SHIPHANDLING

FOR THE MARINER

FOURTH EDI1'10N

BY DANIEL H. .l\lACELHEVEY
AND DANIEL E. MACELHEVEY

ILLlJSTH.ATIOI'-;S BY EAHL R. l\lCi\IILLIN

I)
COR1~LL MARITIJ.\1E PRESS
Centrcvillc, Maryland
Copyright 1953,2004 by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel E. MacElrevey For the sh ipmates nn d friends
who h n pr. sha red th eir h nowledge of th e st'a and ships
All righLs reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any so u nselfishly through the years
m anner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information ,
address Corn ell Marii11nc Press, Inc. , Cenircvillc, Maryland 21617

Library of Congress Cnt.aloging-in-Publication Data

MacElrevey, Daniel H.
Shiphandling for thu rrariner I by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel E. MacElrevey ,
illustrations b,Y Earl R. McMillin.-4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references nnJ index.
ISBN 0-870:!3-51\,l-B
1. Ship handling. I. MacElrevey, DaniPl F.. 11. Title.
YK543. M23 '2005
623.88- dc22
2004014453

Manufactured in the United States of America

Firs t edition , 1983. Fourth edition, 2004
 CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH J::DITION XI

ACKNOWLEDGM8l'\TS XI\"

INTRODUCTlON

CIIAPTEH 1 'i

Arr ival
Master's Trial; H a rd Right Tu rn at 6 Knots; Hard Lt•fl Turn at G K n<>ti>:
Back ing and Filling; llnlf As tern to Dead in the Water; ~toppiug \1./l.il"
Mn in tai n inrr Con t rol Over lleadi ng; H andling a Ship wilh Sternway;
Bow and Stern T h ruslcrs; Turn ing wi th a Bow Thru::-Lcr; Mos t EtTt.•clivc·
Ma neuver; Ap proach ing Sha llow WaLcr ; Directional Stabili ty; Efi'ect s of
Bottom Contour on H andling Characteristics; Hand li ng of Larger Ship:;
io S h a llow Water ; Approaching Uw Pilot Station ; Stop ping or Reducing
H eadw ay; Picking up t he PiloUMaking a Lee; Estimating Speed
Through the Water by S hip's Prope ller Wash ; Wind EfTe.:t.s on Steering;
Commu1ications with Oth er Ve~;se l s; Pi lot Aboard; Pilot-Master
Exchange cf Information; Posting of Maneuveri n g f'haruclcri st.ics

CHAJYI'EH 2 46
Shi phandling in a Channel
Bank EfTects; Plnnr.mg Ai1eau; Tide [l;Hl Cu rrC' nl; Types of Ruclders and
P ropulsion Systems; Directior.al Propu ls10 n S~·~tcms: EfTcct of Trim on
Handling Cnaracwnstics; lYlakmg a Turn ir· il Channl'i; l' ;;ng Ai d:; to
Nav igati:m When Turning; Meeting Another Vessel or Tow; Owrtakin g
Another Vcs&el or Tow; U~ing S hiphand ling In st rumentation ; Thl~ B:t -
sics of Squat; Und ~J rkcel Clearn·~e·c; St<,pping and Man cu vcrin g in a
Channel

vii
 CO:-.:TENTS i:-.
\'111 CONTENT8

101 C!IAPTEH R loi:l

CHAPTER 3

Use ofTugs Anchorinr, and Shiphand ling

Making Up a Tug; Communicating with a Tug; Using a Tug; Tug on a
Hnwser; Lashmg up a Tug
CHAPrER4 lHi
Approaching the Berth
Good Bridge Pmctices; Discussing Docking Plans; Timing Ar-
rival-Holding in a Channel; Speed of Apprcach; Reducing Speed
Early; The Approach; l3ow-in Approach to a Pier; Stern-in App10ach to
a Pie1·; Stemn:in5 th e Current at a Wharf; Approaching a Wharf-Cur-
rent. A~:~tern
with Anchors
Anchors for Anchoring; Know Your Ship; Again, Plan Ahead, Think
Ahend; An~.hur in Slcps; Planning; Wind and Curreut Effects; Dcplh of
Water; Maneuvc,·in l{ Room; DricfiPg Officers; Na,·igulc by Eye; Final
Heading; Anchoring OfT the Final Heading; Basic Anchoriug; The Ap-
pronch; Placing the Anchur; Laying Out the Chain; Digging In;
Swinging Room at Anchor; Mooring and Ancboring with Two Anchors;
Stern Anchors; The Anchor as a Shiphandling Tool; Shiphandling with
Anchors-How Much Chain?; Docking with an Anchor; Holdin t; a V(•s-
sel wi th Lhe Anchor; Anchors lo Assist Steering; Anchors to Break a
ShPer; EnH!I'gei.cy U!:c of the .1\11ehor ; Lyin g Alongside a Bank; Going
Astern with an Anchor

CHAPTER 5 128 Cl!AlYfE({ 9 20·1

Docking Special Maneuvcrs

Using Wind and Current to Advantage; Measm;ng Slow ~aLes of
Speed; DeLecting Lateral Motion; Setting Up to Back; Qutckwater;
Bridge Marke rs; Use ~inesse, ~ot Force; Going Alongside; All Secure
CHAPTER 6 139
C<.nals and Locks; Single-Point .Moorings; Ship-to-Ship Lit>htcr;ng;
Five- and Seven-Poi nt Mom;ngs; Mediterranean Moor· Williamson
I'urns; Twin-Screw Ships; Mancuvering Twin-Screw Ships; Low
Length-to-Beam Ratio Ships; Moving Up to Larger Ships; Replci11Sh-
ment at Sea; IIclicoplcr Operat ions

Undocking
Planning thP. Undocking; Draft and Trim in Ballast; Singling ~p; llsing
Quickwater When Undocking; Undocking from a Wharf; Backmg from
a Slip; Corr.ing Ailead from a Slip; Coming OfT Parallel to a Berth;
Backing a Ship Toward a Hazard; Left-Hand and Vari a ble-Pitch Pro-
pellers; Turning to Sea; Dismissi ng the Tugs
CHAPTER 7
Departure
Dropping the Pilot; Departure S peed; Maneuvering with Oth~r Ships;
Course Card and Passage Planning; Ability to Maneuver
CHAPTElt 10
Training
On board Training of Ship's Officers ; On boa rd Trainin g of Pilots;
Shiphandling S imulators; The Hules of Threes; Simulators as Innova-
ti ve Tr,1i ning Aids; Ty pes of Simulators; Scale Model-Based Simulator:<:
Scale-Is It l mportaut'?; Com pu ~ r-13 ased s;mulators; Co u1pari,;un of
Model and Computer Simulators; Tools of Simulator ln.;tructH)n. Simu-
156
lauJ r Validation; The Simulator Instructor; Degree of Instruc tor In·
volvemcni; The Simulator Currciulum for De-;k Officers; Tr ~ Silllulator
Cu rriculnm for Pilots; The T hree Steps of Simulator Training; Brir!fin,;
and Debriefing Sessions; The Future of Simulation; Computers for
Testi ng and Evalual!o:1; Simulat0r versus Hands-on Experience
 X CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11 288

t'IasLer/Pilot Relationship and

Bridge Resource Management PREFACE TO 'lHE FOUHTH EDITION
The Pilot Ahoad Ship; The Master's r-esponsibilities in
Pilotage 'Nater!.l; "Release from Liability" Forms; Some Practical Con-
siderations; Dridge Resource Management for Shiphandlers; The Cost
of Respons:bility Piloting and shiphandli11g skills have received much greater all<)ntion 111
lhe y~:ars since puLiicntiou of the first edition ofShirJhandli ng for the Mar-
iner. rl'his is an exciting development fur anyone interested in tlw art and
CHAP'I'SR 12 30~
science of moving ships and, by all indications, it is a long-term prvccss
Vessel Operations that will benefit both mariners and the maritime industry in which they
work.
Planning the Pr.ssage; The Course Card; Bridge Design; Pilot Naviga- This new uncr<>Ht in ship 11undling skillt; has been promptcJ LJy scv1!r;d
tion Equipment; Bridge H eight; Night Versus Daylight :Mnneuvering;
fncton; includmg a grcal•'r awareness IJfihc illlpacl marine collisiOI>S and
Record Keeping groundmgs have on the Ciwironment, and new federallegil;lation and in-
32!J ternational convention:, affecting ;;hip opc·ration, shipowners' li.tbility for
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVEHS
marine casualties, vessel manning und watch offirt>r training requir•··
niDLIOGIW"'HY 3G·I ment!S. Training is more technology-driven as suphi~;ticated <.:Olll(lllLer-
driven simulators become more readily avuilablc to leach shiphand\111,;
INDEX 367 under tutelage of senior officers or pilots. Thanks tot lw ub;qllituus illicru-
chip, it is pos;;ible to provide formal shiphandling, piloting, wnt.chkecp1ng,
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 385 t. nd bridge resource management training ashore in a classroon1 erwiron -
mcni.
Trainiug is particularly imp01tant for ship's officers s~~vint:: aboard

I larger, more deeply loaded ships on fast turnaround schedules where 1t is

increasingly difficult to accumulate traditional shipboard training, nw..~­
ter to mate to cadet aboard ship. Now, several excellent facilities including
the Ma:sicrs, Males, and Pilots Maritime Institute of Technology nnd
Gradual~ Studies facility, the Marine Engineer;;' Beneficial Association
STAl{ Center, the U.S. Merchant Mar!ne Acadc:ny, the stat..c maritime'
academic;;, the Seamen's Church Institute in New York, and the conune1 ·
cial simu lator facilities operated by MarineSafcly In:.crnationnl all(} ulh-
ers, are using rapidly evolving simulacur technology to provide th;.,t
training
!:iimulation h~li still not reached a level w!tcrc it re placeR hanc.!s-011 ex·
peril' nee, but it is being used cffcclively fo!' ini.ial and •. pecializcd training
and as a forum for experienced mn1·iner;; to compare tcch n iqllc" and t•v:J l
unlc their own performance. More advancl,d simulatur3 are al~o lwinj!

xi
xii PREFACE '1'0 THE FOURTH EDITION PHEVACg TO TilE FOUKI"II 1-:lll'l'ION xiii

used for license examination", reccrtificalions, and evaluations of mari- each edition. Hopefully, others will send material for future !'ditions sr1
ners in apeciaiized skills. Dis~u.:wicns of shiphnndling have moved from this text remains as up-to-dale and ns ust~fu! as pos~:bJe for !Wago 1n1! pro
coffee time to class time and the profFssional is better off for the rhc·1ge . fessio,llll s working to improve their shiphandling skil ls.
This fourth edition of Shiphandling for the Mariner is updated to in- Lastly, photographs of new :>ropulsion :;ystems, bridge l nyout~. na vi-
clude ih<' 19.tcst changes in training and vessel operation. Chapters on gation Ctjuipmcnt, hull designs, n·1d upgrach:d simuiHtors hnvt~ ht·cn
shiphandling training, voyage p!anning, squat, bridge equipment, and added throughout tl.w text. The photographs und new lablt•s showing t lh
bridge resource management have t-een expanded. Much of that new ma- latest dnt..1 on squat and undcrkeel clearance keep the book cur-rPnt
terial is based on suggestions and papers contribl'ted by Captain Paul Practice mancuvers are again i:1cluded with tbc text. The cxcn:ises can
Ives, Captain George Markham, Captain William McAuliffe, and instruc- be used with this book ns a self-taught shipboard shiphandling course or,
tors at the R'I'M STAR Center. The S€ctions on squat and underkeel cl cm- better yet, they can be part of a formal ma1·itime academy or r;imulator
ance have been rewritten and expanded based on the volumes of-o:escarch school program. In any case, training and books can explain the science of
gathered by port authorities, the Panama Canal Authority, and various pi- shiphandling, but the art is learned by doing. Hopefully, these maneuvcrs
lot associations including the Panama Canal Pilots A.ssoci:tlion. Larry L. and this expanded fourth edition of Shiphandling for the Marin r.r ·will
Daggett, Ph.D., &nd J. Christian Hewlett, P.E., completed most of that work help many mariners become skilled in n10~ing ships.
using survey grade DGPS to measure changes in ship draft and the beha.,-
ior of ships in restricteJ channels. Material about new pilot navigation and
communications systems, new ship types and propulsion systems, co"l.ning
ships with omni-directional propulsion systems, and bridge resource man -
agement for pilots and sbphandlers have been added. A discussion of pas
sive versus active vessel traffic managerr.ent is included to encourage
debate on various traflic management schemes. Hopefully, this will lead to
a more effective vessel tracking- system (VTS) through the use of the ad-
vanced differential giobal positioning systems (DGPS) such as the very ef-
fective 0TAN eystem now in use in the Panama Canal.
A greatf.r understanding of the use of simulation in training- devel-
oped while visiting marine and aircraft simulator facilities and readit•g a
two-foot-high stack of material supplied by the National Research Co·.mcil
Marine Board, plu:> new material used by the RTM STAR Center and
other facilities for programs to evaluate and license mariners and pi-
lots-is the basis for expnnded sections on simulation for continuing edu-
cation and training. The mateiial provided by Captain Charles Pillsbul')'
of MITAGS, Captain Orlando Allard from the Panama Canal training
facility, H3rry Crooks from the RTM STAR Center, Captain Richard
Beadon from tr.e Seaml!n's Church Institute school, Petec Barber from the
Southampto'1 Institute, and Captains Robert Meurn and George Sand-
burg from the U.S. Mer~;hant Marine Academy CAORF facility at Kings
Point on the same subject has been retained.
Changes and nuggestions sent to the author by working mariners and
instructors at various maritime academies and schools are added with

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
by Daniel H . MacElrevey
First, I want to thank my son, Captain Daniel E. MacElrevey, an experi-
er.ced marher and first-class pilot for the Delaware Bay and River. Dan
provided the inspiration to again update Shiphandling for the Mariner
nnd collaborated on much of the new material. Now, I hope, the boolr.
pusses to new hnnds and another generation of contributors who wilt keep
the material fresh and pertinent to the male , master, or pilot handling
ships.
I am very proud to have a son who is successfully following family tra-
dition as mariner, shiphandler, and pilot. AB everyone who enjoys working
on the water already knows, it is more than a profession-it is a r ewarding
course through life.
Dan, welcome aboard. For the fifth edition, you will have the conn.
It is a fact that those who spend their life on or around the water are a
special br~ed. They arc a lways willing to help a shipmate and pass on the
seaman's skills from one generation to the next. This is fortunate since no
one person can write on a subject as diverse as shiphandling, and only the
contributions of others make this book possible.
The marine industry has r-rovided much of the background material
nnd most of th e photographs. I am indebted to, and greatly appreciate the
assistance from Texaco Incorporated; Exxon Corporation; Sperry Marine
Systems; LOOP, Incorporated; Raven Industries; Concordia MaritiMe;
Kvaerner Mans; MerweJe Shipyard; the Panama Canal Authority;
Htadink Corp; MnrineSafety International; American Presic'ent Lines;
Seaward International; Bla<.k St'lr Publishing Company; the U.S. Mer-
'· hnnt Ma rine Academy and the CAORF simulator facility at the r.cademy;
·he Man. time ln3titute of Technology and Graduate Studies (MITAGS);
and the RTM ~r1'1\.H. Cent.er.
Ar!~nowledgrn~nt is gratefully made of the permissio1s granted by
rJblishers to quo le short pnssages from their books: Harp~ r and Row and
.T. M Dent for Juseph Conrad's The Secret Sharer and The Mirror of the
Sea, r es pectively; Ilamish Hamilton Ltd. for .Tan de Hartog's The Distant
Shore; At.heneum for Jan de Hnrtog's 'l'hc Captain; Dodd, Meud & Com-
X.! V
ACKNOWI.EDG\1 El\TS
puny for Cuy Gtlpatric's Mary, q wen of Scots, tl:e Ilar-vard Gla:;siu;, T u·,,
Years H4o:<• the Mast; and American Hcrilage Pubhsl-ing Cr11n pa ny for
Captain <'hnriP" Pnrtcr Le ·.·:'~ wHecolle::tions" qu.,ted ~;y .'.lexa nd~·r Laint;
in S·•a(arlllg America.
C:-tptain Earl ~1cMiltm rend every page ol prr.:\·ious edition .. and t.J,p
new mat...!rial for this ettilion. I lis writiug skills and profe;;sionn l rxperlt;,('
a~ mariner, r ilot, and lawye r helped put the text into n·:t !able f 11 111 .... htle
his cartoons mak,· a potentially dry ::ubject a lot more int.crcsli ng.
Captain Brian Hope also read every page of previous editions and of-
fered professional advice between trips O•l the Chesapcake Bay where he
serves as a pilot. He ulso contributed photos of some of his beautiful parnt-
ings of maritime scenes on the Bay. The fruiL<; ofhts much-appreciated In-
ho rs arc sttll an impor tant. part of this fourth edition.
Many master mariners and pilots, ind1-t'ing Cnptntns Robcrt Bu.>d,
Dean Colver, Willinm Deuton, Car! Din'5ler, Hobiu Erixon, Curt if Ftlzgw-
ald, Eugcnc Guest, Bill Lcwis, Douglas Hard, Marsh;.!! Irwin, ',\'ntTUJ
Le back, Gcorge Markham, Jaml"!s F. McNulty, Axe! Munck, Phi lip Tom let
III, George Quit•k, Georgc Smith, Wilbur Van line, and Albert Wilder con
tributed both ttme and matenal-incplaccable tnformation based upon
years of expcri<•nce in some spe(;ializcd area of our proft•ssion. Hnymond
Le tulle, Kings Point classmate and Philadclphi:llawycr, gave some ordt r
to the chapter on the master/pilot r elationship.
Contributors to this edition include these same "shipmates" pl us La rr:.
L. Daggett, Ph.D., and J. Christopher Hcwlctt, P.E.; Captain Paul lvPs,
Capta in \Villiam McAuliiTe, and RTM STAll Centcr stafT Brian Long nnd
Captain Joseph Lobo.
Lnrry Daggctt and Chris Hewlett are principals and of1lcers of Wa ter
SimulatiOn Technology, Inc., a lcade1· in the study of squat, sh ip behavior,
and the cakulalion of underked clearance for shtps in narrow channels.
They have completed in-depth studies on this subject for the Panama Ca-
nal, St. Lawrence Seaway, Delaware Uay and River, Hcu~lon Shi;J Canal,
and Plsewlwre. The techniques developed by WST have made it p"ssiblc ~o
stud:v this important area of ship b:havior wtth ~rre2~e!· :!r:::;rn::y ba.~rcl 0n
1 he performance of uclual ships in real-life operating conditions in mnr ..
depth lhun ever done before. Their contri butions t.o the section on squat it•
this text will interest every practicinrr mari:JCr rnd sltiphand . .:r, and tll'~
seafaring conrmunity apprcciat.cs theirwillintrne.;s to shan• that re se: reh.
Captain Paul h·cs is n retired Delawa re Hi·;er and Bay pi lot. J!P is '1
past. prt>Hidcnt of th at a~socintion and has been a respected vPicc for pi lot~
XVI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

for half o ce11tury as a consistent adw1cf.ie of applied technology for )>ilot-

ing. Paul l"riiRs on bridge resource management and shiphandling for
J':as lert:~ nnc.J pilot!>, u'ld hP t.ea< hcs t.echniqu~s fe r hanC: ling ship~
rquipped wit!t Azipods and othe1 advanced propulsion systems at the
HTM STAR Center. His contributions to update this edition are important
because the theme of having matclinl prepared by those "who have been
there" is an overriding principle of this text since it was first publ".shed .
Additional material on simplifying Azipod operation and selecting ba-
sic modes for s!liphandling was contributed from l ect..tr~ notes and inter- ShTPHANDLING FOn THE i\1 AHlNER
views with Ca,?tain Joscph Lobo who teaches shiphandling and Azipod
systems at the RTM STAR Cenler. Captain Curtis Fitzgerald who teaches
advanced ship handling at the Maritime Institute for Training and Gradu-
nte Studies also provided additional informatio·t and phot.ographs on
Azipods.
In :-eality, this text does not represent. the thinking of any one person
but instead brings together the expertise of many. There would be no
Shiphandling for the Mariner without these contributors and the infor-
mation gleanE!d from counties:; mariners while the authors worked aboard
ship as deck offir.ers und pilots.
Lastly, a continued special thanks to Carolyn, my wife and shipmate in
life, for her support, hP.lp. and patiencr. Only those who have been in-
volved in a projl3ct auch as this can understand why the author invariably
cxpt·csses these sentiments.
 IN'I'ltODUCTION

The ablli.y lo handle a ship, especially in confined waters, is one of tht·

most demanding and satisfying of the mariner's >kill:;. It is a skill both H"
old as the fi r!il~hip and as new as the latest vessel to be launched, yet little
wrillcn material is <tvailable to t.he professional Sl'afarer on shiphaw:!ling
and much of what is available is either f. parse or inaccunllt•. llupefully,
this volume will hel p to fill lhal void so the master, mate, naval olficer,
and Coast Guard ofliccr will bt= able Lo gain some msight mto the tech-
niqul's used bv the skill ed shiphandler ,,~ pilot. to move n vessel to her
berth.
No mnst.er or mate of any type of vessel can he considered a ;ully qua.h-
fi cd mariner unless he can h3ndle that sh1p in a cornpet.cnl nnd :;caman-
like manner. This is especially true when cons1denng the classic mast~r
pilot. rl'lationship, a relationship that makes it cs>'enlial for the ma!itcr to
be able to judge whether a pilot's actions arc proper und whether the slup
1s being handled in u safe manner. While it certainly is n ot possiblP for the
sea man to read thi s short book and the n do the wor!· of a pilot wlw ha::
spent years refining shiphandling skills, the book will at least hclp IJlari-
ners to better understand the handling of ships.
Until recently, little significant stuuy was done on the behav1ur of
large shi ps in shallow water. The science ofhydrodynamics is now hcing
appl ied to shiph and ling and much is being learued that wtll allow the
seaman to better predict a ship's behavior. Ships do respond in a pred ict-
able mann er to the forces 01'wind, sea, a nd current, so these 3tudic:; arc
i m portu nl.
Y~>ars of expe r·ience arc needed before the shiphandlcr can put thi;:; m-
formation mto a "'real world" pers pective. So ma ny va riabl e~ and so
many lcarneJ techniques are involved when actually handling ,-hips
that shiphandling rem ains more art than sciencl!"-nnd this book's non-
m athem atical presPn w tion, stressing application over theory, rcf1e<:t~
that fact.
No single volume can possibly cover a llth·; ~omhtion::Jlh at will! 'cnroun-
tered by the mariner when handltng a slup nJr lilll any single LcchntquL be

3
4 1:-.'THOUlJCTION

ngreecl upon by all pn•fessional::; as tlw "besl way" to do ?.JOb. Shiphandling cept tl:is lOnvention as readily as nnothtr-tlw us ~.: of ship :•nd t t',;s .•l to
is a l~amed arl and il is only possible' to give a bl"lrkgrounJ upon whtch lt' mean a vessel of nny kind or si.~e. A love 11f work on t!1c ~·utcr i.;: n ~ t re·
build the r.eccsc;m·y skill~. .;tt·id<-d t,, Je,·p W<ller, nor pccuitar to illt'>l ai{Jne.
A .->incere effort hn:-: been made lo separate fact from fiction nnd all thnt
is contained herein is based upon actual experiences of practicing pilot. Ol,ay, .\fntc.. nuti{y the cngin, ru'JII! thntthet<' r:n • tu:u hrJun; to nrr11 a i.
nnd professional mariners. There arc too many myths aboul shiphr.n-
dling, especial !) ;n the u se of anchors and the behavior of ships in narrow
channels, and where Lh"s \'Olume diflers from commonly held opinio:1
those differences arc based upon the experiences of mariners who have
performed sucl, evolutions hundreds of limes. Il is ttme to ,·cplace the
myihs, horn ll!Ore of an overuclive imagination than of experience, with
fncts that 3re applic>lhle to today's ships and conditions. Further, this te:;t
ts written for lne r-·ractici ng mariner who already possesses some de14fee of
professionai knowledge, expPrience, and training :n navigation and sea-
manship.
Mntetiallhd is not original has been credited toils sow·ce but the bulk
qf this information has been glen ned from lhe community of seamen and
has been passeJ along from master to male, pilot lo apprentice. Il is not
po:;sible to creJit lhat informa_ion to any single source. The assistance of
the many mariners and pilots who reviewed this material is appreriat.ed
nnd the unselfi3h mannrr in which they donated both their lime and PX-
perlisP i!' inciicalive of •vhat makes the :ommunily of lhe s"n different
from that of oth~r profer.sions.
Just as a voyage is o natural progression of events from departure to fi-
nal arrival at a pot L of destination, so too is this book organized to follow a
vessel and her 0fficers from the lime she is preparing for arrival until she
is again bark at sea. This should pullhe information into a l0gical 01 der.
After following that hypothetical passage to its conclusion, spe.:ial evolu-
tions that are not often encountered by the mariner are described in the
nmcluding chapters. Sinre it is inevital.le that such a list of evolutions wtll
he incomplet.J, it t!l hoped that others in the maritime profesFion will put
u:;ide lhl'ir coffee cups anti add to this collection; as professionals we would
,,ll appreciate t:1e opportuni ty lo learn from their experiences. It is t1me
that moro is writt<' n by ndive professionals, as at present we :1re over our
nt'trks wtth the inaccurate and unapplicable theorizing of the bureaucntt
.n,d the desk-but.nd 1:1canHm.
lrH·id~:nt: J:y, for hrevily, the pronoun he is l!Sed throughout. t.he tl·Xllu
n•f(•r to 11n orticcr or a en• .v nH! IllhPr R~rving in any capacity o.nd obviousiy
means n proli•~<si,mal marine;· ofeillwr gender. I trust lhe reader will ac -
 Cll.\l'TEH ONE

AJUU\'AL

/~
_. I ' . • tltl· jlat:• to enlargt• upon th,• ><•ns:llhl!l of ;t :: .. tn ,.. tl
fl·Pis, f()l tlw lirbl ltnll', a ,;h t p llll'\1' under lu:: f,•d , l<1 lt: •
own 111 h•pl'ntlcnl wu1tl
--.J n~eph Ct>m·ad. '! 1· , S,•,·ret <;. ar,•r

Departing the Pilol Dnat M ur_,·land on Christmas day F'rorn an o il
paintin~=: bv 1\larvland Pilot Caplnin Brian Hope.
You are two hours fr o m arri,·ul at your first l' S. po rt. : dlt~ r a tlu·· ·l·
month trip thnt has he en n goo cl one for most of the CTP\\ aboa r d T•: ··
malt' on wntch ~.;.dlt'cl you frorn your warm bunk about hull' an h our l•;Jr -
ller. After showe:·i ng, und while savoring lhe morn:ng's fll·st cup of coffo:c
tllHt ht• hao n'acly for you you contemplate the d 1y that ht>s all!'ad T:..
:-;hip is starti n g to f<:t>llhe shelving bott< 111 as she comes on I'Olli Hhn g,..
and shortly the pl('n:sant roulint' of life aboa1 d a ship at !'Ca wJI I l11• •·· ·
placed with the activity. :so mP might ,;ay the intru:>wn, n ormnl to a :.:;
pnrl cnll.
Till' master has reviewl.'d the appropriaLesu ahngcliredions, hgh t hs t.- .
local nolit-e:s, and rhnrls of the area, and has prepared a wurst• card 1-'hP\\-
lllf: Nur~es and the th!'tanrPh lwtwcenlhc sign ifican t navtgalwnnl auJ , ..,
,Jiace alon~ the channel to the dock. Soon the gear will be tcsl<·cl n ncl rv
(jutn•d lug entries mad•!, and the chief male will Le caiJccj Ul slnnd hy trlt:
anchors forward. The manner's duties of opt•n sea HUV!gall<HJ ,!lld tl. •:
rnyrintl other tasks required of the deck uf1icl•r ut :<Pa will be n: pla ~ cd b:.
thr,st• of cnq~ o handling, I' Jrt adrnini :;ln•tivc work, pay in g oO', p tl nl tll,:.
und ~hipl.andling- tltc lattc·r UC'lTJI{ pedwp ~ the rno: t II'I " IPsllltJ; nf tll
t he,;•· dllllf's

r-.IASTEH'S THIAL
In prPpar:tllutt for those t<1 ~ ks, the p 1·udc n t master has familiarized h im ·
~l·lfwith the handlin~ characteristic:-; of hi;; ship. This i:; bcH done b y p 1: t ·
trng t!w 'co'scllhrough a sencs ofmaneuvcrs :;uch as those propo:<cd h r •
to g ive the master or mate the information needed to pn:clJct confident ! ~
how tlw ship will behave in sh:.llow water. ?rcfc~ra hly thc!<c l Pr;ts wall 1 ...
done in wa tt>r of d Ppth Jps,; than l.!i llt:ws the vc sscl 's cl r.t fL (fi l:· 1-1 ~ u l !n~

7
8 ARRI VAL HAHD Hlr.IIT Tl'H:-1 1\T u 1\SOT:-i !I

again in such a manner us t.o simulate the loss of om• engine, a steeri ng
failure, or other cnsualty. Learn !tow your vessel responds to va rious com-
binations of rudder posiLion andior enguw use. For •xe. mple , t :·y tu rn i n:~ n
twi n-screw v•!ssel to starboard with the port engi t.e <; lopped, or praclin•
swering the vestlel uHing only the engines. Thts wtl: prove to he time w,dl
Depth = 1.2 x draft Depth = 1.5 x dmfl spent when your ship suffers one or more of these failu res and , if you a rc
aboa rd fo r some period of ti me, you will Ios\! an enginl' or th ere wi 11 b<.! a
F•JII shallow water S hallow water effect steet·ing failure.
ofl act :ell. 40• becomes signlllcant. All thcPe mnneuvers should be done with a sufficient n umber o fm ntf'~
I
48' 60'
on the bridge so the necessary data can be collected. These data willlw an·
nlyzed la te r and compared with information coll ected aboa rd prevtous
sh ips that a master or rn t.tc has set·ved in. With a ltttl•• planning, tlll' ~im<;
r<'qui r<'d to perform these maneuvcr s can be found wi th nl! 1 !!ltcr fr.ring
t with the sh ip's sched ule. Since there is no other way to gain the "f't·t•l" for a
6'
i ship necessary t.o handle h er in a professional manner, it is import uttt tha t

Z
20' these mane uvcrs be completed.
A sample data s heet to be used by the pe rson making th0se tes ts ts
~ shown in figu re 1-2. Let's disc uss these maneuvcrs in detail and 1;i ve some
Fig. 1-1. Depth vt:!rsus shallow water effect. thought to the things to look for when doin6 the tests.

JJARD IUGHT TU RN AT 6 KNOTS

marked chanr,es in ship behavior that occur in shallow water will be ap- T his maneuver is made at 6 knots so a feel of the turning radius ofl h<' ship
parent. The se!"ies of mnneuvers should include cc n be goltc'l at normal m oncuve t·ing s peeds rather than in the full ~en

1. Hard right turn nt 6 knotr..

2. Hard left turn at 6 knots .
3. Daeking a n d "illing maneuver starting from dead in the wate r. SS/MV _ _ _ __ __ _
Wond'- - - -- - - - -- -
4. Half a~ tern to bri.1g the vessel dead in the water from 6 k nots, 1eav- Sh:lllow water data Current _ _ _ _ _ _ __
ing the rudder amidships.
5. A s erier of hacking maneuver s, until the vessel is dead in the wai..er, At·----------------
0dl01________________
us ing '.he rud~cr a nd engi ne as required t o keep the ship's hi!ad
within 10 degrees of her i.1itial course.
6. Backing fo : ten m mt.tes. !'tar.:ing with the vessel dead in the water,
TomE Heac 1ng Spece
RPM Te legra~m Turr rate !
'i;;daer , Deptt' o.
{ S(-CC:l ~S ~ :t:~ a) (1,nc ts; throttl" ••tsec) (oeytees) ! Wolt~r 1ft)

ke9pmg th e t·uddt>r· amids nins.

