FUNdamentals of interrupted traffic flow

In this section, the flow of traffic under traffic interruptions is studied.

Traffic interruptions are collectively a general situation used to denote conditions
where a stream of traffic flowing under certain conditions of speed and density
meets another stream flowing under some other condition of speed and density.
Example: if traffic flowing at high speed meets another stream flowing at a
greater density and lower speed.

There are various ramifications of such interruptions on traffic flow. And

these are discussed on shockwaves. Within this general description of traffic
interruptions, two kinds of traffic interruptions are of special interest. These are
the interruptions that take place at signalized and unsignalized interruptions.

SHOCK WAVES

Q- flow
K- density
U-speed

Three types of shock waves

-Forward moving shock wave (speed is positive)
-Stationary shock wave (speed is zero)
-backward moving shock wave (speed is negative)

TRAFFIC FLOW AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

 An intersection is a location where two or more roads carrying traffic
streams in different directions cross. The space which is common to all these.
Roads is referred to as the intersection.
If left on its own, the flow at an intersection will
Always be chaotic; the safety and efficiency at such
Locations will be low
Hence, various strategies are used to control
The flow of traffic at an intersection in order
To improve the safety and efficiency of traffic flow

Signalized intersection

At a signalized intersection, the common space

Is periodically given to certain flows while the
Other conflicting streams are barred from entry
At that time.
The common space is “time-shared” among the various flows.
Although, there are various kinds of time-sharing strategies
Like pre-timed, partially actuated, and fully actuated
Signalizations.

PRE-TIMED
In the pre-timed signalization, the time
Sharing between the different conflicting
Flows occurs according to a pre-defined strategy. Which repeats at a fixed
interval. This fixed Interval is referred to as the cycle length.

DEPARTURE process
o When a signal turns green from red, The first of the stopped vehicles
initiates
 o Manoeuvers to move and cross the intersection. The next to cross the
intersection
o Is the second vehicle in the queue and so on. If one measures the headways
the
o Time gaps between successive vehicles when they cross a pre-specified
point on the
o Intersection (generally the stop line of the road), then an interesting and
expected Pattern emerges

MICROSCOPIC MODELS OF TRAFFIC FLOW

o DRIVER-DRIVER – how a driver reacts to the actions taken by another driver
o DRIVER-ROAD INTERACTIONS – how a driver reacts to various features of
the road

VARIOUS MODELS OF DRIVER BEHAVIOR

CLASSIFIED INTO TWO PARTS:
o DRIVER BEHAVIOR IN THE PRESENCE OF STATIC OBSTACLES
o DRIVER BEHAVIOR IN CAR-FOLLOWING SITUATIONS

CAR-FOLLOWING BEHAVIOR
Is a control process in which the driver of the following vehicle attempts to
balance between maintaining safe distance between his/her car and the vehicle
ahead and maintaining a speed as close to his/her desired speed by accelerating
or decelerating in response to the actions of the vehicle ahead.

GENERAL FEATURES
o Car-following behavior is approximate in nature as the elements
participating in the process are human.
o The driver of the following vehicle seems to react to certain stream
variables such as distance headway between itself and the vehicle ahead
and the rate of change of this distance headway. These variables are
referred to as stimuli to which the driver reacts.
o Response to stimuli in car-following behavior is asymmetric in the sense
that drivers response differently to distance headway decrements than to
distance headway increments.

GENERAL FEATURES
o Car-following behavior is stable. The behavior is such that if the leading
vehicle changes its speed for some time and then maintains a steady speed,
the following vehicle eventually starts driving at the same speed and at a
safe distance away. This particular property of car-following is referred to
as local stability.
o Car-following behavior is such that any perturbations to distance headway
and relative speed introduced by the leading vehicle progressively reduce
as they get transmitted upstream in a platoon of vehicles. This property is
referred to as asymptotic stability.

GENERAL FEATURES
o Since car-following is a human control process, the stable condition
reached is not absolutely stable in the mathematical sense of the word.
There is some small and cyclic variation in the distance headway and speed
around their respective stable positions. This is referred to as drift.
o Another feature which is seen is that the stable speed and the stable
distance headway are not independent of one another.

GENERAL FEATURES
 Closing-in and shying-away patterns are observed in car-following behavior.
If the driver of the following vehicle finds that the distance headway
 is ‘large’, then he/she closes in on the leading vehicle irrespective of the
actions of the leading vehicle.
If the driver of the following vehicle finds that the distance headway is
‘small’, then he/she shies away from the leading vehicle irrespective of the
actions of the leading vehicle.

