement.
They encourage cooperative behaviour and reduce their antisocial activities. These
programmes are very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside
the classroom.
11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude
measured?
Ans. Aptitude is an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after
training. For example, a person with high mechanical aptitude will be a successful
mechanical engineer.
Interest is a preference for a particular activity. For example, a person can have a strong
interest in mathematics or science.
Intelligence is the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act
purposefully and deal effectively with the environment.
Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form of test batteries which measure aptitude in
separate areas. For example, DBDA (David’s Battery of Differential Abilities) measures
aptitude in various areas such as Closure Ability, Clerical Ability, Numerical Ability,
Psychomotor Ability, Reasoning Ability etc.
12. How is creativity related to intelligence?
Ans. (i) A certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that intelligence
does not correlate with creativity. Creativity tests involve divergent thinking and
assess such abilities such as ability to produce a variety of ideas i.e. ideas which
are off-the-beaten-track, ability to see new relationships. It involves expression of
spontaneous originality and imagination.
Tests of intelligence involve convergent thinking. The person has to think of the
right solution to the problem and the focus is on assessing abilities such as memory,
logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual ability and clear thinking.
(ii) Creativity tests are open-ended. There are no specified answers to questions or
problems in creativity tests. Individuals have freedom to use one’s imagination and
express it in original ways.
On the other hand, intelligence tests are closed-ended. There are fixed answers to
questions.

Objective Type Questions [1 mark]
1. The speed with which one accomplishes a task refers to one’s intellectual capacity.
(True/False)
2. Enduring beliefs about the ideal mode of behaviour is called _________.
3. _________ is a method in which a person provides factual information about herself/
himself. [CBSE Delhi 2014; (AI) 2014]
4. “Intelligence is the global capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully
and deal effectively with the environment”. This definition was proposed by:
(a) Wechsler (b) Binet
(c) Gardner (d) Sternberg
5. The _________ approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities.
[CBSE Delhi 2016; (AI) 2016]
6. Match the two lists and choose the correct match from the given options:
List A List B
(i) One-factor theory (a) Thurstone
(ii) Two-factor theory (b) Binet
(iii) Structure of Intellect Model (c) Spearman
(iv) Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (d) Guilford
Options
A. (i)-(d), (ii)-(a), (iii)-(c), (iv)-(b) B. (i)-(c), (ii)-(d), (iii)-(b), (iv)-(a)
C. (i)-(a), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(b) D. (i)-(b), (ii)-(c), (iii)-(d), (iv)-(a)
7. Two-factor theory was proposed by:
(a) Charles Spearman (b) Arthur Jensen
(c) Howard Gardner (d) J.P. Guilford
8. _____________ proposed hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of abilities
operating at two levels.
(a) Binet (b) Wechsler
(c) Jensen (d) Spearman
9. The Structure-of-Intellect Model was proposed by:
10. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence is known as:
(a) Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (b) Triarchic Theory
(c) Theory of Multiple Intelligences (d) Two-factor Theory
11. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences was proposed by:
12. If a person has a skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of
other people, he/she is said to have [CBSE Delhi 2017; (AI) 2017]
(a) Interpersonal intelligence (b) Intrapersonal intelligence
(c) Linguistic intelligence (d) Social intelligence

13. Ability to use past experiences creatively to solve novel problems is known as:
[CBSE Delhi 2011; (AI) 2011]
(a) Musical intelligence (b) Interpersonal intelligence
(c) Experiential intelligence (d) Contextual intelligence
14. The notion of contextual intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of
______________. [CBSE Delhi 2015; (AI) 2015]
15. ‘Selection of environment’ to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and
culture is an intelligent act. It is given by:
(a) Sternberg (b) J. P. Guilford
(c) Charles Spearman (d) Louis Thurstone
16. The concept of IQ was proposed by _____________.
17. The ratio which states the relationship between mental age and the chronological age
is called the: [CBSE Delhi (AI) 2018]
(a) Developmental Quotient (DQ) (b) Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
(c) Performance Quotient (PQ) (d) None of the above
18. The range of average IQ is:
(a) 110–120 (b) 90–110
(c) 105–115 (d) 120–140
19. An IQ below __________ is generally considered intellectually disabled
(a) 100 (b) 70
(c) 120 (d) 110
20. ___________ intellectually disabled people have IQ ranging from 25 to 39.
(a) Mild (b) Moderate
(c) Severe (d) Profound
21. Emotional competence refers to

(a) Self-monitoring of emotions (b) Self-competence to handle behaviour
(c) Discrimination of behaviour (d) Persistence in behaviour
22. Entrepreneurial Competence refers to: [CBSE (AI) 2013]
(a) Respect for social order (b) Self-exposure
(c) Discrimination (d) Commitment
23. The concept of ‘Emotional Intelligence’ has been proposed by:
(a) Morgan and Murray (b) Binet and Simon
(c) Salovey and Mayer (d) Guilford and Thurstone
24. Which factor influences more in aptitude formation?
(a) Caste (b) Age
(c) Intelligence (d) Family
25. Individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills is known as _____________.
[CBSE (AI) 2012]
26. ____________ is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities
relative to others.

27. A student with high aptitude in verbal reasoning and strong interest is reading is
more likely to succeed as a ____________.

(a) Journalist (b) Engineer
(c) Athlete (d) Agriculturalist
28. General feature of most of the creative tests is that they are _____________.
Answers
1. True 2. Values
3. Self-Report 4. Wechsler
5. Psychometric 6. D
7. Charles Spearman 8. Jensen
9. J. P. Guilford 10. Theory of Multiple Intelligences
11. Howard Gardner 12. Interpersonal intelligence
13. Experiential intelligence 14. Culture
15. Sternberg 16. William Stern
17. Intelligence Quotient 18. 90-110
19. 70 20. Severe
21. Self-monitoring of emotions 22. Commitment
23. Salovey and Mayer 24. Intelligence
25. Aptitude 26. Interest
27. Journalist 28. Open-ended
Very Short Answer Questions [2 marks]

1. What do you understand by individual differences?
Ans. Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics
and behaviour patterns. Individuals vary in terms of physical characteristics such as
height, weight, hair colour, etc. They also vary along psychological dimensions like they may
be dominant or submissive, intelligent or dull, outgoing or withdrawn, etc. For example, a
gifted child has an IQ of 130 while a mentally retarded child has an IQ below 70.
2. What is situationism?
Ans. The fact that behaviour is influenced by situations and circumstances and not by
personal traits is known as situationism. For example, two persons having different
personality traits behave in the same manner, such as submitting to the top boss.
3. What is assessment?
Ans. Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and
their evaluation using scientific testing procedures. For example, intellectual ability of a
slow learner in a class would require testing intelligence. Formal assessment is objective,
standardised and organized while informal assessment varies from case to case and
from one assessor to another and is open to subjective interpretations.
4. What are values?
Ans. Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. For example, values of a
person may be political, religious, social or economic.

5. What is a psychological test?
Ans. A psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an individual’s mental
or behavioural characteristics. For example, psychological tests measure psychological
attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, etc.
6. What is an interview?
Ans. Interview is a face-to-face interaction between two people. For example, an interview
between a doctor and a patient, a salesman and a customer, employee selection by an
employer.
7. What is a case study?
Ans. A case-study is an in-depth study of an individual in terms of his psychological attributes,
psychological history in the context of his physical and psycho-social environment. It
is used by clinical psychologists. A case analysis of great people is an example. Case
studies are based on data generated by different methods such as interview, observation,
questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.
8. What is observation?
Ans. Observation involves employing systematic, organized and objective procedures
to record behaviour in a natural situation. For example, observing mother-child
interactions.
9. What is self-report?
Ans. Self-report is a method in which a person provides factual information about himself or
herself or beliefs and opinions which he or she holds. For example, Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire.
10. Define intelligence. [CBSE Delhi 2016; (AI) 2016]
Ans. According to Wechsler, intelligence is defined as the global and aggregate capacity of an
individual to think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with the environment.
11. Explain the psychometric approach to understand intelligence. State two theories
based on this approach. [CBSE (AI) 2017]
Ans. Psychometric approach to intelligence expresses the individual’s performance in terms
of a single index of cognitive abilities. For example, Binet’s Uni or one-factor theory of
intelligence, Charles Spearman’s two-factor theory are theories based on this approach.
12. Differentiate between psychometric and information processing approaches to
intelligence. [CBSE Delhi 2011, 2015, 2016; (AI) 2014]
Ans. Psychometric approach to intelligence expresses the individual’s performance in terms
of a single index of cognitive abilities. For example, Binet’s Uni or one-factor theory
of intelligence. Information processing approach describes the processes people use in
intellectual reasoning and problem solving. For example, Howard Gardner’s theory of
Multiple Intelligence.
13. Describe the One-factor Theory of Intelligence.
Ans. Binet conceptualized Uni or One-factor theory of intelligence in which he described
intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any
or every problem in an individual’s environment.
14. Describe the Two-factor Theory of Intelligence.
Ans. Charles Spearman proposed intelligence as consisting of a general factor called g-factor
and some specific factors called s-factors. The g-factor includes mental operations which
are primary and common to all performances. S-factors are specific abilities like those
possessed by excellent singers, architects, scientists and athletes.