7. Tu rni ng with th e bow thruster, if fitted , to th e right and left acr oss
t he wind . This should be done at 3 k nots and at 1 knot. -

If your ve!'lr.el is non conventwn a l (thnt is, equipped ~ith twin scr ews or
n u Azipod-ty pe l'lYALem ). you should perfor m ench of th ese m a ueuvers Fig. 1·2. Data sh«...oct for tri nlmaneuvcrs
 10 ARIUVAL
speed conditio'1R with which the seagoing ma ri m•r is more fa milia r. Dur-
ing th e turr. do not chnnge enr,i ne speed, EJnd r emember that the r!lte of
turn will be affected by both current a nd wind. Record th e data a s shown
nn th e .,;am pi t:: data sheet. At the snme 1.ime, observe th e aree required to
make lhis ~. urn a nd compare it with a k :1own reference length, :;uch a s t he
distan ce from the bri ,lge tQ the bow, for future use wheajudging whether a
vessel has suff cient room io turn in a n anchorage or h a rbor.
Keep in mind that the depth under the keel will cause the turni ng di-
am eter to •ncreasc until, in shallow water, it may Le as much as twice the
diamete: found for the r ame ship in deep water . Since fvr practical pu r-
poses the rate of t urn is about th e same whether maneuvering- in shallow
or deep water, t he larger area required to complete a turn is not i mmedi-
ntely obvious l.o a n observer. For these reasons it is s tressed that the
shi ph c~dl er sh ould car efully obser ve f. he t urn and compare the turn ing clt-
ameter with a k n(lwn refrrence for use when planning maneuvers in the fll -
ture (fig. 1-3).
HARD LEI~T TURN AT G KNO'l'S
Ma ke t he same m a neuver but th is time turn to the left a nd a gain observe
the turning diam uter. When handling smaller s hips, th e s maller di ame ter
'lnd greate r ra. te of a low spPed turn to the left is appa r ent to the observer ,
\
I /
Ship len<,t:;s
J~i~. 1-:l. E IT,<.t of depth on turning radius at slow speed:;.
TIAC.Kl~G AND FlLLlWi 11
a~< c01:1pnred to lhe turn to tht' right. The:;c di!Terences become less :;ignifi-
cant, however, as ship size increases. Trial data for VLCCs and ULCCs in-
ciic~te that the ct!lierence<> butweet! the turns LO the r!ght anu t,urn:; to thl'
lefl for these largest of vessels ,lri.! insignificant.
However, there arc disadvantagts to tt•rning to tl.e lcfl when manuu-
veri ng in con!ined wuters that fa r outweig h this one ad\anLagc of slightly
r educed turn ing diameter. Thusc other consideratiOns, such as lhc ability
lo back and fill , a re d iscussed in following sections.
BACKJ?\'G AND FILLING
F or the purpose of these trials, this -:ommon mnncnvcr is started with tht'
vessel dead in the water. The engine is brought to ha lf ahead and th~ rud-
der is put hard r igh t. It will be immediately apparent as Uw ship rnO\'cb
ahead th at the turning di ameter fo r this accclcrallng turn is significantly
less than fo r a turn using con:-;tant revolu tions, nnd most ships will tu m in
about h alf the diameter requi red for the hard right turn nt 6 knots, assu m-
ing both turns a rc made in the same depth uf wate r (fig. 1-4 ).
W ater depth < 1 5 dralt
Ship length
-ti~--+-~:3~~+;;;;::~~~;:-±--- · •
a<:ee:lorating
( Eng1ne speed
unchanged
F ig. 1-·t Accelerating turn dia111etcr.
12 AHHIVAL IIAI.F AS T E ltN TO DEAl> 1:-.1 T il E \'.',\TI: H I :J

Whe n the vessel h as picked up .1 good f.win g and some headway (th e
a m <. unt of swing depe ndmg on t he senroom a vai lable for the turn ), t h e en-
gine ir-: put half astern (or f•;ll as te rn for iow-power ed or de~ply laden
'llupsJ. The rudder beco mes leas effective as the ship loses h ead way, so it. is
firs t p t't. a mids hips a nd then hard :eft as the ship be gins t o gai n stern way.
Agai n, the d u r a tion cf backing a nd a mount of st.e rn way depe nd p ri m a rily
on the s pace a vailaole for the turn, but the vessel can be turned in about
o n~-a nd-a-ha ! f-timen h e r own le ngth if required, by reducing the amou nt
of ahead a nd a stern speed th<> vessel is allowed to develop (fig. 1-5).
Again observe the di a m e t er required to make this turn , a nd get a feel
for the mnn e u ver nnd t h e time required to r educe headway. The e fTcctlvt·
ness of t he r u d der while the s hi p is going a stern can a lso be ancertaincd at
this t im e .
D o no t. b e fooled by t he fact tha t , during both this backing and fi lling
m a neuver and the steady state turns, the ship at first develops a E,ood
s wing and the n appears to be losing that swing as the rate of t urn :iv
cr eases. This e fTeel is sometimes misunderst ood und th e s hiph a n dler feels
th a t the sltip is going to stop swinging. The rate of turn will only decrease
1. Half ahead/hard right.
2. Half asterrv'hard right.
3. Halt asterrv'hard left.
4 5. Half ahead/hard right .
6 . Turn completed.
'--::::--...
-~~
u ntil th e forct!S u!lccting the s hip r each o stalt• of t!qui libnum , afte r which
a consta nt rate of turn is 1nain tained. D<> pa t ient!
Do nut. [1\.LCntpt. to hack nud fill to the le t'; unless yO\.. h ove no olht: r a l-
terna ti V L', as a :.hip will normally lose her swing in t hat dirccticm wlwn t lw
en::inc Rtar·ts turning as t::rn. An excP.as ive uumbcr ol cnguw mancuvt•n;
ore requi red to back nnd fill t.o t he left, an J in many Cils c:!s the ship Rim ply
w ill n ot make the mhncuvcr. Some ef the u Res vf the bucl,ing a ud filling
n::meuvcr arc discussed in later sections.
Ther<> is not much poin t in collecting data during this n,ancuvcr. The
rote of t urn nncl th e t.um ing diameter requirce to reverse the vc-;sel's
heading are more a factor of the shiph a ndler's skill than the sh1p's ch arac-
ttJristics , '>0 comparisons are net particularly mea ningful.
HALF ASTERN TO DEAD lN THE WATER
The ship's beh aviorwh en backing con only be learned by obse rvation. It i~<
a characteristic of each individual ship that t he muster a nd mate::> aboard
must have a feel fo r if they a rc to m nncuver th eir ship properly.
While proce eding at 6 Lnots put th e c ngin ~J half a ::> tern an d the r ud-
der amidships. Do nothing fu r ther except collect r<'q uired d a ta ns the
ship comes t.o a s top. The d ata is most Ul'efu l if the maneu ver is per·
formed wh e n t he re is a mi ni m um of outs ide influences and t he wi nd is
less lhan fo rce t.hree. U se vis u a l a nd r adar observations t o fix in y ou r
m in d th e d istan ce required to bring yo ur s hi p to a stop usin rrjust t he e n-
gine (fi g. 1-6).
You wi ll fi nd tha t the sh ip changes heading sig nifican tly, in some
caoes as m uch as 80 t.o !JO degrees in sh allow water and somew hat les~ i n
deeper water, although she doesn't t ravel a significant distance from h er
original track. Despite the difTerenctJs in ship be hnvior in shallow wn ter as

ln.t1al Speed = 6 knOIS

Ruooer m1asn•ps

_____..... -~

j ! -J...,...~....
. ~-_-_ ___..,._ _ 7 /
--~"""..:
::::1..::/._ _ _:::r._~
'·'
Rr pcat 2. 3. 4, and 5 as required. Change of hPad1ng 68 o.Jcgrccs

F ig. l-5. Back. ng n nu lilliug maneu ver . Fig. 1-6. Ilalf as te rn to dead in the wat<>r.
14 AHH!VAL now A:>~D S'I"I:IU\ Ti!!'.,_.sn:w;

compared to deeper water, there i ~ not much difference in the stopping
distance required. The data collected during this mnne uver arc useful
both for r outin e and em<.""gency manPuver~ -.r<''.l have u better feel for the
ship a nd can better predict her beha·:ior.
The ship's lend~::ncy to twist. in this manner when backeu dirc ~o.tly af·
fcct.s her performance of certain routine maneuvers. The greater the mag·
nit.ude of this twist.:ng effect, the more effectively she can b<.· backed und
filled in An anchorage or other confin ed area, but the more difficult. it. ir tiJ
stop in a n a tTow channel when it is necessury to keep the ship's heading
w1thin r<'a&o naule Jindt.s.
Dcpe ndin& on the s hip's configuration, and especially the lol alion of
the house ttnd any large objects such as containers on deck or an excep·
t.ionally high frceboard, the backing and filling ma •• e uve r can be signifi
ea nlly d1slorled by the wind. If you think ahead, though, this wind effect.
can be used advantageously when mancuvering 111 tight quarters. Since
the ship moving forward usually wants to head up m to the wind once the
rudder's effectiveness ;s lost., and to back into th l' wind once 1:.lernway de·
velops, ~he twisting e fTect that occurs when backing the e ngine can bP
used to the sh1phandler't. advantage: plan lo back whe n the wind will am·
plify or dampe:1 this twisting ciTed to your advan tage.
STOPPING WHILE MAINTAlNING CONTHOL OVER HEADING
Again the ship is pro~el!ding at 6 knots on a selected base course. The rua·
der is put left. and us the 1:1hip begins lo swing to port, the engine is backed.
The s hip loses headway while the swing lefL decreases in rate and finally
reverses. When the bow starts swinging right. come ahead again with left
rudder to ch eck and reverse t!1e swing. Repent these maneuvcrs ns re-
quirPd un til the r.hi 1l is down to the d esired speed.
It mt.y be ncccs.;ary to pt'l the rudder amidships wh en the engine is go-
ing nstcm, ro that Lhe ship loses her swing to the left as desired. This can
Keep in mind that botlom con!ig•11 at101. and the pro:\llnily of a hank nf-
fcct this maneuvcr. A ship may back Mth.: wrong way," especially 1f! hl•
s tarl;o;;nl quarter is close to the i.Jank or a shottl area at till' 1:tlgc of th.J
ehanncl, so that the swing to the letl is not checl-..:d. This efl~cl 1s mini·
mized if the ship is kept nt or near midch anncl wh..!n backed.
These possible variations in ship's beha\·ior make shiphanriling int<:r-
csting and en:;ure t h at the ha n dling of ~h1ps will a! ways be an art rather
than a ~cicnce.
HA.'IDLING A Sill!' WITH STER.SW.\Y
When the !.hip is dcnd in thr water, put the engine halfnslern and bark for
a pe riotl often minutes so gooJ stcr nway dt'vciops. );ote nil the previou:-ly
d!Sl:USsl'd !'fTeds of0ucking and niso note tiw dq,TTcc to which tbe ship tol·
lows her ruddC;r -the ability or luck of ubilny of a ship tu steer while g01ng
astern is quite important when moving inronfinl•J wall!rs.
Collect thl' usual data and nole particularly the din·ction of thl• wind
relatiVl! to the ~hip. Sine<: the shi1 wilh st.:rnwny wants to back 1nto the
eye of the wind . it is cspccwlly important to be awa re of liv' wwd. Back
first with the rudder amidsh1ps and t~1cn try to :steer w1th the ruddPr afwr
sufficient stern v. ay deve lop~ .
BOW AND STERN Tl IRUSTER.S
Bow thrusters nre becoming increasingly common aboard merchant ships
ard stern thrusters arc also seen occasion111ly. The bow thruster hn!S its
advantages and disadvantages as does any other equipment.
Aril:antogc.> Uisaduwt ncrs
Lot:ated at the t•xtrcmc e nd of the vcs· Bcc<•.nes i•H·ITective a:-; spcctl in-
!Wl for muxmJUm efTeclivencss. crl'n~s.

only be d ete rmin eJ by trialao it is important to practicl' this maneuvcr Rt Avuilnblc at all l imes, unhkc u lUg. IR~EpjwPrful th;,n r1 r.:oricn, >llf!
Givt>:i gon<llatcral control withollt af- Canuo• be UIH:d to d<lw a :.hip. or hnll
every opport unity. Don't. wait until the ship is p roceeding up a nar-row
fecting hcndw'ly . agamst a curn·nt irum nhc.1ci c.r
river on a rainy , wir1dy night to l!!arn how the ship behaves when the en· Sn\cs some cxpen~"s by reduci1.1~ th.:
!,'lllC is put 'lSLCl n. need fur tugs. lkqlnres continuous mmntenanrt' t<l
This particular maneu ver is obviously important since it is used to slop cn ~;u r e rr.hnhllny.
or rC;ducc n ship's speed so a tug con be made up, to ~ hape up for ducking, or Unusable at very lit:ht dr.Jls.
nny number of other important maneuvers in confined waters . There is lit-
lie need lo collect data during thi!S maneuver since this is primanly a Thn1slers arc used much lrkc a tug to mo1e tlw lx;w and :;Lcrn latcrnlly,
shipb:.nrlling <>>..crcise trwl yields iitt.lc quantitative data. steer the> vt•sscl when going n~lcrn, hol d the ship along-, id<· a 1'. hnrfor Jllcr.
16 ARIHVAL
and hold the ship iuto the wir1d at slow speeds and when anchoring. ~he
thruster's uses are more obvit:u:. to the seam CJ.n than its shortcomings. The
t.hruster is a useful tool to supplen,-'nl the anchor and tug but c~·rtainly
do<'s not replrce a tug in all cnses.
Kec:lp in mind that the thruster is mos t useful at s peeds ol2 knots and
less and sl-}ould not be relied upun at higher speeds. This is very impor-
tant.
TURNING WI1H A BOW THRUSTER
The bow thruster's efTcctivencss can only be determined by experimenta-
tion. The many diagrl\ms that show this equipment being effective at
speeds of6 knots and more arc 3. figment of some naval architect's imagi ·
nation. More than one ship has a similar carefully drawn hut inco rrect
graph po6ted in her wheelhouse. The person who developed this graph ob
viously never got beyond sailing model boats in a test basin and the graph
only demonstrates the gap that rem,1ins between the theoretician and the
real world.
Try your bow thruster frst to the right and then to the left, making it n
point to orien r; your ship so you bring her bow through th e wind each time.
This is an interest-ing maneuver for the mariner since the data collect<'d
makes it poss;ble to predict with confidence the thruster's effectiveness
when stearnint; through a crowded anchorage or holding the bow into the
wind while the mate drops the anchor.
Perform thi::; maneuv~r first at 1 knot and again at 3. To see how far thl'
theoretical data is fro1n mality try the thmster again at6 knots. It won't
have the effect shown on t!w previously mentioned posteJ card, and it
probably won't even be felt by the helmsman holding the ship steady on a
course!
Collect the usual data for later study in the comfort of your fo'c's'le. Pro-
pare a graph of speed versus bow thruster effectiveness (cnange of head-
ing iu deg.-ees per minute as measured by observation or rate-of-turn
indicator, if that equipment is available) for both your own information
and for the use of pilots. There· .s no doubt that the graph prepared aboard
shtp will be mo~e accurate and useful than the one supplied to the ship at
delivery.
Remember that it is not so rnucl1 the power of the thruster that is of in -
terest in these t~'sts but the ship's speed th rough the water at which thP
thruster is effective. A few years ago a tanker turning in the Delaware
Ri ve r collided with a no' her tanker at her berth while trying to use the bow
Al'i' HOACIII!';G SIIAI.l.O\~' \\'AH I! 17
thruster at Gknots to assist in making the turn . It t::; bt:lt<!r to lt·;t rn the ea·
pal.Jilities of your equipment during this trial m.•t•<'U"l'l'.
l\IOST l:.FFECTIVE i\11\1\t:UVE£\
Pt·ofessionalism in shiphandling entails looktng for the most e/((;c:livc mn -
neuuer, not just n rundom series of mnneuvers I hat w1 ll put the slup 1n .1
desired position us ing a minimum number of bells anc1 helm orders.
Having com pleted the trial maneuvers, the shiphandler has a fL•cl for
the ship and is better able to an ~icipate her behavior. IL is therefore possi-
ble to choose the most effective action to take 111 a situat10n.
The most c{fi•clivc rnaneuverw:complishcs scceral tasJ~s simult~zncously so
the ship is h.:ndlcd with the minimum of orders and 1s always under controL
For example, when it is necessary to alter a ship'i' heading to sta rboard
and reduce her headway, the less experienced shiphandler might first
make the starboard turn, tnen check the ship's swing, and put. t.he engine
astern to reduce headway. 'l'he accomplished shiphandl<.!r puts the t!n&rine
astem first aJHi the resulting starboard swing caused by the shi p's t1•n-
den ry to twist in that direction when backed takes the ship around the
turn whde headway is s imultaneously bcin6 reduced.
APPHOAClllNG SHAU,O\\' WATEH
You have familianzed yourself with the local conditiOns of the port at
which you ure about. to arrive, plan ned your passage from sea to b<'rth, and
ha vc become confident that you have a good feel for your s hip and what she
will do under various C()nditions. You now feel ready to h•ing your COI'l-
ma,HI into her first discharrrc port.
The vibration felL throughout the ship's hull t<'lls yot• the depth of wa-
ter under the keel is decreasing. Test gea r, and th<'n reduce speed to mini -
m i7.r this v1bralion. Other t:hangcs t.o expect include
1. Improved s teering characteristics as the underkeel clr.annJcc de -
cn.:a!'c~ unti l, in "h allow wa~~r. a d1rectionally unstabl~ shq> bc-
cunH:s casi<'r to SU!er and !l'ss unHco.ble. This!~ true only if the ~hir
does not squat so mu ch forward that she goes by the head, in which
cas1• the stabilizing efTects of the shallower v. ater ar<.! negatr:d by the
ch,1nge in trim.
:l The sl11p's turning radiuH increases until, 111 !:ihallow water (depths
of 1.2 times the vessel's draft or less) lhe rndius cun be as mut•h as
doublo that experienced at sea.
 18 ARRIVAL DIHECTIO:>:AL STALIILITY 19

1. T he vessel lwisls more when backed. directional stabtlity. If she swint:s at incrca~ing rnks of turn wht'!l the
4 . The trim of the s hip changes, t h e dra ft incr easing m or e at the bow or rudder is :\midship}1 };he has negali\c stabilit.v. A VC'SSP.! with nett!rn! di-
s te rn d ependin g prima ril y on t h e hull for m. rectional stabtltty continues swinbring ~t till' present ;-ate, or contir..... ,.,
a long on her currc!lt heading until e;.;tcmal forces tahe c!Hirg" Sit<:' ha.- ,.,.
These ch a n ges a re s ignifie'l nt and mus t be ke pt in mind ns wa l(•r depth tendency to Clthcr increaS(' PI" decrease her r:t lC Of SWIng when the ruddl~r
dccrea r,ec (fig. 1-7) is left amidships.
T he ship's dirediona l stabil:ty is especially important when proo't'f'd-
Deep Water (al. Sea) Shallow Water ing u p a channel or attem pting to steer wif.h a minimum of rudder at H!:t.
Mur e rudder fo r a longer period of time is needed to check the swing of a di-
Dtrectional stability a function of Directional sta bility becomes more reclionally unstable ship thau is requ ired to start that swing.
hull form a nd trim. positive (s teering "improves"). Il mny n ot be possible t o check U·c swing of a dircclionally llnstnblc
Rate of turn dependent on hull Rate of turn essentially t he same as ship before she lcavC's the channel even though the rale of turn if- quite
chara.:teri'itics an d dit ectional for deep water . n ormal for an aver age ship. La rge rudder angles and constant allcnliun
stabili ty of vP.ssel. are requi red to :.teer her, elipcciall) in confined waters and when making
Diameter of turning circle approxi- Diameter ofturning circle increases cou rse chan ges. As a greater n u mber of full-bod ied ships, und especially
mately three time ship's length. to as much as twice tha t of deep s h ips with open st.erns and full sections forward, are launched, th:! condi-

I
I
Speed loss s:gmfica nt wh en ma k ing
large course changes.
wa ter turn.
Speed losses occur with la rge
changes i11 headiug, but to a lesser
extent than in deep water.
tion of ne~ativt: directiOnal s!.ctbili ty becomes more common .
Because this condition is to a large extent draft crit ieal, it is aiTectt>cl hv
even small changes in tn m. A few feel of drag will change the entire po.: r:-
sonality of an othe rwis<' ucranky" s hi p a nd give her positivr! dircctinwl
Loss of headway in calt n water, wit h Loss of headway with engine stability. An alteration in trim chang:!s the underwater form (Jfthe hull,
engine sto p p~d. a factor of dis- stopped, in shallow water, less s h iflin g lhe greatest subme rged cross-sectional areas of l he hull. For this
placement, Lrim, and hull form. than in dee p water. (Ship ca rries reason , any ship significantly trim med by the head has negative dtrt'l
her way longer in sh allow water.)
ti ona l stability and a seaman fi nd s t hat the charact eristics of u shi p with
Vessel's h!'ad falls off to starboard Head falls ofT in the same direction, in herent negative directional stability arc the same as those always a~su­
\ when engint' goe!l astPrn. but a t a greater rate, as depth
decreases.
ciatcd with a ship trimmed by the head. r-.Jore time is rc(juircd than usual
to stmt such a ship swinging, and very la rge 1-udd<•r ang-l e~: fc,r lungt•r pt•ri -
od;; .:Jf t1111e an needed to check that swing. If she gc.s away from the
Figure 1-7. Shallow walcr effects on vessel man euvering chaructensUcs. he lmsman, watch oul!
Directional stnhility is obvwusly a conditiun with which the maruwr
DIRSCTI ONA L STABILITY
has long bc<:' n fam ili a r , although that term may not have bcc11 used to dP-
Direct ionn• st<.o hility affects th e s hip's s teering char a d erislics, lhe de nee S(Tibc tlw condiwm. As more shtps arc conslruct~.;d with hulls Llw.t nn· in-
to which s h.:! can b<:' chf'cked when s wi nging, a nd l h e ch a n ge in h er rnt<' of ht•re n tly directionall y unstable. it hel·omt•s incrcamngly important. ~D lil·
turn wh en l l te rudder is p ut am ids h ips. A h y dr odynamic i ~;t looks a t .:ltrec- alert fur~" ! " condttion. Yuu arc better abll' to predict your z,;hip'o; uckt\·i. r
t ional sta bil ity i n othe r ways, a nd tests for t.h e degree of directional stabil- both when handhng the ship yuursc.Jfand wht>nlurning Ite r ovPr Lo n Jll•ot
it.y t.h al a shi p poPsesses by putti n g th e ship through a series :Jf "Z" ifsLPering bC'h nvior is eonsid crC'd to be a func-tion ofdircctioHal !'la:Jtltl y
ma ne u verA. 11erausc the changes tn di rectional stability arc ~ignif~cant as liralt
A vesst:l ca n huve positive, negative, or neutra l d irection a l st.abiltty. A a nt!tril!l arc altered, and because large, full bodH•d Hh ips wi~h large block
sh ip t.hall<:'n ds to steady up wh e n the rudder is put ami dships has posit.ive cocflicienll; oflt>n squat by the head, it is c•sJ>ectally important that lhl'~ c
20 EFI-'I.(.'T::, OF 1101·ro:-.1 CONTOUH CJlliiA;.IIli,J~;c Cll .\llACTI.HI STJ CS ~~ }

The :1dditional efft'cl« of .:;pecific changes iP bottom contou1 arc supl!r-

imposcc o.1 these shallow wntcr effects and causl· (fig. 1-9)

1. The ship's bow to move away from more ~hallow wnlcr. This ,,.,,11-
known "Lank cushion~ effect is caused by the pressure hu!lt up on
the area of the bow, as seen in the ra1sed water that iorms between
the ship's bflw and the shoal or bank.
2. The ship to move bodily sideways toward a ne<>rby shallow arua, a.
her par allel midbody passes that area. This mo·tement is caused bv
tlw 111crea$c in velocity of the water Oowing through the restncted
area between the ship and shoal, and the resultant reduction in
pr£>ssure on that side of the ship.
3. The stern of the ship to move toward shallowe·· areas or bnnks due· to
the reduced flow of water to the aren behind the ship, and to the
ship's propeller (J!l the side closer to that shallow art'a.

Uank l'u~hion is unfortunately oftl!n exaggerated in marine texts that

------- -- describe hypothetical ships "smelling" shnllow water and heading aw:lv
from il, s11ving themselves from grounding. 1'hcs~: tales nre untrue and
Fig. 1-8. uA few feet of d r ag ch.mges the entire personality 0f n s~1ip, dnn~crously 1ni:sleading and should he fih'd along with those about sea
Cap' . ..." monsters and fall:ng ofT thee ige of the world.ll i;: more C\lrreci to say that
"a ship tends to 11C'nd away" from shoal water-the effect is not as si rong- a s
potential chang.:!s be given careful consideration when trimmi ng such ofte:n indicated in classic books on seamanship.
ships for ar rival.
It 1s apparent then t h at direclional stability

1. Increases as the und·~rkeel clearance decreases. ····· ... ............. . . ·- .............. .

2. Becomes more pof-tif ive as length increases. (;) H (- -
r4~~~----~~------- ~
3. Becomes more positive as drag incr eases.
4. Decreases as th£. block coefficient increases.
5. Decreases as the beam .ncreasC>s for a given length (length/beam ra-
~~"~-----------------
tio decreases).
6. Decreases as the arPa of the for ward sections increase" relalt,·e ~o
the nrt';; .lf the RflE•r seclwns (as the p1vot point shifts ahead).

EFFECTS OF llO'ITOM CONTOUR ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS

Changes in ocem1 botto111 ''on tour do not a fTectthe s hip's henavior u n til ... ... ......... ... ... ... 0 •••• • ••••••••••

shallow wnter conditions are encvuntered. Shallow water effects as shown

in figure J-7 vary m magnitude with change!. m auerage depth. Fig. 1-U. En·cctf' of chang(•s in bottom contour or a 11t•ar bank.
 22 ARR IVAL Al'l'ROACIII:\G TII I; PILOT FfAT ION

Bank s u ction is more strongly fe lt t.hnn ba nk cu shi on a nd cau st•s n ::;hip

to sheer 11way from a :.h oal or bank. This is a significant. effect that can
mn ke s teering difficult ae the bot ton1 con to ur chan ges in s h allow wate r .
All these effects r.r e fe lt to som e degree dur ing t h e a rri val phase of a
voyage a~ wat e r depth decreases. Th e effec ts a r c mor e p1onounced as the
ship rro.::ccds up a channel and arc diacuss ;:d mor t fully in app licable
ch a p ter;,.

JWWLING OF LARGER 3 HIPS IN SHALLOW WATER

A study was conduct e d by a group vf shipping companies ancl orgnmza·
tions in July 1977, using Esso Osaka to determine the handling ch a r acter-
istics ofVLCCs in shallow wa ter.' This study has been widely circulated
and u sed to refin e pre viou s theori es. The d a ta wer e also used to im prov!'
computer programs fo r the vari ou s shiphandling simula tors used •.o t rain
f deck officern (fig. 1-10).
While mostoflh e i n forma tion contained in the tcr•s is discu ssed in this

I
.t
text, it should be stres sed lhat the tests proved that, contrary t o ofl-stated
opin ion s, VLCCs re main highly maneuve rable in s h allow water a nd steer
qu ite well both wit h the engine turning ahead and stopped . This now
well-documented fa ct, b ased on both the Esso Osaka s tudy a nd on the ex-
Fig. 1- 10. The VLCC Rsso Osa /w. Courte:;y Exxon Corporation.

perie nces of masters and pilo. s who have handled these la rger sh ips in
shallow wa ter, s},ould b e comforting to the mas ter bring ing a VLCC into
sh a llow water fQr the fh·st time. In fact, large sh ips usually steer better i n
sh allow water with the engine stopped t h an they do in deep water. Th er e
is n o need for a ship to move at excessive speed to maintain steeragew.1y.
It is encouraging to see greater attention being given to real -ship/real·
tim e da ta on s hiphandling and maneuvering characteris tics. The data col-
lected during the Rsso Oscka trials, and sever a l other s hallow w ater t ri-
nls, su ch a At h ose done by El P aso Ma rine Company with liquefied nAtural
gas carriers, cnn only r esult in c;afer handling of presen t vesse ls and the
desig n ofb e tte r-hanrltin{! ships in the futu re.
APPROACHI KG T HE PILOT STATION
h should be standl\rd practice t o statwn an en gi neer u, t!1e st. Prtng gear
flat when a r r i ving a nd m a neuvel"ing in r es tri cted wa ters. It's toe lAte w
send so meon(:: to s hin to the trick wheel a fter steering is lost. The engim.:cr
1 W. U. Gray, '!:sso Osaka Maneuvuring Triais.
ass igned to st and by mus t be trained in shift i115 over lo th e emPrJ.icncv :;vf'-
Lem an d then s teering by both compaAs courses an d Ctlllning odcrA-. -
This ope ration must be practiccd at sea befo re an c t.1crgcncy <.ris!'s. 1t
is difficu lt enough for an experic>nccd helmsman to Rler. r in a confined an .1
with no visible horizon, leL alone an untr ained pc n;on under emergency
cc ndiLi ons with the noi ~;c of the steering gear mach inery making it diffi -
cult !o hear hel m orders . Th e half hour a month rt'quired for practw.: i:;
Lime well spen t.
Ther e mus t be a tes ted and reliable menns of co mmu ni ca t111g hetwet•n
the ste ering ge<~ r flat a m! the bridge. A good headse Lwith a long cord that
h:ave:; the wea rer free io move ab0ut a nd use !Joth han.J.s i;; r(!('OlllnwndPti.
The headset. cuts down on background noi&e no inst.ruct10ns can be hen rd
Prepan:! th e auchors for iett m g go'' ith th e claw;, clllti pa wis otT: o;- cler:r
wh a te,·er gear you might h ave abou rd .)OUr particul a r ship for ::;ecu r in 1!
t h e nnchor'l at sea ). Break lhe an chors outofihe haws ep1pe t.o ens ure that
if needed they will run free, unless th e ship is rolhn g t uo hen\'l ly to allow
this. T he a nchor may :1ccd to be lowered lot he wc.ier's edge if a la rge bul-
b ous bow preve nts droppmg it. from lhe h a wse pipl Sn· clwplc~r B for a
discussit•n of the uses of lhe a nchor. )
 24 ARHIVAL STOI'I'INC OH HF:DUCil'\G lli:AD\\'t\ Y

STOPPIN G OR REDUCING HEADWAY
You now want. :.0 reduce ship'~ speed so the pilot can be safely embarked
and the ship mancnvc red a mong otlwr traffic 'lr.-i ancltor'd ve$c:el:; Th"
most common metl:od b to reduce a .ship's headway include
1. Using the ahip's engine aste1 n. (Sec figure 1-6.)
2. Slewing a ve'!sel about a base course.
3. Large ch·mges in heading, including a compl<:te round turn (fig 1-11).
Sf!clion of thi s chapter, so that the ship remains n'asunably c!orc to tho• dc-
sirNI heuding.
A prrferrcd method fur rcduli ng IH•ath\ 'l)', a:.d \\ 1lh \ I.. CC'; ,Jfi . :-, :.J: •.
most pract ical method, is a scrie::; of cours•• changes tu starl>or. rd and po 1 ~
of the ba::;e course. Using this slcwiug mnneuver tlw ship lo!>cs et Slpl·fi-
cant .lmount ofheadway each lime she swings, yet m akes gnod he r d r,; 11 ed
track t~Jward .:; the pilot stati on or anchorafie.
Keep in m1~1d when other vessels are abo1..t that th1s s1Pwin 1; man.::uvcr
lliU} be coufusmg to them. They don't know if your chang<• in heading 1s 1n

The u ue of the engine astern to reduce a ship's h eadway is the easiest actual course change that will affect a rneclin~~ situ<t.tirou betwt•cn Y<1llr two
and most conunon method for slowing or stopping any ship. It. is also often ships, or only a temporary heading change as you sll!w ship t~ n:ducc
the least efTcrdve. A propeller is less efficient astern than ahead-a Iat g~' headway. This is especially tme at. night when the watch aboard the other
turbine plant may have as little as 25 percent of the power astern than it sh ip sres your large tanker ur cont.<1i nersh .p sh owint~ first a gr een and
hau ahead-and a ship becomes difficult to handle when the engine is put thtn a reel sidelight., and then secs both sidelight.~; as you head directly for
astern at higher revolutions. Time and searoom are required to back n th.em. Goon seamnn~;hip di ctates that you contact by VHF nny ship that
ship to a Rtop--ao with a large ship it is often impractical to use this ma- might be conc('rwd and let her know your int.cntions when slewing shqo to
neuver Alone. This maneuver becomes more useful as headway is reduceC: reduce headway.
to lower ~;;peeds, and i s gPner a lly carried out as described in the previous The round turn maneuvcr, or even a large change in headiag, quid:lv
takes the headway oO'any sh1p, \.,.; th the reduction beinJ! greau~r for lnq;e.r
Cha'1g3 or heading = go• Change or heading =1so• ships. Thi s maneuve r dis putes the claim that VLCCs can't be handled
Speed " 6.5 knots
Elapsed time .: 4 M. <O S
Speed= 4.2 knots
RPM= 52
safely in crowded wat.crs "because it reqUires miles to slop those b!~ h,t-
Elapsed time =9 M. 20 s. bics." A rule of thumb is that a VLCC loset: ?.5-30 percent of he r headway
for every 90 degree change in heading.' If the shi p is procec~ing at 1~
c; Ship length knots, her headway is reduced to 2 to 3 knots at the completion cf a rou nd
tu~n even though the engine con tinues to turn ahead for sleera{;ewn~·. Th.:
/ sh1p completes this turn in about three times h er length in deep water, ur a
titl es::; t han ~ix times her lenglh in shallow water. (See fi gu r e 1-~.)Th :Jt i~
much less than the oflr.claimed "se\erul m1les" stopp111g distance suppos-
edly rcqu1red for these ships.
This round turn maneuver is useful

'
\
1. Wlwn in a crossmg situation at scn it i.~ necessary to
.. v<.HI col!tswn.
:.!. To :-;iu,,· n siup bdore urri val ut a pilot station.
'L T-, make n Ice for a pilot.
4. Tu f top a shi p afl.cr losing tlv: en~ ne.
mnllf'II\'Cr to

=
Initial s~ed 12 knots (60 rprn)

I
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nudder hard ropht

l"ig. 1-ll. Loss uf Rpccd during r0und turn. 2

Ship l'crformancc Data for VLCr.s.