GM MODEL OF CAR-FOLLOWING BEHAVIOR

 Proposes that drivers of the following vehicles react by accelerating (or
decelerating) to only one stimulus, namely the rate of change of distance
headway (which is the relative speed).
 Does predict a behavior which is locally and asymptotically stable.
It is a precise deterministic model of the human control process and does not
incorporate the inherent vagueness of the human perception and reaction
process.
 Cannot represent drift in the stable condition.
 It only considers relative speed as the stimulus, and hence it cannot model
closing-in and shying-away behaviors.
 The stable distance headway predicted by the GM Model becomes
sensitive to the initial conditions.

FUZZY INFERENCE MODEL OF CAR-FOLLOWING BEHAVIOR (Chakroborty and

Kikuchi)

CAPACITY AND LEVEL-OF-SERVICE ANALYSIS OF BASIC FREEWAY (EXPRESSWAY)

SECTIONS

DEFINITIONS
Capacity – the maximum number of vehicles that can be expected to cross a point
on the road in a unit interval of time.
Ideal capacity – the maximum number of passenger cars (driven by drivers
familiar to the area) that can be expected to cross a point on an ideal road in a
unit interval of time.
Level-of-service, LOS – broadly defined as the prevailing conditions under which a
driver has to drive.

CAPACITY ANALYSIS
BEHAVIOR OF DRIVERS CHANGES:
The lane widths are narrow
The shoulders are narrow
They are unfamiliar with the region

REASONS FOR THE FALL IN MAXIMUM FLOW:

Slow moving vehicles have operational problems maintaining the speed of the
traffic stream and tend to cause interruptions
Heavy vehicles also occupy more space than passenger's car do

TWO METHODS:
IRC/ OLD HCM METHOD
NEW HCM METHOD

IRC/ OLD HCM METHOD

NEW HCM METHOD

STEPS
Determine the prevailing conditions of the road in terms of lane width, number
lanes, shoulder width, and the number of interchanges per unit length.
Estimate the ideal free-flow speed of the road section based in the type of area
the road goes through
Determine (i) the amount of free speed reduction based on lane width, (ii) the
amount of free speed reduction based on the shoulder width, (iii) the amount of
free speed reduction based on the number of lanes, and (iv) the amount of free
speed reduction based on the number of interchanges per unit length
Sum up all the reduction amounts and subtract the sum from the ideal free-flow
speed
Determine the capacity in passenger cars per hour per lane (pcphpl) by reading
the largest flow value from the correct speed versus flow relation.

LEVEL-OF-SERVICE (LOS) ANALYSIS

It is clear that LOS being offered by a particular expressway-section at a given
time is dependent on:
The demand at that time
The capacity of the roadway

STEPS TO OBTAIN LOS UNDER PREVAILING CONDITIONS OF DEMAND

The first task is to convert the volume, q, in vehicles per hour, to the within the
hour peak flow rate f in (commuter) passenger cars per hour per lane (pcphpl).
This conversion is achieved in two steps:
By dividing q by the peak hour factor PHF and the number of lanes N in the
expressway
By converting all non-commuting drivers to commuters and all non-passenger
cars to passenger cars

STEPS TO OBTAIN LOS UNDER PREVAILING CONDITIONS OF DEMAND

Determine the free-flow speed for the expressway-section using step 1 through
step 4 of the procedure described under the New HCM Method for capacity
determination.
From the figure presented, determine the LOS.
ROAD SIGN
01
SO ROAD SIGN HELPS THE VEHICLES, DRIVERS, AND PEDESTRIANS TO KNOW THE
RIGHT AND WRONG ACTIONS WHILE YOU ARE IN A ROAD OR HIGHWAY
IT IS THE DEVICES SUCH AS MARKERS, SIGNS AND SIGNAL TO INFORM, GUIDE
AND CONTROL TRAFFIC. THIS IS TO SUPERVISE THE MOVEMENT OF VEHICLES AND
ALSO PEDESTRIAN TO ENSURE SAFETY AND HARMONY TO THE HIGHWAYS OR
ROADS. ROAD SIGNS ARE AN IMPORTANT PART OF TRAFFIC FACILITIES DESIGN.
Proper road signs aid the drivers in Reaching their destinations safety and
efficiently.