15. Describe the Structure-of-Intellect Model of Intelligence.
Ans. J. P. Guilford proposed the Structure-of-Intellect model of Intelligence which classified
intellectual traits among 3 dimensions: operations, contents and products. Operations
are what the respondent does. Contents refer to the nature of materials or information
on which intellectual operations are performed while products refer to the form in
which information is processed by the respondents.
16. Explain linguistic intelligence. [CBSE (AI) 2012]
Ans. It is the capacity to use language fluently and be sensitive to different shades of word
meanings. This involves using language fluently and flexibly. Persons high on this
intelligence are ‘word-smart’. Poets and writers are strong in this component of intelligence.
17. Explain naturalistic intelligence.
Ans. Naturalistic intelligence involves awareness of our relationship with the natural world
which is useful in recognizing the beauty of different species of flora and fauna. Hunters,
farmers, tourists, botanists, zoologists, bird watchers possess naturalistic intelligence.
18. Explain contextual intelligence with the help of examples . [CBSE Delhi 2018]
Ans. (i) Contextual intelligence is a component of Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence
which involves adapting to present environment, selecting a more favourable
environment than the existing one or modifying the environment to fit needs.
(ii) It is typically associated with ‘practical know how to handle’ or the ability to deal
with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. It may be called ‘street
smartness’ or ‘business sense’. People high on this facet turn out to be successful in
life.
(iii) For example, a child who joins a new school adjusts to his/her new peer group by
sharing and cooperating.
(iv) This triarchic theory of intelligence represents the information–processing approach
to understand intelligences.
19. What is simultaneous and successive processing in intellectual functioning?
[CBSE Delhi 2014; (AI) 2013]
OR
Differentiate between simultaneous and successive processing giving example.
[CBSE Delhi 2018]
Ans. Information is integrated into our knowledge system simultaneously or successively.
In simultaneous processing relations among various concepts is integrated into a
meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example, grasping the meaning and
relationship between abstract figures in Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially so that
recall of one leads to the recall of another. Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication
tables are examples of successive processing.
20. What is CAS?
Ans. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) is a battery of tests which measure basic cognitive
functions for individuals between 5 to 18 years of age. The results of assessment can be
used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems.
21. What is Intelligence Quotient?
Ans. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) refers to mental age, divided by chronological age and
multiplied by 100. Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a person’s intellectual development

relative to the people of his or her age group. Chronological Age (CA) is the biological
age by birth.
IQ = c m ×100
MA
CA

For example, a 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 will have an IQ of 120
12
< ×100F
.
10
22. Classify people on the basis of IQ.
OR

How are IQ scores distributed in a population? [CBSE (AI) 2015]
Ans. Above 130 Very superior
120 – 130 Superior
110 – 119 High average
90 – 109 Average
80 – 89 Low average
70 – 79 Borderline
23. What is normal probability curve?
Ans. Normal probability curve is a bell-shaped curve, symmetrical around the central value,
the mean. For example, frequency distribution for IQ scores.
24. Define intellectual disability.
Ans. The children who show enormous difficulty in learning even very simple skills or
adapting to the environment show intellectual deficiency are referred to as ‘Intellectually
disabled’. The American Association on Mental Deficiency defines mental retardation
as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with
deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period, i.e.,
between 0 to 18 years of age.
25. Explain the term giftedness. [CBSE (AI) 2016]
Ans. Gifted children show higher performances because of their outstanding potentialities.
These children have an IQ above 130 and show better occupational success and life
adjustment. The signs of gifted individuals are:
OO Early signs of intellectual superiority
OO Larger attention span
OO Good recognition memory
OO Preference for novelty
OO Sensitivity to environmental changes
OO Early appearance of language skills
26. Differentiate between talent and giftedness.
Ans. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide
variety of areas. Gifted children have high ability, high creativity and high commitment.
Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g., spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.).
The highly talented are called ‘prodigies’.

27. Define emotional intelligence. [CBSE (AI) 2012, 2018]
Ans. Emotional Intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, to
discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions.
28. Define Emotional Intelligence/Emotional Quotient.
Ans. Emotional Intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and
regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic
record is not enough to be successful in life. It is the ability to monitor one’s own and
others emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s
thinking and actions. It is the ability to process emotional information accurately and
correctly. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express Emotional Intelligence.
29. Define aptitude.
training. For example, a person with high Mechanical Aptitude will be a successful
Mechanical Engineer. Or, a person good in drawing and fine arts can become a good
professional artist. Or, a person with high Verbal Ability can be trained to be a good writer.
30. Define interest.
Ans. Interest is a preference for a particular activity. For example, a person can have a strong
Short Answer Questions-I [3 marks]

1. Describe the theory of Primary Mental Abilities.
Ans. Louis Thurstone developed the theory of Primary Mental Abilities which states that
there are seven Primary Mental Abilities each of which is relatively independent of
others. They are:
(i) Verbal Comprehension: To grasp words, concepts and ideas quickly.
(ii) Numerical Ability: Speed and accuracy in numerical computations.
(iii) Spatial Relations: Speed in procuring details.
(iv) Perceptional Speed: Visualizing patterns and forms.
(v) Word Fluency: Using words fluently and accurately.
(vi) Memory: Accuracy in recalling information.
(vii) Inductive Reasoning: Deriving rules from facts.
2. Describe the hierarchical model of intelligence.
Ans. Arthur Jensen proposed that intelligence works at two levels:
Level I: This level is associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the
input as in rote learning.
Level II: This is cognitive competence (sensitivity to contact, understanding
discrimination, problem solving and effective communication). It involves higher order
skills as they transform the input to produce an effective output.
3. ‘Intelligence is the interplay of nature and nurture’. Comment.
OR
Discuss how interplay of nature and nurture influences intelligence.
OR
Explain how intelligence is the result of heredity and environment.
[CBSE Delhi 2014, 2016]

Ans. Effects of heredity: Studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is
more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.
Effects of environment: Evidence shows that environmental deprivation lowers
intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increase
intelligence.
4. Explain componential intelligence with examples. [CBSE (AI) 2013]
Componential Intelligence: Componential or analytical intelligence by Robert
Sternberg is the analysis of information to solve problems. It has 3 components:
(i) Knowledge Acquisition Component: This is responsible for learning and acquisition
of the ways of doing things.
(ii) Meta Component: This involves planning what to do and how to do.
(iii) Performance Component: This involves actually doing things.
For example, while studying mathematics, we gather information about the formula
to solve the problem, plan out the steps and then actually solve the sum.
5. Describe the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. [CBSE (AI) 2016]
Ans. Sternberg views intelligence as the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to
accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture. Sternberg proposed the
following three types of intelligence:
(i) Componential or Analytical Intelligence: Componential or analytical intelligence is
the analysis of information to solve problems. It has three components:
(a) Knowledge acquisition component which is responsible for learning and
acquisition of the ways of doing things.
(b) Meta component which involves planning what to do and how to do.
(c) Performance component which involves actually doing things.
For example, while studying mathematics we gather information about the
formula to solve the problem, plan out the steps to solve the problem and then
actually solve the sum.
(ii) Experiential or Creative Intelligence: This specifies how experiences affect
intelligence and how intelligence affects a person’s experiences.
(iii) Contextual or Practical Intelligence: This involves adapting to the present
environment or selecting a more favourable environment than the existing one or
modifying the environment to fit one’s needs.
6. Explain how the PASS model helps us to understand intelligence.
[CBSE Delhi 2015, 2016; 2017 (AI) 2014]
Ans. According to the model developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri and Kirby (1994),
intellectual activity involves three functional units of brain, namely A-Arousal/Attention,
S-Simultaneous processing, S-Successive processing and P-Planning respectively:
(i) Arousal/Attention: An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant
aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.

(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Information is integrated into our
knowledge system simultaneously or successively. In simultaneous processing,
relations among various concepts are integrated into a meaningful pattern for
comprehension. For example, grasping the meaning and relationship between
abstract figures in Raven’s Progressive Matrices.
Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially
so that recall of one leads to the recall of another. Learning of digits, alphabets,
multiplication tables are examples of successive processing.
(iii) Planning: After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.

For example, planning a time schedule of study by giving more time or studying with
a friend.
7. Mention any six indicators of giftedness.
Ans. Gifted children show
(i) Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour.
(ii) High speed in processing information.
(iii) Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
(iv) Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
(v) High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
(vi) Independent and non-conformist thinking.
(vii) Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.
8. Differentiate between individual and group tests.
Ans. Based on their administration procedure they can be categorized as individual and
group tests:
(i) Individual tests are administered to one person at a time while group tests are
administered to several persons.
(ii) In individual tests the test administrator establishes a rapport with the subject and is
sensitive to his/her feelings, moods and expressions during the testing session while
in group tests the tester is not familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
(iii) In individual tests people answer in oral or written form while in group tests they
answer in multiple-choice format.
(iv) Example of Individual test: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, WAIS, WISSC,
Alexander Pass along.
Example of Group test: Group test of Intelligence by S. Jalota.
9. Differentiate between verbal, non-verbal and performance tests.
Ans. On the basis of the nature of items used, IQ tests are classified into Verbal, Non-verbal
or Performance tests – Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses either orally
or in a written form they can be administered only to literate people. E.g. Binet-Simon
IQ test. In non-verbal tests the subject has to complete a pattern in some picture or
illustration. These reduce cultural biases. E.g. Standard Raven’s Progressive Matrices
(RPM). Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects such as wooden blocks
to perform a task. Written language is not required for answering the items as well as
can be administered to persons from different cultures. E.g. Koh’s Block design.

10. Differentiate between Culture-fair and Culture-biased tests. [CBSE Delhi 2014]
Ans. Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one culture over
culture-biased tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. For example,
tests based on norms of urban society are culture-fair for urban society while culture-
biased for rural society. Similarly, test made for western societies are culture-biased for
Indian societies.
11. What are the misuses of intelligence tests?
Ans. Ill-effects of intelligence tests are:
(i) Poor performance in a test may attach a stigma to children, thereby adversely affecting
their performance and self-respect.
(ii) Parents, teachers and elders may discriminate the children.
(iii) Culture-biased IQ tests in favour of middle class and higher class population may
underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society.
(iv) IQ tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence.
12. How is aptitude different from intelligence? [CBSE (AI) 2014]
Ans. Aptitude refers to the potential ability of a person to perform a particular task which
consists of a combination of abilities.
Intelligence refers to the ability of a person to do at any given point of time. According

to Wechsler, it is the global and aggregate capacity to think rationally, act purposefully
and deal effectivity with the environment.
13. State the characteristics of emotionally intelligent people. [CBSE (AI) 2018]
Ans. Emotionally intelligent persons have the following characteristics.
(i) They are sensitive to their feelings and emotions.
(ii) They are sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body
language, voice and tone and facial expressions.
(iii) They relate their emotions to their thoughts which play an important role while
solving problems and taking decisions.
(iv) They understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of their emotions.
(v) They control and regulate their emotions and their expressions while dealing with
self and others to achieve harmony and peace.
14. What is creative thinking?
Ans. Creative thinking involves production of novel, original ideas or solutions to problems.
Howover, thinking of being different without any purpose, doing things in one’s own
ways, being non-conformist, indulging in fantasy without any purpose or coming
out with a bizarre idea, is not creative thinking. Creative people are reality-oriented,
appropriate, constructive and socially desirable. Creative thinking could be reflected
in activities like writing, teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story telling, conversation,
dialogues, asking questions, playing games, trying to solve day-to-day problems,
organising activities, helping others to resolve conflicts etc.