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26 ARRIVAL I'ICKI=-'G UP TilE i'ILOT/~IAKIN(, A I hf.:

The round turn mancuver used in d crossing situation at sea accom-
plishes severe! tasks simultaneously. Your ship is tumed away from the
other vP-ssel and makes e 360-degree course change while reducing ltead-
''hly. At. the completion oflhe turn s he is back on her originnl heading at a
minimum speed, and you probably find that the other ship ha s crosFcd
your course line a11d is safel y on her way.
lf a round t.um is used to make a lee for a pilot., th e ship both sweeps a
calm area tor boarding and loses headway.
The round t.urn can be used to stop your ship after losing her engine,
since she will usually respond to her rudder if given a chanc~. The sh ip re-
mains in the limited area needed to make the turn while losing h eadway
until st.oppec. or nearly so. While she might carry her way for an extended
petiod if moving straight. ahead, she stops in a surp1;singly short ti1:1c
when pt:!. into a hard-over turn. It is stressed that. the ship does respond tG
her rudder without the propeller t urning ahead at even very low speeds.
A master or deck ofFcer, accustomed to the ship's immediate rcspot~se
t.o rudder movements at sea, might feel that. she does not steer eiTeclively
when the engine is stopped. Often a master advises t.ne pilot that the ship
does not. st.eei· without the engine, or will not steer at less than some <'xces-
s ive specrl, such as 6 knots. In waterways such as the Panama Canal, or in
a port area where speed il' naturally restricted, this lack of steeri.1g capa-
bility would create an interesting situation if it. really Pxisled. The Pan-
ama Caual loc!{S certainly could not be entered at. such a speed and yet the
ship must be steered all the way into the jaws of the lock. Ships do, in fact,
respond to rudders at very low speeds if given a chance.
This is a comforting fact as the world's merchant. fleet becomes almost
exclusively powered by diestl engines. The odds increase to some extent
with his:h·powcred boats and Sjh'rial bonrdin~ facilities wb•re it is pn'·
ferred that the ship procet•d at higher speeds. You arc usually aware of
thi:; rcq u irem ell'. er the pilot wi 11 inform you cf 1t >. i;t '.'!IF wh ~ :1 yuu ;::: 11
the stnt inn two hours before arrival. Unless infor111ed othcrwist•, llw
3-to-4-.-not speed is comfortable a.td ye I, not so slow that the boat ha;; cll!li-
culty staying alongside while transferrin(~ the pilot t.o the ladde r.
Make your approach so as to give the pil01. a goc.d Ice and rcmPm ber
that it is possible to kn ock down a short chop ~y putting a swinG on y 11 w
ship just IJefo re the pilot. boards so th e 'lliCirter i:; swinginiJ atcc!y fnun the
pilot bont. WSwceping a Ice" in this manner is <.syeciall:· helpful wi:, n
there i;; a cross sea aud s well since you can block the !'well with the ship's
hull and then knock down the contrary sea as the pilot h1 an.ls (fig. 1-12 .
Making a lee often rcquii'!J:; some careful plnnning, especially when a
shoal area or lrafiic restricts maneuvering.llere again, a complete round
turn may be the best. way to make a good lee, even if it appemn at first to l;e
VNy time ronsuming. Since the turn ta kes oiT a great deal of the ship's
hcadway, you c 111 make up for some of the time required to make this
round turn by bl'ing able to a pproach the station at a greater s peed than
would ha'e been possiblc> Lad you proceeded din•ctly and then slowed with
t lw eng1111~ alone. More importanl, while it may not. look rough from the
I I
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~I )

'I \
that the engiue will not. go astern if a ship is diesel propelled since it.~~ l
I
stopped and restarted astern in most. cases-but you can still get th e s hip ~ i
\
I (/)
-:;.
safely stoppeci usmg a round turn. The rotmd turn is useful in these and I
) ~ \
other situnt.ior.s and every master or wat.chstander must keep the maneu-
Sea
I
) \ )
ver in minrl to reducE> ncadway and avoid c:tsualties both in the open sc-~t I I
Sl. ep: 11.'11 I I
and when mane t.vel'ing. :orodol I
r I
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}
PI CKl='lG UP THE PILOT/MAKJNG A LEE ':
\ \ t
As you approach tltc pilot station af:.er several days steaming f.t sea s peed,
n com·cious effort is required on the part of conning officers to reoricrtt
themselves to the !ewer speeds nJcessary for maneuvering. When m akmg
•, - _;; ))
a Ice for tltl pilr)(, be s ure speed is reduced t.o 3 to 4 knots. There are ports Fig. 1-l 2. ~hip 111 hard over turn "sweeps a Ice·• l"or tlw pilot.
28 AHHIV AL
bridge, it is rough down there in that small launch , and the tr:m ~fer ':ill
often he hazardou~:. Professionalism demands that you make the sttuat10n
as s afe as iJCSSihle for the pilot, regardless of how late you a re arri ving at
the terminal, or how many gangs might be waiting at the duck.
To further assist in sweeping a lee wtthout gaining excessive headway,
you can use the pre\"iously described backing and filling maneuver. Come
ahead to start the ship swinging to the right and then put the engine
asten:. The ve:;sel turns about her pivot poin ~ while headway is simulta -
neously reduced so the maneuver does not require any great amount of
searoc.m. Remember, though, that all the way must not be taken ofT the
ship as thill makes it difficult for the pilot boat to stay alongside. It is also
important not to bark so long tha t the wash reaches the pil ot ladde r a nd
sweeps the p1lot launch away from the ship's side.
ESTrMATING SPEED THROUGH THE WATER
BY SHIP'S PROPELLER WASH
How, on a darl: night without a Doppler log, do you tell what speed you
are making? By watching the wash from the propeller. When the eng im
is going nstem, the ship'A speed is down to about 2 knots when the wash
from the propeller begins to move •1p the starboard side of the ship So
long as that wash is being left behind the ship, you arc making som('-
thing in exress of 2 knots. Of course, as every ~cam an knows, once the
wash reaches halfway up the s hip's hull, the ship is dead in the w ater.
(See figure 4-2.)
Would you want a g ood, sound ladder to scale a two-to-four-story sway-
ing building? The pilot wants at least as much when boarding your rolling
ship in a seaway.
Be sure a cie.J.n piwt ladder meeting current IMO and USCG s tan dards
is properly rigged under the supervi sion of n licens ed deck office r . This of-
fice r mus t visually and physically inspe:ct the ladder as it is rigged and be
in a ttendance while th e l,ilot embarks or disembarks. Two seamen mus t
also br on hand at thflsc tim-"s. Us e only a proper ladder, r eser ved for use
as a r 1io;: iadder , tha t is made up so t hat
1. The r .u~gs a rc of one piece h a rdwood.
2. The button• four nmgs a re of r einforced h a rd rub be r.
3. The ru ngs ha"e a nons kiJ surface.
4 Run j!s ar e <' L least 19 inches long, 11 inches deep, and l inch thick.
ESTI MATING S''EED THROUG H TI.E WATEH 29
5. The ladrl..-r is h u ug by single lengths oD1anila or p n •str~tchccl llow
:::1 retch ) Dr.cr on.
6. Tht•re i,- a rlea• !>pace 16 to HI inrlw~ lwt,•·•.•E:: t.he line:; :1cross t•.:rh
r ung.
7. Th·· re ar<! 12 to 15 inches betwe~n the rungs!
lia\"e a hea\·i ng line avail able to handle th e pilot's bag (it may contnin
your mail. so han dle t he bng with ca r e!) ami a hfe r ing with wo t~rlighl.
Maintain comlllunicnt.ions by walkie-ta lkie betwee n t he pilot ladder and
the bridge when the pilot. is boarding 0r lea vine Kerp the lnd <:cr and t h ~
deck area at the head ofthc ladder well lighted. Place a light. uf\. hut nenr th('
ladder so it ilium•nates the ladder without bli nding the 1l1lot. boat operator.
Coming aboa rd on n winter ni gh t. is clungcrous enough wi thout h:\\"ing
t.o use an iced- up iacicier. Keep the ladder on deck in icy weat her and put it
over th e ~ ide only when the pilot b oa~ is alongside.
Spreaders are required if there are mor e than nine r ungR in t he ladder,
to keep th ~.; lndd er from twis ting. These spreaders must be nt least 70
inches long, placed at inte rvals not exceeding nine rungs apar t, and bP se-
cured behmd and in-line with rungs."
The maximum di:>tance that a pilot s hould have to climb is 9 mete rs (30
feet), and an accommoda tion ladder must be used in conjunction with the
ladder as shown in figure 1-13 when !.he dis tance from the water to t he
deck exceed'> that amount.
Ue sure to J a~ h th e accommodati on ladde r tight alongside' he ship\\ itb
the fra p ping line U (fig. 1-14). This important li ne is often forgotten, letl'."-
ing t he accommoda t ion ladder free to swinr{ away from the hull as th(' ,,hip
rolls in a swell at the pilot s tat.wn. Th e frnppi ng linC' also holds the art·on>
modation ladrlt'r alongside when the s h1p has a smnllltst a nd , s ince the pi·
lot. ladder 1s lashed to the nccommod ntion ladde: at pui nt D, t his in turn
m inimizes the ::!moun t. the long pilot ladder is free to swing.
The acces.; to thr deck must be eit.her t hrough an opening in th e bul-
wa rk or O\"<'r tiH: rai l usi ng stanchions at )('ast 40 tnche high secured i!lto
the bul wark together with a sLurdy set of steps down to the derk Too m a:~:·
pilots ha\·t· been neerl l<'ssly hu rt trying to cli mb over the rai l C.' r gunwale
(fig. 1- lfi
3 Mu lcalm t" Armstronp,, Pilot Locldu Sa(l!ty, pg. 8 - 1~.
4 lhHI., pg I 'i.
30 ARRIVAL WIND EFFECTS 0.'\ STEI:H:NG

WIND EFFECTS 0~ STEEHINC;

As lhe ship slows, she begins to fePI the w111d and beco111e more dlfliculllo
slcer if thl! \\"Lalher L; not Lht: bl'"l. The freehoard or ··s ad area" that ~he
ship prt!sent::; will he the priucipal factor determining how much effect
the w;tH 1 will have on steering, al lho11gh the ratio of the ship's draft lo

Ill I
A ----

Fig. 1- J 3. "It's a long way up." Courtesy Lee Klimo.

Rig man ropes on ea.::h side oflhe ladder. Make sure the man ropes hang
free of the ladder so they do not hinder the pilot's climb. If th e man rope£
are swinging across the Judder, the pilot may request they be pulled up on
deck. Not all pilots use the man ropes but they should be available to assist
a pilot in tranaferring safely from ship to launch. Have the manropes a nd
A Mall! i~ rad•o
ladder rigged well above the .vater so they clear the deck of the launch ly- cont<Jcl wrtn t.mdgc
mg alongside. A ladd.er ly ing on the launch deck may trap and injure the
B F rapnrng hnc lo
pilot, while a ladder lyi ng bet wcen the launch and the s hip's hull may be IJsh the accommcdJtron
pulled down f1·om the Rhip by the pitch ing la un ch . ladder aiongsido
lf a pilot h ::>is t is mwcl, be Rure a conventional l adder is also rig!!ed .. Searr ;;n w.th 3
alongs1de and available. Many pilots have had enough bad experiences hca,··'l~; !me
-.... ilh these ho1st.s that they r<'fuse to use them, and even if the hoist is usec
0 Prlot ladder lash'!d
the' ladder must be. availabl ~ in case a problem develops. to tho acr.ornmO'latron
Higs for ,Jroper boardmg facilities with various r.omLinallons of fn'e- lnddcr
board and hullty}Je ,1rc shown in figure 1-16. Titles of some usl:!fu l books
an d pamphlc. ts about pilot b;:mrding lt•cimique,; and facilities are included
in t he l3ibli{lgraph_y. Fig. 1-14 . Use of l'ombinnlion of pilot and accommodalion ladd!'rs.
 32 ARRIVAL

ProVlJ.n] l or
rour>CA:-d 11 Jl

I
1 r.·

Ladder d<'ldol<
~
~
Place 70-rndl (1 B m) spreaders at tr~a:Js
all(i not bct"We.=n Also. tcavo no I :e!>S
than 12 rnctv>s (0.31 m) and not more lh:m
( 16 in:hcs (0 41 rn) betv.een lhe lwad~ "'"'0
rnakong all tread spac .1g bQU<ll
117"
3m

Lifeline at least
twice as long Co.rect Incorrect
as freeboard

Fig. 1-15. 'l':,,pical bulwark steps and boarding area safety aids.
59'
1.5 m
freeboard will also be important. Needless to say, even if the amount of
sail area is not great, if you arc only drawing 10 fe~t forward, you will find 4~· -;
the wind a problem as you begin to reduce s peed .
H ow much will your v<;ssel feel the wind? As a rule of thumb, based on
1
39'
0. 11 5 m-;
1m Special notes
tests with varivus types of ships, at very low maneuvering speeds, a The !!'ltire boardtng area m~st b<'
Walerline - - - - +
high-sided shi;J such as a passenger s hip or a containership will feel the Vessels w•l:-l ~JiiOI hcists illumin1led bflights ngflcd over
wind significantly at a wind speed of three times the ship's speed, wl.ilc a must also have prlot vessc!"s side anu dtrectf'd lnboJrd
ladders nggod loward 1/le ty,~rdong art'a.
loaded tanker will require a wind speed or at least five times the ship's
Pllol ho•st
speed before being affected to the same degree. Other types of cargo ships /
will fall somewher~ in between th ese t.wo ratios, depending on their house
configuraliou, rleck load, and freeboard and even ship types that appear -,.. .,., _
...

s1 milnr a~ first gbnce may have different ch aracte risti cs.' (See figure P•lot ladder tem;:>oranly
1-17 .) For example, r.ew classes of passenger shi ps with deck after deck of _ _ Id shed clear ol pilot
hoist and ready lor
closed balcon iez separated hy vertical bulkheads at right angles to th e emergency use

r. l\Iary land Pilui Captnin Br·ian !l ope, F;/ Paso Consolidated Man etwering
Trials , J<;l Pa ~:o Mar11rl' Comf!any, Solonums, Maryland, 1978. Fit:- 1-1G. Pil0t ladder pointers.
 34 AIUUVAL WI!'>D EFFECTS ON ST8EJW.:G

hull seem to catch th e w ind. The shi ph andle r must a llow for more leeway
'"hEm a pJH·ouchin g a !Jerth or a nch orage for a given wind force. Appar-
E'n tly , th e wind cannot !)a ss smoothly dow n t h e ship's sid e as it would
l'liong the hu ll ot the cou ve ntion al ship so the sh1p ;s pushed laterally at a
greater r ate d ue to what some pilots re fer to as a n "ice tray" due to t he ap-
pearance or these ships wit h t h eir row a fter row of recessed boxes. An ex-
perienced shipha ndle r considers shi p types a n d oddities such as t he ire
tray e iTect th at deier m i ne the e iTect of wind s t eeri n g nnd t he leeway re-
quired a t :;low speeds.
Keep i n mind tha t a loaded con tainersh ip, passenger s hip, auto car-
rier, or high -sided liquefi ed gas carrier with 75 feet of freebonrd presents
!iO,OOO w 60,000 squa re feet of side to t h e wind (fig. 1-17). A fu ll r.ggcd
sailing sh;p carried about 45,000 square feet of car..uas. Obviously, the
wind direclion and force is a t least as irnpo1·La nt to a pilot or master han-
dling- m odern motor ships as it was to s hip's m a s ters m an euverin g s h ips i-1
the days of sail. Ships mny grow la rger a nd look diiTe r ent bu t th e wind and
I
I
sea haven't c:1anged a nd t h e basic p rinci ples of shiph andling remain very
much the sa m e , n o m att er how many fl ash ing lights and a la rms we ,JUt. on
I the bridge.
I trim. Only yo u wi ll know exactly how you r &hip will behave in <t ;;t.rong
I 20
___ _..., , ' '
.. ...... -- .... - ·----- ---· .. -- ------ ... -----
\ , ' -:
15
-o~'
Conversely, the slup's spC'cJ CHn b~.: n'duccd ton point dctcrmincJ by
that :;a me ratio of wind force t0 sl11 p's speed before you would lll•giu to ha Vf!
problem; steering. This is not to l>U.\' that vou cannot steer nt th:J~ po nt
but rather l11alyou will then need to use the engine U> steer, givinr a ktck
ahead ns the ship !:tarts to come up into the wind. Wh"n you arc tryin r to
stop the :;}up, this can obviously hccome a pr .>blem. Dy puncl11ng tlw en-
gine ahead, lhat. is, significantly inrr easing the revolutions for JUst long
enough to !'tart the ship swinging back to the destred headin~:;, you will be
able to control the ship withou:. significantly increasing her hl·ndway. You
should keep in mind that th~ wind wi!l become nn important factor m han-
dling the ship as you reduce speed w hen making arrival or slowing to pick
up the pilot, nnd consider this f<1ctor when plnn:liL.J your arrival.
How will the ship react as you reduce speed'! Ships of most configura-
tions will normally head up inlo the wind aL incn,ru;;n~ly larger an~lc:> :1s
the ship loses headway. When finally dead in the water, the ship will ust.;-
ally want to lie bea m to the wind. With st.e.·nway, the ship \\ill want to
back into the wind. Be aware, though, thut every ship will behave a little
diiTerently depending on the silhouette that she presents to the wind,
that is, the local ion of the house, deck cargoes, amount of frccboard, and
, ,'
wind, and then only after extensive experimentation With her. Again, Jt is
stressed that you should get as much experience us possible handling your
, ,
,
vessel under varyi ng conditions. Don't. let you r natural reluctance caused
.,
, ,, by lnck of experience dctcr you from creating oppurtuni tics to handle your
: 04e.,c;
~c,
J ,-' shi p and develop a feel for h er ul slow SJW!ds. Any damn fool can handle

I
lJ'..:s~ I <I'
~/ ·$~ .,~ his ship at sea speed!
11)
cP. ' :!:f> , , ~"'
0c: orP,-· ,~e(lj : --~e"'.,e Here again , a poten tial problem such as a strong wind can be made nn
X
,o~' 6,'b,e ! , ;;'I>tO aid once the shiphandler he(;ins to appreciate Ius shijJ's bt'havior and
~eb ~eTI
~ 10
-g
Q) ....~r:::- ·,<:-'0 ", ·,~~
\\ee plans his maneuvcrs with that behavior in mind. An example wuulu ben
a. , ~o, ,"e<.~,
I <?
"0
c: .~-0~e\··""'"'~.\,.: --~,<>~
~ ,.-'~0· i:'
thip that must turn around and head to an anchorage, or perhaps to !:'ea lf
she is loaded with con!.mners, it might not be possible U> turn w a din!Ctwn
I ""'>
' iP
0 t lnl requires the bow t.o come through tht- wind- ~i1e might be held on her
I 5 - ·--- (p-:o-" ''
head ing b:· the wind much iike: a sailing ship m irons, and her spC'cd would
,, '
:'
,, , , ,,
.,.
1 ncreasc Wi thoul any signiiican t chR nge m her heading. If the shi 1> is in -
, ,, ,
, ''

0
,, ,
1 2
''
'
4
I
!> 6
stead turned away from the wind (or back and filled around if the amount
of scaroom avai lable will not allow a 1\(;rmal turn), ar.d her stcrn is
brought across lhe wind during the mancuver, the wind will :1ssist tlw
Sl•lp·s speed 1n knots
slHp 1n turning. As stcrnwny develops the ship wi ll turr. cnstly as she
Fig. 1- L7. SpePd of vessel at. 'V h ich 'Vind Lakes cha rge. (See footnote 5.) bacl:s inl<• the wind, so that when :;he comes ahead O!~uin the wind, now on
 ARHIVAL
the quarter, will assistlwr in turning. This is true even if due to tho config-
uration of the channel or anchorage the ship must back and fill in what or-
dmarily would be lhP. "wr<'ng way," to the leftr- since the normallendPncy
of the sLcm ~o go tl> port. when the c'1gme goes aster11 would be overcome by
l the wir>d a, the shi;> gains sternway.
Thir denwnstrnles once again the value of appreciating lhe forces of
wind and current, and the need to add sail training to the curriculum of
I
our maritime schools. Apart from tho important but more esoteric benefits
of sail training such aG self-discipline, attention to tasks at hand, and ap-
I preciation of the demands of the ocean environment, there arc important
direct benefits. The skills required to navigate and handle a ship being af-
fected hy wind and current are as important todAy as they were in the
year!' of the Down Easters, and these seafaring skills can best be ler.rned
by workin<z a ship under sail. Sail training should supplement the seago-
ing experience already given potential d eck and engineering officers.
COMMUNICAT IONS WITH OTHER VESSELS
With the ad\ent of good radio voice communications, and especially the
universal use of VHF radio, it is possible to avoid many dangerous situa-
tions as well us arrange passing and meeting situations so that those
aboard can eajoy a degree of peace of mind not poss:Jle when conni ng a
s hip only a f<'w years ago. Further, the third mate no longer has to stand
out on the bridge wing manning the signal light. on a cold, rainy winter
night arriving at Ambrose. Unfortunately, this also means that this same
mate probably (!an't. read a message sent by flashing light when needed,
nor will h2 or she enjoy t.hc satisfaction of mastering that. skill so as to be
able to talk to a passing sLip by flashing light. on the long night watch at
sea. Today, we instead suffer through long discussions on the VHF with
e very passing shiF such as, "How was the weather behind you?" and olhcr
nonessential t'Omm ..mication that interferes with important trans .nis-
sions. Better w~ had otu;ed with the "What ship? Where bound?" of the
Aid is light dayEl.
Be that as it ma:t, the vlfF can be a great. aid to the ship's officer if it is
used properly. While thPre are good referances availabl.:: on propt:r r adi 0
procedure, Lo ensure th£..t the VHF is used to its best. advantage, there are
also practices that may not have been discussed sufficiently.
1. Don't tra nsmit ov ~riy long messag-es, with tiresome and unnrces-
sary rcpet~tim. o,ryour ship's call letters after each transmi <;sion. It IS
COMMUNI C ATION ~ WlTII OTIU: it \'ESSE I.'>
necessary lo gi ve you r call letters to a nother ship nn ly when making
a n initiai transmission, and after the ias ttransmission of your dis-
cussion. Bt•twcen th e first and las t transmissio•ll' you need rm ly give
yc111r call sign a t. ten-minute inceruals, althou gh you will h r:r"~fully
keep radio communi cations shorlRr than that.
2. Cull the pilot station, discuss the placen.ent of the pilot ladde r, u p-
date your estima ted lime of arrival (ETA), and ask if there are an y
special requirem ents for boarding faciliti es.
3. U~:e the VHF to contact the pilot services before arrival at the s ta -
tion to discuss the traffic and weather tl:at you might cncount{!r as
you approach the station. This is often better informati on tha n ynu
can obtain from a traflic control syst.em, which we'll cove r in u la ter
chapter when we will di scuss traffic movcPlCI ts and con t rol1n gen-
cnll. Suffice it to say thnt t:he piiot is able to give you th1s inform a -
tion and make your arrival Slifcr nnJ easier.
4. When talking to other ~hips, remember tha t wh ile U.S.-fl ag shq>s
a re accustomed to discussing meet.ing situations according U> t ht ir
intentions for meeting and passing, ships of most nationalities d is-
cuss how they will change coun;e to pass. Therefore, it is pmd c nt for
the marin•!r to state any meeting arrangemenL<; in two ways to be
sure that the other ship understands those arrangements. For ex-
ampl e: "Golden Gop 1Lcr, this is the tanker Prudence. I wtll alter my
course to starboard, to meet you port to port."
This will avoid any misunderstandings, e ven if the re is litLic En gli sh
spoke n on the other ship. If y ou arc in U.S. inland wat.crs, add .. for one
whis tle meeting." This phras ing of communica tions on the rarlio i s CC11ll·
monly t a u~ht to apprentice pilots and should be adopb d by ship->' ofTicl'r"
a s well.
Use the> ship's whi stle to supplc>mcnt radio communications a nd fu r-
th e r cla rify l• lC planned mee tin g, w hether or not t h is i~ requ1n~d by dw
Hulcs of the Road. There is a n unfortunate rclucla n cc of d eck of1i cc rs I o
us ~ the sh1p's wh1stle tnd a y.
The re was a colli,i')n se veral years ago bclwec>n n U.S. 1\a \:- mari
ner-class support ship and a Liberian-!1ag, Chincse-manned, bulk cnn·ier
at the entrance lo the Chesapeake Bay.ll could have been avoid (•d 1f thes~·
recommended procedures had been follow 2d. The n on-English·sp<!ak: ng
crew of the bulk carrier thought the naval ship was going t(J alte r course to
starboard, when in fact the naval ship had requrs tcd on the VHF radw a
 38 AHiliVAL
starboard lo s t arboard meeting. The only word clearly understcod by tile
Chinese ma&ter was "starboard'' &nd, since the rules that wost of the
·I world opE'rates under outside U.S. wa ters discuss course changes. not
I
meeting situations, his mistake was natural and quite common. The S.!U ·
going community is int.ernat.ional, speaks many tongues, and care is
needed when speaking via VIIF to arrange meetings and passingc.
Lastly, do not call another ship by saying, "Ship on my starboard bnw."
A call on VHF can be heard at see. even under the worst conditions over an
area of at least 1,400 square miles, so it is obvious that you arC: certainly
not defining the ship that you want to speak .vith. There are many other
means ofidentitjing that ship, such as adding an appro::imate course t.hat
she is steering, or a geographic !.:>cation, the type of ship, or the hull col or.
Technological advancements such as the Automatic Identification Sys-
tem (AIS), B<'lectivc !:ailing for VHFs, and the use of transponders have re-
duced some of the confusion that has been prevalent when identifying
individual ships in congested wat.ers. However, these aids do not elimi-
nate the need to correctly identify the vessel you are calling and impor-
tance of making certain your communications arc clear and precise.
It is also important that mariners appreciate and make use of E'quip-
ment that extends communications beyond the spoken word and radio
messages. Graphic pn.sentations on a lapt~p used in two-way-based
DGPS qystems such as the Panama Canal innovative communicat.ions
lracking and navigation (CTAN) system are just as much a communica-
t.ion as spoken messages. In fact the "C" in CTAN stands for communica-
tions because designers of that cystem intentionally included featurel:i
that used theequipmentforcommw1icalions. Agraphicptesmtatiun that
includes AIS capal:ility will communicate more information in an instant
than a mariner or traffic wordinator co uld provide in two or three minutes
of spoken communicatio:1s. This is especially true in r estricted waters
when experienced pilots relate Lhc visual preser.talion to existing weather.
eu rrents, channel restrict:ious, and a developing situation to accurately
pwdict what will happen a3 a vessel pruce::ds from Lhe known point
Successive generations of m ariners have relied on flags, blinker light,
and wl11stie s1gnnls for communil:ations. These v1s ual and audible com-
munications were supplemented by verbal communications via VHF ra-
dio. Now, graphic presentations h ave developE:d as the n ext generation of
communicati ons for man y purpose. This form of commm1ications must
now be considered when qunstions arise as to whether shtps and marinerB
hnvc effectiv<'ly trnnsmittcd intentions and actions from .>hip to ship. Th <J
!'!LOT ABOARD
concept of graphic communications also cxt.:!ntb to radar and nuionwttc
radar plotting aid (ARPA) presentations although delays while making
calcu lnt:ons and the need ior :nterpreiation r.1akt then. less ""~ful fur
communir.ations th;:.n high-definition, rcnl-timc DGPS-based systems
and systems that use graphic present.Jlions in lieu of nlphanumeric lists
und long, sometimes rambling radio communic$\t;ons. Changes and in no-
vations bring new fonn s of communication'> for each succesBive g<'nera-
tion ofma.·iners. Uses of these graphic presentations arc evolving ns pilots
and mariners find additional ways to use this tool.
This does not mean that new systems always replace the old. Marinen;
should use all modes of communications as app ropriate. The VHF cnn he
used to tell others what you will be doing before 1t. will be ohvioul< lo som<'-
onc monitoring a mdaror lap top, but the whistle signal is still appropriate
because it makes clear to everyone in the vicinity, including tho:;e not
monitoring a VHF or laptop, that a ship is 1bout to change course or pu t
the engine astern. Traditional tools are as useful as ever when mancuvN-
in g relatively close to another ves!>cl , but the new modes extend the range
and speed of communications so shiphandlcrs can know what is happen-
ing several miles away and arrange meeting and monitor progresB of ships
even though they are not yet visible to each other. (Sec also chapter 12.)
PiLOT ADOAlW
After the ship's officer brings the pilot. to the bridge, there a rc several
items that should be covered before the ship's conn is t u rned ov<'r for the
passage up the channel. The first should nul be to have the pilot'" rile his
name; there .J.re more important things l<> be taken care of, such ns nhap-
ing up for the ch <~nncl nnd meetin g other traffic.
Several pilots were gathered arouno the table at the pilot station, wnrt-
ing for the arrival of their ships so that they cNtld begin their night's work.
CoiTee was passed.
uC:ot myself a J Hpancse containen!hip lcnight. wbch !;hnuld make for a
pl ensant night's work. They wili be a:; effil·ier:t ns hdl, makP tlwir ET:\.
and have a hot cup of cofTN! waiting for ~~~e w!':e:1 I ;et r:p lot he ~rid[:< -
"Ycah, and can't think of anyth ing I'd like more after boHrciing on a cnlci
TJight. like this."
The junior m cm be: of the grut:p was to go aboard a Ge rm an refrig\'r-
ated ship. He joked that the first thing the cnptain would say was, ''Where
have you been pilot? We have been waitin g for ten minutes, r:ncl we do not
like beiPg delayed like this."
 40 ARH!VAL l'li,QT.:\IASTEH EXCIIA~GE OF 1:\FOitMATION

This ob&t'rvation has been made by a thousand pilots, on a thousand

nights such a!> this, and always ra1sed a laugh.
"I have an American ship, light draft, and a long wuy to the bridge. Af.
ter going up 30 feet of icy l.Jdder, and cl;mbing six decks, I'll be panting l1~ e
a race horse.''
"Yeah, and the first thing you'll be handed won't be coffee!"
"That's for sure. They'll stick the damn bell book in my hand and \:ant
me to WI;t"t! my name!"
This brought a bigger laugh from all in the room.
This is a scene common to pilots from all over the world. Before a pilot
can get a ·J.S.-Ilag ship headed fair, or even catch his breath, he is asked
for his name. No coffee, no sandwich, no "May I take your coat, pilot?" Pro-
fessionalism calls for something better than this. Keep it in mind the next
time you welcome a pilot aboard your vessel-let the man eaten !;is
breath, get the ship steadied up on course, hand him a cup of coffee, and
t hen ask for his name.