TEXT OF THE SIGNS

TEXT OF THE
SIGN
THE TEXT ON THE SIGN USUALLY SHOWS A PICTOGRAM SIGN OR SYMBOL THAT
HAS A CONCRETE MEANING. USUALLY PICTOGRAM WAS OFTENLY USED IN
SIGNAGE IN THE ROAD BECAUSE IT ONLY TAKES LESS TIME TO PROCESS BY THE
DRIVER.
ROAD SIGN SHOULD NOT USE TEXT AND SHOULD CONVEY THE RELEVENT
MESSSAGE THOUGH PICTOGRAM BECAUSE TEXT HAS TO BE READ WHICH
REQUIRES MORE TIME THAN PICTOGRAMS AND SHAPES THAT CONVEY THE
MESSAGE MUCH FASTER AND THEREBY REQUIRE MUCH LESS ATTENTION OF THE
DRIVER TOWARDS THE SIGN.
HOWEVER THERE ARE SIGNAGE IN THE ROADS THAT MUST BE WRITTEN IN TEXT
LIKE SPEED LIMIT SIGNS, DIRECTIONAL SIGNS AND DEFINITION PLATES WHICH
SHOULD BE BALANCE WITH ITS BACKGROUND COLOR, FONT COLOR, HEIGHT OF
THE FONT AND THE HEIGHT OF THE SIGNAGE THAT CAN BE EASILY SEEN BY THE
DRIVERS.

LETTERING, LETTER SIZES, SHAPES AND COLORS

USUALLY THE FONT THAT IS BEEN USED FOR ROAD SIGNS IS HIGHWAY GOTHIC
AND 25 ft or 6 to 7 meters READABILITY, WITH THE HEIGHT OF THE SIGNAGE
ITSELF IS 7-8 FT ABOVE THE GROUND.

TRAFFIC SIGN COLORS

The background color of a traffic sign helps to identify the type of information
displayed on the sign. There are seven colors commonly used for signs.

TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
Red Traffic Signs

Red traffic signs convey traffic regulations that require drivers to take immediate
action to avoid threats to traffic safety..
1ST
A “Wrong Way” sign is an example of a traffic sign with a red background

TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
Yellow or Fluorescent Yellow-Green Traffic Signs

Yellow or fluorescent yellow-green traffic signs prepare drivers for specific road
conditions and hazards ahead, and alert drivers to nearby school zones.

Fluorescent yellow-green signs warn drivers of nearby schools, pedestrians,

bicycles, playgrounds, and school bus routes.

2ND
. A “Slippery When Wet” sign is one example of a traffic sign with a yellow
background.
A “Pedestrian Crossing” sign for a school crossing is an example of a traffic sign
that may have a fluorescent yellow-green background.
TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
White Traffic Signs

White traffic signs display traffic regulations, such as speed limits, that drivers
must obey, as well as helpful information such as state highway markers.
3RD
A “No Turn On Red” sign is an example of a traffic sign with a white background.

TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
Orange Traffic Signs

Orange traffic signs warn drivers of temporary traffic conditions. These signs are
often used to warn drivers of conditions ahead due to highway construction and
maintenance projects
4TH
. A “Flagger Ahead” sign is an example of a traffic sign with an orange background.

TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
Green Traffic Signs

Green traffic signs indicate permitted movements and directions or guidance,

such as highway entrances and exits or distance to upcoming destinations.
5TH
This is A sign showing distance is an example of a traffic sign with a green
background.

TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
Blue Traffic Signs
Blue traffic signs display road services and evacuation route information. A sign
showing information about amenities at an upcoming exit is an example of a
traffic sign with a blue background.
6TH

TRAFFIC SIGN
COLORS
Brown Traffic Signs

Brown traffic signs indicate nearby recreational and cultural interest sites. A sign
showing a nearby state park is an example of a traffic sign with a brown
background.
7TH

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

ALSO The shape of a traffic sign indicates the type of information displayed on the
sign. There are seven common shapes used for traffic signs.

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Circular Traffic Signs

Circular traffic signs alert drivers to upcoming railroad crossings.

1ST

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Equilateral Traffic Signs

Traffic signs with three sides of equal length warn drivers to slow down when
approaching an intersection, and to be prepared to come to a complete stop in
order to yield to other drivers or pedestrians
2ND

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Pennant-Shaped Traffic Signs
Pennant-shaped traffic signs are posted on the left-hand side of two-way roads to
warn drivers not to pass other vehicles on the left.
3RD

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Rectangular Traffic Signs

Rectangular traffic signs display one of three types of information. They may
convey traffic regulations that drivers must obey, such as speed limits and turn
movement prohibitions like “No Left Turn.”
4th They may provide helpful information such as route marker signs that identify
a state highway, or destination signs that give the direction to the next town.