Short Answer Questions-II [4 marks]
1. State Gardner’s eight types of intelligences. Describe any one with the help of
examples. [CBSE Delhi 2011; (AI) 2016]
OR
Mention Multiple Intelligences as suggested by Gardner. Explain logical mathematical
intelligence.
Ans. Howard Gardner described eight types of intelligence. They are as follows:
(i) Linguistic
(ii) Logical-Mathematical
(iii) Spatial
(iv) Musical
(v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic
(vi) Interpersonal
(vii) Intrapersonal
(viii) Naturalistic

images. Pilots, sailors, sculptures, painters, architects, interior decorators and
surgeons are high in this type of intelligence.
dancers, actors, sportsperson, gymnasts and surgeons are high in this intelligence.
counselors, social workers, religious leaders are high on this component.

(viii) Naturalistic: This is recognizing the beauty of flora and fauna. Hunters, farmers,
tourists, botanists, zoologists, bird watchers are high on this component.(Explain any
one.)

2. Differentiate between ‘technological intelligence’ and ‘integral intelligence.’ Elaborate
the concept of intelligence in Indian tradition.
OR
Explain the competencies of Indian notion of intelligence. [CBSE (AI) 2015]
OR
Explain the role of culture on intelligence in Indian tradition. [CBSE Delhi 2017]
Ans. Technological intelligence:
(i) Promoted by technologically advanced societies.
(ii) Fosters skills of generalization, abstraction, speed, minimal moves and mental
manipulation.
(iii) Focuses on attention, observation, analysis, performance and achievement
(individualist orientation)
Integral intelligence:
(i) Promoted and valued in Asian and African societies.
(ii) Fosters cognitive and non-cognitive skills and processes.
(iii) Holistic perspective where emphasis is given to connectivity with social and world
environment.
(iv) Collectivistic orientation and self-reflection.
Intelligence in Indian concept
(i) Talks of integral intelligence
(ii) Sanskrit word ‘Buddhi’ is used to represent intelligence
(iii) The following competencies are identified as features of intelligence in the Indian
tradition.
(a) Cognitive capacity—sensitivity to problem solving and effective communication.
(b) Social competence—commitment to elders, concern for young and the needy
and understanding others’ perspective.
(c) Emotional competence—self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions,
honesty, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation.
(d) Entrepreneurial competence—commitment, persistence, patience hard-work,
vigilance and goal-directed behaviours.
3. Explain Emotional Intelligence. State any two characteristics of emotionally intelligent
people.
Ans. Emotional Intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression
and regulation of emotions. It is the ability to monitor one’s own and others emotions,
to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and
actions.
Emotionally Intelligent Persons Characteristics (Write any two)
(i) Are sensitive to their feelings and emotions.
(ii) Are sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body language,
voice and tone and facial expressions.

(iii) Relate their emotions to their thoughts which play an important role while solving
problems and taking decisions.
(iv) Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of their emotions.
(v) Control and regulate their emotions and their expressions while dealing with self
and others to achieve harmony and peace.
4. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude
measured? [CBSE Delhi 2015; (AI) 2011, 2014, 2017]
training. For example, a person with high mechanical aptitude will be a successful
mechanical engineer.
Intelligence is the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act
purposefully and deal effectively with the environment.
Interest is a preference for a particular activity. For example a person can have a strong
Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form of test batteries which measure aptitude in
separate areas. For example, DBDA (David’s Battery of Differential Abilities) measures
aptitude in various areas such as Closure Ability, Clerical Ability, Numerical Ability,
Psychomotor Ability, Reasoning Ability etc.
5. How is creativity related to intelligence? [CBSE (AI) 2015]
OR
Explain the relationship between creativity and intelligence.
Ans. (i) A certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that intelligence
does not correlate with creativity. Creativity tests involve divergent thinking and assess
such abilities such as ability to produce a variety of ideas i.e. ideas which are off-the-
beaten-track, ability to see new relationships. It involves expression of spontaneous
originality and imagination.
Tests of intelligence involve convergent thinking. The person has to think of the right
solution to the problem and the focus is on assessing abilities such as memory, logical
reasoning, accuracy, perceptual ability and clear thinking.
(ii) Creativity tests are open-ended. There are no specified answers to questions or
problems in creativity tests. Individuals have freedom to use one’s imagination and
express it in original ways.
On the other hand, intelligence tests are closed-ended. There are fixed answers
to questions.
Long Answer Questions [6 marks]

1. What is the meaning of assessment? Explain the methods used for psychological
assessment. [CBSE Delhi 2014; (AI) 2011, 2012]
OR
What is the meaning of assessment? Describe the key features of any two methods
used for psychological assessment. [CBSE Delhi 2014; (AI) 2014]

Ans. Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals
and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of
comparison. For example, intellectual ability of a slow learner in a class would require
testing intelligence. Formal assessment is objective, standardized and organized while
informal assessment varies from case to case and from one assessor to another and is
open to subjective interpretations.
The methods of assessment are:
Psychological test: A psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of
an individual’s mental or behavioural characteristics. For example, psychological tests
measure psychological attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, etc.
Interview: Interview is a face-to-face interaction between two people. For example,
an interview between a doctor and a patient, a salesman and a customer, employee
selection by an employer.
Case-study: A case-study is an in-depth study of an individual in terms of his psychological
attributes, psychological history in the context of his physical and psycho-social
environment. It is used by clinical psychologists. A case analysis of great people is
an example. Case-studies are based on data generated by different methods such as
interview, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests etc.
Observation: Observation involves employing systematic, organized and objective
procedures to record behavior in a natural situation. For example, observing mother-
child interactions.
Self-report: Self-report is a method in which a person provides factual information
about himself or herself or beliefs and opinions which he or she holds. For example,
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.
2. Discuss how interplay of nature and nurture influences intelligence. Distinguish
between culture-fair and culture-biased tests.
OR
Explain how intelligence is the result of heredity and environment.[CBSE Delhi 2016]
Ans. Effects of heredity (nurture): Studies of adopted children show that children’s
intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.
Effects of environment (nature): Evidence shows that environmental deprivation
lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background and quality schooling
increase intelligence.
Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one culture over
culture-biased tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. E.g. Tests
based on norms of urban society are culture-fair for urban society while culture-biased
for rural society. Similarly, tests designed for western societies are culture-biased for
Indian Societies.

3. Explain briefly the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. [CBSE (AI) 2016]
OR
Elaborate one theory representing information processing approach.
Ans. Gardner in his theory of multiple intelligences described eight types of intelligence:
Howard Gardner proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. According to him,
intelligence is not a single entity but distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these
intelligences is independent of each other which means that if a person exhibits one
type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of
intelligences. He described eight types of intelligence. They are as follows:
images. Pilots, sailors, sculptures, painters, architects, interior decorators and
surgeons are high in this type of intelligence.
dancers, actors, sports persons, gymnasts and surgeons are high in this intelligence.
counsellors, social workers, religious leaders are high on this component.
(viii) Naturalistic: This is recognising the beauty of flora and fauna. Hunters, farmers,
tourists, botanists, zoologists, bird watchers are high on this component.
zzz

Self and
Personality 2
Chapter At A Glance
Personality is an individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts and emotions.
Different people behave differently in a given situation, but the behaviour of a particular person from one
situation to another generally remains stable. Such a relatively stable pattern of behaviour represents
the personality of a person. The literal meaning of personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’,
the mask used by actors in the Roman theatre for changing their facial make-up. After putting on
the mask, the audience expected the person to perform a role in a particular manner. It did not
mean that the person enacting the given role necessarily possessed those qualities. Different people
possess different personalities. According to Freud there are three levels of consciousness namely the
conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. The three basic parts of personality are id, ego and
superego which correspond roughly to desire, reason and conscience. The id is irrational and impulsive,
seeking immediate gratification. The ego is realistic and logical, postponing gratification until it can
be achieved in socially acceptable ways, the super-ego imposes a moral code. Freud believed that all
human beings move through a series of psychosexual stages viz. oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
stages. Humanistic theories of personality suggest that human beings are constantly struggling to
control the sexual and aggressive impulses of the id. Humanistic theories of personality suggest that
people strive for personal development and growth. Rogers believed that many individuals fail to become
fully functioning persons because distorted self-concepts interfere with personal growth. According to
Maslow, self-actualisation is a stage in which an individual has reached his or her maximum potential
and becomes the best human being he or she can be. Allport suggested that human beings possess a
small number of central traits that account for uniqueness in individuals. According to Cattell, there
are sixteen source traits that underlie differences between individuals on many specific dimensions.
Research findings point to the conclusion that there are five basic dimensions of personality:
extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness to experience. The
Type A behaviour pattern involves a cluster of traits: impatience, competitiveness and hostility. People
high in the Type A behaviour pattern are more likely to experience heart attacks.
Answers to NCERT Textbook Questions

1. What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
Ans Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and
feelings with regard to himself or herself. A newly born child has no idea about his self.
As a child grows older, the idea of self emerges and its formation begins. Parents, peer
group and teachers help in formation of self. Our interaction with other people, our
experiences, and the meaning we give to them, serve as the basis of our self.
Self and Personality 29

Many aspects of self are linked with the characteristic features of the culture in which
one lives. Analysis of self in Indian cultural context shows many features that are distinct
from those found in the Western cultural context. Western cultures are characterized
as individualistic, with rigid boundaries between self and others whereas Asian cultures
are characterized as collectivistic with flexible boundaries between self and others.
Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Culture Perspectives

2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult
development?
Ans. Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs is called self-control. For example,
fasting in vrata or roza.