PlLOT-MASTER EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION

The pilot will n~ed information from the master. While IMO regulations
I now require a .::ard to be posted in the wheelhouse showing some of tbe
·! ship's particulars and maneuvering characteristics, this card is not much
I good on a dark night on a ship that is underway. Th.~ same information
will be much Plore useful if it is also contained on a small pocketsize card
that the pilot can look at with a flashlight while starting up the channc>l.
l<'urther, there: i'> 0ther information of more use than that found on the ma-
neuvering card, which should be supplied by the master. Is the engine in
proper operating condition? Does it respond quickly? Does the ship have
any steering peculiarities? Can she maneuver on heavy oil, or must you
change to diesel prior to reducing to maneuve1·ing speeds? Will there be any
problem letting go Lhe anchor or making up a tug due to deck cargo or the
ship's const1·uction? This and n any other items must be exchanged as it is
obviously to the master'<;; advantage that there be no surprises for the pilot
at a later time in the pal"snge. The additional information required \vi !I ' ary Fi g. 1-1 8. "Welcome aboard, Mr. Pil ot. SlH.'s or. f11ll nlw1d . .sl!·ady on
from ship tO sLip, t.nd voyage Lo voyage. It is h~re that the !)rofess!onal 27,), and a ll }Ours.~
knowledge of the master nlnne can ser·ve, and he must give some thought
befvre arrival at the pilo .. station ~o making up his own list, of pertinent in- possibl e to desi gn an exchange that will hr useful in every port. Tht:re is
formation, to supplement I he nostP.d information required by regulation. some controversy regarding this pilot-rnasLCr exchange and the> nmuuntnf
The pi:ot should also providf' several pieces of information to the mas- inform a lion lh al a pilot shou ld provide lo the mas ter for what is, aftt•r ;,!!,
ter. Evt!ry porl is different with its own unique requirements so it i ~ im· a f1ui d situation where much is subject to chang~: as the sh ip tran;;;it~· fnllll
42 '\RRIVAL
<iork to sea or v1ce versa, but the concerns are overblown nnd should be put
aside given th e professional relationship t hat. exists between these two ex-
perienced mariners.
ln general, the pilot should provide tl,e master with any information
that is relevnnt to the VC'ssel's J':lSsage. At a minimum this would incluJe
• Reviewi ng tho "pilot ::ard" with the master and discussin g ship's
particulars and any peculiar handling characteristics.
• Fixing the current position and reviewing the genoral route from
that point to the berth or anchorage.
• Discussing the draft, trim, GM, and any c0nsiderations when speed
will be limi.:ed due to squat. and underkee! clearance.
• Discussing any haza rds to be encountered (that is, working dredges,
the possibihty of reduced visibility, or recent shoaling).
• Reviewing traffic that will be encountered enroute.
• Discussing limitations, special nCJtice, manning, and othe r matters
afTecting use of the engine.
• Communicating local regulations that will affect the passage and
any reqc.ired radio communications.
• Providing P.stimated call-out. time for the cr ew, need for an anc-hor
watch , any special engine maneuvers.
• Discussing the berth, a rrangement of lines, and ·my spectal prob-
lems anticipated while docking.
• Anticipating weather conditions and currents.
• Timing of pilot changes en route.
• Establishing locations where tugs, if any, are expected including
special tug escorts.
• Reviewing sp~cial operating requirements such as speeds, areas
where s hips cannot meet, time and location to put out a ladder for
docking pilots. readiness of anchor, need for lookouts.
• Discussing bridge equipm~nt and its operation as well as the pilvt
requirements for· deck officers to monit.o~ the radar ar.d fix the
ship's position.
• Completing any speci<'l equipm~nt tests and communicating any
other special infonnat.ion peculiar to a particular port.
This exchange rn·1 actually be completed in a few minutes. The entire
passage will be earlier and safer for all involved when everyone on the
bridge has bl'cn properly briefed prior to beginning the passage. The pilot
P :>STING o~· MA.''IEl:\' EnJN('; C' IIAK\l~T bH I ~TJ CS
can tlwn as.;;umc the corm with a defin it<>, clc ur st at ement so ail 011 till'
bridge know t:1at the cvnn has changed hnnds, make any s<:rurity •;Hlls,
n '1d procr"d
In the pas t, t here have been :tllempt.s to rc;;ul:ltt~ n lv:J t~ and r,tthL! i
orHJro\rs exchan~u and even some cons i<!l.'ration for rcquirinH ship,; to an-
chor or otherwise dalay proceeding until that exchange is completed.
These proposals by r egulatory ngt'llcies arc unnC'ccssary if the pilot and
master provide a full and proper exchange for a gnen port lln a vol un tary
baRis. 1t is in the best interest of the .ship's olliccr, master, and pilot t o
make sure conrplete information is passed relevant to lhc ship's pass agP..
Some pilot associations have adopted forms specific to the p ort to racili-
tate this infor mation exchange. These pilot forms arc gener... lly more Pf-
fectivc than the more generic company forms that must fit all ports al
which the compnny's ships call. The pilot fom1s contain specific informa-
tion needed by the m aster and p ilot. for the intended passage. The Ameri-
can Pilots' Association and the stale assoc;ntions hRve been nctivc in ! hi ~
area so the pilot-master exchange is now widely accepted nn<i commun -
placc.'
POSTING OF MANEUVElUNG C!IARACTElUSTICS
The applicable sections of the Code of Federal Regulations arc cxccrptNl
to show the informa ti on required on the posted carJ, and the minimum in -
formation that should be presented to the pilot on the recomm ended wal -
let-size card. Several other items should also be included, such as the
ship's length, beam, displacement., h orsepower; the distance from the
bridge to the bow and stern; distance from the b ridge at which visibilit y is
r estricted; the present dr aft.; a nd a chcck-{)ff list showing the operating
condition of the engine, radar, and other na.,.igntional <>quipuwnt; the bow
thruster; and any olhcr items pcri.inent to your particular vessel.
The inform ation required by law is general in nature and is for d<·cp,!r
water than the pilot would ordinarily be interested m. Sin ce the data Js for
>pc"ific conC:itions and is too oflcn based on analyt1cal cal culations or
Modci tn)'(S, it rs of limited use at best. He:-e ag:.ttn. it is ohvio u!'; that t}Jt'
n·ast.er shoulci col lect hi s own data based on actual trials that he will have
conducted at the earliest avuiiable opportunity after taki ng com mand of a
G Mosler·f>tlot F:xchnngP, A Position Paper, ln'crnllllonal Mantimc l'liol:;'
Association, February!\, 1997.
44 AHI! I VAL
new vessel. Since t her e have lwen so few actua l tx; uls u nder s ha llow water
conditions , any data deri ved by calculation , 0r fro m s imulat ions based on
such calcula tions , :>hould onl y be con:>idcr ed as l1eing a good approxima-
t ion of a vessel's performance. As m or e tests ar e e:o nducted, s uch as the
aforementi'Jned El Paso l\1an r'1~ Compan y and Esso Osa ha tests, t her e will
be more va lid data available. Hopefully more c0mple te shallow water tests
will be conducted in the near future for other classes of ships, as well.
As staterl in the Code of Federal Rc::gulntions:
Aboard et.ch ". . . ocean and coastwise tanks hip of 1,600 gross tons or
over, t he following maneuve ring information must be prominen tly dis-
played," PLc. in th e p: lothouse on a fact sheet .
( 1) F :>I full and h alf speed, a turni ng circle di.1gram to port. a nd star board
t hal sh ows the time and the distance of advance a nd t ransfer rc::-
quireu to alter the course 90 degrees with m aximum rudder angle and
const unt power s e ttings.
(2) The ti m e and di<>tance to stop ~he vess el from full and half s peed wh ile
ma inta ining a pproximately the initial heading with minimum appli-
cation 0f rudder .
( 3) F or each vessel with a fixed propeller, a table of shaft r evolutions per
minute for a representative range of s peeds.
(4 ) F or each vessel with a controllable pitch propeller, a table of control
setting3 for a represen tative range of speeds .
(5) For ench vessel that is fitted with an auxiliary device to assis t in ma-
ne uvering, such a s a bow thruster, a table of vessel speeds at which
t h e a uxiliary device is effective in maneuvering the vessel.
(6) T he manc uvering infonna tion mus t be provided for t he norma l load
a nd normal ba llas t condi tion for:
(i) Calm weath er- ·wind 10 knots or less, calm sea;
(ii) No cu:Tem ;
(iii) Deep w <tter cvuditions - water depth twice t he vessel's dra ft or
greRLe r ; E' nd
(iv) Clean hull.
( 7; At th e blltom ofthc f,tct s heet, t he followi ng s tate ment mus t app:!ar:
WARNING
The response of t he (name of vf'ssel) may be d iffere n t from those lh; ted
above if any of th e following conditions , u pon whic h t h e ma nNJvering in-
formation is based , nre varied :
( 1) Cnl·n weatb er - wind 10 knots or less, calm sea;
I'OSTI:\G O F ~ I ANI: U \'ERI:-IG CIIA H.AC1 E HIS I ICS
(2) ~o current;
(:3 ) Wa ter <.epth twice the vessel's dra ft. or greater;
(4 l Cl.'r.n hull; and
( 5 ) Inter mediate drafts or unus ual trim .
(8) The information on the fac t s heet m ust be:
(i) Ve rified six months nfLe r the vessel is plnced in s en•tct•; or
(ii) Moddied six mon ths after the vessel is placed into ~e rv icc nn d
verified within t h ree months t h(:reafl.cr.
(9) Tr.e information that appear s on the fact sheet may be obtai rwd from:
(i) Trial t rip observations;
(ii ) Model tests;
(iii) Analytical calcula-..ions ;
(iv) Simula tions;
(v) Infor mation established from a nother VI.' S!'!'I ol'similnr h ull for m .
power, rudder and pr opell er, or
(vi ) Any combi nation of the above.
The accuracy of th e infor r1alion in th e facl sheet rcquin•d is tha~ nt -
tainable by ordinary shipboard navi gar on equipment.
( 10) The r equi rements for in formation for fact sheets for s peciali zed era fl.
such flf; semisubmersiblcs, hyd rofoils, ho\·crct aft., unci oth•!r n·sse l ~ of
unusual denign will be specifi ed on n case by-case basis.
When you arc sure thc.t the pilot is fully briefed, then, and only th l! l1,
can the conn be turned over to h im. For some r eason, it is the custom
aboard loo many ships to h uve the ship on full ahead and on t he ~eneral
heading for the channel when lhe pilot gels to lhe bridge. The turnover of
t he conn then consists of, "She is on fd l an cl heading 330, pil ot. ~ Too ma n:-·
m as ters th ink th at the faste r the changeover takes place, the more prof~s­
sionally il has been done. Ridiculous! And that is ju<>t how tlw pilot in-
volved in s uch a t u rnc\·er !'eels nbou t it. Gt\'e ~he t-> ilot sufficien t li me to p: t
his eyes adjus l<'d to the ni ght , gather all t he needed infonna u on , :1nd t h••n
turn th e •:o:1:; C\'C :- ~o h:rr.. A prc;:eo:sional is tlc "·er in .1 itUrry l() do an~·thi:1 g
aboard ship, yet more ofl.cn than not abon rd the mt.:rchan t ;,hips of mo,;t
nctionalitJCS this hurri ed evululion lake;; p lac•~. It has t1!ktm you ~wu
\\ ceh to gel ~o t his port. What is five nw r e min u te•;,:'?

CHAP'~'EH TWO
SRIPHA.l~DLING IN A CHANNEL
Seamen, with their inherent sense of order sernce, and
discipline, should really be running the world.
-Anonymous
The squall passed as suddenly as it had arrived and all that remained u:as
the mis~ rising off the hot, wet dech. Only a few minutes ago we had been
feeling our way up the winding river channel a:; the driving rain blinded
those on the bridge. The pilot had navigated primarily by radar, alternat-
ing between that equipment and the forward wheelhouse windows where
he peerea :hrough the heavy rain to verify what he was seeing on the scope.
Never was a voice raised, as courses and engine speeds were given to l<eep
th~ ship in the channel, and this display of skill and confidence was app.-t>-
ciated by alt on the bridge.
The aura of professionalism that surrounded this pilot's actions is a;;
much a product of e.'tperi£nce and attitude as it is the result of t(chnical
training and sllill. It is essential that all seagoing professionals develop
this aspect ofdwir work along with their technical sR.ills. Professionalism
is a learned trait, qualitative in nature and difficult to define. We have all
observed the shipmaster or pilot who is obviously in command of a situa-
tion, a person wl.o is a professional, and the manner in which he performed
his work was, of itself, a de.fi.nition of professiondism.
Because of the uriqueness of the seagoing environment and of the sea
man's work, the "showboating" often resorted le> in other professions to
impress one's peers and superiors is out of place aboard ship. Dectsion·
making committees and the substitution of rhetoric for content are mecha
n~sms that r·an be used to hidt! inabLlity in some fields. Not so aboara sh1p
Here you must be t.:ompefr>nt .1nd confident about your work, and any lac~-:
ofslulltnill becvme evH 1ent m a short time. Further, you must also appear
competutt to those you •uork with so they too have confidence in your skills
anrl re$pond tt;ithout the Jelay or questioning that leads to confusLOIL
Since professionalism cannvl be learned from a booh, those who teach
a/ the various manttnw amc 1erllLes and schools, and more import a ·ztly, the
!lANK EFFECTS 17
sr:l!lor officers aboard siLlp, haue a responsibthty to nurture tts develop
me;zt among )'011 TIIJ"r officers just start iflg out in their careers. Th ts offers a
signi/ir·.l/lt chollPnge 111 (17! ern wl "'' :t is {ash•onal>le tu Jcn:;.:rc!c tn:c!:
tional slull~ and qutet competence. Demand p.-..{t!ssiorwlism {rum all
aboard. Ships mnnot fur. cl ion prop~.:rly without u singular lugh s/anduu!
of performance and sense of responsibility.
DANK EFr'ECTS
!11the portion of a river where the channel narrows, the ship begins feeltng
the steep bank close on the starboard hand. She wants to sheer to port as
the combination of suction on the starboard quarter and, to a lesser de-
gree, the cushion of water built up between the sh1p's starboard bow and
the bank become more strongly felt. The problem is compounded when it i,;
necessary to siow the ship; tne rudder loses some c!Tectiveness as the flow
of water il:! reduced, while the suction at the slcrn, which is primarily n fuc-
tor of the ship's speed through the water, remains s~rong. The ship nnwt
be moved further from the bank and t.he rudder angle increaHed.
But what if t.he ship gels so close t.o the bank th:.t she starts lo sheer
across the channel? Don't redt ce engine speed, because at thiH point. the
rudder needs to be as effective as possible unJ any reduction in the ship's
speed that. might result from a change in engine revolutions will be nc~~!J­
gible in such a short period of time. RaU1er, let the hcau fall a fi-w degrees
ofT course ncros~ the channel while maintaining some rudder angle t.o-
ward the near bank, and irtcrc(lseengine speed so the flow ofwuter past the
rudder increases significa.1t.ly. When the heading has changed a few de-
grees toward the cenlcr of the channel, increase the rudder angle toward
the near bank to first. check the swing, and then to bring the ship back on
course as she reaches the center of the channel, or at least reaches a dis-
tan ce from the closer hank that. will allow hf'r t.o be steered safely. Only af-
ter gett:ng away from the bank should the engine speed be reduced so lht:!
ship loses some headway and the tendency t.o take a sh.Jcr is reduced. It is
obvious that. a ship should not proceed in a narrow channel at Jullmancu-
vering ;;pced, :>incc she would not have any revolutions in reserve !'h!ll!ld
lney br required.
Remembcrt.oo that.! ship 'Yants lo movu closer to a bnnk , dui' to the in-
en nsecl flow of water and t.h<J resultant. rcdured pressure along her sJdc
cloHest to the bank. For r easons explained hy Sirnon• llernoulli. a ~hip
wants to move laterally toward a cl oser bank evrn thouuli her heading i;:
par.l!lrl to it. Eithl'r keep the ship headed at. some srnnll anglr :m ay from
48 Sll iPI I AN D t, J ~ G IN A CHANNEL
the bank or lwld h er in the centc r· of the cha nnel when not meeting another
vessel.
As is oc, inled out again and aaai n in thiti text, the forces a cting on a s hip
can often be put to your ad vantage, m a ki ng an aid of what seems to the
nonmari ner to be a hazard. When ma king a turn, a bank can be put close
enough t(l the quarte r to cause t he ship to s heer i n the direction of the ~urn
and thus make a turn that she otherwise could not n avigate, or nt leas t
could not navigate at t he speed that is possible u s ing these forces. As a n
exam ple, t h er e ar e turn s in the Gaillard Cut in the P a n am a Car.al that
theoretically cannot be negotiated by ma ny shi ps with out tug assis tance
and yet ships have been making these turns ea sily through out the life of
the Canal with the aid of bank suction. If your s hip s hould transit the Pan-
ama Canal or another narrow waterway, watch the rudder a ngle in dicator
and tne position of the sh ip and you will finri the sh:p going a round ma ny
turns with the rudder arnidohips. A seam an routinely uses learned s ki lls
to tt•rn potential ha zards into aids, both in close water an d offsrore.
This oame ban k suction can also assist a sh ip t o pass another vessel in
a narrow channel, to locate the cer.ter of o. channel in times oflimi ted visi-
bility, or to make r outine maneuvers, a s long a s it is planned and allowed
for. Keep i n mind, th ough, that speed mus t be r estricted so the shi p cun
come ahend if the sheer should becom e greater than desi r ed.
Fig. 2-1 . "The quiet m anner in which the pilot went abou t h is wor k ... "
'I'll)~; AND ct·I<HF:\1
PLA.I': N!NG :\l U::\n
O nce again we sec the im port:u~ce of planning ahead to ur.c natural
forces I<> adva n tage. Th1nking ahead and pianmng ma neuvc rs bn ~cd on
an u nderstandi ng of the forces aclt nt; on the .-ht;J. m uch like a chess mas-
ter who wim; by pla nning severa l mo,·es at one ti m e so they foll ow 111 a
logical order, is essent ia l if a ship is to uc muvcd efficiently and safely.
The pro·css of thin king se-.•eral steps ahead u:1dcrlies every mancu,·er
d iscussed in thi s text. Its impo rta n c~ i.t yot: r development as an excel·
lent s hipha ndler, r a the r than just as an acceptable shtphandler, cannot
be exaggera ted .
Un ·!erstand ship behavior, prope rly reduce ship's !'peed, use cxi,ting
conditions and forc('s to adva ntage to a;;stst the ship's r udder and t nhinc
in maneuvering and, mos t im po rta nt. thinfl alwnd o{th1' ship so that she is
reacting to your orders rat:1cr than your orde rs uctng 1-,rivcn in reacti on to
the sh ip's hehavior- th cse a rc lhe basics of e'cellent shi phnndling. Tlunk
ah ead of you r ship a t all times.
TIDE AND CUHHE:'\1
Ma ny rivers cannot be negotiateJ by larg(•r ships without a fair tide since
a hea d current hinder:> them in making turns. As shown in figure :l-2, a
fair current helps the s tern around u bent! when it s trikes the qu nrtl!r, ~o
th e s tern comes a round at n g reater rate. At the same t 11ne t he bow i,; as·
sisted by the eddy curr ents r cf1ecteu out of the be nd and the lack of current
on the bow on the point :,ide of the bend. ln contrast, fo r a given speed over
th e bottom, a s hip stemming a tide has a greater flow of water p assin ~ be-
tween her and th e ba nk, retarding the stern's motion around a tu m and
forci n t~ the bow a nd s hip bodily towurds the bank (fig. 2-2).
Since a ship that is closer to the bottom is more di ffi cult to control, high
wate r makes the pilot's job ea::;ier asicie !rom j ust pu lling (:llO U t~h water
un der a deep lonJ ecl ship to ens ~ re th at she is i n the desi rable slate ofb···
ing always Hf1oat! lly moving wi th a rising ttde to ensure u fatr current and
dcc per wate r, a ::;hip is using both u de and cur rent to her be,;t advantngc.
T he cu rrent changes a t each area or a chnnr11·i aLa di!Te rcntt imc an·i .s
affected by severa l factors such as freshe LS r cs u lti n ~ fr0m henvy rai ns
u privc r and s trong ofT- ur onshore wi nJs ;;o ti de·~ may orcu r a t signifira nil:
di ffercnt t irr.es tha n predicted. Keep a ~cam an's eye on ~!t c cu n en t. Dc•-
vclop the hab it of looking a t pilings, uunys. and !Jth.·r !i xl'Cl objl't'l to
dwrk the actual cu rrent agamstthat wi111.. h ha:; hcl:n pred ictt:d unt tl <ht·
50 Sllli'HANDLIN<J IN A CHANNEL
Fig. 2-2. Fair tide assisting a ship making a turn.
practice becomes as natural as breathing. It's the difference between thE
neophyte and the profess ional.
TYPES OF RUDDERS AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS
While the mariner has an academic interest in the characteristics of all
the various t'JPeS of rudder and propulsion system.. u sed on ships today,
the shiphandler must first be concerned with how the ship responds to the
system with which she is fitted. He can't change that rudder or engine,
whether or uct ',he ship handles poorly, but must live with the ship as she
is. A praciiced shiphandlerwill know in a very sh:>rt lime how effective the
rudJer 1S and how the ship will respond to varying amounts of rudder an-
gle. Unfortunately, the tendency towards smaller rudders on larger ships
has made the shiphandler's task more difficult.
Again, plan uhead so the rudder and propulsion system can be used as
effccti,•ely a.-> possible. Prorcnd at a moderate speed so greater engi11C rev-
olutions can be used as needed to increase the flow of water past the rud-
der and thus increase the rudder's effectiveness without creatir.g other
problems. Uy using thf' engine in this m &nner, for only as long ns needed Lo
obtain the clef.ired rcs·Jlts, the shiphandler can usually overcome any in-
herent deficiencies in lhe ship's design. This tactic is particularly eiTective
'I YI'ES OF HUODimS Al'\D PHOI'l'l.SION SYSTE~IS .)1
with a diesel ship since immrdiatc, large changes in revolutions can h,• <·L'·
tallled; a steam turbine ship mcreasus revolutions more slowly and more
cm r if' n(':::essu:·y to k!!cp the !'!1:p's speed clown "hi le still t•ontr<illing
steering. Obviously then, speed is important whl•n steering a ship- su ili-
ciclll her'dway is needed to make steeri ng possibl•!, yet speed must be kept
down to minimize unwanted hydrodynamic ell'ects and to have sufficiPOl
engine speed in reserve lo increase rudder elTccti,·cncss when required.
Ships fitted with balanced spade rudders often will not stcl'r '' ll<'n
large rudder angles arc used. A turbulent flow develops over the rudd,•r's
surface so its lifting effect is lost and it stalls. Occasionally u ship is sttll
dcs1gned with such a rudder and all those ir.volvcd in her tlesign and con-
struction seem surprised when she goes agrountl curly in lwr life whih
trying to negotiate a normal turn. A few years ago, a cla.;s oflargc Germnn
containcrships was fitted with such a rutlder and suffcr,•d several
grotU1dings wilhi,l a few mvnths. Tug assistance was ruquircd so those
ships could make turns that other ships of similar size navigated rou-
tinely. Ifa ship's profile drawings show a spade ruddf·r, beware oftums ro•-
quiring the use of more than 5 to 10 degrees of rudccr angle. The rudder
may stall, and th e loss of effectiveness meu.ns that t!1e ship will just con-
tinue along her course as if she had no rudder until she fetches up at some
point where you never intended io be.
Propeller design has a significant efTccl on the handling charnct.cri"-
tics of a ship. The direction ofrotntion nOccts the ;;hip's behavior, the di-
rection in which the vessel tends to twist. when the CnJ,Illt' is put nst.cn•.
and the diameter of the turning circle for right and left. turn;;, aH tliHcusr.c·d
in chapter 1. The size of the propeller alTects the stopping anti stecn11g
ability of lhe ship since higher revolutions arc requ1red to get a good flow
over the rudder nt reduced speeds when the ship is fittetl with a sm<.tllcrdt-
ameter propeller.
The handling characteristics of a ship fit.led with a variable-pitch pro·
peller are ;;igniflcnnlly <liff(;rcni from those of n sh1p with a fix..;d bladL~
propeller. Vandble-pitch pt opulsion systems ha vc:: adv;' ntag-es s ince a dH•-
scl engine so fit tf'U does "lOt IHl"e to be stop pc d and rcsta rted to go a ~tcm.
and an almost infinite choice of speeds is available. Further, you cart go
a;;tcrn inrlcfi,,ilcly, whi.:h isn't possible with a turbine-driven ship, and,
unl1ke a con"ent10nal motor ship, you cnn change the dirccl1o11 of pro-
pul sio n r('peatedly without being COIIcerned about exhausting the sup-
ply of starting air. These ndv~tntages havl' at tilliL::> bCl'll used as a hHs1s
for r ecommend in~ that VLCCs be fitted with Lhi ;; type oi'propulsi<Jn . Tlw

52 SII II'JI AN DI.I NG ll'' A CHANNE L
drnwbnc k'i s hould a lso be considcn •d, howPvcr, belvrc decid ing whether
var iable-pitch propulsion ts as dcsir::lble as cl a imtd :
1. When reducinf.{ the spt.>eu of a s hip fitted with a vari able-pitch pro-
pelle1, the flow of water i)3St the rudder is s ignificantly dtsnpted
unl e;;s the pitch is reduced very gra dually. The adver se effec t on
s tee 1 ing is significant. The propeller cann(lt safely be put ~l zero
pitch tc reduce the ship's headway s ince this completely dtSI"U\H5
the needed flow of water t.o the rudde c.
2. A variable-pitch propeller going astern is less effective th an a ron-
ventional propeller. This compounds the aforementioned steet;ng
problems since, because it is more difficult to drift the way ofT a s hip
fi tted with a vari able-pitch propeller, it. is often necess ary t~ use the
engine astem for longer periods of time to soop her.
WJ-.en app-oaching a berth, Jock, or pilot station, it is therefore nece5-
sary oo start slowing a ship eq·. llpped with this type of propeller S;)()~e~ than
would be requ:t-ed with a conventional propeller, and to then use mtrumum
pitch to st.eer at slow speed once headway is sufficiently re~uced.
Since a variable pitch propeller is normally turning at htgh RPM , even
when in position and soopped at the berth at zero pitch, be sure to keep
stern lines clear of the water when docking. Inform linehandlers on th.?
dock that this is necessary, as a line can become fouled in this rapi dly
turning propeller in an amazingly short period of time. A tu g workin g at
the stern m"Jsi also be cautioned.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
In collabora'ion with Captain Paul lues and Captain Earl R. McAfillin
More ships and tugs are !:icing l:;uilt with new types of propuls ion and r .le;.
der configurations including the Voith-Schneider and Shot.tel systems
used orima rily for tugs a nd s elf-propelled barges and Azipod p!Opuls!On
systc~1 s being used al t hi8 ti me prima rily for pas~cnger vessels, a fe;••
ta nker s, a nd &ome s p!'cia l-purpo8e vessels s uch a~< ICe breaker s.
These omnidirectiona l drives mnke a vessel hig hly m aneuvcrable a nd.
fo r ships, they ma ke it POEsible to opera te mor e safely i n n~stricled wa.tcr~
a nd call a t mJ.rginnl p0rts under conditions not prev tous ly po::.stbl~
Schedule keeping is imp roved and operating expenses fo r port calls are re-
d uced sine<' fewer l u g:; are requi r ed.
I>JHEGTJONAL PHOI'ULSJO.'\ !->YSTE~IS
Ad ua ntagcs
This is primarily a tcYton hnndli,lg oc~angoing 5hips so this discus;;ion of
umniatrectiOnnl propulsion wtll focus on the uses of a generic Azipod sys-
t('m r athe r than other om nidirec~ional systems that are more commonly
usec on _,mallcr ves:;cls. There a~·e mure similLtritics than differencts bl·-
twccn tlw vanous omnidirectional systems so, v·it.h a few exceptions, any
discussio n of advan tages, disadvantages, standurdized lcnninolugy, .tnd
commands for Azipod systems also ;.:pply to other omnidi recllonal pn>pl.ll-
s ion sy::.t ems.
There are some obvious advantages that make omnidirectional :-;y:;.
tems particularly att ractive for passenger ves3cls and, loa ll·s~er extent,
some other sprcial-purposc ships.
• Electric gener ators power the Azipod system and lite dri ve motM~
are located at the stern outside the hull. This gives the nnval arclti-
leci some freedom in design.
• Mach mery is located in more appropriate areas within the ship':;
h ull so high-r evenue space:; arc available for st.1tcrooms nnd pns-
scnger senices.
• A shaft is not r equired to transmit power to the pro:>eller.
• The system is in herently q·1ietcr so noise is reduced in all areas of
the ship.
• The system is safer because the engine does not have to be slopped
and rcvr> rsed to go aslcrn. This elimi nates the r isk of losing engine
power that if always present when conventional diesel eng-inl's do
not resta rt while mancuvering ahead nnd astern. ·
• Air compressor s can be significantly smaller ~ince the engine will
not be repeatedly stopped and restarted.
• The shi ps are highly mancuvcrable because the dri ves arc variable
speed and directior.al with controls for twin drives that can be split in
Harbor ~node so p0wcr is applied in two ciirecti"ns Himu ltancously.
These and other ncivantagl.'s a re obvious to cxpenenced nwrincrs who
maneuve:r ships filled wi th Az;pod propulsion nnd snmlar Hy~t<.ms.
Concerns
There arc also potential problems stemming from the man ner 111 whtch
Aztpods are S'Jmelirnes operated. Those proble:ms arc not inherent to the
 Sl ll l'l f,\ :-lllLING IN A CIIAN~EL
Azi pod sysll;!rn. They s tem pri ma rily from imp roper a ppl icalion , and they
can be minimized if shipowners a nd oper ators accept th e potentia l nt'ga-
li \'eS a nd d ~nl with them in n ronst ruclive man n e1. Some of the ll'nre 1111-
port a nl concerns inciutle:
The pcwer ::lnd maneuverabilily of Azipod syslcms creat e the il lu-
s ion that traditio11al s hiphandling skills and the practice of good
seamanship a r e less important with these new sys tems.
• Terminology for various equipment, operating modes, and ma ncu-
vers must be sta ndardized industry wide so officers, crews, pilots,
and other s who maintain and operate the sys tems speak n common
la 11guage.
• The plethora of Azipod configura tion s makes the sys tem unn eces-
sarily complicated to operate if the shiphandlcr a ttempts to u se a li
possible positioPs instead of adopting a few standa rd configura-
tionE>.
The potential for s ingle-per son opera tion to stef!r and maneuver
creates a very real risk that the concepts of bridge resource man-
a gement will be ignored.
Computer-assisted opera lion of the Azipod system can be used in-
appropriately to dock, undock. and maneuver in restricted wate rs.
• There is also some expectation that Azipod systems will be mo re ex-
pensive t<J maintain due to both the cos t of repairs to the system and
I lost Litre when a s hip is out of service for maintenance.
• There is a real concern th at traditional shiphandling and seaman-
\ ship ski:Js will be lost as offi cer s serve aboard ships fitted with
l higbly powered and mancuverable omnidirectinnal sys l<> ms.
Each of these points is discussed in more detail in th e followi ng pan-
graphs.
An Excellen t Aid, but R ecognize J,imi ts
It ib possible to use brute power to rn a ncuver Azi pod vessels i nto SJtuu-
tions that no s kill ed sldphall J ler wculd a ccept. T he problems t hat incvit,_-
bly occur whe n high lw rsepower r eplaces good c;eamanship can be masked
when s hipha ndlcrs use th e system continu ou s ly a t full or near full oower.
This occurs must commou ly when leRs ex peri enced ship's offi cer s op~ rate
the system . It is par l.Jct.larly com mo n when using the joyst1ck nnd con'-
pulcr input. Skilled mnr im•rs and pilots .lever work a ship 1t JIS p,axi-
ll!HEGTIOI\AJ. I'HOI'l '1-'10:.: ~ Y STE:-I S
mum, antl they a lways have opt1ons as they ma!"'eu\'er, dock, or undnck
\V her, tiw ship is put i:lto si tuations that requi re continuous use of thc
thru!"l<'r •w-J •mgine 'll hr!lf ~:::d full c:-:;i. •..:, the sh ip i:: at ri.~l'
1 inforlunatc!y, less experi enced shiph nndlcrs often f~'l i l to rPcogni::c
when this point is reached u.Jtil wind or current incn.ases further (.r tht·
ship is setting down un an adjacent. vessel and they find they have no n•-
serve power or opti ons. All systems a re operat1ng at their maximum and ,
very qu ickly, an a pparently routine dock ing or undocki ng bcconws a n :r-
tain ucrident. Skilled s hiphn ndlcrs woul d never do that. sincc they plan
ahead and always have options for maneuverin;:: if thew ind incr£>ascs or
shift s, curren ts arc stronger lhan anti ~ipatl'd , or c)llwr conditions change.
Exp"rienced masters and pilots bringing con\'t.: nt 1c na l :<hips alnnt;.,idc·
a dock wh ile r epeated ly us ing en~,rine re\'olutions for half nnd full ahead
and astern know instincti vely there is a problem. Hapid and rt•po.:,ltcd
ch a nges in engine and thruster at higher revolutions are often the ti rst in-
d ication that nn Azipod vessel is ut risk. The computer will altempl tn ful -
fill any instr uction, ri gh t or wrong, using eve!') tool available until therc
a rc no additi onal options available regard less •lf lhu consequence·,;. H:ljnd
changes, ... higher powur,.. . , use of eve::y asset WJth maximum and rapu l
rud dei·movemcnts as th e computer at~mpt.s to complete 311 unlur arc •.Il l
signs the shi p is being put in jeopa rdy.
S hiphandlers should reeualuate any nzaw•1wer 1f engines and
thru.~ter must be used at half or .rull puu:cr fo r more than ucca
sional sh ort periods of l ime a s the .~hip nppruaches a docJ. or m a -
neuve•s 111 close quarters.
Th is may sound likt• common sense but., unlortunatl'ly, anecdol al in
fon na lion from pilots and ma riners indicates th is practice is Jncreusmgly
common while mancuvering this generation of Azipod ships. It is uH;um -
bent upo n shi powners and sh iphandling inst ructors to stress tha t sh1ps
are ships and the Azipod system JS an irnpro\'cd shiphandh111; tool The
same pr11cticus of good seamanship an d shJ;)handling that apply l<: ot:JPr
types of~hips also apply to ships equipped wi th Aztpotl propulsion ;;y~tcms.
Desi~:n and Conlrvls
Tlw dcs1gn and controls may dJ!Tcr from ship to &hip but th £> dt•sJgn i ~ L;•si-
ci11ly rhr. same. Pods contai ni ng electric drives nrc fitted nt tlw str l'll of a
vcsSt•!. Thr pods arc r ol,tted 3GO dt•!{rccs :;o th L' din'ction of thrust r 111 b•.'
56 SHIPIIANDLiNG IN A CHANNEL DIHECTI(1:->AI.I'R0Plll~~IO!' :-YSTE~iS