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Rectangular Traffic Signs

They may also warn drivers of hazardous conditions such as an advisory speed for
a sharp curve in the roadway. This advisory speed sign is often posted with a
diamond shaped warning sign
4th also

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Diamond-Shaped Traffic Signs

Diamond-shaped traffic signs warn drivers of upcoming road conditions and

hazards. A “Divided Highway Ends” sign is an example of a diamond-shaped traffic
sign.
5th

TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES

Five-Sided Traffic Signs

Five-sided traffic signs warn drivers that they are entering an area near a school in
which children may be crossing the road
6th
TRAFFIC SIGN SHAPES
Eight-Sided Traffic Signs

Eight-sided traffic signs warn drivers that they must stop and yield the
appropriate right of way at an intersection.
7th

PLACEMENT
Traffic signs provide valuable information to drivers and other road users. They
represent rules that are in place to keep you safe, and help to communicate
messages to drivers and pedestrians that can maintain order and reduce
accidents. .

This helps the drivers to know what are the possible road junctions and help them
to take action immediately and they react quick.

Parking Facilities
Parking Stalls
Vehicle Circulation

Parking Stalls
The stall width is about 2.5m , stall length is about 6m aisle width is about 4m for
45⁰ and 60⁰ parking stall for one way aisle and about 6m for a 90⁰ parking stall on
one way aisleand about 7m for two way aisle.

60⁰ drive-through parking stall with one way aisle

90⁰ parking stall with two way aisle

45⁰ herringbone stall with one way aisle

Vehicle Circulation
Circulationis designed primarilybased on access facilities to the parking garage,
size shape of the parking facilities.

One-way ramp circulation with adjacent parking for multistoried garages

Clearway, external spiral ramp circulation for multistoried parking garages

DESIGN OF TRAFFIC FACILITIES

PARKING FACILITIES
Parking facilities form the terminal.
Parking facilities is an issue of concern in urban areas where space is less and
vehicle ownership is high.
Can be either on-street or off-street.

PARKING DEMAND
is generated by the land use pattern in the vicinity.
Duration of parking
- gives an idea as to how frequently the same parking space can be used for
parking different vehicles.
The average demand for parking and the average duration of parking together
can give a reasonable idea about the requirement of parking spaces in a given
area.
-The IRC Special Publication 12 provides an idea of the requirement for parking
spaces for various types of residential and commercial developments.
For shops and markets, one parking space should be provided for every 80 sq. m
of floor area
For apartment houses, one parking space for every two flats of 50 to 99 sq. m
area

TYPES OF PARKING FACILITIES

On-street parking
The spaces near the sides of the roads where vehicles are allowed to park.
Off-street parking
The parking spaces away from the main thoroughfare and connected to it through
a service road.

ON-STREET PARKING
 Whether for on-street parking exists on a particular location.
 Whether the capacity of the roadway will be enough to cater to the traffic
on the road.
 Whether on-street parking will increase safety hazards substantially
What kind of on-street parking should be provided
If adequate off-street parking facilities are not available in the vicinity then the
requirement for on-street parking would exist.
We can assume that the difference between the total parking requirement and
the total available off-street parking space is the requirement for on-street
parking.

CAPACITY AND SAFETY

Physical roadway space is occupied by parked vehicles; this reduces the
carriageway width and hence the capacity.
Parking maneuvers on the road cause frequent interruptions to traffic flow and
thus reduce capacity.
- On-street parking also increases proneness to accidents on a rode.

TYPES OF ON-STREET PARKING

o PARALLEL PARKING
o ANGLE PARKING
o PERPENDICULAR PARKING

PARALLEL PARKING
The vehicles are parked along the length of the road.
Here there is no backward movement involved while parking or un parking the
vehicle.

PARALLEL PARKING
Requirement for lateral width is less (about 2.5 m from the kerb) and hence, less
of the carriageway is occupied by the parked vehicles.
Less number of vehicles can be parked about 7m should be set aside for a single
space.
Also involves difficult driving maneuvers and hence cause flow interruptions on
the thoroughfare.

PARALLEL PARKING
However, it consumes the maximum length and therefore only a minimum
number of vehicles can be parked for a given length.