Many situations of life require resistance to situational pressures and control over
ourselves. This becomes possible through what is commonly known as ‘will power’. As
human beings we can control our behaviour the way we want. Self-control plays a key
role in the fulfilment of long-term goals and hence is important in adult development.
3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?
Ans. Personality refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations.
For example, a person who is socially active, assertive, talkative and fun-loving is an
extrovert personality. Personality refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that
characterize an individual’s behaviour across different situations over a period of time.
Consistency in behaviour, thought and emotion of an individual across situations and
time-periods characterizes his/her personality. For example, an honest person is more
likely to remain honest irrespective of time or situation.
The main approaches to the study of personality are:
(i) Type Approaches (ii) Trait Approaches
(iii) Interactional Approach (iv) Psychodynamic Approach
(v) Post-Freudian Approaches (vi) Behavioural Approach
(vii) Cultural Approach (viii) Humanistic Approach
4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?
Ans. Trait approach focuses on the specific psychological attributes along which individuals
tend to differ in consistent and stable ways. For example, an individual with extraversion
traits are active, gregarious, impulsive and thrill-seeking.
Type approaches comprehend human personality by examining certain broad patterns

in the observed behavioural characteristics of individuals. For example, Type-A
personality possesses high motivation, lack patience, feel short of time, are in a great
hurry and always feel burdened with work.
5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
Ans. According to Freud, there are three structural elements of personality:
(i) Id – It deals with immediate gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and
aggressive impulses. It is based on the pleasure principle in which people seek

pleasure and try to avoid pain. For example, a boy who wants an ice-cream cone,
will grab the cone and eat it.
(ii) Ego – It grows out of id and seeks to satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in
accordance with reality. It works on the reality principle. For example, a boy who
wants an ice-cream cone, will ask for permission to eat the cone.
(iii) Superego – The superego tells the id and ego whether gratification in a particular
instance is ethical. It is the administrative division of personality. For example, a boy
who wants an ice-cream cone, his superego will indicate whether his behaviour is
morally correct. Obtaining the ice-cream cone will create guilt, fear or anxiety in the
boy.
Unconscious is composed of these three competing forces. In some people, the id is
stronger while in others it is the superego. The relative strength of the id, ego and
superego determines each person’s stability. The instinctual life force that energizes the
id is called libido. It works on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification.
6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?
Ans. Karen Horney criticized Freud’s theory in his treatment of women as inferior. She
claimed that women are more likely to be affected by social and cultural factors than by
biological factors. She argued that psychological disorders such as depression were caused
by disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood. Indifferent, discouraging
and erratic behaviour of parents makes the child feel insecure and basic anxiety results.
If parents are indifferent or dominant or show too much or too little approval, children
feel isolated and helpless which interfere with their healthy development.
Alfred Adler is known as Individual psychology in which he assumes that human
behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed. Our personal goals are the sources of our
motivation. In Adler’s view every individual suffers from the feelings of inadequacy and
guilt, i.e. inferiority complex which arise from childhood. Overcoming this complex is
essential for optimal personality development and if this complex is not overcome, it
might result in psychological disorders such as depression.
7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did
Maslow mean by self-actualisation?
Ans. Humanistic approach to personality was proposed by Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, emphasise personal responsibility and innovate tendencies toward personal
growth. They focus on the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings and
beliefs especially with regard to the self. Human beings are most creative, growing,
fully functioning and self-actualising people, and fulfillment is the motivating force for
personality development. Psychologically healthy persons live life to the fullest.
Two assumptions by Rogers are that
OO Behaviour is goal directed or worthwhile
OO People choose adaptive and self-actualising behaviour
Humanistic theories emphasise personal responsibility and innovate tendencies toward
personal growth. They focus on the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings
and beliefs especially with regard to the self. Human beings are most creative, growing,
fully functioning and self-actualising people. Psychologically healthy persons live life to
the fullest.
Rogers suggest that each person has a concept of ideal self, what a person would like
to be. When there is a correspondence between real self and ideal self, a person is
generally happy. Discrepancy between real self and ideal self results in unhappiness
and dissatisfaction. People have a tendency to maximize self-concept through self-

actualisation. When a person has high self-concept, s/he has a high self-esteem and
vice-versa. People with high self-esteem are flexible and open to new experiences.
An atmosphere of unconditional positive regard must be created in order to ensure
enhancement of people’s self-concept. This theory emphasizes the significance of
positive aspects of life which may be supported by the following diagram.
Pattern of Adjustment and Self-concept

Maslow has given a detailed account of psychologically healthy people in terms of their
attainment of self-actualisation, a state in which people have reached their own fullest
potential. Maslow had an optimistic and positive view of man who has the potentialities
for love, joy and to do creative work. Human beings are considered free to shape
their lives and to self-actualise. Self-actualisation becomes possible by analysing the
motivations that govern our life. We know that biological, security, and belongingness
needs (called survival needs) are commonly found among animals and human beings.
Thus, an individual’s sole concern with the satisfaction of these needs reduces her/
him to the level of animals. The real journey of human life begins with the pursuit
of self-esteem and self-actualisation needs. The humanistic approach emphasises the
significance of positive aspects of life.
8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What
problems do we face in using these methods?
This involves employing systematic, organized and objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomenon occurring in a natural situation. This can be participant
or non-participant in nature. For example, observing mother-child interactions. The
limitations of the observation method are:
(i) This requires a professionally trained psychologist.
(ii) The psychologist should be matured to conduct the observations.
(iii) The mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results.
(iv) Daily routine life events are ignored or unnoticed in the process of observation.
(v) Events observed are subject to bias due to feelings of the observer.
9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used
structured personality tests?
Self-report Measures are structured personality tests that require subjects to give

verbal responses on a rating scale. The method requires the subject to objectively report
her/his own feelings with respect to various items. They are scored in quantitative terms
and interpreted on the basis of norms developed for the test.
Some of the self-report measures (structured personality tests) are:
(i) The Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI): It contains 567 statements
in which the subject has to state true or false. The test is divided into 10 subsets
and diagnoses depression, hysteria, psychopathology, schizophrenia, mania, social-
introversion etc.

(ii) Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): This test measures personality traits on
three dimensions Introversion-Extraversion, Neuroticism-Emotional stability and
Psychoticism-Sociability.
(iii) Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF): This test was developed by
Cattell. On the basis of his studies, he identified a large set of personality descriptors,
which were subjected to factor analysis to identify the basic personality structure.
This test provides with declarative statements and the subject responds to a specific
situation by choosing from a set of given alternatives.
10. Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of
personality are widely used by psychologists?
Ans. Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings. These
techniques are based on the assumption that a less structured or unstructured stimulus
or an ambiguous situation will allow the individual to project his/her feelings, desires
and needs on to that situation. The projective tests widely used by psychologists are:
(i) Rorschach Inkblot
(ii) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
(iii) Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study)
(iv) Sentence Completion
(v) Draw-a Person Test
11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though
his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career.
Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.
Ans. Rogers views personality development as a continuous process. It involves learning
to evaluate oneself and mastering the process of self-actualisation. He recognises the
role of social influences in the development of self-concept. When social conditions are
positive, the self-concept and self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions
are negative, the self-concept and self-esteem are low. People with high self-concept
and self-esteem are generally flexible and open to new experiences, so that they can
continue to grow and self-actualise.
Human beings are motivated by the desire for personal growth and self-actualisation,
and an innate need to grow emotionally. When these needs are curbed by society and
family, in this case Arihant’s family, human beings experience psychological distress.
Self-actualisation is defined as an innate or inborn force that moves the person to become
more complex, balanced, and integrated, i.e. achieving the complexity and balance
without being fragmented. Integrated means a sense of whole and being a complete
person. Just as lack of food or water causes distress, frustration of self-actualisation also
causes distress. Self-actualisation requires free emotional expression. The family and
society curb emotional expression, as it is feared that a free expression of emotions can
harm society by unleashing destructive forces. This curb leads to destructive behaviour
and negative emotions by thwarting the process of emotional integration.
Objective Type Questions [1 mark]

1. _____________ refers to those attributes of a person that make him/her different from
others.
2. Aspects of a person that link him to social or cultural group are referred to as
_____________ identity.

3. Value judgment of a person about himself/herself is called _____________.
(CBSE Delhi 2017, (AI) 2017)
4. A student who believes that he has the ability to excel in sports demonstrates high
_____________.
(a) Self regulation (b) Self efficacy
(c) Self esteem (d) Self confidence
5. The notion of self-efficacy is based on
(a) Behaviourist school of thought (b) Rogers theory
(c) Skinner theory of learning (d) Bandura’s social learning theory
6. The procedure to monitor and reduce psychological aspects of stress is called
_____________.
7. Ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour refers to _____________.
[CBSE Delhi 2016; (AI) 2016]
8. Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs is called _____________.
9. Delay of gratification is an example of self control. (True/False)
10. Checking one’s own impulses and managing oneself is _____________
(a) discretion (b) caution
(c) self-control (d) prudence
11. _____________ is a biologically based characteristic way to reacting.
12. Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way is often termed as
_____________.
13. Who among the following psychologists divided all personalities into introverts and
extroverts?
(a) Freud (b) Carl Jung
(c) Adler (d) Erikson
14. _____________ personality are more susceptible to problems like coronary heart
disease.
15. Individuals having high motivation, lacking patience and are always in a hurry are
characterised as Type _____________ personality. [CBSE Delhi 2011; (AI) 2011]
16. Type-D personality is characterised by proneness to _____________.
17. Type _____________ personality is more prone to depression:
[CBSE Delhi 2015, 2016; (AI) 2015, 2016]
(a) Type A (b) Type B
(c) Type C (d) Type D
18. A _____________ refers to the characteristics in which one individual differs from
another in a relatively permanent and consistent way.
(a) Personality (b) Trait
(c) Humanistic (d) concept
19. Dream interpretation and _____________ are two important methods of eliciting intra-
psychic conflicts in psychoanalysis.
20. The conscious ego operates according to _____________ principle.
21. You just found a wallet in a movies hall. Which aspect of your personality, according to
psychoanalytic theory, would urge you to return it to the owner?
22. The instinctual life force that energises the id is called _____________.