c!Hmged and even reversed by rotating the PC'd or revusing Lhe directio n helm , tuud , or by the office r on wntch, n· a .:onning ol!icer operating tht·
n.nd speed of the propeller mounttH.I at the forward end of the pod. The ex- system from n console, w1th or Without computer ns:-;istanCl! (fig. 2-·1 J.
ternal electric drive receives pow~r from t he> !'; hip'~> di C'3tl ~P.ncrntors. :\ Use o(!ittJ.r:dard Trmttnology
typica! in&t.allation is shown in figure 2-3.
The syst(:mS have various operating modes. Terminology to ck.;.:rihl' tht:
Some in '>tc.llations also havt: a fixed p od on Lhe centerline. Naval archl-
arrangements and modes varies from on1• manufacturer and vessel opera-
t ect 3 and huilcicrs have plans for other modifications ofthis Azipod design
tor t o another although must can be broken down lo an "opl'll water" o:
that. include having a propeller on both ends, one pulling and one pushing.
"cruise" At Sea mode, a Harbo~ or maneuv~I;ng mode, and a Do.:king
There are a!so desig.ls Lhat. use a conventional shaft nnd propeller with a
mode for use when actually gning- alongside or l 0.avm~; a berth. The mode:,
pod immediately astern of Lhat propeller. In port the pod acts as a s t ern
cun be further cal(::gorized a~ automatic or manual.
thrust~r.
Typical modes and commands in use include: '
Azipods are controlled m sevet a! ways . Typical controls include non -
follow-up lever controls, conventional wheel with throttle controls, large
Company A Compuny H Company C
knobs, and combination controls that simultaneously rotate to d e t ermine
1. Call Cumbi (Cruise) l. 0;1en Sea (;\L s, .1; j :.J 11\CII\'l:fillh illtiiJ
the direction of thrust, and move forward and aft to apply more or less 2. Separnte RP:\i(Crui~c) 2. ~fancuvcr Direct (;\t 2. ~!ancuv~.onitr( low,
power and determine the direction of pro;>eller rotation. Sea) port, or ~larbt• ;trd
Most systems also have ajoyslick control to change the orientation of 3. Call iV.imuth l~1ancuvcr) :l. Azml<' n-l'ort or 3. Joyslkk (Crut~l· t1r
the pod and the drive motor speed and thuL the direction and thrust of the starboard (Maneuvcr) ~lancu\·cr )
·L Call J oystick Dynamic 4. J oystick-{At Sea or
propeller. The systems can be controlled by R helmsman at a conventional
PosltlOmng (:\laneuvcr maneuvcr)
a. High s peed
b. Low speed

The language of the sea was developed out of :lf'cessily so manners

could give orders, provide instruction, a nd operate syscems safely nnd ef-
fectively as they moved from shi? to shi p and company to company. 1'\ccd-
lcss variations that reflect lhe designer's whim more than any ac•ual
difference in operations serve no purpose. Some st.andardir.alion of t e:rmi-
nology is particularl y important. given th e increasingly 1ntenwt.ional mix
of ship's crew:; and owners. The s,ip's bow shou 1d be called the bow re-
ga rdl ess of which company operates the ship.
The sooner the industry accepts a standard nom endature fur this u.no
vative propulsion system, the better, since training anJ opPrations an·
hindered when mariners refer to I he same controls and mode~ by duTcn·IH
names as they move from oue ship lo another. There arc t•no tlt~h ;;imilari ·
tics in modes thttt general terms can be used in any discussion focu~i ng on
these systems from the viewpoint of operation and sh1phandlmg.

Fig. 2-3. Typical Azipoc' propelled s hip. Courtesy Kvaerner-Mass Yard:<

1 lnfonnalion from chart hy L:trry Ro:inll.:r-HT~! STAH Cl'lller.
58 SI!IPIIANDLING IN A CHANNEL UIHECTt0:-.:,\1, I'HO"lii.Sit):"" SY:-!Tt.;~IS ;)!)

For the purpu!ie of th is lt'.\t, there are thrt'l! mudes. "At S••a," ··]]arbor,"
a ne/ "Docking'' WLlh minimal con(il{urations in each mode. The At St•a and
Ha ·bor m ·deii are [!!rthcr catcgon:cd cs au:umat1c ul manuul.

Minimize M odes of' Operation

Fig. 2-4. A t ypical Azipod control console with various s teering, engine,
and thm ster con lrols plus insln un cn tation. Cowtesy RTM STAR Cen t.cr.
Good seamanship requires adopling standard rnocles of operation for most
siluat.ion::; and describing those modes usi11g terminology accepted indus-
try-wide. Once that is done, it is also poss1ble to take the next step in thc:
evolving operation of Azipods and adopt standard conning orders so the
ship can be maneuvered from any location on the bridge by a shiphnndlcr
or pilot no longer confined to standing ever th e control console.
Modes and procedures for Azipod operation cuncntly vnry in !'<'V<·rrd
ways from company lo company. For example, some owners erwouragl' the
syst.crns be used in all possible modes, positions, and power setllllgs re·
gard!ess of how redundant some positions might be or how confu!'inrr tlw
operation might. become. Other shipowners and manufacturers limit
Azipod position and power loa few options. The latter policy is based on
the premise that many arrangements have the same net efTed on Vl':<~cl
movement.
Operation can be kept simple witho11L cornpromisi11g the ndvant:1ges of
the system. Some ship operators have already adopted the policy wi.h
notable success. The valid.ily of t his approach is demom tratcd when skilled
shiphandlers and pilots are training on bridge s imulat01s. Without. couch-
ing or direction, these experien.:ed shiphand1ers quickly evolve Lo the fin me
basic configur ations for the Azipod drives because they r ecognize from cx-
penence the most eOcctive operation for a particular situat.ion.

1 AuTO M AT I C. 1DE NTI FICATION At Sea ,\-lode (Sometwws Called the CruLS•) or Open Sea ,\fvde)
2 AZIPODS
W110n oprrating in open water 111 the "at ~!':ln mode
3 Bow RADAR
4- DGPS ANTENNA
5 • The rulation of t ill' pod i13 limi led to 35 d~grees to por·t and s1 ar!J•>ard
of thf ctn lo.:rline.
7
FuiiJ•Il"'"r i~< ~v<>.ilahle .
3 iHRUST E RS
• Pod movement is synchronized so pods 1nove in unison.
9 TV iVIoNITORS
The pods, and thus the ship, ca n h~ steered using the helm, whed,
mini-wheel, autop ilot, or differential positioning syslc•m.

fi g. 2-5. ·'No matter how many bells and whistles she has, lads, she is Powt•r At Sea is about. double the hors<•powt•r avnduble while mnrw t~ ­
still a ship." \'l•nngin the ll arhor mode. The pods arc synchronizul to lllo\'C logct.lwr
60 SHIPHANDLINC: IN A CHAN NEL
and powe r is redu ce>d to zero ifope rnlors a tt e mp\ to :·otmu the dri ves to an-
gles greftlC'r than 35 degrt'es from the rent e rh :1e.
liarbor I or Maneuuering; JhJf!
The re are some vanations a mon15 system s but wnt:!n most Azipods arc in
the "hnrbor" mode
• Power Hi reduced to approximately 507." of the power available ut
sea.
• The pods can be rotated 360 degrees.
• The pods can be rotated independently and be used at different and
total variable angle!> (there are e>:ceptions with systems that allO\"
only one pod to be rotated).
• Steering is done by pod control, combi-controls, differential posi-
tioning system, joystick, non follow-up steering, and by varying ruv-
olutions of the port and starboard engines ahead and <.1 s tern .
Ba sic Con figurations
Based on watching the experienced shiphandlers at work, there is good
basis for limiting Azipod operation to a few configurations, three-to-four
in most cases. Those configurations are changed only periodically as con-
ditions change, that is, the shiphandler will use one configuration for open
channels, another for approaching the berth, and a third for going along-
side. They will probably adopt one or two others for special situations but,
in any case, the modes are minimized.
As previously stated, some basic configurations were adopted based on
pilots using the systems in varying situations . Interes tingly, these are t h e
same pos iticms describud in a pamphlet di stributed by Electronic and Ma-
rine Rel.'earch .' Other configurations are described in that publication but it
is interesting that experienced pilots quickly evolved to the same configura-
tions descnb(;d by Electronics & Marine Resea rch Indus tries (EMRI ). Thi.s
is not a c.oincidence-there ar~ good rea.>ons to sell:lct these configurm.io:1s.
Keep in mind while discussing these configurations that the propelJc:r
~ ~on the forward e nd oft h e pod and tuming a head as indica Led by Lhe a r -
rows when the pods are operating in the normal position .
2 3 STAll Cen /er Aztpod L<·cturl' .\ iaterwl, Cr> pl.'un Pau l !vi's, l nslrurl or RT~I
Strering Control SyslP m.~ for Azipod, Electronic a nd Ma rine Research ,
!Terle v, D<•nrnHrk, 1990, pg. 4.
lliHECT!ONi\ L I' HO! 'U I~'i i OI\ :-;ysn::-.Js 61
Fig. 2-6. At Sea Mode co nfi gura tion #1.
Con figura tion 11 1 (At S ea Mode)
In open water the pods arc placed parallello the ce nte riin e and moved to-
gether in a synchron ized m ode much as rudde rs arc ,no,·ed with conven-
tional ships (iig. 2-G).
Note that steering using Azipods is very similar to ;-./e••ring with cu, •Ill
board m otor or llller stnce the p od is t urncd tu port to t 11 rn tIll' .~hip to ~tar
board.'
This takes some though t a t fi rst when us ing t he lcvl! r or combi-control
since the wheel has been used for so long to slcf!r a ship. Whcl~l com mand s
were standardized for me rch a nt ships many years a go so a rudder co m-
mand "right ten" means to put the wheel to the ril{ht to move the shi p's h ead
to starboard. With th e Azipod system, the pod follows the ccnlrol. The pod i;;
turned to port, which moves the stern to port and the ship's head to s l'lr-
board, so the ship turns to s ta rboard. This operation quickly becomes In tu -
itive when th e shipha ndler accepts the concept tha t the steering cont rol
a nd the pod are tiller controls so s tccrng a ship with the Azipod in this con-
figura tion is exactly li ke steer ing a small bout with a n outboard. The opera-
tor movt's :.h e h andle of an outboa rd to port to tu rn the boat to starboard.
This is tru e in all modes although the con cept IS /i rst encou ntered in the
opr n cha nnel when th e pod confi gura tion in figu re 2-G is being used
('ut fiJ! ~ Ir<l/i(ll! fr2 (Ilarbor .\ foe/c .
In this configu ration, i,e po,l~ <-. re placed at 15 deg:l•es m q pns1li0:1 to
eacJ, othc·I. The prop<!Lcr se:tt. ng is cna ngrd to rnancun:r wlw~: :l .e pou re-
nuuns in this fixed pos tti on. The a rran gr•ment is pa r ticularly usd 1.d a t
slow speccis in open channels a nd a nchorages fig. 2-7 ).
STAll Ccnter, Da lll n, Flo rida , F cbrua ry 2002.
 SIIIPHANDl,ING IN A C IIA:-\Nt::L
Fig. '2-7 . Harbor .Mode configm11tion #2.
An instructor at the RTM STAR Ce!lter, a facility where many pas.:>en-
ger Hhipmast.ers and pilo~.S are trained, refers to this arrangement. as tl.e
"bicycle mode."' This term i!; quite descriptive of the manner in which
ships are handiPd in this arrangement. For example, the port control JS
moved ahead 11nd the slarboard control is pulled back to turn the shi(!'
head to starboard. 'l'his is the same motion as t.he handlebars of a bicyciP
where the left. :;ide moves forward as t.he right!:!ide is moved back to turn
t he bicycle to the right TI1e two handles are in line, that is, the set.t.ing nf
both propellers is the sane, to move straightjust as the handlebars of a bi-
cycle would be in line when moving straight ahead. The angle of the pods
also helps stabilize th~ ship at slow speeds and, by increasing t he setting
of one pod only, the stern can be held against a wind to assist. in keeping
the ship on a desired h eading at slow speeds.
There is some dispute over the usefulness of this configuration. Ship-
handlers arc using thi8 arrangement less often and some companies are rec-
ommendinr; against using Azipods in this manner. Mariners report eome
difficulty in maintaining course in narrow channels because Azipods hnve so
much power that even small changes in settings can cause unaccepteble
changes in headin~. At the same tin1e, many pilots seem to like this configura-
tion when proceeding at slow speeds. The information is o;.Tered so ship-
handlers can try this configuration and decide for themselves whether the
configuration is useful, a11 has been the theory, or that the parallel pod ar-
rangement '~ith ronvenlional l<r.eering should be used all U1e way to the berth.
Cvn{~,;urati.~r. #.7 (Dorkin~ Modei
fhe shiph :mdler orders i he Docking mode at an appropriate time as the
ship approaches the do..:k. The pod clo8est to the berth, that is, the port pod
1
STAR Center Azipori l,erture Material, Captain Joseph Lobo, Instructor RTM
STA.H Centc1, !Janut, Flnrida, l~ebruary 2002
<)
X -·-
UO>
F1g. 2-b Docking Mode ronfiguration 113.
when docklllg pori side to, is set parallel to thr cc nlerl ine. The pod nw a~·
irom th e berth, the outboard pod, is put in a th n'c o'clock pol';i lion relnti v••
to the crn terl1ne (fig. 2-8 . In t his position the fo re an d nft uni l is uscci to
move the sh ip ~.head and <Hlcrn . The u nit 1t ri ;ht angle;;: to l hc centcrlllw
acts as a powerful stern thruster to IJoth steer and move the sf ern t.m'. .t rd
or away from the berth by moving the s tern to s tarhn:wl or port. Jn con·
jt:nction with the bow thrus ter, the ship is turned, mo\·cd a head tov.ard
tl.tl bcrt hlnf, position, and turned to move into the open dock arcn an d to·
w·t rd t he her th IIandli ng issimpl ifi cd an l m t u · ,\cand t ht ,:I.J J i » .llw:.y~
u nder control wiLh ih1s nrrnngemcnt.
Stando rei izcd Comman d,~ and Cunn I'll]
The multiplicity of pod configurations is an engineer's dream but Cl
shiphandler's nightmare. It would be impressivt• but illogical to discuss a ll
the configuratJOns and nuances possible with Azipods or to try and u:>c
them. There are several advantages to limiting and standarcizing the pod
position including the fact that standard commands can then be adopted.
Pilots using Azipods at the RTM STAR simulator tried va rious nwt h-
ods and commands for conning a ship wh!le swnding away from the co n-
oole. In other words, lhey look ihe AziJ)od system to thn fin a l s tage of
develop men t. by in tegrating the controls into proper ~hip opC'!.tti ons. Two
mcthodo were used to conn the ship. Both work well.
In conf:gu:-a iion #1, sll:.orint; and engm e c"''IITtan ds 11re iJII e·1 :n !1.1'
same mannt!r 'LS dune for conuentionai sh1ps.
In configu:-ations #2 and #3, th e pod s !cere 1 usitioncd by degre,•s or
clocll positions relatiue to the bow a:1d cngl.'W ord ers nre f.(iu,~n in JWr<·o:nt·
ag e ofpou_-er ah ead or astern .
For example, commancis might he pnn cnglll e at ten o'cl(, k, twe-n ty
percent. power ahead; s tarboard engine at two o'cloc!,, twPnty pcn:cnt
power a hco.d. The ship is then stee red hJ tncrcasmg or decre.u;ing p() wcr
 64 SI!IPIIANDLING 1!\ A ChANNEL
on the two engines aH previously dl•scribcd The ship would be turn('d to
starboard b.t a command ~port en~:,rine 50 percent ahead; starboard engint•
ten nerrenl ahead."
Some piJr,t.s use standnrd engine commands of dead slow, slow, ht.lf
at~J full ahead and astern while con figuring the pods and thus lhe direc-
tion of thrust using relative headings. In that case, the port engine is al
315 degrePR, half pO\\ er; starboard engine is at 45 d egrees, half power
More 1mport ant tha"1 the terminology used is t.he fact that. the orders arc
standardized and spoken. Once standard commands are adopted, it. is 110
longer necessary for the con ning officer to stand and operate the controL>
in n nuanner that violates all nccer-ted principles of bridge resource .nan-
agcment. The bridge ere .v and pilot work as a team to safely move the >Lip
onc.:e commands and configurations are standardized.
A good ca:-<e I' an be made to use percentage of full pow11r rather thn11 COrl -
uentional enpine orde "S since power applied through the electric drive!' in
the pods is t.oLally var;able. At the same time, there are advantages to us-
ing dock positions for Azipod confi~:,'l.rration since relative headings for thP
pod can be confused with compnss and ship's headings while maneuvcring
m restnct.ed waters.
Uased on c,hservalions of pilots and e>·pedence using the Azipod sys-
tem, rt>commended s~andard commands are
l. Engine comm 1nds use percentage of power from zero to 100 in a for-
ward or reverse diredion in both the At Sea and Hubor modes.
?.. Conventional rudder commands in degrees to port and starboard
are used and executed using a standard wheel-type control at sea.
\ :l. Pod configuration use clock settings relative to the ship's bow in the
I llarb1r mode where e n~:, ines arc u sed primarily in fixed pos:tions.
Azipods evolve to the next level for sh ip operation when standard com-
mands and co ntigurnt.ions are adoptE:d. The conning officer is relie"ed
from distracting st.ccl'ing n ~po:1sibi!ities . The bndge crew is agair. work-
mg al' a U>am in compliance with inte;-nationaily nccepled standards for
hndge :-esourcto muna1~emcnt w1th the pilot or conning officer 1'1 contr oaof
l1P.VlgHI ion.
Compu:a Control
A computer-controlled option is avmlable 111 all modes. Controls for the au-
tomated or· Cllmpatet-controllecl mode di!Ter from one sh1powner and man
D!H~C riONAI. PHO!'Ul SIO:-\ ~YSTE:-1 ~
ufacturcr to nnolhl'r hut all ~re similar. ~1o!;t arc t'O ntrulll'd by a joy,:!,·k
for input. of desired resullanl power, sprcd, and c!irJrtion or\'I'SSl·l ii 10 \ t'-
ment The systcrn's computer trano5late;; j<>:, .;tic!: il1J.ut liJ cr.ginc.: " P•~l:~.
P•)d rotat1un, and bow lhru~t.::·· Qrders in tlk m..:nncr dctcrrn inccl by pn:-
prcgrammed algorithms.
Sl11pha:rdlcrs must remember they nre cunlrulling re «ultant JIOtn•r ,
sp~c>d, a .td ucsscl mnucment, not actual rct·olutw11•: und clir,·r·tiOII u_(
thruster, engwc, and rude/er mot't"llenfs.
Automated controls nre not new for open wat{~r since gyro-corltn.dl.·d
~leering has taken ship;; from port to port for half a century. Cornputcr
control for Azipod operation in harbor conditions is obviously more com-
plex and it should be used with some care.
Interestingly, cxper·ienced masters, mates, ..md pilots arc more ·at • inu:-
about. computer-controlled operation thar. less experienced ship's officer:;.
Skilled shiphandlers, be they shipmastcrs, offic~rs, o.· pilow, , :m.>
trained to plan ahead and be proactive. Computer-controlled :-ystem~ ar.~
reactive. This uifTerPnre is importnnt. !\o mhttl~r how quic.:kly lhe :;y:;'l!lll
dP!.ects and reacts to wind shifts or set. the sy~ternl'a nnol, 1.t i ii "'· ar. r!
plan ahead based on past experience and local knowledge. The be:>t ~Y!' ·
tems detect leeway and :;et. almost. instantly, but they t~re ::till tl::-.• t ing
rather tha•1 anticipating, as a trained shiphandlcr wo11ld d o.
Experienceci shiphandlers consider crP.w skills, anti cipa te l'Xt,•rn a i
forces nnd known ha:cards, and !mow whnt. works and what ~lcJcs not worJ.:
in a particular situat.ion based on experience over a period of ycars. Th0y
also adhere lo lhe concept of"most effic~ent. maneuvcrs~ and use a mini-
mum of commands and maneuvers t.o accomplish a !.ask. C'omputcr·con-
trollcd systems will overn·ork engine and steering tD power th rm•~::h a
maneuver that experienced shiphandlers would avoid. In the comput<.' r':-;
rather Simplistic uni verse , there are enbrincs, thrusters, and existing ex-
ternal forces, period. High power and overuse of lhc engine and tnru :Hl'r
compensate for the limil:!tions of computer controls ar.d, unfvrlt1i1:-t•dy.
cn•ate the previously discussed illusion that ships c:w u,o,·c saic l ~ u t n ·-
slricu~d waters with compute:- illput and a joystick
Althe risk of being repetiti\e, it is strcss<Jci that sl11phandler!' Illll:i t
master essential, specialized sk1lls before dockmg a ship1n clo~e quan~·rs
regardless oflhe syswm used. Some wiil arL'UC tins puint,Just a.:: they unce
argued thnt Low thrusu.•rs made tugs ob<olctc and briu,:e ron Lrol <J!:n i-
naled lhe eng-im•cr 011 watch, but time will prc,·c ti:al. compute r c.:uu t n •ls d n
noi make shiphandlcrs out of inexpHien.:o.:d deck ofliccrs with litth!
66 S HIPHA.."•W LI NG IN A C HANNEL DIHF.0'1'10NAI. PHOI'UIA'>ION SYS T I·:M~ I )· ~
(

s hipha ndhng e;,perience an d no lo.:-nl knowledge. At. the same lime, in t he may change as programming and input to the systems beco me;; mnn• :-o·
hands of a n experienced deck ofilc.c r these aL"c very helpful tools while phist.icnlcd.
moYing the ship toward a berth. Thr computer controls ure an a dd itional !Jrid~;:t! R es(Jarct! Alarw gcmenc an d / .;:tpod.•·
a id to Lh~ s luphandler- a so phi s ticated tool, but an a id only.
Azipot!s <~re more than JUSt a refinement. They nn• a breakth rough LL'L'h-
One Ship Lc.· lgth Rule nology that. rcach~3 its full potenti al when •.·xpcclali ons arc rcnl i:::tic an d
Pilots and experienced mariners arc learmng from experience to lim it t h(; sound shipboa rd practices arc follo wed with minimal moddi cnti onl'1. Jl a \'-
use of co 'Tl puter-controlled sys tem!' with wide agreement that tl.e .>ystcm ing a singlr person stnnciing at the console handli ng th e r ngines, t hru l:! r,
s hould not be u~ed nea r docks and fixed objects. At a minimum, g ood sea- and steering to br ing the shi p directly to n berth or anchorngo.> is clenrly no t
m anship seenw to support a "one ship length rule" to at.!cide when to changt• one of those modifications. Unfortunately, this has become a common
ji·om autom a tir: to m anual control. practice aboard too many ships wher e t he pilot bc.:omcs an adJunct., an ad-
The compu~c r often applies power in an unpredictable manner. Lin es visor , to th e bridge team and the mates sta nd aside while keeping r ecords
ar e parted wlwn the compu:.er a ttempts lo move a ship laterally r ath er and providing su pport with little or no knowledge of what is bei ng do1w M
than at on e end o nly. Mos t systems allow the pivot point to be shifted to a l- the details of a ny pa~sage or docking plans.
low for this m nn euver, but the system becomes progressively less a uto- The practice totally disregar ds the imr<'rtan cc of local knowledge an d
mated as the pilot make& more of these a djustments. As one pilot with the prinl'iples of bridge ref;ource management wh en entrring a channel ,
experience handling Azipod vessels slated, "You fmd yours elf trying to
outguess and cor·ect the computer."'
One pilot. compared computer co ntrol to having un apprentice pilol
aboard. The apprenti.::e hnndles the s hip but. the experienced pilot is con-
gtanlly moniluriog the npprent.ice and using skills lea rned through expe-
rience to undo the mistakes of the a pprer.tice. It is usually eas ier and safer
to do the job your self. Ther e is a reason to do the extra work to train an ap-
prentice, but it is difficul t to rationalize th e sa me effort to supervise a com-
puter. Automatic : outr ols arc an advance in an anchorage or when us ing
adaptive autopilot at sea but the "one ship length rule" is good seama ns hip
when dockin5 or undocking.
As previom;ly d1sc.ussed, pilots see a n increasing n umber of s ituations
wher e ships ~re put. into d &ky 'lositions because the computer doe!' not
kn ow when an 01·dued maneuv<.r is unsafe or inappropria te. At s om e
point, profc~.s i o•H\1 skilis mu;:;t override the computcr-assir led system,
and pilots a nd deck offi cer c: arc lea rning th a t poin t is reached ea rly in a
maneuvcr.
The "on e .>hip length rule" fo r s hifting ofT computer contn, l.;; seems r ea ·
gonaulc exce pt in the most basic tun d1 lions . Obviously, pilots and s hi ps' of-
fice r s may waut tu shift to ma nu al controls long bcf01 e that point. This