ANGLE PARKING
Occupies more carriageway width, but by the same token more vehicles can be
parked over a given road length.
Driving maneuvers required in angle parking are also less complicated

PERPENDICULAR PARKING
The vehicles are parked at right angle to the road.
It is an efficient system of Parking

OFF-STREET PARKING
Facilities built solely for the purpose of parking vehicles
Must concentrate on providing space so as to:
Allow easy and independent parking
Allow easy vehicle circulation in the parking area
Utilize the space most effectively

OFF-STREET PARKING
Different types of off-street parking:
1. Surface car parks
- used at supermarket, complex and office
 - size of stall is 2.3m x 4.75m

OFF-STREET PARKING
Different types of off-street parking:
2. Multi-storey car parks
- 400-500 car parking
- max 4-5 floor
- use for large area

OFF-STREET PARKING
Different types of off-street parking:
3. Roof Parks
- Because of less space in many cities parking facilities provided on roof of
the building
- ramp or mechanical lift

OFF-STREET PARKING
Different types of off-street parking:
4. Mechanical car parks
- with the help of lift cars are lifted from one floor to another floor
- cars are parked in stall with help of mechanical trolley - maintenance
cost is more

OFF-STREET PARKING
Different types of off-street parking:
5. Underground car parks
- basement of the building
- costly in foundation, ventilation, lighting and etc..

DESIGN OF TRAFFIC FACILITIES

Sub topics
1.1 introduction
1.2 Free ways (or expressways)
1.3 intersections
-Unsignalized
-signalized

REPORTER: LOREJEAN R. FLOR

1

INTRODUCTION
The term traffic facilities means any transportation feature or structure that
facilitates the movement and storage of roadway vehicles.

The traffic facilities w/c are discussed have been chosen based on two factors.

(i) These facilities are important constituents of any traffic and

transportation system and/or
(ii) Expose the reader to a variety of design principles used in traffic facilities
design
2

FREE-WAYS(OR EXPRESSWAYS)
INTERSECTIONS
-SIGNALIZED/UNSIGNALIZED
GRADE-SEPARATED INTERCHANGES
PARKING FACLITIES
STREET SIGNS

THE FACILITIES DISCUSSED HERE ARE:

3

THE PLANTING CYCLE

Is a road section of substantial length with little or no cross-traffic, vehicular or
otherwise.

For such roadway-section the only consideration in their design is the capacity
they are supposed to provide

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1.2 FREEWAYS (OR EXPRESSWAYS)us
4

THE PLANTING CYCLE

The capacity obtained from a freeway-section is dependent on the following

factors:
1. Projected or estimated peak demand for the road.
- Ex. Peak hour volume or peak flow rate
2. The design level-of-service
3. The number of lanes
4. The width of the lanes
5. Shoulder width and quality
6. Curvature of the road
7. Gradient of the road

1.1 FREEWAYS (OR EXPRESSWAYS)us

INTERSECTIONS
Whenever two or more roads meet there is an intersection where different flows
compete for the use of the same physical space

If there is no control over these flows exists, various points of conflict are created
in the common area.

UNSIGNALIZED INTERSRECTIONS
THE FOLLOWING ARE
DESIGN ASPECTS RELATED TO UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
Intersections which primarily use static signs.
Use of STOP and YIELD control sign
Channelization
Rotaries
Lengths of auxiliary lanes

THE PLANTING CYCLE

1.3.1 UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

USE OF STOP AND YIELD
- if an approach has a STOP sign then all the vehicles coming to that approach
need to stop before proceeding, whether or not the conflicting stream has a
vehicle.

- on the other hand, if an approach has a YIELD sign then all vehicles coming on
that approach can continue to move and cross the intersection with caution.
Use of STOP and YIELD control sign
10

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.1 UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
CHANNELIZATION DESIGN
-refers to the delineation of preferred path of vehicles through road
markings, islands and other such static control measures.
Channelization is often used at unsignalized intersections to control movement of
vehicles so as to reduce one or more of the following:
(i)The area of the conflict zone, (ii)the complexity of the conflict zone, (iii)number
of conflict points, and (iv)severity of the conflict points. of STOP and YIELD control
sign
11

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1. CHANNELIZATION TO PROHIBIT OR DISCOURAGE CERTAIN MOVEMENTS

COMMON TYPES OF CHANNELIZATION

12

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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2. CHANNELIZATION TO PROMOTE DESIRABLE SPEEDS AND DILINEATE PATHS
COMMON TYPES OF CHANNELIZATION
13

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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3. CHANNELIZATION TO REMOVE STOPPED VEHICLES FROM A TRAFFIC STREAM
COMMON TYPES OF CHANNELIZATION
14

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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4. CHANNELIZATION TO STREAMLINE FLOWS
COMMON TYPES OF CHANNELIZATION
15

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.1 UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
AUXILIARY LANE- are used to comply with capacity demand, maintain lane
balance and accomodate speed changes, weaving and maneuvering for entering
and exiting or turning traffic from the through traffic.

