# Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc network or
Adhoc wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of
a Link Layer ad hoc network.They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected
wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network without having a fixed
infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology
changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other
specified nodes in the network.

MANET may operate a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger internet. They
form a highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple
different transceivers between nodes .

Characteristics of MANET –

 Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and
rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and
capacity as compared to a wired network
 Autonomous Behavior:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous
behavior.
 Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for
 their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and
lightweight features.
 Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized
firewall is absent due to the distributed nature of the operation for
security, routing, and host configuration.
 Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network,
therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature.

Pros and Cons of MANET –

Pros:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2. Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing
autonomous nature.
Cons:
1. Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference
conditions, etc.
2. Lack of authorization facilities.
3. More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.

#Localization

In an ad hoc network, localization refers to the process of determining the physical

 locations of nodes (devices) within the network without relying on any pre-existing
infrastructure such as GPS or centralized positioning systems. Ad hoc networks are
decentralized networks where nodes communicate with each other directly, forming a
temporary network on-the-fly.

Here are some key points about localization in ad hoc networks:

1. Localization Techniques: Various techniques can be employed for localization in ad

hoc networks, including:

 Range-based: Utilizing measures like time of flight, signal strength, or angle of arrival to
estimate distances between nodes.
 Range-free: Using connectivity information and relative positions of neighboring nodes
to estimate node locations.
 Collaborative Localization: Nodes cooperate to determine their positions by
exchanging information with neighboring nodes.

2. Anchor Nodes: In many localization algorithms, a subset of nodes known as anchor

nodes are equipped with known positions or can accurately determine their positions
using external means (like GPS). These anchor nodes assist in localizing other nodes in
the network.

3. Algorithms: Various algorithms have been developed for localization in ad hoc

networks, such as:

 Centroid Localization: Nodes estimate their positions based on the average position of
their neighbors.
 Multidimensional Scaling (MDS): Based on pairwise distance measurements between
nodes.
 Distributed Localization Algorithms: Nodes collaborate to iteratively refine their
positions using local information.

4. Challenges:

 Limited Resources: Nodes in ad hoc networks typically have limited computational

power, memory, and energy resources, posing challenges for implementing localization
algorithms.
 Dynamic Network Topology: Ad hoc networks are dynamic, with nodes joining,
leaving, or moving within the network, making localization challenging.
 Environmental Factors: Signal propagation characteristics can be affected by
environmental factors like obstacles, interference, and multipath propagation, affecting
the accuracy of localization.

5. Applications: Localization in ad hoc networks has various applications including:

 Routing: Efficient routing protocols can utilize location information for forwarding
packets.
 Target Tracking: Localizing nodes can be used for tracking moving objects or targets
within the network.
 Geographic Routing: Routing packets based on geographic location to optimize
communication paths.

# Wireless Media Access Issues

The very important issues which are observed are: Half Duplex operation, Time-
varying channel, and Burst channel errors.
These are explained as following below.
1. Half Duplex operation:
Half-duplex transmission means when the sender and receiver both are
capable of sharing data but one at a time. In wireless transmission, it is difficult
to receive data when the transmitter is sending the data because during
transmission a large amount or a large fraction of signal energy is leaked while
broadcasting. The magnitude of the transferred signal and received signal
differs a lot. Due to which collision detection is even not possible by the sender
as the intensity of the transferred signal is large than the received one. Hence
this causes the problem of collision and the prime focus should be to minimize
the collision

2.Time-varying channel :
Time-varying channels include the three mechanisms for radio signal propagations
they are Reflection, Diffraction, and Scattering.
 Reflection –
This occurs when a propagating wave carrying information intrudes( घुसपैठ) on an
object that has very large dimensions than the wavelength of the wave.
 Diffraction –
This occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the receiver is
collided by the surface with sharp edges. This is a phenomenon which causes the
diffraction of the wave from the targeted position.
 Scattering –
This occurs when the medium through from the wave is traveling consists of some
objects which have dimensions smaller than the wavelength of the wave.
While transmitting the signal by the node these are time shifted and this is called
multipath propagation.
3. Burst channel errors :
Burst channel errors are called as a contiguous sequence of symbols, which are
received in a communication channel, in which the first and last symbols have an error
and there is no evidence of contiguous sub-sequence of corrected received symbols.
When time-varying channels are used then signals strengths are introduced due to
which errors are observed in transmission. For these channels in wireline networks,
the Bit rate is high as 10 -3.