23. Dismissing anxiety provoking behaviours or thoughts from the unconscious is known
as [CBSE Delhi 2011; (AI) 2012]
(a) Projection (b) Rationalisation
(c) Repression (d) Denial
24. _____________ is a way of reducing anxiety by distorting. [CBSE Delhi, (AI) 2018]
25. In _____________ defence mechanism people attribute their own traits to others.
26. Priya exhibits strong aggressive tendencies but often complains of other people
acting in an excessively aggressive way. Identify the defence mechanism.
(a) Rationalisation (b) Reaction formation
(c) Denial (d) Projection
27. In _____________ form of defence mechanism, the person tries to make unreasonable
behaviour seem reasonable and acceptable. [CBSE (AI) 2012]
28. An individual is rejected in a job interview, he claims that his present job is better. He
is using _____________
(a) Projection (b) Regression
(c) Reaction formation (d) Rationalisation
29. Attributing one’s own traits to others is known as rationalization. (True/False)
30. The male child experiences _____________ which involves love for the mother, hostility
towards the father.
31. Oedipus complex involves love for _____________. (father/mother)
32. The children develop sexual feelings towards parents of opposite sex. Freud called
these thoughts and feelings in boys the
(a) electra complex (b) oedipus complex
(c) fixation (d) identification
33. A person’s resolution of problems at any stage of development less than adequate
demonstrates regression. (True/False)
34. _____________ takes a person back to an earlier stage
(a) Fixation (b) Repression
(c) Regression (d) Reaction formation
35. Carl Jung developed the theory of
(a) Individual psychology (b) Analytical psychology
(c) Social psychology (d) Psychoanalytic psychology
36. Adler’s theory is known as _____________.
37. _____________ is a method in which a person provides factual information about herself/
himself. [CBSE Delhi 2014, (AI) 2014]
38. Tendency of respondent to endorse items in a socially desirable manner is known as:
[CBSE Delhi 2014, (AI) 2014]
(a) Acquiescence (b) Self-report
(c) Social desirability (d) Halo effect
39. TAT of personality measurement is a type of
(a) Questionnaire (b) Self-report inventory
(c) Projective test (d) Paper-pencil test
40. An _____________ is a face to face interaction between two or more persons to obtain
information.

41. Participant observation involves becoming an active member of the setting where
observation takes place. (True/False)
42. Naturalistic observation involves making observation in a natural setting. (True/False)
43. A tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities must also
be having other specific qualities is called _____________.
44. The method of behavioural analysis is often used in obtaining peer assessment.
45. Tendency to place individuals in the extreme positions is called _____________ bias.
[CBSE (AI) 2013]
Answers
1. Personal identity 2. Social
3. Self-esteem 4. Self-efficacy
5. Bandura’s social learning theory 6. Self-regulation
7. Self-regulation 8. Self-control
9. True 10. Self-control
11. Temperament 12. Disposition
13. Carl Jung 14. Type A
15. A 16. Depression
17. Type D 18. Trait
19. Free association 20. Reality
21. Super ego 22. Libido
23. Repression 24. Defence mechanism
25. Projection 26. Projection
27. Rationalization 28. Rationalization
29. False 30. Oedipus complex
31. Mother 32. Oedipus complex
33. True 34. Regression
35. Analytical psychology 36. Individual psychology
37. Self-Report 38. (c) Social desirability
39. Projective test 40. Interview
41. True 42. True
43. Halo effect 44. Nomination
45. Extreme response
Very Short Answer Questions [2 marks]

1. What is self?
Ans. Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and
feelings with regard to himself or herself. For example, an adivasi or an Indian. A newly
born child has no idea about his self. As a child grows older, the idea of self emerges and its
formation begins. Parents, friends, teachers, etc., help in this. Our interaction with other
people, our experiences, and the meaning we give to them, serve as the basis of our self.
2. What is personal identity? [CBSE (AI) 2011]
Ans. Personal identity refers to those attributes of a person that make him or her different
from others. For example, I am Sanjana or I am honest.

3. Explain the term social identity. [CBSE Delhi 2011]
Ans. Social identity refers to those aspects of a person that link him or her to a social or
cultural group. For example, he is a Hindu or an adivasi.
4. Differentiate between self as a subject and self as an object.
Ans. Self is described as a subject, who does something (e.g., I am a dancer) and as an object
on which something is done (e.g., I am the one who easily gets hurt).
5. What is ‘self-concept’?
Ans. The way we perceive ourselves (as either positive or negative) and the ideas we hold
about our competencies and attributes is called self-concept. For e.g., view of an
individual’s academic talents. At a more specific level, a person may have positive view
of his athletic bravery but a negative view of academic talents. At an even more specific
level, one may have a positive view about one’s reading ability but a negative one about
one’s mathematical skills.
6. What is ‘self-esteem’?
Ans. The judgment a person makes about his value or worth is called self-esteem. It can be
high or low. Children with high academic self-esteem perform better in school than
those with low academic self-esteem. Children with high social self-esteem are more
liked by their peers than those with low social self-esteem.
7. What are the characteristics of people with low self esteem?
Ans. Children with low self esteem display anxiety, depression and increasing antisocial behaviour.
8. What is ‘self-efficacy’?
Ans. A person who believes that she/he has ability or behaviours required by a particular
situation demonstrates high self-efficacy. A strong self-efficacy sense allows us to select,
influence, and construct the circumstances of our life. Strong self-efficacy people are
less fearful. Self-efficacy can be developed with the help of society, parents and our
own positive experiences as they present positive models during formative years of
childhood. The notion of self-efficacy is based on Bandura’s social learning theory. His
initial studies showed that children and adults learned behaviour by observing and
imitating others. People’s expectations of mastery or achievement and their convictions
about their own effectiveness determine the type of behaviour they would engage in.
The amount of risk they would undertake also determines this. For example, people
with high self-efficacy stop smoking the moment they decide to do so.
9. What is ‘self-regulation’?
Ans. Self-regulation refers to our ability to organize and monitor our own behaviour. People
who can change their behaviour according to demands of the external environment are
high on self-monitoring. Resistance to situational pressures and control over ourselves
is possible through will-power.
10. What is self-control or delay of gratification?
Ans. Learning to delay or defer the gratification of needs is called self-control. For example,
fasting in vrata or roza.
11. Define personality. [CBSE (AI) 2013]
Ans. Personality refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations.
For example, a person who is socially active, assertive, talkative and fun-loving is an
extrovert personality. Personality refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that
characterize an individual’s behaviour across different situations over a period of time.
Consistency in behaviour, thought and emotion of an individual across situations and
time-periods characterizes his/her personality. For example, an honest person is more
likely to remain honest irrespective of time or situation.

12. Describe Type-A personality. [CBSE (AI) 2017]
Ans. (i) Type A personality possess high motivation, lack patience, feel short of time.
(ii) Seem to be in a hurry and feel burdened with work.
(iii) They are susceptible to problems like hyper-tension and coronary heart disease.
13. Describe any two factors from the 5-Factor Model of Personality. (Write any two)
Ans. The Big Five Factors include:
Openness to experience: Those who score high on this factor are imaginative,
OO
curious, open to new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, those
who score low are rigid.
OO Extraversion: It characterizes people who are socially active, assertive, talkative and
fun-loving. On its opposite are people who are shy.

OO Agreeableness: This factor characterises people who are helpful, co-operative,
friendly, caring, and nurturing. On the opposite are people who are hostile and self-
centered.
OO Neuroticism: People who score high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious,
worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. On the opposite side are
people who are well adjusted.
OO Conscientiousness: Those who score high on this factor are achievement-oriented,
dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking and self-controlled. On the opposite

are people who are impulsive.
14. Give the characteristics of extroverts.
Ans. Extroverts are sociable, outgoing, active, gregarious, impulsive, thrill-seeking, assertive,
talkative, fun-loving, drawn to occupations that allow dealing directly with people and
react to stress by trying to lose themselves among people and social activity.
15. What are defence mechanisms?
Ans. Human behaviour reflects an attempt to deal with or escape from anxiety. Freud described
various defence mechanisms which people use to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.
16. Explain the term ‘reaction formation’. [CBSE Delhi 2014]
Ans. Reaction Formation is a type of defence mechanism in which a person defends against
anxiety by adopting behaviours opposite to his or her true feelings. For e.g., a person
with strong sexual urges channelises his or her energy into religious activity.
17. What is meant by structured personality tests?
Ans. Structured personality tests require subjects to give responses using some kind of rating
scale. The subject reports his/her feeling objectively with respect to various items. For
example, self-report measures.
18. Elaborate the Existential theory of personality.
Ans. Existentialism emphasizes avoiding powerlessness, loneliness, emptiness, and inability
to find meaning and value in our lives. This can be achieved by taking responsibility
and by living genuine and authentic lives.
19. What is assessment?
Ans. Assessment refers to measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their
evaluation using scientific testing procedures.
20. Differentiate between formal and informal assessment.
Ans. Formal assessment is objective, standardized and organized while informal assessment
varies from case to case, from one assessor to another and is open to subjective
interpretations.