The primary variable in the case od an auxiliary lane is it length.

Use of STOP and YIELD control sign
16

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.1 UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
AUXILIARY LANEU
In general, we can divide the entire length of an ideal storage lane into three parts

Storage space
Deceleration length
Taper length of STOP and YIELD control sign
17

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.1 UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
ROTARIES
- the parameters of the weaving sections are important design
variables for rotaries. These parameters are the width w of the roadway around
the rotary and the length l between successive road entry points into rotary over
w/c weavering movements can take place.
18

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.2 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
TERMINOLOGIES

Cycle length – the duration of time that elapses between the start of one green
period (or red period) for a given approach and the start of the next period for the
same approach.
Phase length- signalized intersection generally has two to six phases during any
given cycle time. The length of each phase is called phase length.
Semi-actuated signals – are often used when the intersection is between a major
street and a minor street.
Fully-actuated signals- use detectors on all legs of the intersection and are
employed at intersections which have similar but fluctuating flows on all the
approaches.
Actuated signals- are often referred to as demand responsive systems since their
signal timings change with demand from one cycle to another.
19

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.2 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
DESIGN ASPECTS OF SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

Warrants for signalization

The IRC: 93-1985 suggests five warrant conditions

Total traffic volume warrant.

Minimum delat warrant
Pedestrian volume warrant
Combination of warrants
Accident related warrant.

20

THE PLANTING CYCLE

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1.3.2 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
DESIGN ASPECTS OF SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

Signal timing design

Includes the selection or design of:

a. Phasing scheme - a good rule of thumb which can be followed

while designing a phasing scheme is to start with as simple two-phase operation
and increase the number of phases only if turning volumes are high and need to
be separated.
b. Cycle length – the primary concern in the determination of cycle
length is the average delay to vehicles.
c. phase length – determined by allocating the available green time in
the ratio of the critical flow ratios for different phases.

21

THE PLANTING CYCLE

us
1.3.2 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
DESIGN ASPECTS OF SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

SIGNAL COORDINATION – is the he linking together of consecutive traffic signals

along a road to minimize stops and delays. It is important to prevent blockages
between closely-spaced intersections or when traffic becomes congested

22

Fundamentals of Interrupted Traffic Flow

By: John Albert Lagulos
1

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

An unsignalized intersection functions quite differently from a signalized
intersection. While in the signalized intersection the common intersecting space is
'time shared,' at the unsignalized intersection the sharing is a lot more complex.
2

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

Flow Characteristics

Delay and Queue Analysis

Click to add title

Flow Characteristics
Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Flow characteristics Traffic flow of a movement at an unsignalized intersection is
guided by the hierarchical position of the movement specified either tacitly.

Unsignalized intersections work very efficiently if the total conflicting volume is

not very high. For example, if at the intersection of a major street with a minor
street, the traffic to and from the minor street is low then the intersection works
quite well irrespective of the volume on the major street.
4

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

5

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

6

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ARRIVAL PROCESS
Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
The arrival processes of vehicles obviously do not depend on the type of
intersection at which they arrive.
Random arrival, Group arrival and Mixed arrival.
DEPARTURE PROCESS
The departure process of a movement is determined by the hierarchical position
of the movement and the type of control ('STOP' or 'YIELD’)

The departure process is quite complex and is therefore explained here through
an example.
7

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

8

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

The minimum value of the adequate gap is referred to as the Critical gap.

In the deterministic view of things, a driver accepts a gap whenever the gap is
greater than the critical gap and rejects it whenever the gap is less than the
critical value.
9

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Delay and Queue Analysis
Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Various types of vehicles arrive at the intersection; these vehicles differ from one
another in the time they spend at the stop line (henceforth referred to as service
time). For vehicles which are at the top of the hierarchy, service time is nil and
deterministic. For all the other types of vehicles the service time is stochastic and
follow different distributions.