# Routing
Routing is the process of finding the best path for traffic in a network, or across multiple
networks. The role of routing is similar to the road map for a hotel. In both cases, we
need to deliver messages at proper location and in an appropriate way.
Routing in a mobile ad-hoc network depends on many factors such as:
o Modeling of the topology,
o Selection of routers,
o Initiation of a route request,
o And specific underlying characteristics that could serve as heuristics in finding the
path effectively.

Routing Classification
Routing protocol can be classified as:

1. Proactive Protocol
2. Reactive Protocol
3. Hybrid Protocol

1. Proactive Protocol

Proactive protocols attempt to evaluate continuously the routes within the network. It
means proactive protocol continuously maintain the routing information, so that when a
packet needs to be forwarded, the path is known already and can be immediately used.
The family of distance vector protocols is an example of proactive scheme.

2 Reactive Protocols
Reactive protocols do not maintain routes but invoke a route determination procedure
only on demand or we can say reactive protocols build the routes only on demand.
Thus, when a route is required, some sort of global search procedure is initiated. The
family of classical flooding algorithms belongs to the reactive protocol group.

3. Hybrid Protocols

Hybrid protocols attempt to take advantage of best of reactive and proactive schemes.
The basic idea behind such protocols is to initiate route discovery on demand but at a
limited search cost. One of the popular hybrid protocols is zone routing protocol (ZRP).

# MANET Routing Protocols

In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) , nodes do not know the topology of their network,
instead they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is
dynamic topology. The basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc
network, must announce its arrival and presence and should also listen to similar
announcement broadcasts made by other mobile nodes.

 Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing

protocols. Each mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains
the information of the routes to all the possible destination mobile nodes.

 Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing

protocol. In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is
required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route
request packets throughout the mobile network .
 Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both,
reactive and pro-active routing protocols. These protocols are adaptive in nature
and adapts according to the zone and position of the source and destination
mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing
Protocol (ZRP).
 # Global State Routing (GSR):
It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the link state
routing of the wired networks. It is based on the Dijkstra’s routing algorithm. Link
state routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks because in it,
each node floods the link state routing information directly into the whole
network i.e. Global flooding which may lead to the congestion of control packets
in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the picture.
Global state routing doesn’t flood the link state routing packets globally into the
network. In GSR, each of the mobile node maintains one list and three tables
namely, adjacency list, topology table, next hop table and distance table

# Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV):

It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector
routing protocol of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the
Bellman-ford routing algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for
mobile ad-hoc networks due to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution
Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture.
Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the routing table
maintained by each node. A node will include the new update in the table only if the
entry consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence
number.

Here's a detailed explanation of how DSDV works:

Key Concepts
1. Routing Table: Each node maintains a routing table that contains the shortest distance and the
first hop to every other node in the network.
2. Sequence Numbers: Each entry in the routing table is tagged with a sequence number, which is
originated by the destination node. These sequence numbers are used to distinguish stale
routes from fresh ones, thus avoiding the formation of routing loops.

How It Works

1. Table Updates: Each node periodically transmits updates of its routing table to its
immediate neighbors. These updates can be:
 Full Dump: A complete dump of the routing table, which is sent infrequently.
 Incremental: Smaller updates that reflect changes since the last full dump, which are sent more
frequently.

2. Propagation of Updates: When a node receives an update from a neighbor, it checks if

the update contains newer information (determined by the sequence number). If the
information is newer, the node updates its routing table and propagates the update to
its neighbors.
3. Route Selection: Nodes select routes based on the sequence number and the shortest
path. If two routes to the same destination have the same sequence number, the one
with the smallest metric (shortest path) is chosen.

Advantages of DSDV
 Loop-Free: The use of sequence numbers ensures that routes are loop-free.
 Timely Updates: Regular updates help maintain accurate routing information.
 Simplicity: The protocol is straightforward to implement, making it suitable for dynamic
environments.