Fig. 2-9. ''The Captain says Azipods are ma6JC so we nevr.r kr:>~w whnt
r. Captain Earl H. McMillin, Canavera l Pilots' Association, December 6, 2003. t ricks he is puiling out of his hat."
68 S IIIPHANDLIN<l IN A C HANNEL
anchoring, docking, or undocking. Bridge Resource Management (BRM}
is based on s1tuational aware1.ess, a shared mental .nodel, a pl ::m, th e
learned praclice of thinking ahead of the s hip, and feedback from the en-
tire bz·idge lea111 that has an act1vc role in support of the conning officer or
pilot. These rroven principles th:tt arc so basic to safe, efficient. ship ~'P<'IA·
lion arc being ignored tlbonrd too many shipn with omnidirectional pro-
pulsion sy~tems.
Approximately 90% of all marine accidents orcur in restricten waters
because that is when ships arc exposed to the greatest hazards. Bridge re-
source .11anagement praclices are developed to sicnificantly reduce the
huma n factors that, according to the National Transportation Safety
Board cause 75% to 80% of those casualties. This includes proper commu-
nicnti~ns skills, situational awareness, stress, fatigue, and interPctive de-
cision-makir.~. Proper bridge orgnnization uses e learn of officers :.V
navigate, monitor ship's pro{,'Tess, steer, and commumca~e in li manner
that supports tl:e master and pilot who move about th( wheelhouse and
bridge wings to maneuver the ship safely and expediently to or from t!.f'
dock. The master must get away from the Azipod controls and end the cur-
rent one-man operation that. dominates vessel operation with atleas t taCit,
encouragement from shipowners.
BRM establishes mir.imum manning standards under various condi-
tions. (See chapwr 11.) This does not mean the officers and crew should
simply be at stations. 'l'hey must also be doing meaningful work. If all par-
ties are NOT involved
• The rme-pcrson operation leads to operation based on a single indi-
vidual's perceptions of a situation based on scanty informalion with
no input from the officers or pilot at the same tim~ that person is
prone to make errors due to being overloaded.
• There is uo moni~oring of the operator's actions so there is no way to
minimize one-person errors or break the certain to occur"error chain."
• '!'here is an 11nbalance in the workload and no working orgamzation
to s upporllhf' master and pilol even though it is impossible for rmc
per.,on to " Prform all tacks inv0lved in maneuvering to th~: berth re-
gnnllesr. of how maneu verable the ship might be.
There is :1 direct rel a tions hip between situational aw:..reness and
safety yet, without a trn lit1onal bddge organization and standurd com-
m a nds for conning, the re is no way hr anyone on the bridg~ la lm..,w wh al
DlHECTIONA l, PRO P U L SI0!"8Y~TEM~ (j!)
iti bein{! done to ma neuvcr the s~ ip . A~ n result, there i:; no way to check for
singlc-pcr~on errors or break the error chain :u; long as the mas ter i:, i nd t -
!JI'!'rlently ~::·:i:1b le·, <! r:. and adj u:,ling cont.rOlti w1t hout discussion w 1Lh
anyone. There is good r \!nson for givmg and rcpentin g conn ing oniN hl.·-
twccn parties. Those prnctiLcs are no\ nnachroms ms. 'l'hcy coni inuc, :ur
jtoud reason and the simplis tic, unor·ofus:.ion al single-pcrson oper ation
will result. in preventable accidents. It is no wny to run a ship!
This excellent propulsion l:lystem will not deliver wits full polen lJJ. ~ as
long as operating policies conflict with s o~nd BR\1 practices. Some rln im
traditional ilRM is outmoded because of a plethora of alterPal1vc nrnn;;c:-
ments for the propulsiou system and the lack of s tandard co nning com -
mands or commonly used terminology to describe Azipod modes a nd
operation . This is simply not so. Ships arc ships so the practice:; of good
seamans hip and shiphandling skills are as important when handli ng
ships fitted with directional propulsion syf>il!ms as any other t ypc ofv t•>;!'C I.
Pilot-Master R elatwnshtp
There is an addi tional consi-ieration wh en discussing the increasi ngl y
common but improper one-man operation that efrectively excl udes pilot
control of the navigation and m aneuvering of the ship. A state-licen>'ed ,
compulsory pilot is charged by the licensing authority with the duty ro
c \re for the r.afety oftbe vessel, its cargo and crew and, equally importa nt,
with a public responsibility to move the ship from point to poin t cons is _nt
with federal and slate laws and port rebrulations 111 a ma nner tha t nll ni-
mizes risk of collision, oil spills, and environmental damage
Public policy requires the pilot, as a citize, subject to the control and
laws of the host state, to protect the public's interest as well a:i Lo pro\. 1f'
shiph:..ndling and pilotage services to the ship. This reHponsiLiliLy is
clearly c.;tablished by law and precedent and it is inherent in the slalt· p i-
lotage system. This aspect of the pilot's role has been reinf(Jrced in an .:·ra
when ships are susceptible la external threats a nci use a~ a weapon i;;
modern i-e rrorist-based warfare.
Thl! pilot must be able to fulfill th:tt rc;: pon3ibi:ny b;; ::>.err ~ :1.;; h :~ ~ ~
her fin al au thori ty to control ship movement in pil ot wate rs. This is 1wt
possibie if officers at consoles do whatever they f<..el is appropriate. In n :;ll-
ity, the pilot IS not conning when he or she has t,o find out aflc r the faet
wha t is being done hy looking over the opera t.or's shoulder. '' il nls sho11 :ci
co ns ider s topping the ship or going tu an chor and rl!porting the ::; .. u::t i•)I •
when t.hcy do not have effective a11d complete• control.
70 S II JPllAN!JLJN <: IN A CHANNEL
Shiphandling and piloting arc always subject to the traditional pilot-
ma~;;tPr relationship with the understand ing that a master may relt0ve the
pilot. for appropriate rea10rm but, on u daily basis and barring cause. the p i-
lot has!! legal responsibility and authority to control vessei movements-
not m onitor I he actions of others and provide cvmmunications.
There mu .> t be standard commands and conning practices so the pi to~
can fulfil: this responsibility to the licensing authority and play his or her
essential role in the pilot -master relationship. (See also chapter 11. )
Lost Shiphandling Sllills
Lastly, ~here is a concern that shiphandling skills traditionally pasl:>ed
from gcnerat10n to generation will be lost s ince Azipod systems allow for
one-man operation with litlle or no involvement or discussion with juuior
officers. Thi t is particularly true when computer-controlled options <.tc
selected d u ring the docking or undocking. Sh iphandling skills lost in a
fleet arc lost fore ver and, when a system or system components fails, mas-
ters and pilots will no·. have the skills needed to proceed using convec-
tional skills. T i1is is not. an academic p r oblem. It is a real concern so it is in
the best intcrc ;t. of shipowners to ensure that mariners maintain 1 racli-
tional s hiphandling skills.
Deck officet s should also have an opportunity to practice h andling
shi p s wtth Azipod propulsion in the same manner prescribed e lsewh e re in
this tcxl for convcntiot.Jal ships. They will have needed skills to maneuver
when a n engine or st~ering motor fails or situations a rise where ship-
handling skill;; are needed.lt will happen and officers must be prepared.
There is precedent in maritime law that a ship begins its voyage in an
unsNtworthy condition when officers did not receive training in less com-
mon <'qui p1 nent found aboa rd that vessel. In that case, the impact on :ia·
bility limita tio ns makes the additional cost of training look like a bargain
even ignoring the bHnefits of huv ing fully trained and competent oflicers
aboard t he ship. l\fore training is needed for unconventional vessels of any
Lype.
EFFZr''l' OF Tfi~~ ON H."'-"'\J'DLING CHr\JU\CTERIST!CS
As a ship's tnm by the stern in creases, she becomes more directional])
stable and h er tucticai diameter increase!' . The latter change is r.1inor and
of no practical stgnifica1.ce to th~ shiphandler as long as the d rag remainl:>
with i n pradicallimits. T 11erc is, however, a marked increase in the diam-
eter oflhe ship's turning circle us the bow comes out ofthe wuter.
t,:FFECT 0F Tltl~l OK I!.ANDLI:>:C CI!All.\CTEH!STICS 71
Fnm1 the !'hi!)hanriler's point of view, a:;,;umini! there 1s not <1!1 excessi,·cly
strong wind on tlw higher bow, a ship usunlly stCC'I':i hdt~ r ns drag incr~:a:>~s.
Tht:> slf'Cr;n..; cho.rac~eri.· ~ll.s of a .. hif- .m <>il ..,v•:lt keel ntry ucpcnmng
on the .;hip'8 hull form. A ;;~)'P with a Jar~:,.:! b!ock CC'CllicJCIIL steers poilr]y
tending to be di reclionally unstable. Thi:; conditwn is umplified if the ;;htp
trims hy the head as she enter::; :.hallow water. A :;hip with finer lines may
be directionally $l:tble, or have neutr.tl stability 11 lam on nn even k·~d fhe
behuvior ot a ship with modcr~tc block coetlicient can only lw determined
hy lriaiR s1nce there is insuflicient data available at pn~sent to allow an ac-
curate prediction of her steering charach:risti<s.
A ship trimmed by tiH' head ts d1.-eclionally Ul l:>tabl..: for almost ull null
forms. Wlwn in this condition the ship requires large amou!lls of rudder
for excessive periods of time to check her l:>WIIIJ!. The vcsl:>el bcconH'~
cranky and difficult to handle. If she trims by the head in s hallow wut.cr
the problc1:1 is compounded.
Why does a ship behave in this manner when the difictcncc between
the forward and after dra fls dccrca!:.es'? One mu::;t look at the immcr::;ed
sections of the ship to better understand thi$ plwnomenon, a ne! especially
at the location of the sections having the maxnnum submerged area.
The shir is turning ns a result of couples formed at. the rudder and
through the center of gravi ty. One oflhe forces forming the latter couple is
1he imbalance of prc~;;sures about the submerged portions of the hull ( lil:{.
2-10). As thc ship begins tu rning, there is a new tncrease in p ressure lJt•]ow
the wat<>rlinc on the bow away from the center ofgravtty, th:.ll is, the out-
ward bow. This resultant imbalance of forces in thntlocatJon,(orwanl and
oulsidr oft he center of trravity, causes the ship to lx dtreclionally unstable.
All shiJ . .-; cxpericntc the same imbalance in tlw mitial .;~agc,s of a lt:rn.
lf a sh1p is trimmed by the stl,m though, the prcl:>sures ~hi:t. further aft.
along tlH' side of the hull as the ship stabilizes in tlw turn, while the cone·
sponding pressure d rop on the quarter on the inboard side of the turn con-
tinues to increase. The resultant couple has then shifted aft. of the ccm"r
of g-.·nvity so the ship becomes directionnlly stable.
Ships trimmed by the head expe1;encc a larger 1nttial pos iti ve preSSllrc
at the bow due to the increase in submt:!rgea a re:1 iorward, while the nq;a -
tivc pressure is red uct•d at the quarter due to thc :·eduction in submcrgt,d
an:a. T he coup le therefore remains 11head of the center of gravity
throughout. the turn and the s!.ip continues LObe C:irect!onuJlv unstabl•·
G J ohn 11 L<t Dage, ,\/udcm Ships, pg 203-·1
72 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL E F FECT OF TRIM ON IIAi' Ul.I NG C l! AltAC.TJ:H Jt-:l'll':>

No;: pressur& on submerged that will be sub111crged at fl pa rticul a r drafi nnd t rim. These :m ..1s a:-e
hull1s forward ot Co.
then put into t.he form of a curve oy measuring ou tward from a ba~<·l i rw a
lin"ar di~t~nce equ11 l in units t•1 each s tn ti on's :>ub me rtcc~ .u....... ,\ !'1 c.:1 ~,;l)\ ·
ti ng th " corresponding poin t at each statio n, a curvr: is fai red tl n uug;, · he
potnts. The curvp will reach a maximum :..t that station having t.he g! ··at-
'' est submerged arca-,-tbc loc<.tion of a vessel's ccnt.cr ofbuoyuncy--a nd a~
1. lnihal stage of turn-all ships the vessel is trimmed by the head, th~ apex of that curve will ~ ltift p r ogn•:;-
(dlrcctionally unstable). si vely forward. More use should be made ofthi s cun·c s ince it is one indi '3
lion of t.h e chnnges that can be expected in dircctinnul s ta uili ty of a

,c (-1
p/\
particular hull as trim changes. Sample curvet; r.houl d uc inclutlcd W1th
t.he ship's s tability and trim booklet for use by the s hip',; ofikcrs.
The value of this curve is unfortunate ly limited at present -'in cc. I ikP
all relative indicators, some norms must be establis hed ngainst which the
2. Turn1ng at constant rate-ship
mariner can compare the curves for his own ship. Hopefully, t hese norms
llimmed by stem (dimctlonally stable). will be developed as part of future model, simulator, and t rial tes ung.
Net pre$SUro fwd o f c').
Larger ships are being built, with higher Llock coeflicients 11nd n grea te r
(+) (+) percentage oftheit· total submerged area in their fonvard sectio ns , so thi~

-c_ H ----::>'"--------
G
3. Turning at constant rate-ship
:rimrr.ed by head (directionally uMtable).
Fig. 2-10. Effect of trim on steering.
This condition 1s indicated to the shiphandler by the sr.ift forward of
the apparent pivot point of the ship, so the ship seems to pivot aLout a
point nearer the bo\\- than normally ex pected, and by the ship wanting to
continue to swing after the rudder is placed amidships.
A large VLCC with full seclio.1s forward will experience the same dis- f"
l ribution of presfures in a tu:-n when on an even keel as a finer sh;p does
when trimmed by the hear!. Obvivusly then, if a VLCC is trimmed by the,·~
head. :>he will ht:! even more unsu,b!e since the resultant couple is rnagm-
fied accordingly.
The effect. oftrin• by the head on a vessel's steering can be anticipated
by r<>ferring tu the curve of areas of the immersed sections. This cu ··ve is
rlP.veloped hy the naval architect by me&suring on the ship's line drawings
with a planimeter that. portion of the cross-sectional area at each station
curve and the steering charactt'ristics that it ind icates are bt>coming in -
creasingly important.
Wit.h this in mind, what steps must a mariner take to safely han dle a
potentially direclionally unstable ship? First, she must not he ti·imm ecl by
the head. Keep sufficient drag to ensure that the ship maintains posittve
djrectional fJtability, allowable draft permitl.ing. Seconrl, on a ship wi t h
marginal directional stability, the rudder will have to 'le used for a longe r
period of time to start the vessel swinging, after which large a moun ts of
rudder nre needed for longer periods of time than normally expect<:> d to
check a swing. The rudder is put. back nn11dships as soon as t he swing be-
gins since the rate of turn will increase even when the rud der is a mid-
ships. If the rudder is kept on too long the ship wi ll gel away an d it mt gh t
not be possible to check her swing in time to av0id leaving the ch a n nPI.
Don't o\·erlook the importance of having a trained helmsman whc is ~x­
pet·ienced in steering your particular ship A directionally unstable sh1p :-c-
quires speral treAtment and the hehnsman's expelienre can bP inva h. abil:.
Even this powntiall_y unsatisfactory condition eau be put to adva n tage
if lhe shiphandler watches the s::ecring closely, since n direcliona lly un -
stable ship can turn in a very small area. lt is nut suggested tha t t.h e shtp
be purposely loadeJ to obtain this condition, but ol'Len the ma riner mus t
live with a ship "as she is" and in s uch :1 case he or s he can nt least tnkc ad-
van tage of the si tuation.
74 SHIPHANDLINC' IN A CHANNEL

MAKING A TURN IN A CHI\NNEL

USING AIDS TO NAV!GATION Wlll:N 'I'UHNII\G

_, '
-- ,.j,.
7fl

There Rre two basic consideratior:11 when making a bend or turn in a ch·,n-
nel-where to begin the t~rn and how much rurlder to use.
/, - --- --~
.1A - - --

r
It IS impossible to make a turn properly if the l1.1rn is started at the 18:-

-
wrong place in the channel. Obviously, if the turn is started too late, t!Xces-
sive amounts CJfrudder and engine revolutions are necessary lo complete '
the turn while remainmg in the clHmnel or in the desired location in an an-
chorage. A more common error, though, is to start tho turn too soon, since
it is human n..1ture both to be conservative and to become impatient wh~n
I ---
waiting t.> read1 a desired point. This results in havi,...g to check the ship's
swing anJ the'1 start the lurn again ut a later time. Starting a t•1m too I
early may not always cau~-te a problem and is certainly preferable to start-
ing a turn too !a. le, but if you ha Ye to check the ship's swmg 111 a rhanucl
where suction can be experienced, it may be dlf1icult to start the ship tur.l-
&
ing again once that swing iu Ios~.
I
1. "Advance' 1t mancuvering
Begin the turn when thf:l ship'spwot point is nearly at llw tw11ing point at
lhe end of the reach or range, not the ship's bow or bridge (fig. 2-11). Remem I
I
speed, as determrncd
dur.ng master's rrials.
2. Start turn when pivot
ber that 1>hips turn circle;>, notcornc>rR. Since you have fixed the diameter and
point nearly abeam cunter
ndvanco of the turning circle in your mind during the previously descnbcd
trial maneuvers, you should be able to judge when lo start a tw11 (fig. 2-12).
I I of es~matcd turn circle.
3. Ptvot first on buoy H
then on buoy ~ 5
While it is pos~;ible to :Ietermine this point by constructing diagrams
based nn channel widths ~'nd the theoretical turning radius of the ship, Fig. 2-11. Use the pivot. point. to position a ship in a turn.
such an approach to a routine mnneuver is not practical and encourages
the mariner to get involved with unworkable methods. It is better to learn USING AIDS TO NAVIGATION WHEN TUR:HNG
to handle the ship by i.1stinct, and feel developed from experience and trial .\.<;lhe ship proceeds up the ::hannel, numerous nids to navigation arc
maneuvers. availablE' lo the pilot and master. While the primary purpose of these <uds
If in doubt uboul thc> a mount of rudder required, use a larger amount is to determine the ship's position relative to the axis oflhc dwnncl, then•
than you feel necel'sary. Reduce the rudder angle as n.:!eded to place t:1e are othN ways in which these aids can be used.
::-hip at the des;red point in the reach using the reference point method ji,;- A buoy at a turn can be used ns a rate-of-turn indicat,>r by aligning lhe
cussed m thP next se:;tion. Pract1ce making exact. t.urns at. every opportu- buoy with a fixed point on the sl:ip s<.~ch as a :,;.ay. st<.ncluon, or wintiow
nity. evt!n if a ship is in an open anchorage and there is no need to put the frame (fig. 2-13).
ship in an exac~ location 'lt that particular time. A professwnal makes
tu;-ps neatly and with a m1nimum of helm orders, and it is only thro•.!gl. l. lftne relative bearing changes toward the bow, so the buoy is mo,·ing
practice lhat the feel for making precise turns can be developed. Turns can forward relative to th~ n:f•:rence point, lhe shtp JS turning at a rat<:
:dso be pra~...tieed with great benefit on a simulator since yr>u can get a very that will bring he:r closer to that buoy. She will be closer to the bu()v
r·calisti(' feel for both rate of turn and relative movement when w<.rking at at the completion of the turn than she is at present.. lf the rat1• :-:t
;:;uch an installat.10n. These are skills that, like riding a b1cyci<·, are never which the buoy is moving ahead oflhe reference po:nt • ~ increastng,
:ost oncn lcnrncd the n obviously the rate at which :he shiu is turning h; inar~sing.
 76 SHIPHANOLTNG IN A CHANNEL MRETINC ANOTHER VESSEL OH TOW 77

Ill
Ill -- ·-
.... - ~-
>
i I - ·-- ~

I I Distance from buoy

Decreasing lncre<!sing
/ ?
--.I --rr::f!:;,.,:-----
......, L~..l . . . . .
lro: I 1
Fig. 2-13. ?ivoting on a reference point when bming.

Using a buoy in this manner is especially efTedive when turning in a

I
I(
11
I!
iI
'~
'I
Fig. 2-12. Allow for r.hi?'s turning characteristics when starting turns
and maneuvering.
2. If the buoy is remaming steady relative to the reference point th!!
ship is turning at a fixed rate. She will maintain her present dis-
tance from the buoy as she makes the turn. In practice, the srip will
actually be a little farther from the buoy when the turn is completed,
siuce she is slidmg sideways during the turn at a rate relative to the
speed al. which she is moving. For practical purpoues though, the
ship can be considered to be maintaining a coustant distance from
the L~oy during the turn.
3. Ifthe bearing is opening away from the bow so the buoy is moving aft
relative to the reference point, then the ship's distance from the
buoy is increasing. If the rate at which the buoy is opening is increas-
1
ing then the rate of turn is decreasing.
strong current since it is the vessel's movement. relative to the buoy and
chP.nnel (the net movement resulting from the combination of vessel mo-
mentum, swir.g, and current effects) that 1s of interest to lt.e shiphandler.
This resultant motion is immediatdy apparent when the ship is turned
using a fued reference. By adjusting the rudder to alter the buoy's rel ative
movement a shiphandler can position the ship in a turn with great accu-
racy.
The angle between the lines of buoys marking the port. and staruoard
sides of a channel can be used with great accuracy both to predict t.he
ship's future position in a reach into which she is turuing, and to know
the vessel's position relative to thecenterline after she has steadied up in
that reach. Further, the rate at which a vessel is sliding laterally can be
quickly determined by watching the change in angle of those buoys dur-
ing a tun ..
A range can obviously be used to dct.ermine the ship's posiLion relative
to the channel, but do not overlook the fact that the ra~at which a ra nge is
opening O!' closing is of equal importanc~;. This information is uscc! in the
same manner as the change in angle of a line of buoys to position the s hip
in a reach o:- channel.
MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW
If a chflnnel is of sufficient width, meeting another vessel is simply a mat-
ter of slaying 0:1 your own side. The problem then is one of det.cm1ining
what "sufficient width" is, this being primarily a question "f ship size and
especially of draft and beam.
 78 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL MEETING ANOTIIEh VESSEL OH TOW 79

Ships routinely meet in the 5UO-foot-wide reaches of the Panama Ca-

nal with no problems, when the1r combine~ beams t.ot.al up to 170 feet.
(The only exceptions are the Panamax class ve!'leels that do not meet any
sh1p m those 500-foot-wide reaches due to their own inherent handling
limitations.) 'rh is limit. was establisht!d based upon the operating exp~ri­ ------c__,._j-
cnc~ of the pilots in that waterwuy and confirmed by simulntor tests ~mu
can serve as a guideline, although ships do meet in channels ofless wirith
than 500 feet under the proper conditions. - • , .... _-.w •=~-----·-----=-----·-----,..=-..-----,..-- . .-_..__
As ships approach the 170-foot-combined beam limit it becomes ncceJ- ...... _ ................... -=-~ ••...--····· •.•••.
sary to meet in themannershown in figure2-14. In such cases the ships

1. Meet nearly head-on and, when approximate.:y one-and-a-half shin

le:1gth& apart, put their rudders to starboard to move to their own
side and pass safely.
2. When one ship's bow is abeam the bow of the other, her helm is
shifteci to move her stern to starboard until she is parallel to t.he -----
.... I....... .. . . . . . --. . .-. . . . . . .............
--~·--o.~-.._..- - ....... ~
bank.
(-)
3. The rudder is again put to the right to check the swing. Caution is re-
quired at this point, so watch the ship's head closely. Your vessel
wants to cr.ntinue swinging due to a combination of the bank suction
~ (+)
on the starhoard quarter and the effects of the other ship us her
-c=:=>-
~.
quarter comes abeam your bow, that is, your ship wants to turn to
port an her bow paases the other ship's stern. Use sufficient rudder
to check this swing and maintain control despite the effects of suc-
.. - •-........ -· ...- ......... .. .......
--.. ····--·- -- ....__ ··--
(-)

(-)
_...
.
i''r. tion at the bow and stern.
4. Do not increase the right rudder at this stage, but instead allow your
ship to sag slowly to port so she is heading away from the bank oncP. ~ (-) (-)
again. It is n JW unlikely that you could hit that ship if you tried since
~
she h11s passed your bow and is moving away. So long as you don't
come together laterally, which is unlikely unless ycu are close
enough to shake hancls with the mate on the bridge cfthe other ship,
_......
....... •-m ..... -
--~- ···-- -·- .. - ·-----
-·-=-ea ......... ,.,. . .,. ... ..._. e. . . .
you will pa&s safely.
5. Finally, as the stern of the other ship pa,;ses your stern there is a
mutual suction effect that moves your stern away 1rom the near
bank as the two ships pass clear and proceed on their way.

Again, the ship's speed is a key. The ship must be moving at less than
full nwneuvering specJ so suction is rr.inimized and sufficient engine
speed remairs to come ahead and increase the effectiveness ufthe rudder Fig. 2-14. Meeting in a narrow channel.
80 SIIIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
as needed. This passing maneuver is not. au difficult as it might sound, and
is probably C.est. demonstrated in the Houst0n Ship Channel where the pi-
lots have perfected what for them is a routine meeting maneuver.
A great deal of study is being done using both simulators and actual
ship trials to determine the limits for safe navigation and meeting h vari-
ous types of channels. The results of this research can be used to safely
handle vessels in narrow channels as ship size continues to increase with-
out a commensurate increase in channel width and depth.
Hopefully, the practice of using the services of experienced ship-
handlers to perform these tests will continue. A great gap still exists be-
tween theoretical hydrodynamics and the real world, which limits ti1e
value 0f any tests not performed by competent shiphandle~·s.
OVERTAKING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW
The mechanics of handling a ship while overtaking another vessel an~ rou-
tine and safe as long ae. the shiphandler realizes that it is the speed at
which the maneuver is pc·rf0rmed that is most import.anl:. If the overtak-
ing ship is abenm of the other vessel or tow for any length of time, she in-
creases the chances that the overtaken vessel will become unmanageatle,
particularly when her stern is abeam the bow of the vessel being over-
taken. Give the overtaken ship as much room as possible and maintain a
moderate speed to minimize the period of time that the two ships are
abeam.
The overtaken vessel reduces her speed as much as possible before the
maneuver begins while still maintaining steerageway, to further reduce
the time required to complete the overtaking maneuver. While being
passed, the clower vessel increases revolutions as needed to increase the
flow past her rudder and maintain steerage.
The Rulell ofthe Road give the ship or tow being passed the responsibil-
ity for agreeing to any passing situation. It is obviouu why this is so. It is
the overtaken vessel that is most likely to have a problem and will ~ the
most likely to go aground should any problem arise. No prudent mariner
agrees to be passed until the maneuver can be performed under conditions
where he or sh~ feels comfortable.
USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION
While the seaman's eye remains the best aid to s hiphandling and maneu-
vering in channels and restricted waters, other aids are available to sup-
plement experien!:ed j~dgment. Radar and other electronic aids such as
USING SH IPH ANDLING 11\STHUME:--/TATION 81
DGPS-bascd navigation S)'sf..ems have b~come increAsingly useful. These
t ools have evolved in accuracy and opera ting features to the point where
they are cqua!ly useful as ofTshorc navigation eql!lpment and aids to p!lots
and mariners moving ships i11 restricted Wdters.
That said, it is a fact that the gyro and fathometnr remain the essential
tools for shiphandling even thol.lgh the nc\' 'er equipment attracts more at-
tention. Pilots wisely n!ivigate primarily by eye using the gyro for direc-
tional reference and fathometc1 to monito- depth under the keel. The
other instruments have become essential to safe navigation but in no way
do they replace the tools that provide direction a::1d depth.
Navigation tools u sed by pilots incl ude
1. Gyro
2. Fathometer
3. Radar including ARPA
4. ECDIS
5. Dopp!l.)r Speed Logs
6. Rate-of-Turn Indicatcr
7. DGPS and CTANS
8. VHF
9. Console presentations of wind force and direction aud other pel·f..i-
nent operating data
The gyro is used, of course, to maintain qircction, supplying the point
of reference for almost all maneuvers. The gyr ocompass also serves as an
accurate audible rate-of-turn indicator as it clicks off the fractions of each
Jegree during a turn. It is surprising how accurately an experienced sea-
man can judge the rate oft urn and, of equal importance, whether a desired
or undesire<! swing has begun, without having to continuously watch the
gyrocompass. Hopefully, the solid-state era will not bl'ing ,yith it an "im-
proved" silent gyrocompass.
The fathometer provides the soundings th at the muriner n eeds to pre-
dict when a r:hip might he::o;x;e difficult tu hand it! due w shonllng, and Lo
know the clearance beneath the keel. Squat can then be anticipated as
well as I he need to reduce speed as bottom clearances change. T he fathom-
tlte r must ue routinely watched; the development of the digital fathometer
motmted on the forward bulkhead of the wheelhouse to supplement the fl!-
cording falho metcr in the chartroom has done much to increase ship-
handling safety. The f!lthometer seems too oftc"1 for~ottcn on e the pilot i~
 82 S HIPIIANDLING IN A CHANN~L US ING SHII'IIANDL.INO INSTHU:>!F.N't',\TION 8:3

aboa rd- this is unfortunate s ince the depth of water is a basic ~h ip­ e na ble th e :~1a ri ner to detect and control the ship':; rnl<! t•f:;\'ling in a turn.
handlinr{ parameter. A ra ~e -of-turn i11dica lor us ura! ly su pplies turn infor mation in tenth:> of a
Due to thE: mass of toda:v's larger ships a nd th e greater height from degree per ~ccnnc!, althou .:~ dc;;:-c~: jlCr mi:.utc ore used occnsior..:.!!y,
the water at which the pilot IS now working, it has become m ore difficult s howi ng a ~a tP to the righ t or left tha t corresponds to the d in :ction of t he
to detect an error in judgment a nd to recover from that error. It if impor- movement of th e ship's bow. Thi:; iniormation in itself is not of g r eat
tant to hr.ve an accurate means of determining tha ship's movement- value (fig. 2-16J. It is the relative indication th at. is import.ant- tha t is,
both ahead and astern over the bottom, and her lateral motion at the bow whether the rat.e is increasing or decreas ing, an d by what amount. It is
and stern. The ship can then be accurately positioned at a pier or at the
single-point moorings commonly used by VLCCs, and also steered at the
low speeds involved when the bow and stern are moving at a fraction of a
knot. While a single-point Doppler log is useful at sea, the romplete
Doppler presentation showing ahead and athwartship movement 1s
needed to supply the information required in m r neuveri11g situations
with large ships (fig. 2-15).

I
On larger ships and ships with restricted visibility from the bridge,
such as cont..&inerships, it is important to have a rate-of-turn indicator to

Fig. 2-15. Co:ming station with centralized readouts of fore/aft Fig. 2-16. This fuily integrated bridge includes a hchn s lat.ion
and lateral speed, rudder position, heading, wind direction and containing gyro rr.pealer, rate-of-turn indicator, a nd all appropriate
strength . vessel position, and other navigation information. steering options s ui !.able for ihc ship's s teering system. Courtesy
Courtesy Cuncordia Maritime. Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studic».
84 SIIIPHANDLIKG IN A CHANNEL
both interesting And instructive to watch a helmsman do his first trick
aboard a ship fitteci with a rate-of-tu m indicator. After a short time, he be-
gins to 3teer bv using th~ !:1dicator. as wellns watt;hing thejackstaffmove
I" cross a point of reference as helmsm!!n have done for centuries. While
holding the ship steady on a compass heading the rudder is us~d to Y.eep a
zero rate of swing. As soon as swing is indicated the helmsman usee suffi-
cient rudder to check that swing, often applying the rudder before any
movement of the bow to the right or left can be detected by eye.
When a ship is directionally unstable due to her hull form or trim, the
rate-of-turn indicator becomes essential, making it possible to navigate
restrictad clJannels safely. By accurately knowing the rate of turn the
shiph.lndler can limit that rate to a known safe maximum ar.d always
keep the ship under control. As an example, a current class ofliquefieo
natural gas carriers, which have to be trimmed lu an even keel to meet
the draft requirements of their terminal port, are safely handled in spite
of being directionally unstable at that trim. By limiting their rate of
swing to leso than jf0 of a degree per second it is always possiole to eas-
ily check their swing. While the readout is bnsically a relative indica-
tion, this rate of turn of 7{0 of a degree per second is comfortable und er
most conditions. A ratE: of turn ofYio of a degree per second is a safe mAx-
imum for an ordinary turn, that is, a 36-degree change in heading in 011e
minute.
THE BASICS OF SQUAT
In collabomtion with Larry L . Daggett, Ph.D
and Christopher Hewlett, P.E.
As a s hip begins to make way through the water she undergoes a change in
mean draft kr!own as sinkage. This change may occur equally forward and
aft or may be greater at the bow or the stern resulting in~ change in trim
as well as a change in mean draft. The combination ofsinkage anci trim is
called squ11t.
There have been some ;nconsistencies among definitions as use<i to de-
scribe the components of squat in various studies and nautical publica-
tions. BecausP. research is providing more detailed infonnation abou!. this
subject, and be::cause from the shiphandler's viewpoint the subject is more
complex than previously thought, 11 few basic, common definitions are pro-
vided for the purpose o,fthis text. These definitions would seem useful for
all discussions of squat if the most recent research is accepted.
TilE DASI\S (l F SQ L".;T 85
81 'II.·age is the bodily increase in draft, t~at is, the increase in mean
dra ft due to the effects of moving in a rcs!ricted channel.
Trim or, mo re accura tely, dynami.: tnm i:;.th".! ruLation abour. ti1e tr..Jns-
versc axis due tc the change in preswre and the rcst:lting change in draft
along t he length of the ship with the f!rca t<.s t change in trim being at the
bow or s tern depending on hull form.
Squat is the combination of sinkage and trim, the la rges t (:ha ngc and
location of that change along the ship'~ hull dependin):;" on thu location of
maximum change in trim.
In practical terms, the mariner will sr.y the ship squa ts some nu m-
ber of feet or meters by the head or s tern since it is the net result of the
sinkage and trim that is of most interes t to the shiphan dling moving a
ship in s ha llow water. In fact, more attention should be pa id to all three
componen ts-sinkage, trim, and squat-because they all affect ship-
handling. This is becoruing more obvious as ongoing resea rch provides
a better unders tandi ng of the causes of squat and cha nges in under keel
clearance.
Squat is a natur al phenomena as a ship moves lhrou~;h a restncted
channel. The ship displaces an amount or water equal to her own weighl.
This wa ter must move outward from and arou.1d the hull in all directions.
The water so displaced moves primarily along and u.1der the hull and re-
turns astern of the ship lo "fill" the space left by the ship as she moves on.
Naturally, the faster the ship is moving, the greater the velocity of this
flow under and along her bull, and the b'TCater the corresponding pressure
drop as a result of that increased velocity.
This is a basic principle of physics known as the Bernoulli Principle.
Depending upon where the greates t drop in pressure occurs aloug the
length of the hull, this reduced pressure will result. in great.er sinkage (i n-
crease in draft) at the bow or stern, although the dra ft increases to some
degree all along the length of the ship.
As the ship enters shallow water the flov. Jf water becomes int;r!.!as-
ingly 1 cst rict.ed due to the reduced clea rance un der the hull. l fthe channel
ic ~h aiiow :1nd narrow . the flow ofv.:a \cr bcco:.:::1c:> restricted both '.lr:de;
and 0 11 one or both sides oftl.e huli depending or. the shtp's location in the
channel. The effect of this restriction or "blockage fact.or" is depende nt
upon several variables:
1. The speed of the ship thr0ugh the wa ter.
2. Ratio of the ship's draft lo the devth ofwqtur.
86 S IIIPHANDLI NG IN A CHANNEL Till-: DA::ilC:i OF SQL'AT 87

3. Ratic of the ship's cross-sectiona l area to the cross-sectional area of MAJESTIC MAEnSK ·NORTHBOUND. GAlLLARD CUT

the channel (fig. 2-17).

4. The shi p's block coefficient. (The previously ex pla ined effects on
12
11
10
lrrfOl( .. (R1i(A... .., •.S SC""[ C~.i. ,. ~
=r~ I 1
.,
1'
I'

draft. a nd handling characteristics of a high block coefficien t are am- /

"' ..... _..,
plified in shallow water. )
5. The ship's displacement, which determines the a1nount of water
that must pass around and uncier the ship's hull at li given s p.:ed.
~
.,,'
COiiTAINERSHIP , LOA o
-
M5, OEAiol •1061. DRAFT c 317
'-
"'' \
7
~

!~
;;;

6. The rate and period of acceleration as the ship increases speed.

- ll
I ~ ~ ~= ~E-i-~ ~~=r-s-. r-~-r -,_
r-~-
3
2 ~
0"
-~ !-~ j -r-~-~- ~.:! - 1- l ~
0 d
Cons ider first the effect of ship's speed since this is the factor ovE'r ,.r- :-~.......w& rt 1~
....... . /"w.: ("; i''/' ..........
, '
f 11 2 ~
which the mariner has the greatest control. It has been found, based upon
observat10n s o f both actual ships and models, that squat varies in propor-
'D7lu~
., I"'
.llll."f "H ~
rx.f'
..... ~L
~-
3

tion to lhe square of t he speed. If ship's speed is doubled, squat increases ', Ill
l-

~y a factor of four. With today's large ships and minimal unrlerkeel clear-
ances it becomes immediately obvious why speed and resulting squat UOQ 1100 1100 11100 7100

mus t be verJ much on th e shiphandler's mind. It should be noted that the

""'
etw-NEL STATION (11UIIOREOS OF Fl)

ship's s;:>eed here refers to the speed of the ship through wa ter a nd no'; t he
ground speed s o, if the ship is moving against a current, the s peed effe:t
.........
will be increased. Fig. 2-18. This graph show:> the relationship between speed and squal.
Note that the squat (lower lines) in crca:>c~ as the speed (upper line)
increases. This fine h ull conLainership trims ty the stern due to the
Blockage factor 18 = ~: ~ effect of squat. Courtesy Waterway Simulation Technology.