The queue formed at the stop line has a 'first-in-first-out' queue discipline. It
contain more than one type of vehicle depending on the number of lanes on the
approach under consideration. For example, if there are separate turning and
through lanes then the queue will only contain turning vehicles as through
vehicles do not queue. If, however, the approach has a lane which is shared by
many types of vehicles then the queue has all the types of vehicles.
10

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Conflicting volume
Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
The volume of traffic in which the vehicles of TM look for gaps affects the queue
length and delay. This is so, because, as the conflicting volume increases the
number of adequate gaps decrease; this then increases the service times and
hence the delay and the queue lengths.
Movement type
Vehicles in movements which are lower in the hierarchy, generally have to wait
longer than vehicles of movements which are higher in the hierarchy. The reason
for this is that often vehicles of low priority movements cannot accept an
adequate gap because there is a vehicle of the higher priority also waiting and will
use that gap.
TM means delay and queue of the movement being studied
11

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Critical gap
Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
As the critical gap increases the number of acceptable gaps in the conflicting
movements reduce. This again increases the service times and hence the delay
and the queue lengths.
Arrival rate
As the arrival rate of vehicles in the TM increase, the queue lengths increase and
hence the delay also increases.
Speed
It is seen that as the speed of conflicting streams increases, the critical gap for
drivers in the TM also increases.
12

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection

Average delay

Critical gap

Data Collection
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Average delay
Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Data Collection
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Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Critical gap

• Observe an unsignalized intersection and obtain data on many drivers in respect

of the largest gap rejected and the smallest gap accepted.
• Divide the time scale into small intervals (say of 0.5 s duration) and determine
for every time class t (say, the gap size between 2 and 2.5 s) the number of such
gaps accepted and the number of those rejected.
• From this, calculate the number of gaps less than t which are accepted and the
number of gaps greater than t which are rejected.
• Plot the cumulative curves on the same graph of 'number of gaps' versus ‘t’.
Report the value of where these plots intersect as the critical gap. This value of t
represents that gap size for which the number of gaps greater than t which have
been rejected are equal to the number of gaps smaller than t which have been
accepted.
Data Collection
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Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Critical gap

Data Collection
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Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Any traffic stream at an unsignalized intersection moves by accepting gaps in the
conflicting streams. Obviously then, the more the number of conflicting streams
the lower is the gap availability; similarly, the higher the volume in the conflicting
streams the lower is the gap availability. Further, the greater the size of the
critical gap, the smaller are the number of acceptable gaps.
Gap availability
Capacity Analysis
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Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
There exists a hierarchy of movements at any unsignalized intersection. The
movements which are higher in this hierarchy get a preference over the
movements lower in the hierarchy when it comes to actually using an available
gap.

The lower the priority of a movement the more it is impeded from using a gap
because the chances of higher priority movements wanting to use the same gap
are more.
Hierarchical position.
Capacity Analysis

Click to add title

Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
Sometimes, at unsignalized intersections, a lane may be shared by more than one
movement. In such cases, it may often happen that a particular gap of interest to
a given movement never gets used because the vehicle of that movement is
caught behind vehicles of other movements to whom the gap may not be of
interest) sharing the same lane.
Gap accessibility.
Capacity Analysis

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Traffic Flow at Unsignalized Intersection
The level-of-service of different movements at unsignalized intersections, like in
the case of signalized intersections, should be determined through a measure
which directly gives the level of discomfort (or comfort) of drivers using the
intersection.

Level of Service Analysis

UNINTERRUPTED
TRAFFIC FLOW
PREPARED BY: PRINCESS MAE C. NUEVO

Uninterrupted Traffic flow

Flow occurring at long section of road where vehicles are not required to
stop by any cause external to traffic stream.
DENSITY
SPEED
FLOW RATE

T R A F F I C STREAM

Flow rate is a variable that quantifies demand. It is the number of vehicles

that desire to use a given facility during a specific time period.
 Speed is an important measure of effectiveness defining levels of service
for many types of facilities
Density is a critical parameter for uninterrupted flow facilities because it
characterizes the quality of traffic operations
Flow, speed, and density are the major macroscopic traffic stream
characteristics.

DATA COLLECTION

COLLECTING SPEED DATA

DOPPLER EFFECT
TWO-CLOSELY SPACE SENSORS

COLLECTING DENSITY DATA

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
INPUT-OUTPUT STUDY
PRESENCE TYPE DETECTORS

COLLECTING FLOW DATA

NUMBER OF VEHICLES PASSING A POINT DURING A SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME

COLLECTING FLOW DATA

NUMBER OF VEHICLES PASSING A POINT DURING A SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME
The moving observer method is a procedure commonly used to estimate
the average flow and journey time of traffic on a road link through data collected
from a moving vehicle.