Disadvantages of DSDV
 Overhead: Frequent updates can consume significant bandwidth and processing power,
especially in large networks.
 Scalability: The protocol may not scale well in very large networks due to the overhead of
maintaining and propagating routing tables.

DSDV is well-suited for smaller networks with moderate mobility, where the overhead of
maintaining up-to-date routing information is manageable. For larger networks or those
with high mobility, on-demand routing protocols like AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand
Distance Vector) might be more efficient.

2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand

routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is
required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding the route
request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two major
phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
1. Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand
routing protocol. In this type of routing, the route is discovered only when
it is required/needed. The process of route discovery occurs by flooding
the route request packets throughout the mobile network. In this protocol,
Source node stores the complete path information and intermediate
 nodes do not need to maintain routing information. It consists of two
phases:
 Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for
the transmission of data packets between the source and the
destination mobile nodes.
 Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of
the route as the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in
nature and hence, there are many cases of link breakage resulting in
the network failure between the mobile nodes.
2. Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a
reactive/on-demand routing protocol. It is an extension of dynamic
source routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove the disadvantage
of dynamic source routing protocol. In DSR, after route discovery,
when the source mobile node sends the data packet to the destination
mobile node, it also contains the complete path in its header. Hence,
as the network size increases, the length of the complete path also
increases and the data packet’s header size also increases which
makes the whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution
to it. The main difference lies in the way of storing the path, in AODV
Source node does not stores complete path information, instead of that
each not stores information of its previous and next node. It also
operates in two phases: Route discovery and Route maintenance.

# Optimized Link State Routing Protocol

OLSR stands for Optimized Link State Routing Protocol. In this, each node
periodically floods status of its links. Each node re-broadcasts link state
information received from its neighbors. Each node keeps track of link state
information received from other nodes. Each node uses above information to
determine next hope to each destination. It is proactive and table-driven.
Link State Routing :
 Each node expands a spanning tree.
 Each node can obtain the whole network topology.

It utilizes a technique to reduce message flooding – MultiPoint Relaying (MPR). In

this, each node N in the network selects a set of neighbor nodes as multipoint
relays, MPR(N), that retransmit control packets from N- Neighbors not in
MPR(N) process control packets from N, but they do not forward the packets.
MPR(N) is selected such that all two-hops neighbors of N are covered by (one-
hop neighbors) of MPR(N).
 Advantages of OLSR:
 OLSR has less average end-to-end delay therefore it is used for
applications that needs minimum delay.
 The OLSR implementation is more user-friendly and worked with fewer
headaches than other protocols.
 It is also a flat routing protocol.
 It does not need a central administrative system to handle its routing
process.
Disadvantages of OLSR :
 It maintains routing table for all the possible routes.
 When the number of mobile hosts increases, then the overhead from the
control messages also increases.
 It needs considerable time to re-discover a broken link.
 It requires more processing power than other protocols when discovering
an alternate route.

# Quality of Service (QoS) in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

QoS can be defined as the ability of the network to provide different services to
various types of network traffic. It means that the goal of QoS is to achieve a more
deterministic network behaviour so that data carried by the network can be better
delivered and the resources can be better utilized . In wired networks there are
four typical QoS metrics, namely, bandwidth, delay, delay variance (jitter) and
packet loss. In MANETs service coverage area and power consumption can be
added.
In wired networks there are two QoS models widely used: IntServ (Integrated
Services) providing hard QoS but with low scalability, and DiffServ (Differentiated
Services) used in the Internet. Unfortunately, both are not suitable for MANETs
due to their specific characteristics. When QoS model for MANETs was designed,
these specific features of mobile ad hoc networks had to have been considered.
Especially, features like dynamic network topology, bandwidth constraint and
limited power of nodes which make MANETs really specific

Key QoS Challenges in MANETs:

1. Dynamic Topology:
 Nodes in a MANET move frequently, causing frequent changes in network topology. This makes
it difficult to maintain consistent paths for data transmission.

2. Limited Bandwidth:
 Wireless communication in MANETs typically has lower bandwidth compared to wired networks.
The available bandwidth can also vary due to interference and node mobility.