21. Explain any two methods used for psychological assessment. (Write any two)
Ans. The methods for psychological assessment are:
OO Self-report Measures: These are fairly structured measures, often based on theory,
that require subjects to give verbal responses using some kind of rating scale. The
method requires the subject to objectively report her/his own feelings with respect
to various items. The responses are accepted at their face value. They are scored in
quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of norms developed for the test.
OO Projective Techniques: Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious
motives and feelings. These techniques are based on the assumption that a less
structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project
her/his feelings, desires and needs on to that situation. These projections are
interpreted by experts. A variety of projective techniques have been developed;
they use various kinds of stimulus materials and situations for assessing personality.
Some of them require reporting associations with stimuli (e.g., words, inkblots), some
involve story writing around pictures, some require sentence completions, some
require expression through drawings.
OO Interview: This involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.
This can be structured or unstructured. For example, an employer selecting

employees for his/her organization.
OO Observation: This involves employing systematic, organized and objective procedures
to record behavioural phenomenon occurring in a natural situation. This can be

participant or non-participant in nature. E.g., observing mother-child interactions.
22. What is naturalistic observation?
Ans. Naturalistic observation is observation in a natural setting. For example, observing how
people behave in response to a heavy discount provided by a shop.
23. Explain participant observation.
Ans. In participant observation, the observer may become part of the group being observed.
In this the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they
start accepting him/her as one of the group members. E.g., a teacher may become a part
with students playing in the play-ground.
24. State two advantages of using observation as a technique. [CBSE (AI) 2017]
Ans. Advantages of Observation method:
(i) It allows behaviour to be seen and studied in its natural setting.
(ii) People from outside, or those already working in a setting, can be trained to use it.
25. Critically evaluate the method of behaviour rating for assessing personality.
Ans. Behaviour ratings are used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial
settings. In this individuals are put into certain categories in terms of their behavioural
qualities. These ratings have drawbacks such as halo effect, middle category bias and
extreme response bias.
26. Describe nomination as a method of assessment.
Ans. This method is used in obtaining peer assessment. In this each person is asked to choose
one or more persons of the group with whom she/he would like to work, study, play or
participate in an activity. The person may be asked to specify the reason for his or her
choices.
27. What are situational stress tests?
Ans. The most commonly used test of this kind is the situational stress test. It involves a kind
of role-playing in which a person performs a task with other persons who are non-
cooperative and interfering. Thus this test provides us with information about how a
person behaves under stressful situations.

Short Answer Questions-I [3 marks]
1. State the techniques of self-control. [CBSE Delhi 2014; (AI) 2013]
OR
Enumerate any three psychological techniques of self-control. [CBSE Delhi 2018]
Ans. The psychological techniques of self-control are:
(i) Observation of our own behaviour: This refers to changing, modifying or
strengthening certain aspects of self.
(ii) Self instruction: This refers to instructing ourselves to do something and behave
accordingly.
(iii) Self-reinforcement: This involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant
consequences. For, e.g., going to a movie after doing well in exams.
2. How parents can contribute in developing self-esteem of the child?
Ans. Warm and positive parenting helps in development of high self-esteem among children
as it allows them to know that they are accepted as competent and worthwhile. Children
whose parents help or make decisions for them even when they do not need assistance,
often suffer from low self-esteem.
3. Describe the relationship between culture and self.
OR
Explain the views of self in different cultures. [CBSE (AI) 2014]
Ans. Many aspects of self are linked with the characteristic features of the culture in which one
lives. Analysis of self in Indian cultural context shows many features that are distinct
from those found in the Western cultural context. Western cultures are characterized
as individualistic, with rigid boundaries between self and others, whereas Asian
cultures are characterized as collectivistic with flexible boundaries between self and
others.
Western Perspective Indian Perspective
Individual
Individual Group Group
Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Cultural Perspectives

4. Describe the features of personality.
Ans. Personality is characterised by the following features:
(i) It has both physical and psychological components.
(ii) Its expression in terms of behaviour is fairly unique in a given individual.
(iii) Its main features do not easily change with time.
(iv) It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal or
external situational demands, i.e. adaptive to situations.
5. Is personality a dynamic organization? Explain.
Ans. Dynamic means change due to internal or external demands. Allport proposed that
individuals possess a number of traits which are dynamic in nature. They determine
behaviour in such a manner that an individual approaches different situations with
similar plans. He acknowledged that people sharing the same traits might express them

in different ways, and any variation in traits would elicit a different response in the same
situation.
6. Explain the interactional approach to personality. [CBSE (AI) 2013; 2018]
Ans. The interactional approach to the study of personality holds that situational characteristics
play an important role in determining our behaviour. People may behave as dependent
or independent not because of their internal personality trait, but because of external
rewards or threats available in a particular situation. For example, people’s behaviour
in a market, courtroom or a place of worship.
7. Discuss personality types given by Sheldon.
Ans. Sheldon proposed the following personality types:
(i) Endomorphs: They are fat, soft and round. By temperament they are relaxed and
sociable.
(ii) Mesomorphs: They have strong musculature, are rectangular with a strong body
build. They are energetic and courageous.
(iii) Ectomorphs: They are thin, long, fragile in body build. They are brainy, artistic and
introvert.
8. Describe Eysenck’s theory of personality.
Ans. H. J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into three dimensions:
(i) Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: At one end of the dimension there are people
who are neurotic who are anxious, moody, touchy, restless and quickly lose control.
At the other extreme lie people who are calm, even-tempered, reliable and remain
under control.
(ii) Extraversion vs. Introversion: At one extreme are people who are outgoing, active,
gregarious, impulsive and thrill-seeking while at the other end are people who are
withdrawn, passive quiet, cautious and reserved.
(iii) Psychoticism vs. Sociability: A psychotic person is hostile, egocentric and antisocial.
9. What are the three levels of consciousness proposed by Sigmund Freud?
Ans. Freud described the human mind in terms of three levels of consciousness:
(i) Conscious: It includes the thoughts, feelings and actions of which people are aware.
(ii) Preconscious: It includes mental activity of which people may become aware only if
they attend to it closely.
(iii) Unconscious: It includes mental activity that people are unaware of.
10. Describe the unconscious as stated by Freud.
Ans. According to Freud, the unconscious is a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives, which
also stores all ideas and wishes that are concealed from conscious awareness, perhaps
because they lead to psychological conflicts. Most of these arise from sexual desires which
cannot be expressed openly and therefore are repressed. People constantly struggle to
find either some socially acceptable ways to express unconscious impulses, or to keep
those impulses away from being expressed. Unsuccessful resolution of conflicts results in
abnormal behaviour. Analysis of forgetting, mispronunciations, jokes and dreams provide
us a means to approach the unconscious. Freud developed a therapeutic procedure,
called psychoanalysis, whose basic goal is to bring the repressed unconscious materials to
consciousness, helping people live in a more self-aware and integrated manner.
11. Describe the structure of personality.
Ans. According to Freud, there are three structural elements of personality:
(i) Id: It deals with immediate gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and
aggressive impulses. It is based on the pleasure principle in which people seek

pleasure and try to avoid pain. For example, a boy who wants an ice-cream cone,
will grab the cone and eat it.
(ii) Ego: It grows out of id, and seeks
to satisfy an individual’s instinctual
Conscious
needs in accordance with reality. It
works on the reality principle. For
example, a boy who wants an ice-
cream cone, will ask for permission
to eat the cone.
Preconscious
(iii) Superego: The superego tells the
id and ego whether gratification
in a particular instance is ethical.
It is the administrative division Unconscious
of personality. For example a boy
who wants an ice-cream cone, his
superego will indicate whether
his behaviour is morally correct. Structure of Personality in Freudian Theory
Obtaining the ice-cream cone will create guilt, fear or anxiety in the boy.

Unconscious is composed of these three competing forces. In some people, the id is
stronger while in others it is the superego. The relative strength of the id, ego and
superego determines each person’s stability. The instinctual life force that energizes the
id is called libido. It works on the pleasure principle, and seeks immediate gratification.
12. What did Carl Jung mean by collective unconscious? [CBSE Delhi 2017]
Ans. Jung developed analytical theory of personality in which he claimed that there was a
collective unconscious consisting of archetypes or primordial images. These are found
in myths, dreams and arts of all mankind.
13. Describe the theory by Karen Horney. [CBSE (AI) 2015]
Ans. Karen Horney criticized Freud’s theory in his treatment of women as inferior. She
claimed that women are more likely to be affected by social and cultural factors than
by biological factors. She argued that psychological disorders were caused by disturbed
interpersonal relationships during childhood. Indifferent, discouraging and erratic
behaviour of parents makes the child feel insecure and basic anxiety results. If parents
are indifferent or dominant or show too much or too little approval, children feel
isolated and helpless which interfere with their healthy development.
14. Describe the theory by Alfred Adler. [CBSE (AI) 2015]
Ans. Alfred Adler is known by individual psychology in which he assumes that human
behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed. Our personal goals are the sources of our
motivation. In Adler’s view every individual suffers from the feelings of inadequacy and
guilt i.e., inferiority complex which arise from childhood. Overcoming this complex is
essential for optimal personality development.
15. Discuss Erich Fromm’s theory of personality
Ans. Erich Fromm viewed human beings as social beings who could be understood in terms of
the relationship with others. He argued that psychological qualities such as growth and
realization of potentials resulted from desire for freedom and striving for justice and truth.
16. Discuss Erikson’s concept of identity crisis. [CBSE Delhi 2016; (AI) 2016]
Ans. Erik Erikson laid stress on rational, conscious ego processes in personality development.
He viewed development as a life-long process with a central place granted to ego identity.
His concept of identity crisis of adolescent age has shown considerable attention.