MACROSCOPIC TRAFFIC FLOW MODELS

SPEED - DENSITY
SPEED - FLOW
FLOW - DENSITY

PROPOSED MODELS OF
SPEED AND DENSITY
1. LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
2. LOGARITHMIC MODEL
 This model has gained very good popularity because this model can be
derived analytically. (This derivation is beyond the scope of this notes). However,
main drawbacks of this model is that as density tends to zero, speed tends to
infinity. This shows the inability of the model to predict the speeds at lower
densities.

PROPOSEDMODELS OF SPEED AND DENSITY

3. EXPONENTIAL MODEL
4. MULTI-REGIME MODEL
The speed-density relation will also be different in different zones of
densities. Based on this concept, many models were proposed generally called
multi-regime models.
In this model, speed becomes zero only when density reaches infinity which
is the drawback of this model. Hence this cannot be used for predicting speeds at
high densities.

INTERCHANGES

Warrants for Interchanges

Design of Interchanges

PABALAY, ANGEL M.
BSCE

An interchange is a system of interconnecting roadways in conjuction with one or

more grade separations that provides for the movement of traffic between two
or more roadways or highways in different level.

Design Designation
Congestion
Safety
Topography
Traffic Volume
Road-User Benefits
INTERCHANGE WARRANTS

TYPES OF INTERCHANGES

DIAMOND

use where intersection can handle left or right turns

simplest

CLOVERLEAF

there is the available ROW

is a two-level interchange in which all turns are handled by slip roads

SINGLE POINT URBAN INTERCHANGE (SPUI)

Is controlled by one set of traffic signals located at a single point at the center of
interchange.

TRUMPET INTERCHANGE
may be used instead of T-intersection when one highway terminates into another
highway

DIRECTIONAL
freeway to freeway or other intersecting roadways with major turning movement
allows higher LOS

INTERCHANGE DESIGN CONSIDERATION

1.Determination of Interchange Configuration

a. Service Interchange
b. System Interchange

2. Profile and Cross Section

 3. Sight Distance

4. Interchange Distance

5. Route Continuity

6. Signing and Marks

7. Basic Number of Lanes

8. Capacity

9. Potential for signing

10. Cost

11. Constructability

12. Compatibility with the environment

Presented
by Cris Jerico A. Ramirez
Traffic Flow

This chapter is concerned with the study of traffic flow on and through various
traffic facilities, signalized intersections, and unsignalized intersections.

Traffic flow is the study of the movement of individual drivers and vehicles
between two points and the interactions they make with one another.
What is Traffic Flow?

Aim of understanding and developing an optimal road network with efficient

movement of traffic and minimal traffic congestion problems.
Why is it important?

Flow Characterization Fundamental Relation of Traffic Flow

Traffic Flow

Flow Characterization
Speed of the traffic stream
is defined as the average speed of the vehicles moving in that stream
Density of the traffic stream
defined as the average number of vehicles per unit length of the stream

The speed of a traffic stream is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles in
the stream. Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time.
It can be expressed in miles per hour (mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), or feet
per second (ft /sec).
Speed (u)

is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway

during an interval of time.
Time mean speed
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a highway

during an interval of time.
Space mean speed

is defined as the average number of vehicles per unit distance. This is simply
determined by dividing the total number of vehicles in a stream by the length of
the stream. The unit of density is thus vehicles per km.
Density (k)

Distance headway is defined as the distance between corresponding

points successive
of two
vehicles at
any given time.
Density (k)

is defined as the number of vehicles of the stream that cross a fixed point on the
road over a unit period of time. Generally, the period of time is taken as one
hour and the unit of volume is stated as vehicles per hour.
Flow/Volume (q)

Time headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive
vehicles when they cross a given point.
Flow/Volume (q)

Flow varies with time

hour-to-hour variations
variations within the hour.
Flow/Volume (q)

Fundamental Relation of Traffic Flow

By definition the number of vehicles the observer counts in an hour is the flow q
vph. This implies that
q= u x k

Fundamental Relation of Traffic Flow

When the density on the highway is 0, the flow is also 0
As the density increases, the flow also increases.
However, when the density reaches its maximum, generally referred to as the
jam density (kj), the flow must be 0.
It follows that as density increases from 0, the flow will also initially increase
from 0 to a maximum value. Further continuous increase in density will then
result in the continuous reduction of the flow, which will eventually be 0 when
the density is equal to the jam density.