I
I
--- I
I
I
I 11 L.l

•• I
The maximum cross-sectional area of the submerged p01tion of lhc
;;hip's hull, as s een by looking at the midships section in the ship's file of
drawings, is significan t when compared to the cross-sectional area of a
n 1rrow channel. The ratio oflhese two area~, referred to as the blockage
factor, dete rmines the clear ance through which the diRplaced water mu:>t
"«
' •••
I
flow. Obviously, t he less area avail able lhc g1·cater t he velocity nt which
the water must flow fo r a given ship's speed-and lhc greater the resul -
tant pressu re drop around and under lhe hull.
The other variables li;;ted a lso aff~ct the !l ow !!1 a :>im!lar manner und
b
t heir importance will be obvious to the mariner.
The fvrmuia most often used by mariners was c.vnuii;~ted by C. B.
Barrass, Ph.D.' The total squat in open water c3n be calculateJ with suffi-
cien t accu racy for a VLCC using lhe formula

F ig. 2- 17. Blo::kage facto r in restricted channels. 7 C. B. Barrass, Ship Squat and Its Calculation, pg. 11.
 88 SIIIPHANDLING IN A CHANNFL 1'111~ BASICS OF SQUAT 89

s (meter s) = cb X V 2/ 100 or tivc m<'ciel prescnt.cd by Eryuzlu et al. produced !' m~ an error of 0.02
s (feet) = Ch X
2
V /30 :m:> tcrs and a standar d deviation of 0.07 1neters for a VLCC in the De la·
warP ;1ay Rnd Ri ver.
Co"1parison ofpredir.ted and measured squa t in the PC studies has yet
where
to be conducted or. u vessel-type basis or on u fully combined datnb.1sc;
S = squat however, comparisons for individual ships ha ve yielded some useful r e-
c~ = vessel's block coefficient sults. After generating comparisons for S\!Yera l of the aforementioned
V = vessel's speed in !mots
published numerical methods, three fonnulatiom. were found to prov-ide
the best. agreement with the measured data from the Gaillard Cul.
Squat in shallow, confined wntcrs is double the quantity S found by the
That said, it is obvious that there is no single bel>t formula for a ll cond i-
above formula, that is, in shallow, confined waters the squat equals 2 x S
tions and the I3arrass formub does, as stated earlier, consistently provide
When aboard a ship with a block coefficient of 0.8 proceeding in Rha l-
an important margin of safety.
low water at 10 knots, she will sink approximately 1.6 meters (5.33 feet). l f
The I3arrass formula has been discussed. The two other for mu las refer-
the speed is teduced by half, to 5 knots, the same vessel sinkR only 0.4
enced are
meters (1..'3 feet) or one quarter the squat experienced at the higher speed.
1\Jck/lluuska:
It should be noted that this formula for predictiPg squat generally over-
estimates the squat and thus provides a margin of safety. In some caser
where this formula has been compared to measured squat, the margin of
safety was found to be too large for practical operations. In those cases,
other predictive formulas hav~ been found to fit measured squat more ac- S, = bow sinkage in meters
curately when a more accurate prediction of squat is required. Many of the V = ship volumct.ric displaceme nt in meters'
available predictive models are described in a PIANC publication•. L, = ship length between perpendiculars in meter!'
Recent measu;.·ements of ship squat using high-accuracy differential K5 = 7.45S, + 0. 76 forS, "> 0.03
GPS equipment have shown that the most accurate predictive model is de- K, = 1 forS, :;; 0.03
pendent on the ship type and waterway characteristics. For example,
where S , = A5 /AciK.;
measurements of twenty-six ships on the St. Lawrence Seaway' demcn-
A, = ship underwater cross-sectional area
strated that squat could be predicted with mean errors of0.08 meters vr
A, = cross-sectional channel area
less and standard deviations of less than 0. 13 meters using formulas sug-
K, = l Channel-type parameter for canal wi th no O\'crbanks
gested by Tuck, Eryuzlu et al., Barrass, and Tothill, depending on the ship
type and whether thE' transit was in a canal or lake. However, Tuck was of- F .• = Froude number based on t.he undisturbed wat.cr
i ten nearly ns good for predicting squat as an estimate made using the depth = V/( gh )"
I
"best fit" technique. R ecent meas urements demonstrated that the pred!c- where \ · = ship speed through the water in rn/s
g = acceleration of gravity in m'/s
~ .-\ppr-.Jacn Chanr:eis: A Gui-de for Desigr.. Appendix C,
F1nal rep('lrL of the JOint h = water depth in met.ers
working group PIANC and IAPH, in cooperation with IMPA and !ALA,
published 8!. a supplement to Bulletin 95, June 1997. Eryuzlu and H.1usscr:
s Larry L. Daggett, J . C. Hewlett, Devid Stocks, Maximization of Ship Draft in
the St. Lawrenc:P.. \'olume I, Squat Study, Fleet Technology Lim ited and
Waterway Simulation Tecl.nolor,y, Inc., Transport Canada TP 13888E, 7' = ship dra ft ; B = ship beam
December 2001. '
90 ~HIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL Til E HASICS 01•' SQUAT ~1

For fdly loaded tankers in unrestricted shallow water: 1.08 < h/ I'
< 2.75
It. would be appropriate at this point t o also discu~< J the effect that
blockage and apeed have on handling chara~t.eristics of a ship. Since a ship
in confined wRters can be compa::-ed to a piston in a cylinder, itis obdously
morP difficult tn drive the ship ahead as the blockage factor increases.
There is therefore a practical limit to the sp~ed at which a ship can proceed
up a channel-the ship that makes 16 knots at eighty revolutions in open
·w ater might make only 9 or 10 knots with the same number of revolutions
in shall0w wat.er. This limit is reached when the water is flowing at rela-
tively high velocities so the ship becomes difficult to steer, experiences
heavy vibrat.ions throughout the hull, and generates a much greater ,.,.n•te
pattern astern. The wake becomes short and steep, breaking along it:;
length and mov-ing outward at a greater angle from the ship as the point of
maximum flow around the hull is reached. 'rhe ship is now said to be "pu!l-
trim by the bow. Generally s peaking. ships with l:ntJr lines such as con-
tainers hips with a block coefficient (C.) ofless than 0. 7 have bee n found to
trim by t he c:tern (fi g. 2-19).
Squat becomes increasingly imr orlant as ships g<'t larger <!nd load to
deeper drafts. It i.s imperative that the m ariners allow for squ at when
loading and reduce the speed a t which the deeply loaded s hi p navi gates i n
a shallow channel. This requires ?. conscious effort on t he part of many
ma riners since the operation of ships of this size is a rela tiv ely n:!\\ phe-
nomenon and most ship's officers have scrveJ in Lhe paf..t in ships where
squat is not a significant consideration. Ships exist .o curry cargo a mi by
limiting speed to minimize squc t, a ship can lift the maximum possi ble
dead weight.
GLOBAL CHALLENGER • NORTiiBOUNO, GAILLAAO CUT

ing a lot of water."

11 I
Depth of water, thus underkeel clearance also affects turning ar.d DULK C-'RRIER, l O-' • 738, BEJ.M • 105.9, DRAFT • 3?.5

steering and underkeel dearance is directly related to squat. When a srip

10
......... ./ ............ .... ~
10

is manouvering in shallow water that restricts water flow, generally when '\. /
V
...-.-...
'\
the underkeel clearance is less than 0.5 of the ship draft, the ship ,,;p Le-
come more stable and, therefore, more difficult to ';urn. Greater care
should be taken as the shiphandler decides when to begin a turn and tl.e
N()f f ~H'UCAL. AA~$ SCAll OW<4
" \
\
G ;;:
5 ~¥
• ...c
amount of rudder to use to make a turn.
Squat, depth, trim, hull form, speed, and other factors affecting steer·
ing and turns are interrelated. The effects of near banks are also impor-
s --~
~--g
1-i
~
g
u -- E-~

~--3-~--~---~--~-.
1--~, --
-
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r-
t-
3 ...
c.
2 "'
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tant in any discussion of steering and turns. The shiphandler should ·1

·2 ~ ~~
,r ~~ ~ ·1

review discussions of bank effects elsewhere in this text when consideril' g hh.~\,., .'fit'- Ao. ~JIVIV\. •r .,...,......" .A .,.;' L:_
the factors presented in this section.
·3
.,.,-../ ~
; ' .. 111~
,,vt.,.
·~'
..... ~ .
Will the squat occur by the head or by the stern? This can only be deter- ·5 l
ISO<) 1600 171)0 1100 1900
mined with accuracy by observation but a commonly accepted rule of C>W<NEL S t ATIOII (HU ~011EOS or n)

thumb is that a ship with a large C, (greater than 0.75) will Lend to squat
by the head. Vessele havi;1g such block coefficients are gecerally lar~:;~
tan kers and bulk carriers that are very full in their forward section ~ . The
pre\; ously discussed curve of submerged cross-sectional areas is ther~fore
also helpful in predicting squat by the head or stern. If the curve reaches
its maximum point at a more forward station, the ship can be expe:ted le
trim by the head. llull:.; having forward sections ofvarying fullness should
be tested so sown criteria can be developed and publishecl to determine
how far forward this peak in the curve can be located before a ship v1ill
Fie 2-19 l:\Jii hull, high block coefficient bulk carrier s ~nch as ~IV
Global (;hallenger Lrim by th e head. Note th a t the d1 ITeren r:e betwe.:!r.
sinkage at the bow and stern decreases and speed decreases at stat ion
1600. Note also that squat increases in narro we r r eaches of t he
P anama C&. nal for the same speed such as between stations 1700 an d
1800 where the blockage faclor was f:,'1'Cntcr. Cou rtesy Walcrw:>y
Simulation Technology, Inc./l'nnama Canal Au thori ty.
 92 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL UNOEHKEEL C LEAR.A.'\ C ~ 93

UNDERKEELCLEARANCE
The squat phenomena, as discussed to this point, has been well known and
understood for many year~ to the extent it affects a single ship and so fa ..
as ship's draft changes for a given channel configurati0n, hull form, and
speed through the water. Additional discussion is needed of factors Jther
·than squat that affect underkeel clearancl:l as larger ships load to greater
drafts. Ports and channels that once were considt:red suitable for deep
draft ships are now margi11al as larger ships load to deeper drafts and un-
derkeel clearance is reduced to the minimum corrsidered safe for the port.
In the past, some research was done to predict squat and underkeel
clearance under more complex conditions such as when multiple ships
pass in narrow channels but the findings and accuracy of the data W'lS
questionable. Much of the research was conducted in test tanks so practi-
cal consideraLions including the impact of ship stability, changes during
periods of acceleration, and effects of ship interaction on squat w~re rarely
applicabk to day-to-day maneuvers in shallow water.
More advanced tests have been conducted in th _ past decade using sur- Fig. 2-20. All the efTects expected in a confined cha nnel can be ~n in
vey grade DGPS to measure changes in draft and trim of ships underway the Ga illnrd Cut..
in narrow channels under dynamic conditions. These tests have focused
on underkeel clearance (UKC), which is the primary concern for mariners work, beca use of its scope, expands significantly on past theory regarding
handling ships in shallow water and narrow channels. In the past, squa t a nd UKC requirements in shallow water. The opportunity to mea-
shiphandlers often considered squat and UKC as basically synonymous sure thes<; conditions in the Panama Canal was unique. The tests were
although they arc actually something quite different and that difference is perfor med in a controlled operating environment so condi1.ions and mea-
increasingly important as more ships arrive at a port loaded to the maxi- surements could be repeated and confirmed in a r el iable manner. T hese
mum safe draft. In fact, factors including acceleration, ship/ship interac- conditions and the extremely close cooperation between the parties in-
tion, and rollinG in turns are at least as important as squat in any volved in th e tes ts created a s ituation th a t came as close as may ever be
discussion on undP.rkeet clearance. All factors are dynamic since ship possible to :1aving Lest tank conditions using actual ships and full size tes t
speed, stability, hull co11figuration, and channel profiles are interrelated tanks within the very accurately sun·eyed Panama Canal channel for
and a change of .any one of those factors affects UKC. Mariners and pilots weeks a t a time. The results affect not only the Panama Canal but also
tend to focus on squat when they discuss UKC but these other factors were ship movements and operating parameters in all watenvays and r outes
found to be at least as important when navigating in some areas of the wi th 1;ha llow watet· a nd restricted char.r.els.
Panama Canal and other watenvays (fig. 2-20). The PCC (Panama Ca nal Comm;ss ion) im es tcd the lime a nd work
De.fnitiva tes':s were conducted by Waterway Simulation Technoiogy, necessary to conduct these tcst...c; ~nd rc a.;.;-3:: - s ·:L....:::::ic squat a mllJK C t!l•.·ory
Inc. (WST: for the Panama Can11l Commission (PCC) in 199R when
drought conclitiom> made draft and squat critical. 10 " " This landmark 11Ibi<.! , May 8, 1998.
1:!
Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D., P.E., and J. ChristoFher Hewlclt, P.E., Panar:u:c
lO Larry L. Daggett , Ph.D., P.E., and J . Christ.opher Hewlett, P.E. Study of Ships M ccltng in the Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal, Waterway Simulallon
Ship Squat w tl·e Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. for Technology, Inc. for the Panama Canal Commissic•n, Balboa, Ilcpublic of
the Panama Canal Commission, Balboa, Republic of Panama, March 20, 1998. Panama, September, 10, 1999.
 84 S HJPHANDLING IN A C HANNEL
becau se the wate rway, by its very nat:ure as an internation a l waterway
serving world shipping, must be particularly senRit ive to the needs of ~11
Pan a m a Ca!1al us ers. T here is a r eal need to m a ximize ca rrying capac1ty
of ships trans iting the Canal consistent with safety. The tests were con-
ducted fo r the P anama Canal but the results ar e an im portant contribu-
tion to a n understanding of ship behavior in an ·n a rrow and shallow
channelu.
F or the Panama Canal study, pilots m a neuvered all types of ships
while the WST personnel measured r esults under various operating con-
ditions. Operating procedures and regulations were m odified based on the
test r esults for ail ship types in various si tuations. Survey-grade DGPS
II equipm ent was ins·~alled on the bow, stern, and bridge wings to m easure
vertical displa cement and the draft and trim changes were r ecor ded. ~h~
resulting hard copy graphs and tables documented the findings thut wer e
at times &urprising. The findings might n ot have been accepted if the mea-
surem e nts w ere not wt::ll documented.
I The t ests provided a basis for predicting underk eel' clea r ance an d ex-
panding t h e understanding of squat effects and ch 11n ges in dr~ft u nder 'l
wider r a nge of situations. Practical applications for the da ta m clude re-
vised draft r estrictions for various s hip types in Ga illard Cut in P an Iima
and s peed limitations in various waterways for ships at or n ear ruaximum
draft .
It is noteworthy that the test res ults support the applica tion of classic
squat theory as develop<!d by Dr. Bar r a ss, Ph.D., for the Pana ma Canal
Ga illard Cut w the extent squat is a ffected by speed, block age factor, and
block coefficient under the less cQmplex condition s fo r which the Barrass
fo rmula is most often u sed. Equally importa nt, the tests als o incr ease the
knowledge base for the squat phenomena in a r a nge of co~d.i tions for lig~t
and loaded dra fts at various speeds including a few cond1bons not preVI-
ously d1scussed in professional litera ture. F or example, the s~udy docu-
ments squE>.t and chang:'ls in UKC as s hips m eet a nd pass m n a r row
channels, accelerate in shallow water. turn and r oll in twisting channels,
and mo\·e between areas with varying and irregular channfll cross sec-
tiuns. Tu that txt.ent, the Pan ama Canal teds provide grea ter knowledge
of hydr odynamics affectmg squ at and d raft that must be d issem inated to
the industrY.
Similar .tests conducted in other waterways including th e St. Lav.:-
rence Seaway , Houston Ship ChJnnel, a nd Delaware Bay a nd ~ive: ven-
fied the resul ts of the Wawrway Simulation Technology stud1es m the
.j
l
UNO EH KEEL CLEARANCE 95
PanamJ Canal; huwever, it was fow1d that specific predictive formulas for
particular :;hip t.ypes end channel characieristics provide more accurate
estimates of squo ~ thon "he 13an-«.;.; funnuiu. Buseo on thesP. waterv.·ay-
spct:i fi.c mensurer.;ents, the predictive model, and updated channel survey
data, a UKC calculator can be developed tor use in analyzing UKC fur a
planned transit.
To summarize t.est findings, it was confirmed that
1. Speed through the water is t.he most critical faclor when determin -
ing and maximizing UKC.
2. Squat increases for a g1ven block coc fficicnt. a:=: speed mcrcascs, with
the increase in squat being greater for ships with higher block coeffi-
cients.
3. The rolling effect for various sLip types turning in narrow channels
is significant and, for wide-beam ships where draft increases signifi-
cantly fo r each degree of roll, may limit UKC more than squat a t
lower speeds. This is especially true for containerships since they
somet.imes discharge water ballast to r erluce draft in restricted
channels and thus have a lower GM.
4. In general, ship type is a facto r when predicting changes in UKC in
narrow channels.
5. Squat may be as much as double the calculated squat. for constant
speeds when high-power ships accelerate from a st.o 1) or increase
speed quickly.
6. The effect of"crabbing" due to bank suction that causes a ship to pro-
ceed at some angle to the axis of the channel does not. seem to in-
crease squat although more research is required in th is a rea.
7. Squat varies as ships pass through channels with changi ng symme-
try as the blockage factor changes.
8. Squat generally increases 50% as two ships pass ir. a t::hannel or
oth e:- rest!·lcted area but can increase by as much as 100% depend-
ing on the ships approach speed and !;eparal.ion distance.
Safe Speed for Minimum Underkeel Clearance
The PCC squa t sr.udy verifi ed the classic principles for calculating squat.
The change in squat is geometric. Basically, for the same conditions,
squat varies approximately as the square of the speed. Double the speed
and you increase squat by a factor of four. This is especially imponant in
 96 SHIPHA."'OLING IN A CHANNEL
shallow water where the tests den10nstrute that, as a rule of thu n1b, 6
knots is a practrcal speed limit for shrps in channels where UKC is 5 feet
or less considerinl! variables lm"b as acceleration Pnd rolling in turns in
addition to squat effects. Of course, good sel\manship should prevail llt
all timo>s .
The shiphandlcr will always cvnsider factors such as a rocky vs. mud
bottom, the quality of charts and accuracy of ranges and buoys, the type of
ship, its stability, and other factors that affect concerns with grounding in
a particular area. They may routinely navigate a channel with a mud bot-
tom at a higher speed. At the same time, they may proceed at a slower
speed to have greater clearance when the bottom is rocky. Pilots make
these adjustments routinely and often proceed at higher speeds because of
their local knowledge of channel symmetry and bottom type that permit
higher speed a with safety. This is the essence ofpiloting and the reason pi-
lotage and local knowledge are irrepleceable in the safe handling of ship..>
regardless of o::hanging technology.
In any case, absent specific local knowledge tfl the contrary, the
6-knot speed limit for 5 feet of UKC is a useful rule of thumb for
shiphandlers that is suitable for safe navigation in almost all
conditions.
Effects of Stability on UKC
There is an apparent contradiction between points 2 and 3 (on the previ-
ous page) as demonstrated by the DGPS measurements. Ordinarily,
\ wide-beam, full-hull ships such as tankers and bulk carriers arc expected
to experience greater increases in draft because squat is greater for shi ps
with a greate;.- block coefficient. Those ships would ordinarily require a
greater UKC for a given speed. In fact, at slow speeds, wide-beam ships
with finer hulls may require greater UKC because GM is less anJ they will
roll more for a given speed than the ship with large block coefficient. For
example. the deep Jraft of a 106-foot beam Panama;,: ship increa5e5 ap-
proximately 11 inches for every degree of roll.
The reality when considering changes in UKC for various ship types ir.
often different from what might initially be a nticipat<>d. Bulk carrier:; and
tankers usually have larger block coefficients (above 0.8), less horsepower
(6,000-14,000), and greater .>tability (GM more than 3 feet). Tl-.ey are
more likely to squat by the head and accelerate more slowly." Due to higll
UNDERKEEL CLE<\RA.\"CE 97
GM, this ship type will usually roll less dut• tu !-udJer-induced rolling in<=
turn. r,_'hese ship types arc relatively similar in hull form regardless o:
owner 1'\nd place of construction, so squai., sinkagc, end changes of draf~
are generally more predictable for these :;hip types.
Car carri(;!rs, containerships, and passenger ships usually have lower
block coefficients (less than 0.8), greater horsepower (15,000-65,000), anci
less stability tGM commonly less than 2 feet). They arc more lik::!ly tcJ
squat by the stern and accelerate more quickly. These shi p types will rnll
more in turns in narrow channels, and there arc greater disparities in hull
forms amoug ships of this type. For these reasons, squat and changes in
draft while underway are lcs:.; predictable.
General cargo and ships carrying specialized car&oes huvc charnc:.tcris-
tics that are somewhere between the aforementioned ship types.
The WST trials make a guod case for allowing less underkeel clearance
for the more predictable bulk carriers a nd tankers than for other types of
vessels, which is quite the opposite from what would otherwise be ex-
pected fo1 high block coefficient ships based on squat alone. They heelless
in a turn. They heel less due to rudder-induced rolling. They accelerate
more slowly and have less horsepower so speed changes will have less ef-
fect on draft.
Acceleration
Ship acceleration is a n important consideration when handling ships in
shallow wa ter Changes in engine revolutions have a greater eiTecl on
UKC lhan previously anticipated. The tests indicate lhat initial squat
while accelerating is app roximately double the squat as calculated by the
classic forn1ula. That formula assumes constant speed so a high-powered
ship pul on full ahead may strike the bottom while accelerating even
though there would be sufficient clearance under the keel once a specific
speed is reached. Pilots and ships' officers must accelerate in incr~­
m enis-<lead slow, slow, and then half-instead of gcu1g directly to half
ahead when UKC is less then double the squat calculawd for con:stnnt
s peed. A modern containership increased draft more than 4 feet m the ini-
tial few minutes as the ship accelerated from a dead stop using revolution:;
for half ahead. In this particular test, the squat decreaBed lo 2 feet or less
when the ship reached normal half ahead speed even though revolutions
remained constant throughout the period the ship wa<; gaining lwadway
in shallow water. This increase was clue primarily ,to an inJuced heel t.o
the starboard during the acceleration.
98 SI!IPHANDLING IN A C HANNEL UNDEHiillEl, CLEAR.o\NCE 99

EVER REFINE· NORTHOOUNO, OAMBOA REACH, MEETING WITH NEOLLOYD DEJIMA

The Water.vay Simulation Technology (WST) t2sts showed that un-
rlerkeel clea1 ance varies when a ship moves betweE'n channels of different I) ......- IJ

formation in asymmetrical channuls where the slope of the bank is differ-

IZ

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10
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....... 7
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~nt on one side of the ship than the other. The change occurs each time the ! CONTAitiEIISHIP.LOA • 945. BEAU • 106 DRAFT • '9 5

symmetry of the channel changes. The ::ause of this change is not obvious
although it may be due to changing blockage factors or to disruption of HtnE 't'(ttl<.Al4Xa.SSCN;fOW(;.(
~-
what is otherwise a stable condition as the ship proceeds along the chan-
...tu:l
nel. There is little that can be done to minimize this effect other than re-
~
ducing speed and allowing for the increase in draft each time the channel ~
cross profile changes. ·I
-, V
-
Tests showed the draft for a 6 J 2-foot-long by 95-foot-beam bulk carrier
-
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changed by as much as 2 feet while proceeding at a moderate speed when ..·•
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.......
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the shape uf a 1,000-foot-wide channel changed so the effect of changing -6

channd symmetry on draft can be significant. A ship could ground if the .,

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pilot does not minimize speed when channel width and symmetry arc CHAN"LL s•AflOH ~tUNOREDSOF FT)
changing from one area to another."

Meeting and Passing
Squat ah.o increases significantly as two ships meet in a channel or other
restricted aren. Tests were conducted by WST to measure the effect of
ship/ship interaction on squat. The tests were done at a range of speeds ir.
the thoroughly surveyed Panama Canal channels where the chance of
grounding was minimal. Squat ·...,as additive as the ships met and pass(. d.
A ship squatting 4 feet meeting another ship squatting::, feP.t and moving
in the opposite direction would experience a cumulative liquat of approxi-
mately 7 feet as the two ships passed in a narrow channel.
Obviously, the distance between ships and the channel width has an
effect on the increase in squat. In the tests, the channel was approxi-
mately four times the combined beams of the two ships. Tests were re·
peated for several days with fairly consistent results and the increase in
squat was consistE'ntly more than might be anticipated prior to these de-
finitive trial runs . In all cases, squat generally increased by about 50~.
with increases from 60% to lOOo/c occurring, when two ships passed in a
channel depending en speed and distance between ship.;. The increase is
greatf::r f't higher speeds and for larger ships. Sinkage was greater for bulk
Fig. 2-21. Ships meeting in restricted channels will experience a
signifi cant increase in squat as the ships pass. Note that sinkage
n early doubled to 7 feet when this vessel passed approximately 150
feet from the conlainership Nedlloyd Dejima. Consistent with
findings, this low block coefficient vessel trimmed by the stern due to
squat. Courtesy Waterway Simulation 1'echnology, Inc./Panama
Canal Authority.
carrier/tanker t_ype vessels than contninership!.. Increased hcc! was also a
primary factor for changes in the vertical for lypic&l cont.ninC;rships in
meeting situations (fig. 2-21).
Shiphandlers must not underest.imat.c t.he ciTcct of this ship/ship inter-
action on squat and draft. The increase cnn be drastic and rapid so ships
moving at high speeds in narrow channels could ground immediately as
tlley meet. It is noteworthy that a 900-foo ~ cont.amership rraveling at 11
knots in an otherwise safE.- ?Or)- foot channclmuncd: ::.t''l~! ;.,t::r!!ascd dra~
by more than 7 feet as the ships passed."

13 Study of Ship Squat in the Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation

14 Ib:d, Pb· 41.
Technology, Inc., pg. 34.
100 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Overtaking
One would expect that squat would be greater for two vessels in an over-
taking r.ituation thflP. for a single vesse! in the channel. One WO\:.lrl also ex-
pect squat to be greater for two vessels in an overtaking situation than for
two vessels whr:n meeting and passing and the increase would last l.:mger
since the ship/ship interaction con.tinues for a longer period due to the
lower speed differential between overtaking ships.
There is a lack of data on this situation so it is not possible at this time
to say with any certainty that this assumption is correct. For safety rea-
sons and until there is data available to support or refute that assump-
tion, it seems proper for shiphandlers to assurr!.e the increase in draft
when ships overtake in a narrow channel is the same or greater as when
ships meet and that it lasts for a longer period.
Squat, underker:l clearance, ship stability, speed, hull f(Jrm, channel
form, and all the other factors discussed in this sect.ion could cause a shi)J
to ground in an otherwise safe channel. Also, in addition to grounding, re-
cent research clearly shows the importance of considering all factors a:-
fecting Jteering and shiphandling in narrow and shallow channds.
STOPPING AND MANEUVERING IN A C!{A.NNEL
The berth ia I'OW in sight but the tugs aren't yet available, so it is neces-
sary to stop your ship during her passage up the channel and hold her in
that location until tugs arrive. It would of course have been better to have
had the tugs made fast before needing to stop, but it is certainly not a prob-
lem to stop without them. The maneuver for stopping your ship whilf'l
maintaining her heading is discussed in the section on master's trials in
chapter 1, and since you have kept the ship's speed moderate at all times,
you are in control of the situation with or without tugs.
The experience gained Juring the master's trials helps you judge
whether the ship eau be stopped in the distance available using only rou-
tine maneuvers. Remember that it is often possible to perform two or morC'
maneu\'ers simultaneously , such as using the tAndency for the bow t.o
swing to starboard when the engine is put astern to both make a turn to
the right and reduce headway.
CHAPTER THREE
USE OF TUGS
We mancuverea in the outer harbor w1til it was dark.
When we put in the Chief came to the b:-idgc, wiping his
hands with a wad of cotton waste and his forehead with
his sleeve. "Blimey, Skipper," he said, "you certainly
kept us busy." I had ... ; found out that she wns indeed
a lovely ship; you couldn't expcc : her to do more and H ill
be caiJed a tugboat.
--Jan de Hanog, nu: ui.stant Shore
The heavily bearded docking master burst through the wheelhouse door,
grabbed the old man's hand, and welcomed him to the port in a voice tu:o
tones deeper than our whistle. Taking the radio in hand, he instru cted the
two tugs that would be assisting us to the dock to come alongside and make
up.
How do you like your coffee, Cap'?"
"Black please. Ju st blach an.d hot will be fine," the docking master re-
plied to the captain.
"Call the standby and hauc him bring up a pot of coffee, Cadet."
"I'll get it, sir. It will only take me a ser.ond to go downstairs for it, " re·
plied the cadet.
1'he dochirtg master glowered at the cadet, but said •wthing until he had
left the wheelhouse. Obviousl.Y, he didn't lil:e the young man's reply.
"Downstairs! Downstairs! Where the hell does th at kid think he is," bl'l-
~owed the he.·etofore jouial docking pilot.
"They don't go down below anymore, they go downstairs. Dcchs art
/Z?ors, lines are ropes, and the other day one of these hids called a m oonnJ<
wire a table. ·• He paused long enough to catch his b."cath but i! r..c·;:;.:; oh' i.,, ~
that he J.~d hardly begun his dissertatton on the preservation ofthe seaji1r·
ing language and the use ofproper shipboard terminology. In (11ct, u·e wt•rt>
lectured on that subject for the rest of the docking.
Unfortunately, it is true that the vocabular.J of the manner is often 1g·
nored end those who have been working around ships for any length oftune
arc nvt h<1ppy about it. Perhaps this is because so many landsmen rush to
101
102 LTSE OF TUGS
the water on weekends to play, and most of what is written and filmed i 11
the United States about living and working on the water is directed f.:>·
ward, and produced hj•, these neophy!e admirals who do not unden;fond
that the language ofthe sea is steeped in tradition. Nautical vocabulary al-
lows those aboard ship to comnumicat2 orders and ideas clearly and co11·
cisely w a manner that is not open to misinterpretation. For this reason i f is
important that the shiphandler use proper and accepted shipboard termi-
nology when giuir~g orders.
While practitioners in the medical, legal, engineering, and scientific
fields haue and use a specialized vocabulary peculiar to their professio:l,
the language of the sea is now being misused with regularity. This is sad
since seafaring is not just a job, it is a way of life, and the seaman's vocabu·
lary captures the very essence and epirit of life on the water.
The arJument has been made by some that the seafarer should "mod·
emize" nautical language so it could be immediately understood by all,
even though this would actually mean that it would be clearly understood
by no one. Without a unique nautical vocabulary it would be impossible to
accuratel:>' express ideas or describe conditions in the marine environment.
A whole series oflong and ambiguous sentences would be needed to express
the same thoughts that the seaman can now convey with but a few words.
Consider the paragraph ofinstructions that would have to be given to a sea-
man tending the spring line to get the same reaction that the mariner get8
from the three words: MCheck the spring. n
Just as doctors or lawyers would not bastardize the language of tlwir
professions, nor tolera.te others in their field who do not master ~hat lan-
guage, neither should the mariner accept the misuse of the language of the
sea. It is another aspect ofprofessionalism.
After being properly chastised the cadet went forward to assist in the
docking, having assured the docking master that his point had been made.
The work of the tugmasier is a subject unto itself, and it is beyond the
scope of thie tex t to discuss that work. Only the u se of tugs to ~ssist in the
movement and berthing of ships will be covered here (fig. 3· 1 ,,
There a re several types of tugs, each of which has its limita~ions a r.d
advantages. The single-screw harbor tug is still predominant in many
ports and will serve as the basis for this chapter. It's essential that the
shiphandler understand the tug's work, anu her linlitations and capabili-
ties, so that h e can do the best possible job without endangerbg the assist-
ing boats.
MAl<TNG UP A Tl'G 103
Fig. 3-1. Tugs alongside, arriving BalLimorc Haroor. Froru an oil
painting by Maryland Pilot Captain Bri:?.!l Hope.
MAKING UP A TI.iG
Having proceeded to within sight ofth~ bertu and taken the docking mas-
ter aboard, the crew makes the tugs fast and gets ready to go alongside.
The tugs cnn be made fast in several ways depending on where they arc to
be placed and t:1e wor k that they arc going to do.
If the tug is to assist in a routine docking or undocking and is t,o be
m ade fas t on the bow or q uartcr, she generally pu..s up two lines. The fl.rst
line sent aboard, to be led forward and put on a bitt on the ship's deck, is
the backing line. This line is made fast to a bitt on the tug's foredeck. Since
this line will take a heavy strain as the tug backs against it t,o pull the bow
or stern, it must be put on a bitt aboard the ~hip. Too often, the mate on the
bow or stern puts the backing line on a small cleat on the bulwark, or on
some other unsuitable fitting that is out of the tug masLcr's I in<! of sight.
When the tug later backs on that line for the first time, the cleat pull!; off
the bulwark with the very real danger of injuring or killing someone
aboard either vessel. The second line sent aboard frl)m the tug is led from
the tug's foredeck to her bow, and then up t.O the ship. This come ahead line
is led aft on t~e ship's deck and used by the tug to work against and get into
pos1tion to push tfig. 3-2).
If the s hip will be backing into or from a slip, a stern line may also be
rigged so the tug does not fall around as the ship gathers stern way. The
ship's speed must then be kept to a miniwum since the tug is at nearly
right angles to the ship while backing, with the full length acting as a drag
and putting a heavy strain on that line tha t increases gcomctl'ically as
104 USE OF TUGS
Come ahead line~
Fig. 3-2. Making fast a single-scn:w tug.
ship's speed iacreases. Two of the ship's crew must stand by to let the line
go promptly on signal from the tug and slack it with a messenger to the tug.
If the line is not let go promptly the tug is either unable to get in position to
work or the line is pa~·ted by the strain as the tug and ship maneuver.
There it~ a very real risk of getting the stern line in the tug's propeller if the
messenger is not used and properly tended when slacking the stern line
down to the boat.
'I'wir..-screw tugs, due to their ability to maneuver, will often give the
ship only a bncking line since they can use their two engines to get at riJht
angles to the ship to push without a come aheaci line.
Tugs having one of the various patented drives that allow maneuver-
ing in all directionA will need only to send a hawser to the ship, which al-
lows the tug to work with greater freedom and to be more useful to the
shiphandler. P':ltented drive tugs such as the Voith-Schneider can do ev-
erything that twin-screw tugs can do with the added advantage of being
able to work (t0 direct treir thrust) at right angles to the ship when the
ship has head..., ay. Obviously, the closer th<' tug is to being at right angles
to the ship. the more of her power is being u sed to 1nove the ship in the de-
sired direction. These patented drive tugs can also work closer to the
stem or stern of the ship because oftht:ir ability to maneuver around the
flare of the bow or curvature of the ship's run aft. The closer to the ends of
the ship that the tug is able ro work, the more effective it can be in moving
the ship.
USING ATL'G 105
The patented dri'le lugs usually keep their working hn~ on a winch
with sufficient power lo shorten or lengthen the line while working
against. it. Tht: Lug is thus able to change po:>t~ion without losing lllfective-
ness and to work at more than one location around the bow or stern with-
out having to shift lines.
COMMUNICATING WITH f. TUG
Whil<' V'lrious lug signals have been developed that are peculiar to a port
or even to a particular berth, certain basic signals and mancuvers nrc
common to almost all ports at which you will call in the United States. Sig-
nals to be given with a hand whistle or the ship's whistle include:
One blast If pushing or baeking, stop. If stopped, come nlu:ad
with normal power.
Two blasts Back with normal power.
One long blast Come ahead dead slv".
Series of short, Increase to full power, ahcud or a slllrn, dependin~: on
rapid blasts the rurcclion in which the tug is prllst:nlly workl!lb·
One long and Tug is dismissed. Let go the tug's linlls.
two short blasts
Now that the radio is supplementing the whistle, the shiphandler can
verbally instruct the tug to perform these same maneuvers. The use of the
radio has resulted in safer and more professional work since it is possible
to specify a tug by nrune, and io give more precise instructions to the tug.
When using a radio to work more than one tug, good practice dictates that
the name of the tug be repeated twice so that there is no misunderstand-
ing about which lug should follow a particular order: "(name of tug) Come
ahead full (name oftug)."
USING A TUG
Rule one-don't use the tug.
Make the needed lugs fast but plan the job so ns to deliberately r.11 ni·
mize their uc:.e. Let's look at the reasons for thi:;. The tug is Simply another
toc-lllvailable tc. th<: shiphandler to accompiis11 the task at hand, supple-
menting the engine, rudder, bow thruster, anchors, and mooring Iincs.
Use the tug only when these other t.ools will not by themselves accompli si1
the task. There are several reasons for thil'.
1. The only way to develop a skill in and a feel for hanJling ehips is to
do the work. If a ship is pushed and pulled 111to position primarily
 106 USE OF TUGS USING A 1'UG 107