3. Energy Constraints:
 Mobile nodes are often battery-powered, making energy efficiency a critical concern. QoS
mechanisms must be designed to minimize energy consumption while maintaining service
quality.

4. Scalability:
 Ensuring QoS in large-scale MANETs can be challenging due to the increased complexity of
managing resources and maintaining stable routes.

QoS Parameters in MANETs:

1. Bandwidth: The capacity of the network link to transfer data.
2. Delay: The time taken for a packet to travel from source to destination.
3. Jitter: The variation in packet arrival times.
4. Packet Loss: The percentage of packets that are lost during transmission.
5. Throughput: The rate at which data is successfully transmitted over the network.

QoS Mechanisms in MANETs:

1. Routing Protocols:
 Proactive Routing (Table-Driven): Maintain up-to-date routing information from each node to
every other node. Examples include OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) and DSDV
(Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector).
 Reactive Routing (On-Demand): Find routes only when needed. Examples include AODV (Ad-
hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) and DSR (Dynamic Source Routing).
 Hybrid Routing: Combine proactive and reactive approaches. An example is ZRP (Zone Routing
Protocol).

2. Resource Reservation:
 Methods like RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol) can be adapted for MANETs to reserve
resources along the path of the data flow.
3. Admission Control:
 Mechanisms to determine whether the network has enough resources to accommodate a new
QoS request without affecting existing services.

4. Traffic Shaping and Policing:

 Controlling the flow of packets in the network to ensure that QoS requirements are met.
5. Cross-Layer Design:
 Integrating QoS mechanisms across multiple layers of the network protocol stack to enhance
performance and resource utilization.

# Application of manet
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are self-configuring networks of mobile devices
connected by wireless links, without relying on any fixed infrastructure like routers or
access points. They offer a wide range of applications due to their flexibility, scalability,
and ease of deployment. Here are some key applications of MANETs:

1. Military Communication:

 Battlefield Communication: MANETs enable reliable communication among soldiers,

vehicles, and command centers in a dynamic and hostile environment. They support
voice, video, and data communication for tactical operations.
 Disaster Recovery: In the aftermath of a disaster, traditional communication
infrastructure might be damaged. MANETs can provide immediate communication
support for rescue and relief operations.

2. Emergency and Disaster Relief:

 Search and Rescue Operations: MANETs facilitate coordination among rescue teams in
areas where the existing communication infrastructure is unavailable or destroyed.
 Natural Disasters: During events like earthquakes, floods, or hurricanes, MANETs can
help establish temporary communication networks to aid emergency services and
humanitarian aid delivery.

3. Smart Agriculture:

 Precision Farming: MANETs can support communication between various sensors and
devices in a smart farm, enabling better monitoring and management of agricultural
resources.
 Livestock Monitoring: MANETs can be used to track the location and health of
livestock, providing real-time data to farmers.

4. Healthcare:
 Mobile Health Units: In rural or remote areas, MANETs can connect mobile health units
to provide medical services and share patient data with central hospitals.
 Patient Monitoring: Wearable devices can form a MANET to monitor patients' health
parameters and alert healthcare providers in case of emergencies.

5. Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS):

 Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Communication: MANETs enable communication between

vehicles to improve road safety, traffic management, and navigation.
 Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication: MANETs facilitate communication
between vehicles and roadside infrastructure to provide real-time traffic information and
support autonomous driving.

6. Environmental Monitoring:

 Wildlife Tracking: MANETs can be used to monitor and track wildlife movements,
helping in conservation efforts and studying animal behavior.
 Pollution Monitoring: MANETs can support networks of sensors to monitor air and
water quality, providing data for environmental protection agencies.

7. Smart Homes and IoT:

 Home Automation: MANETs can connect various smart devices in a home, allowing
them to communicate and coordinate tasks like security, energy management, and
entertainment.
 IoT Networks: MANETs can serve as the backbone for Internet of Things (IoT)
applications, supporting communication among a wide range of smart devices.

8. Educational Institutions:

 Campus Networks: Universities and schools can deploy MANETs to provide flexible and
temporary networking solutions for students and staff, especially during events or
outdoor classes.