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SWORD ORNAMENTS.
CHAPTER III.
In this place for some years to come the three strangers continued
to live a quiet, uneventful life. Mutto scrupulously attended to his
court duties as one of the chamberlains at the palace; but every
moment of the time which he could call his own was devoted to the
education of his son. Sennoske, as the boy was called, was already
at the age of fifteen a man inferior to none, and almost the equal of
his father in all manly accomplishments. Nor had his mind been
forgotten. Mutto himself was a fair scholar, and where he thought
himself deficient, or was unable through lack of time to devote the
necessary attention, he had taken care to secure the best teachers.
The latter gladly undertook the charge of instructing the boy, whose
aptitude for acquiring knowledge was as marked as his ways and
manners were winning. His father strictly supervised and regulated
his studies, and showed himself somewhat a hard taskmaster, who
never allowed Sennoske leisure for any amusements except such as
would either strengthen his body or improve his mind, and the boy
grew up having no desire for other recreation. Although passionately
fond of books and of indoor studies, the tendency of the times and
the examples set before him by his father, as well as by others,
roused his ambition and prevented anything like neglect of physical
training. This severe bodily and mental work had become easy to
him, and to pass from one to the other was all that his system
needed, and all the enjoyment he cared for. His intense love and
admiration for his father, and the pleasure which he derived from the
gratification the latter showed at his quick and steady progress, was
another reason, if one had been needed, to impel him to diligence.
To Sennoske his father was everything that was good and great and
noble. He knew and felt how much kindness and sympathy were
hidden under that austere taciturnity which in all these years had
never relaxed into the faintest semblance of a smile. He
remembered a sunny childhood in a beautiful home, where his father
had laughed and played with him, always showing a gay, cheerful
face; and he felt what a terrible shock must have been given to that
nature by some fearful calamity, thus to freeze up all apparent
sympathy and feeling for the outside world. He had no knowledge of
what could have been the catastrophe that wrought this change; and
any allusion to their former life, although not forbidden in so many
words, was yet discouraged by his father in a way that prevented his
ever referring to it.
Among
those
who
contribute
d to
Sennoske
’s training
was one
whose
name
was then WRITING TABLE.
already
famous in
Japan,—Muramasa, the sword-smith. An immense gulf divided, at
that time, the samurai from the merchant, the farmer, the artisan,
and, in fact, from all other classes. To this rule the sword-smith
formed the only exception. He Who could forge a sword fairly well
stood far higher in social rank than the artisan of equal skill in any
other profession; and a master of the art, however low his extraction,
was considered and treated as an equal by the two-sworded gentry.
Muramasa then stood at the head of his profession, without a rival in
the country. His superiority was acknowledged by his brother
artisans as well as by the nobility; and many of the latter—men of
great means too—would willingly have beggared themselves to
obtain a sword of his making. To have a man like this living in his
dominions was considered a great honor, and was, moreover, a
source of real power and influence, of which the Duke was fully
aware; and he had made to the smith the most extravagant offers of
money, titles, and other honorary considerations to induce him duly
to inscribe himself on the roll of his feudal retainers, but without
success. Threats or coercion would have been worse than useless
with a man whom the Shôgun himself would only too gladly have
welcomed to his capital (Kamakura), and would have honored there
as highly as the Duke did in his province. Any wilful injury done him
would have been resented as a national loss by every samurai in the
country; so Ono ga Sawa had fain to be satisfied with the sword-
smith’s independent way of living, taking care, however, to use every
opportunity to prove to him, by valuable gifts and otherwise, the
honor and esteem in which he was held.
And there was good reason for all this regard and high
consideration; for those famous “Muramasas,” as the blades were
called after their maker, were things of beauty, of joy, of pride, and of
power to their lucky possessors. The smith himself was an expert at
using as well as making his weapon, and the proofs he had
sometimes semi-publicly given of its excellence were marvellous,
and wellnigh bordered on the incredible. He would cut a hair let fall in
the air; he would hold his sword still in the water, with its sharp edge
facing the current, and there it would of itself out a piece of paper
floating toward it; then again, to show its strength, he would cut
through a copper bar an inch in thickness without producing the
slightest mark or indentation on the blade. Once, on a memorable
occasion when discussion as to the relative merits of rival sword-
smiths ran high, he asked that any three swords of the best makers
be selected. This was done; and placing them side by side, he dealt
with his own blade terrific blow square upon their upturned edges. It
went entirely through one sword, which was the most strongly
curved, passed through the steel edges of the others, and remained
imbedded in the softer part which forms the back. Being with
difficulty extracted, it was found that its own sharp edge had
remained intact; and there was nothing but a slightly increased
brightness in three different spots to show where it had been in
contact.
Small wonder, then, that a true samurai should value such a
weapon above every other earthly possession. Money alone could
not buy one. It began to be known that only warriors of high
standing, whose reputation for valor and fighting qualities was
established, could succeed in having an order for a sword executed.
If the applicant had a name for loving fighting for its own sake,—one
who, when no opportunities for legitimate warfare presented
themselves, would hunt up broils, quarrels, and duels,—it greatly
enhanced his chances of a favorable reception from the sword-
smith. The prices paid were always high enough; but far more liberal
offers had often been refused because made by men—as the report
went—whose reputation credited them with inclinations, if not of a
pacific, yet of a less decidedly bellicose nature. One of Muramasa’s
stipulations in former years had been that no sword bought of him
should be sold during the lifetime of the purchaser. He dispensed
with this condition now, because there was no further need for it; the
lucky possessor of such a treasure would have sacrificed his last
hakama, his mistress, his wife and child probably, sooner than part
with it.
STREET SCENE IN KUWANA.
The smith’s residence was in the outskirts of the city, in what had
formerly been called the village of Senjuin. It was a smoke-
blackened, gloomy looking building of two stories close to the street,
the lower part—the doors of which were constantly closed—being
the forge. On both sides of the house and in the rear was a yard
which was enclosed with a bamboo fence, the stakes being placed
side by side and three deep,—thus effectually preventing any
possibility of getting even a glimpse through them; while their ends
were sharply pointed, threatening certain impalement to any who
should attempt to scale them. Here Muramasa lived with his son,—
who assisted him at his craft and was initiated into its secrets,—his
daughter, and only one old woman-servant.
He was not a pleasant man to look at, this cunning forger, whose
handiwork caused the great and the mighty to do him honor. His
eyes—very large and very prominent, ready, it seemed, to start from
their sockets—had a sinister look; to which the heavy, bushy
eyebrows, heaviest and bushiest in the space between the eyes,
where they met, doubtless contributed. A massive chin, under a
small, rather thin-lipped mouth, showed great energy and
determination, while the short stout neck, with veins like cords, the
broad shoulders, and the brawny, sinewy arms, gave evidence of
great physical strength. When speaking, two rows of large, regular,
and beautifully white teeth partly redeemed the unattractiveness of
the other features; but when angered or excited, the whole face
presented an aspect of extreme hideousness and repulsiveness. At
such times the mouth was firmly closed; the eyebrows moved and
contracted until each individual hair seemed to stand on end; the
eyes, already unnaturally large and protruding, dilated and rolled
around in their sockets with a glitter like that of a snake; and a deep
red, furrowed line showed itself on his forehead from the crown down
to the eyebrows, making his head look as if it consisted of two halves
badly pasted together.
A parallel had often been drawn between the smith and Mutto.
Both these men, renowned for strength and skill, living for
themselves and seemingly desirous of avoiding company, always
reserved and even gloomy, and never sharing in wine-parties or
other festivities, offered a great contrast to the usual style of conduct
of the cavaliers at the court; for the latter, acting with the spirit of the
age, although ready at any time for hard work and harder blows,
believed in taking pleasure and amusement whenever and wherever
it could be found. But when the two men once stood side by side in
the court, it was easy to perceive that however much unlike to
others, there was very little real resemblance between them.
Mutto’s athletic but slight and supple figure was cast in quite a
different mould from the smith’s heavy, awkward-looking frame; and
in so far as other than physical attributes could be discerned, the
difference became even more marked. The look of gloom on the
face of the former seemed like a dark veil, obscuring its naturally
pleasant and cheerful expression. The regular features could never
have settled into such clearly-cut, bold, determined lines if their
possessor had always been given to inactive brooding and
sorrowing. They now spoke unmistakably of weary resignation; but it
was a new-born resignation foreign to the man’s real nature, and
implanted there by some unaccountable calamity. In demeanor he
was quiet and dignified, and in the performance of his often
monotonous duties as chamberlain he had been known to stand
sometimes for hours like a statue, scarcely moving either limbs or
features.
With the smith, body and face were cast in a heavy, coarse mould,
and both gave evidence of the savage restlessness and discontent
of the mind within. Very seldom were they characterized by anything
like repose. In general the eyes rolled about in their sockets,
glancing here and there with a preoccupied air, while the whole lower
part of the face twitched convulsively; and this movement often
extended even to the limbs and body. It was evident that no other
influence but the thoughts within him induced this unquiet. When he
found himself observed, he could by a strong effort resume outward
composure; but he would at such times hurl back a look so vicious
that few cared to encounter it twice.
The neighborhood where the smith’s house stood was very lonely.
In former years it had been a small fishing-village called Senjuin,
which in time, as the castle-town of Kuwana gradually extended,
became one of the outskirts of the latter. This was many hundred
years ago. With its loss of independence, in spite of the proximity of
the great town, it lost also its well-to-do look, and became the resort
of the very worst and the very poorest elements of the population.
During the great Minamoto wars, in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, it suddenly developed into prosperity. The streets became
lined with stores, mechanics’ workshops, small manufactories of
different articles of military equipment; and with these, not a few
wine-shops, houses of bad repute, and gambling-dens. There was
then continual marching and countermarching; regular and irregular
bodies of troops, such as could be induced to take the field by
threats or promises, through motives of partisan loyalty, from love of
adventure, or through the more mercenary object of gain or booty to
be reaped, were being continually formed, and Kuwana had become
a noted resort for such bands to equip themselves, most of the new
traffic concentrating itself in that part where Senjuin had formerly
stood.
The town possessed abundant natural advantages. Its

neighborhood abounded with many kinds of good woods, including a
great variety of bamboos,—so necessary in the production of articles
of every-day use. Inland products could easily and cheaply be
brought down on the river which ran beside the town. Its situation by
the sea-shore, and the never-failing supply of fish which was thereby
secured, was also of great value at a time when fields were
irregularly tilled and the cost of cereals often reached famine prices.
The advantage of being able to go and come by sea or land was not
slight, and was especially appreciated by those lawless characters
who abounded at the time, and a goodly number of whom could
always be found there. Whatever the disposition and tendency of
these gentry might have been, however, they were kept in check by
the proximity of the castle with its garrison, which prevented anything
like excess of violence or ill-doing. Burglaries, robberies, and
murders even were no rarity; but assistance was always at hand
when a brawl assumed too great dimensions. No band of robbers
could come and levy contributions or commit other outrages as they
did sometimes in smaller towns and villages.
Thus this quarter of the town grew up and flourished as long as
the war lasted. With the return of peace this prosperity waned, and
soon departed altogether. The working part of the population moved
away nearer the castle-walls and the old, established centre of
business; and the disreputable part, finding their occupation gone,
left for other regions. In the course of a few decades the place had
become almost entirely deserted. Some of the houses at first had
been taken down and removed, some had been destroyed by fire,
and not a few had fallen down, rotting away in unshapely heaps. All
those that yet stood were in a state of extreme decay. Passing
beggars and ronins often used them as a temporary refuge, and a
great deal of real danger to unarmed wayfarers lurked under the
shadow of this apparently deserted solitude. It was also a favorite
spot for duels and night-brawls, and many a manly form was often
found there in the morning lifeless and covered with sword-cuts.
About nine years previous to the time when the first incidents
related in this narrative took place, Muramasa the sword-smith, who
had already acquired considerable reputation in his craft, arrived in
Kuwana, and for a trifle bought a plot of land, where he erected his
house in the manner already described. It was the worst-reputed part
of the whole neighborhood, near the high road, which skirted one
end of the deserted village, and opposite to a large open, level
space, where once had stood houses which had been burned down,
and in whose place a plentiful supply of weeds had sprung up.
These were, however, kept well beaten down; for it was this
particular spot which was generally chosen when the brawlers or
duellists fought in greater numbers. Muramasa had been
accompanied by a young wife, a son about fourteen years of age,
the offspring of a former marriage, and an old married serving-
couple. From the very beginning he had led a lonely and solitary life,
as he did afterward. He repaired one of the old buildings on the land
he had bought, so as to make it temporarily habitable while his new
house was being constructed.
JAPANESE LANDSCAPE.
His wife always remained utterly secluded; and even of the

mechanics engaged by him to put up the new house, only one or two
got a passing glance at her through a half-open door or window,—
sufficient, however, it seems, to make them speak in glowing terms
of her marvellous beauty. Two years after her arrival she died in
giving birth to a daughter, who was named O Tetsu. It then began to
be bruited about that she had been an Eta (a pariah), the queen of
her tribe, famous for her surpassing loveliness. This report, which, it
was said, first originated with a travelling showman who had formerly
known Muramasa in other places, gradually assumed a more definite
shape, and it was whispered that she had been rescued by the smith
while being abducted by some nobleman and carried to the latter’s
castle. Rumor went still further, and stated that it was not a man of
low degree, but one of the mighty lords of the land who had
attempted this outrage, and that six of his most trusty blades
engaged in the execution of the design had been cut down and
disabled by the smith who fought single-handed. Careless of the
opinion of the world, he afterward made the outcast Eta his lawful
wife. He loved her fondly and passionately, and she reciprocated his
sentiments.
AN ETA.
After her death, all that there was of kindness, of love, and of
sympathy in his nature went out toward his daughter. To the outer
world he became, if possible, more grim and reserved than he had
been before. He shunned all such chance acquaintances as he had
made, he went to the court—where even hitherto, in spite of an open
invitation, he had rarely made his appearance—only when the
occasion rendered his presence unavoidable; beyond this he paid
and received no visits whatever. The only persons who gained
admittance to his house were a few old teachers whom he had
engaged for his daughter. The aged serving-man who had
accompanied him had died three or four years after their arrival, and
no one had taken his place, the old serving-woman being the only
domestic who remained to do the necessary duties about the house.
The smith’s son, now a man over thirty years of age, resembled
his father in outward looks and appearance, and if his face showed
rather more good-humor, it was probably merely a negative quality
arising from its lack of expression. Physically he was as strong and
stout as the smith; but his mind was of a very inferior order. He was,
however, an expert in all that pertained to swords; and on this point
could discourse pleasantly and with an intelligence that sometimes
bordered on eloquence. As regarded everything else, his mental and
reasoning faculties seemed to present a perfect blank, he being
unable to understand causes and effects, unless they were of the
most simple kind, such as could be learned mechanically. For his
father he showed great awe and reverence, and toward his half-
sister he evinced an affection which was as deep as it was humble,
and might be likened to that of a faithful dog. He displayed it by a
desire to be close to her in those short periods when he was not
engaged in work. At such times he would often put his hand furtively
but tenderly on some part of her dress; and when she perceived it,
he would bend forward, as if waiting for a smile or a caressing word,
which were the usual acknowledgments, and to which, when given,
his only response was a broad, pleased grin. He rarely spoke on
anything not connected with his craft, but to express his wants and
feelings used certain signs, which those about him had learned to
interpret. He might almost have passed for an idiot, were it not for his
clear, logical talk on everything connected with his profession, and
for a quickness of movement of both hand and limb which such
beings do not usually possess, and which in him was developed to a
remarkable degree. It is probable that he was naturally endowed with
but limited reasoning powers. These, however, would have been
sufficient for the narrow range of views and the limited routine duties
of a peasant or a laborer in those days; but in the position in which
he was placed, the comparatively strong claims made upon him in
the exercise of his profession had, so to say, absorbed all that there
was of intellect and drawn it into this one channel, leaving everything
else a blank.
SWORD-GUARD.
CHAPTER IV.
Under such surroundings grew up the fairest maiden to be found
in the province of Kuwana. All who had seen her were unanimous in
according this tribute to O Tetsu. The people often wondered how
such a beautiful, lovely being could spring from such a coarse,
knotted stock, even when her mother’s fair, delicate nature was
grafted upon it. There are many points of beauty for which the
daughters of Japan have always been favored beyond those of most
other nations. In no country probably will there be found so many
possessing those delicate hands and feet, that gloriously beautiful
neck, and those bright, shining eyes which seem to be the birth-right
of the maidens of the Land of the Rising Sun. All these advantages
and many others were found to perfection in O Tetsu; and she added
to them a grace of movement and a witchery of manner which
caused the poets of the court to lament the poverty of their language,
because it failed to supply them with adequate terms to describe all
these endearing qualities to their satisfaction. Fair and fresh and
beautiful as a summer morn, graceful as a Japanese lily, with
wonderful eyes, lustrous and brilliant, and shining with a peculiar
humid brightness which suffused or rather covered them as if with a
refulgent and yet a transparent veil, and with a voice whose sweet
melody, if you were young and impressionable, lingered in your ears
for days and weeks after you heard it, O Tetsu might well lay claim to
be considered peerless throughout the land. Her hands and feet
might have belonged to a child half her age, and her form was slight
and delicate; yet she was no tender, hothouse plant, but in reality
strong and robust. When on cold, frosty winter mornings, the ground
being covered with snow, she walked out with her bare feet thrust
into high-heeled getas, her rich, warm blood mantling neck and face,
she looked a picture of physical health, and formed a striking
contrast to many damsels whose coarser build did not prevent them
from shivering, and showing hands and feet and noses that were
blue and ugly with the cold. In spite of her generally mild and demure
looks, there was something of her father’s nature in her after all,—a
certain imperious way, which, rarely displayed, might have been
taken for a faint, a very faint, counterpart of the old smith’s
headstrong obstinacy. There was some slight resemblance between
them also in outward looks,—a resemblance in general hardly
conceivable, but which became apparent in O Tetsu when her eyes
were momentarily closed. Then her small mouth and chin showed its
resolute cast, and the whole outline of the face was not lacking in a
certain determined look, which, as shrewd observers said, would
have developed into something of a temper if circumstances had
favored it. All these latent traits, however, were not visible, or failed
to be noticed, when you saw her eyes—those beautiful eyes, with
their unfathomable depth of bright, roguish tenderness. Although her
father doted on her, yet the stern, fierce nature of his strong and
powerful individuality rendered disobedience or self-willed pertinacity
an impossibility, and the girl’s feminine graces were thus saved from
being marred by tendencies which a different education might have
aggravated into faults.
LANDING-PLACE AT KUWANA.
Young as O Tetsu was, offers of marriage,—some of them of a

kind to satisfy very exacting demands on the score of birth, family,
position, and personal accomplishments,—had not been wanting.
There were those who would have wooed her for her father’s
reputed wealth; there were others, and probably the greater number,
who were attracted mostly by the charms of her person and
manners; while not a few of high position and noble birth would have
been content to give her their name if she had possessed neither
beauty nor wealth, being actuated by the sole hope of getting one of
her father’s swords as a dowry. The social taint attaching to her
escutcheon on account of her reputed Eta mother, the mere
suspicion of which in the case of most others would have been an
all-powerful objection, not to be outweighed by the possession of
wealth, was disregarded in the daughter of this clever artisan. In her
it would have been condoned, even if it had stood out as a well-
known and established fact. This, however, was not the case, as it
was after all but a vague report, which anybody who chose might
disbelieve. The lovers of O Tetsu looked for no other reason to
ignore its existence but their own desire and inclination; while the
smith’s fame, his reputed influence, which it was known would carry
great weight if he chose to exert it, and above all the secret
superstitious awe which he inspired, were so many deterrent
influences to prevent people from talking above their breath of what
might be distasteful to him if it should reach his ears.

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Unit-I: Variations in Psychological Attributes 20 periods

Practical 30 Marks 40 Periods

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 70

S. No. Competencies Total Marks % Weightage

1. Remembering and Understanding:

3. Formulating, Analysing, Evaluating and Creating:

II. Practical: 30 Marks

Note: The above textbooks are also available in Hindi medium.

CLASS – XII : PSYCHOLOGY (CODE NO. 037)

CHAPTER NO. & NAME Recommended portions for deletion

Chapter 9 Developing Complete Chapter

Redistribution of marks for Class XII 2020-2021

Chapter I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX Case VIVA Practical Tests Administration

UU Chapter 2 : Self and Personality

UU Chapter 3 : Meeting Life Challenges

UU Chapter 4 : Psychological Disorders

UU Chapter 5 : Therapeutic Approaches

UU Chapter 6 : Attitude and Social Cognition

UU Chapter 7 : Social Influence and Group Processes

UU Chapter 8 : Psychology and Life

UU Chapter 9 : Developing Psychological Skills

Answers to NCERT Textbook Questions

Variations in Psychological Attributes 9

4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?

10 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 11

understanding others’ perspective.

politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation.

12 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 13

14 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 15

Very Short Answer Questions [2 marks]

16 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 17

18 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 19

Short Answer Questions-I [3 marks]

20 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 21

22 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 23

24 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 25

Long Answer Questions [6 marks]

26 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Variations in Psychological Attributes 27

28 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Answers to NCERT Textbook Questions

Self and Personality 29

Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Culture Perspectives

30 Xam idea Psychology–XII

Self and Personality 31