using the tug, you aren't developing :my skm in shiphandling, you in fact having more t!1an one cfTect and to use these efTccts to your be~ t a d-
are only learning to push and pull with tugs. vantage (fig. 3-3).
2. If a job is planned to minimize the nee cl for the tug, then those tug" Oth~r than the pushing and pulling .:!:Tect;; on Lh~ ;;hip's bow, th~ ;) 'lW
are available as £.dditional tools if required-an ace up the ship- tug can als\l be used to fvllow a ship which is going astern, working stem to
handler's sleeve. Ifth3job is donf' in a manner that makes the use of stem to Etecr the ship by pushing on either bow as required. The tug tra lli
tugs essential, this backup capability is lost. By making the tugs thP. stem and comes ahead against the port bow to move the stem to star-
fast, and then working as if they weren't available, the tugs can be board and thus turn the ship to port. Pushing on the starboard bow has tho::
used to correct any problem that might arise. opposite effect.
The. bow tug is used to hold the ship alongside in position aft.er arriving
There unfortunately seems to be an inverse relationship between at. the berth until mooring lines are out. and tight. By keeping the tug at
shiphandling ability and the availability of powerful tugs. No great skill is some angle to the ship, that ship can be held against a flooding or cbbmg
required to berth a ship under normal cond1tions with a little common current as well as alongside her berth until she is secure. Other uses of the
sense and a few powerful tugs to push and pull the ship into position. It is a bow t.ug arc covered in sections on approaching lhc berth in chapter 4, o nd
pleasure, though, to watch a skilled pilot or master move a ship using only going alongside in chapter 5.
her engine and rudder, making her perform without fuss or confusion. The
only way to develop that degree of skill is by handling a ship with mini-
mum assistance.
The tug'3 power, when working alongside, is used primarily to move
the ship latere lly although a properly made-up tug can direct forces in all
directions and move the ship ahead, or slow the ship and hold her in pcsi-
tion. This flexibility is one ofihe reasons a pilot will sometimes use a tug
on a ship even though she is equipped with a thruster. A shiphandler
should never hesitate to use a tug in appropriate situations even though
the master inAists the thruster will be sufficient. Tug fees are, at times, a
necessary cost of safe docking or undocking.
Keep in mind, when using a tug to maneuver, that E~hip's speed has a
crucial impact on the tug's effectiveness. The tug has only a limited
amount of power available and, as the speed of the ship increases, more of
that power is r.eeded just to "keep up" with the ship and therefore lese
power is availabl~ to assist the ship's maneuvers. Keep the ship's speed to
a minimum for maximum tu~ effects when maneuvering.
As stated, backing a tug al~;o slows the forward speed of the ship, and
\ simply dragging the tug along with its deep hull at some angle to the ship's
centerline will h ave some slowing effect. Kef'p in mind that the opposite
effect occurs when the tug comes ahead. The tug's force increases the
speed of the ship since some of her power is pushing the ship ahead. It is
possible to compute by vector diagram the percentage of the total force
being generated by a tug that is acting in the desired dire-;tion under a Fig. 3-3. A tug's force afTects both the ship's lateral motion and her
given situati cn, but in th{: real world it is sufficient to know that the tug is headway.
 108 USE OF TUGS USING A TUG 109

The after tug or stern tug, if placed on the quarter, is made fast in the
same manner as a tug on the bow, that is, with a backing line and a come
El head line. The tug backs and pushes against the hull in the samP. manner
and with the same effects as the bow tug, with two important differences:

1. The after tug acts as a drag, reducing the effectiveness of the rudder,
especially at slow speeds when the shiphandler is trying to move the
stern laterally without any significant increase in speed.
2. The stern tug tends to set the stern away from the side on which she
is made fast, \.Oward the pier or wharf in a docking situation, which
creates an additional problem for the shiphandler. This effect in-
creases as the angle at which the tug lies to the nhip increases, since
thP. tug is acting as a rudder of the dimensions of the tug's underwa-
ter profile (fig. 3-4). F ig. 3-5. Usmg a tug on each bow.

For tht!se reasons it is best to have the stern tug stand ofTuntil actually ther tug can then back or come ahead, alonP. or togcthc.-, to move the ship's
needed io assist the ship, and to be let go after undocking at the earliest bow as required. More impor tantly, when both l ugs arc backed simulta-
practical time. neously the ship's heading is mai:l.taincd while r educi ng the sh ip's spct>.d,
Occasionally a tug will be secured on each bow when the ship is ap- as the tugs back against the s hip's he~dway. The ship's engine can also be
proaching a be1th or lock, or holding a position in a channel (fig. 3-5). Ei- used as required, so tha t she is both steered and s t<>pped with maximum
control.
A tug can be placed astern of the ship and made fas t with one or two
0
I Tug's hull affects lines (fig. 3-6). In this position the tug backs to slow the ship or comes
I the ship like a ahead to either the right or left to move the stern, acting much like an ac-
rudder placed at
angle "A."
tive rudder to supplement the ship's own rudder. The tug can also be used
\ to steer without the ship's engine, controlling the ship wi lhou~ developing
I 0
excessive hEadway. It is claimed in some shiphandling texts, and occa-
sionally by pilot3 in ports t~at. do not normally use tugs in t.his manner,
that there is some hazard to a lug m ade fast on the stern. T his is simply
_...Q_ 0 un true. For example, tugs have been used asiem to assist liter ally thou-
sands of ships through the Gaill ard Cut in the Panama Canal at speeds ,,f
~to 8 knots without any problems. Often texts recommend using a Lug on a
h awser a head of the s hip to :1ssisl th e ship to steer This urr<:ng<:mln' ~
Sh ;>'s stem ~<~t \_ both less .::f'fective a nd potentially more hazardous. A convention:1l t,; .S
toward pier
I
h ar bor tug working ahead of a ship with a ny significant headway is al-

·~
.vays in dan ger of being tripped or rolled over.
T he ship should always keep a n officer and t.wo crew members stanJ-
IA\ ing by the tug lines, especially when they arc led th:-ough the ship's quar-
Fig. 3-4. Effect of a tug made fas t on the quarter. ter chocks , i n case the tug should have to let go on short notice. Too often,
110 USE OF TUGS LASJUNG UP A TUG 111

There a re occasions when a C'~nven tional harbor tug can be put on a

hawser, most commonly when ha ndling a dead ;;hip or a ship with such a
ligh t draft that it is not poss ible to make up alongside. l n ~hi;; case, k<.-' P
the ship's s peed and the use of the shi~'~' engines to :; minimum LO avcid
getting th e harbor tug i.r. irons, abeam the hawser, and rolling her over.
When working a tug in this manner, it is common to use radio commu-
Tug ahead to lelt
1. Sl-ip's sl-am moves left.
'""""~
""'
nication to give the tug a speed and direction to pull, and otherwise to us e
t hat tug in much the s a me way as has been pre\;ously described fo r a tug
2. Ship turns to right.
alongside. Tugs on a hawser can also be used in opposition to one another
to incrEase or reduce the way on a sh ip, or to hold a shi p in a particular po-
sition in a stream or a t berth. In chapter 4, othEi' uses of tugs on hawsers
when appr oaching a berth arc discussed.

LASlil.NG UP A TUG
Tug lull astern
1. Ship's headway reduced. When a ship is moved in a confined area or as a dearl ship it is often ciTec-
tive to lash up a lug at her bow or stern. The tug lies alongside and puts up
1 a head line, stern line, a nd an aft leading spr ing line to the ship. The head
and slern lines are kept as sh0rt as possi ble, leading as much like breast
Fig. 3-6. Tug used on s tern. lines as the situation permits, aud heaved up very tight. lL is impo rta nt

ship's crews make a tug fast and then walk off, giving the tug on the stern
no alternative but to let go the lines from h er end should it be necessary to
break away. ' rhis leaves the lines in the water nt...Lr the ship's propel-
ler-uot a desira ble situation!

TUG ON A HAWSER
Although it is not as common to see a tug work on a hawser in th e United
States an it is in other parts of the world, which might be called the "Euro-
pean style" of shiphandling, the use of a hawser should be considered.
There is no point in discussing the relative m erits of t he European and
U.S. systems, since the design of the tug u sed, the experience and ha bits of
the shi phandler , a nd the phyr.ical layout of the port all determine the style
of working.
As Shotte~ end Voith-Schneider tugs become m ore widely used in the
United St ates, there will be a correspcnding increase in the a m ount of
hawser work seen by th e mariner. These tugs are designed to be u sed on a
hawser, having winch es that ure properly located rela tive to the tug's
pivot point so they can work safely in this manner . This is not generally
true of convent.ion r..l U .S. har bor tugs. F ig. 3-7. "The pilot wants a Light lash-up, Harry, so ... "
 112 USE OF TUGS l.ASII ING UP A T UG 113

that these lines be tight eo the ship and tug work as a unit, or the lash-u p
will be more of a hindra nce than a help Do not allow the ship to be moved
if it is n ot possible to get a tight las h-u p due tn t he ship's d ::-aft, hull config-
I uration, or t he location of her rhocks and bitts.
I The tt:g or tugs may be lashed up on the etern and used in place of the
ship's engine and/or rudder. If a tug is lashed on each quartP.r, the ship is

I
Tug lashed up lo
handled much like a twin-screw vesssl. In sheltered waters a large ship take ship stern hrst
from a bcnh.
can be moved significant distances quickly and safely in this manner.
When using tugs in this manner helm and engine orders similar tu those
used aboard a twin-screw s!lip are appropriate.
When only one tug is lashed up, the off-center location of the tug iF felt
unt il the s!lip has some headway, so the ship initially tends to move later-
ally away from the tug. It is more effective to back the tug to turn the ship 1. Tug backs against
to th~ side on which the tug is lashed up, that is, back a tug lashed to the spring to lift ship's
stern off tho dock.
port quarter to turn the ship to the left (stern to :ight. bow and ship to the 2. Tug comes ahead, ru dder
left). Once it has headway a small ship can be moved efficiently w1th only hard left, to lift the
ship's bow off the dock.
one tug lashed up. 3. Tug's engine and rudder used
The other common type of lash-up places the tug on the ship's bow to steer ship from berth.
hP.ading aft. 'l'llis might be done when only one tug is used to back a shi p
from a berth around another ship docked astern or to back a dead shiF
from a b&rih. After being lashed up (fig. 3-8), the tug is backed to move the
ship's ntern off the dock to get clear of the berth and around any shi p
astern. When the ship has sufficient angle to the berth, the tug comes Fig. 3-8. Undocking with a lashcd-u~ tug.
ahead as needed to steer the ship from the berth. rlelm orders are used.
that are similar to those used to move the ship from a berth under h er own
power .
When leaving the berth stern first, left rudder is used by the tug- to
move the ship's bow tu port and thus her stern t o star board. This can be
Tup ahead. rudder
confusing, so face aft in the direction in which the ship is moving, and give hard left.
Ship's eng,ne ahead,
helm orders t o the t u g. 'fhe maneuver is immediately simplified and the rudeler hard nght.
helm orders n P.eded are obvious. On ce clear of t he berth, with sternway on
the s hip, the tug is given a course or steadied on a h eading and the tug
master steer s "he vess el much as a helmsman would. •
!
A ship wit h a tug lashed •.1p can be stopped by backing the t ug. Ifthe tug
is lashed up on the starboard quarter when moving a head, or lash ed up on
tho port bow when moving stern first, the ship will twist and can be han-
dled like a s ingle-scre w chip with a righ~-h anded propeller.
A lashec-11p tug can ofl.cn do the work of two tu gs wh en used together
with the ship's engine moving a ship laterally without dev e lopin~ Fig. 3-9. Working tug nnd ship in opposition to move ship laterally.
 114 USE OF Ti.JGS

headway. Uue of a tug in this manner requires close cooperation between CHAPTER FOUR
the shiphandle:- and tug master, as well as a good tight lash-up. The tug
lashes up at the bow heading aft. She comes ahead with her rudcler hard
over in the dh·ection of the pier while the ship uses her engine ahead and APPROACHING THE BERTH
rudder hard over, also in the direction of the berlh. The ship'~:~ bow and
stern then move together away from the berth, the ship's engine working • l

in opposition to the tug so the ship gabs no way ahead or astern (fig. 3-9).
There are many old pilots, a nd many fast pilots, but
there arc few old, lttsf, pilots.
-Traditional

The docking master hadn't left the center window of the wheelhouse :;ince
beginning the approach to the pier. He continued to give helm orders slowly
and quietly, signaling with his hands to the right or left as he gave the rud-
der commands to the helmsman. With a strong northwesterly breeze setting
us toward the docll it certainly was not going to be a routine doching and yet
he showed no signs of tension or concern. /(the clochi:tg master's demeanc>r
was any indication, the docking apparently was not going to be as difficult
as those of us on the bridge had expected.
As the ship came up to the _'Jier the doclling master walked out on the
bridge wing where he stayed until we were in position alongside the berth .
E ven when the bow fell offthe wind toward the berth the orders ea me slowly
and delibemtely, and if the docking master had any apprehension about
the evolution it never showed. Doching on this blustery a(temoou was un -
eventful-about as exciting as watching grass grow- just the way it was
supposed to be.

GOOD BRIDGE PRACTICES

Several important aspects of the shiphandler's work have been tou ch ed
upon here, all of which are as important as the technical skills involved in

\ docking a ship.

I
I
1. The docking master did not move about l,he bridlie whi!~: working.
2. Hand signals were given to clarify all helm orders.
3. The pilfJl remained calm and unexcited th roughout the docking.

Select one location to work from when hanriling a ship and don'l move
from the position until nearly alongside. Too oflen the shiphandler v. ill
move from wing lo wing and back again to lhe wheelhouse ala frantic pace

115

I,
 116 APP'ItOACHING TH E DERTH
that increaseR as the s hip gets closer to t he dock. Ostensibly, th is is done
so it is possible to get a n unobst ructed view of the a ppr oach but, in fact, i~
onlv mak es it very difficult to appreciate distance, speed, and motion . The
ship's heading is immediately obvious from &ny vantage point, but less ob-
vious is h er rr.otion bot.h ahead and athwartships. It is impor tant that the
shiphan dler pick one location, generally amidships , and stay there until
close to the dock. When nearly alongside, when cargo a nd superstructure
block the shiphandler's view, a move can be made to the bridge wing where
the s hiphandler should remain until the docking is completed.
Helm orders must be supplemented by hand signals to right and left to
avoid any misunderstan ding due to la nguage differences or ina ttention. It
is quite common, especially during a long passage, for a helmsman to re-
peat an order correctly and then put the wheel in the opposite direction . If
the shiphandier points in the desired direction when the order is given,
this mistake is rarely made by the helmsmar ..
The pilot's manner of working ensures that a calm and orderly atmo-
sphere prevails throughout the docking. Often, if a mistake in judgment
or action occurs, it is because people become excited-and excitement is
contagious. Even when a problem rlevelops, ifthe shiphandler , be he pilot,
master, or deck officer controls emotions so his concerns are not obvious to
oth ers, there will be none of the sh outing and running about t hat only
\ sit.uation for both the master a nd the pilot who mC~St d<>al wi th such absur-
Fig. 4-1. "He's planning the docking .. . says sh iphandling is an art."
DISCUSSING DOC IUNG PLANS 117
complicates e bad situation. The shiphandler controis the mood of the
bridge. as well as the movement of the sh1p.
DISCUSSING DOCKlNG PLANS
Discuss the a pproach and docking plans well Lcfore reaching the berth.
The docking master a ppreciates the opportunity to brief you and to be as-
sured that the ship and crew a re ready to respond as required. Don't ex-
pect hi m to predict each bell and helm order in detail but do get a n
understa nding of:
1. The approach, including any special maneuvers or engine require-
men ts.
2. The placement of tugs.
3. The configuration ofthe berth, including any s pecial problems such
as poorly located dolphins , ships to be maneuvered around or be-
tween, and any unusual space restrictions. This is the time to learn
of potential problems and to cancel the dockinr. if you don't feel it can
be done safely. Don't wait until the s hip is h alfway up the slip and
being set down on the vessel in the berth astern.
4. Any special requirements such as a n eed for the anchor or for any
unusual leads for the moor!ng lines.
5. Th e current and wind to beexpedcd at the ber th. This is oflen differ-
ent from tha t indicated in the cmTent tables and can best be ascer-
tained from the docking master who has the locallmowlcdge required
to make accurate predictions.
In turn be sure to give all the same infor mation to the docking pilot that
is described in chapter 1 for the channel pilot. Too often the docking master
is not pr operly briefed since the "passage is almost over." It's at least as im-
portant tha t the dockingmas terbc a s fully informed as the channel pilots.
Don't ha nd tr.e docking n:oster a two-page preprinted forn, o.sking for a
detailed description of the "docking plan," including the engine bells that
will be required and the heading of the app roach. The docking master can-
not do th is, nor would you wa nt to restrict him to ru1y such predicted set of
man euvers. Such forms and procedures only refl ect the Jack of profes-
siona l background of the originating pa r ty, and create an embarrassing
dities. An intelligent discussion between two professionals to ascertain
the general pla n for the docki ng will suflice.
118 APPROACIIING THE BERTH
If you don't agree with the propoRed plan, let the docking master kPow
about it. Don't wait until the middle of the evolution.
TIMING ARRIVAL--HOLDING IN A CHANNEL
For a number of reasons it may be necessary t c plan a vessel's passage to
arrive at a berth, turning basin, or lock at a specified time. The master or
pilot may wish to dock at slack water, or the tugs or berth may not be avail-
able until a particular time. This is a routine navigational problem.
When timing arrivals, the mnriner often attempts to arrive exactly as
scheduled and allows no time for unforeseen delays. Any reluctance to ar-
rive early and have to maneuver the ship to hold her in position in a chan-
nel for some period of time is natural but unnecessary. The ship can easily
take an hour to go the last mile to a desired point so there is no reason not
to allow some extra time when planning a passage.
The master or pilot can
1. Anchor to a short scope of chain with a head tide.
2. Steam on an anchor at slow enlji.ne speeds and hold a positi on and
hea.ding in the channel even if there is a moderate wind from abeam.
3. Hold wit.h a tug on each bow, using the engine as needed while the
tugs minimize headway.
4. Back and fill as necessary with surprisingly little advance up a
channel.
Further, by arriving early the master has an opportunity to practice
any or all of these maneuvers to sharpen shiphand:;ng skills and develoo
confidence. Arriving early presents no problems but arriving late causes
the mariner t..o use excessive speed-the shiphandler's worst enemy.
SPEE~ OF APPROACH
The me.jor difference between the neophyte and the experienced ship-
handler is the speed at v. hich they work. The less experienced shiphaudler
generally works too fast. Don't equate increased speed with increased ability.
When beginning an appr0ach to a berth, spe~d should be reduced to
bare steerageway. This is much slower than most mariners realize and it
is a rare ship that, under calm conditions, will not steer at speeds of le:;s
than 2 know if given a chance to respond to her rudder. Further, by using
the engine in bhort burstll or kicks with h a rd-over rudder, even the worst
handling ~>hips will re9p<'nd. If additional response is needed, use the tug
SP££1) OF APPROACH 119
or work against an anchor rather than increase headway. lf unsure of
speed take all headway off the ship-you are now certain of her speed
through the water-ana then COIPP ahead as required to steer and r.1:1ke
minimum headway to the berth
There a:e several methods available by which the mariner can judge
speed:
1. Doppler log and/or GPS giving direct rcac.louL
2. Fixes by radar or visual bearingll.
3. Position of the ship's quickwaLnr.
4. Observation of passing objects and comparisons with known dis-
tances.
The Doppler log gives direct readout of speed over the bottom (or speed
through the water when the ship is offshore and the log is indicating speed
referenced to water mass). Both single-point and three-point Doppler logs
h ave proven to be extremely valuable shipht>.ndling tools, especially when
moving larger ships where speed is critical and tolerance for error small.
GPS units, especially those with a differential or wide area augmenta-
tion system (WAAS) correction, provide an extremely accurate indication
of speed over the bottom. Bear in mind that the speed shown is the resul-
tant speed at which the GPS unit's antenna is moving. Even when a unit is
interfaced with the vessel's gyro, the speed provided by the GPS becomes
less useful once the vessel begins to swing.
Fixes by r adar or visual bearings are neilhe1· convenient nor suffi-
ciently accurate for determining speed in a dockiug situation.
The position ofthe ship's quickwater, that is, the wash from her propel-
ler as the engine goes astern, is extremely useful to the ship handler at low
speeds. If that quickwater falls behind the ship when the engine is put
astern, the vessel's speed is 3 knots or more. When the quickwater begins
to move with the ship, the speed is about 2 knots. When the wash reaches
the midsection ~he ship is de::.d in the water. Since 2 knots i!' ,1 comfortable
..lpr;.ro&ch apeed for an average sizP. ship, it"s convenient to be able to put a
iight on the water at mght and tnen go c1slcrn untJI you sec by the position
of the ship's quickwater that the speed has been reduced to the desired
!?-knot speed (fig. 4-2).
Some experience is needed before the relative mot10n of passing objects
can be used to estimate ship's speed, although it is possible for an experi-
enced seaman to judge speed visually with surprising accurncy. How does
120 APPHOACHING THE BERTH
a.
:c
Cl)
cti
a.
:cIll
~--
~ counting the number of seconds required for the entire light to pass that
"'
Fig. 4-2. Estimating headway when backing. Note: 1'his figure depicts
the quickwater from a right-hand propeller. The location of quickwater
at various speeds is reversed for a left-hand turning propeller.
an experienced seaman becoml) experienced? By practice! Estimate y')t.r
ship's speed of approach at !)Very opportunity and compare it. with the
speed shown 0n a Doppler log, or the speed indicated by the time required
to advance along a piE'r of known length, or by comparing your ~stimate
·with that of a more experienced shiphandler such as the docking ma:ter.
Apprehension is usually the result of uncertainty, and the ability to judge
your ship's speed with reasonable accuracy will do mu<'h to make yuu a
confident and capable shiphandler.
When estimating snip's speed look at ol=jects abeam or a little abaft the
beam since an optical ~llusic.n occurs when looking ahead. Objects forward
REDUCING SPI::W EARLY 121
of the beam do not seem to be moving and if y:>u use them t>s a reference
you'll find your ship is going too fast wh.:!n she reaches the berth. Try an
experime'1t to sati~;fy yoursc!fth!.\t this is so. 3land in the wheelhc.use at
night when the ship's speed is most difficult to ju::!ge and, while watchmg
an oi.Jject ashore located forward of the beam, :.low your ship to a minimal
speed. Now look abaft the beam n.1d see how fast you are actually moving.
Judging absolut.e speed visually can be difficult, but it is possible to de-
velop some rules ofth~b to improve your accuracy. For example, at the
Panama Canal the pilots us<! the long fluorescent lights that illuminate
the banl.s at night to judge a ship's speed.l3y aligning the after edge oflhe
light with some point on the ship, such as the wheelhouse window, and
point of reference, a surprisingly accurate estimate of speed can be made:
the lignt passes in 2 seconds at 2 knots. It is because of aids and skills such
as this that the pilots in the canal, where scheduling and timing are so im-
portant, are able to move ships as efficiently as they do.
The shiphandler must differentiate between speed over the ground and
speed through the water. Obviously th<' speed over the ground dcU:!rmmes
the speed at which the ship arrives at the pier, while speed Utrough the'' a-
ter affects the ship's response to her rudder. Docking while sU:!mming the
current is an advantage since the shiphandler can steer .:!Veu when moving
at minimal speeds relative tc. the bert.h; docking with the current from
astern creat.es the opposit.e situation and requires a greater degree of skill.
All of the aforementioned means ofjudging speed give t;hip's speed over
the bottom except the use of her quickwnter.
REDUCING SPEED EARLY
Speed is especially impon.ant during the approach since a ship is less con-
tJ·ollable when her engine is used ast.ern to reduce headway. If speed is
kept to a minimum it is possible to use the engine ns needed without arriv-
ing at the berth with excessive headway. If speed is not reduced early in
the approach, the shiphandler finos hin.selfwith a tiger by the tail-nce:d-
ing to reduce speed and yet having to u~e the sinp's e!1gines nl-.ead !.o con·
trol the ,·essel when shaping up for docking.
Many shiphandlers make it a practice to stop a ship completely about
cne ship length from the berth, especially ut n ight when it is more difficult
to estimate a vessel's speed. TI1ey are then certain of the speed-it is
zero--and can use the engine as required without concern about arri ving
at the berth at an excessive speed.
122 APPROACHING TilE BERTH BOW-IN APPROACH TO:\ PI EH 123

THE APPROACH
A good docking actually begins lo:1g before the ship comes £alongside the
oier. The ~pproach is at least one third of the rl0cking. Tfthe speed is re-
I \
\
Bridge
locahon
/ I

I
I I
Oridg'3
locatron

II H"'Ill
\ 9
duct;!d, the sh1p pro!Jerly lined up with the piP.r or wharf, and then steadied \
.t:CI
o-o
up so that all lateral motion is elir:~inated , she practically docks herself. \ 0-p
\ 0.(0
When berthing starboard sid<! tv the pier. assuming that the ship has a / I ~~
right-hand turning propeller, the ship approaches at only a small angle to I \
\
I 0 "'

~
I Ci>Ol
Qliii

j
the dock. When the engine is pt:..t astern to take the last headway off the \
.t: 9 \ I c c
<t~

~I
0 ~)
ship, the stern moves to port, so if the ship is already at a significant angle "'-o
e·u;
\
I
to the bertl:, it will be that much more difficult to get the ship flat along-
side. It i.s natural for a ship to behave in this manner at any time when
a.t:
lil'g_
o01
I I '0

~
I
Ql c
backed, and this behavior is amplified by the quickwater trapped between a, :if
c g
I
I
the hull and berth moving up the ship's side. For this reason a deeply <t-o I I I
I

'' \
loaded ship will normally require a tug aft to hold the stern up lo the pier
when docking starboard side to. I
I II
\ I
The same ship approaching to dock port side to the pier must maintain
a greater angle to the berth, approximately 10 to 15 degrees t.o the dock in
most cases, with the bow heading for the area of the pier that will be amid-
Fig. 4-3. Dow-in approach to pier.
I I

ships when the ship is finally in position alongside (fig. 4-3). After the en-
gine is put astern to stop the ship, the stern will move to port and reduce
the angle of approach so that the ship comes flat alongside. By using left ea! to attempt to cover each step of a particular docking in a cookbook-like
rudder and a kick ahead with the engine to check that swing to port as the fashion. Dy underst.anding the basics of shiphandling and approaching
ship comes all)ngside, the ship can be stopped in position without needing the pier in a proper manner, the mariner can use good seamanship to ad-
a tug aft. just to a given situation.
There will be some modifications to the basic angle of approach for a Ships generally approach either a pier constructed at an angle to lhe
starboard or port side to docking, depending on channel or a wharf that parallels the channel. The ship may dock either
bow or stern in at the pier or heading upstream or downstream al the
wharf.
1. Wind strength and relative direction .
2. Set. and drift of the current. DOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER
3. Ship's draft and freeboard. A shi p docking bow in should turn and line up at the greatest possible dis-
4. Ship's power and steering characteristics. tance from the pier. This simpliiics the docking anci minimizes any lateral
5. Whether the pi er ha& au open or solid face. motion as the ship approaches the berth. T~e angle of approach described
6. Physical configuration of th..: berth. for star board or port side dockings i~ increased or decr eased to aliow for
7. Availability of adequate lug assistance. set and leeway toward or away from the pier due lo C!..lrrent and wind. If
8. Presenre of othe1· vessels in the berth or slip. these forces are too strong to permit a safe docking, the ship can land on a
camel or a clus ter ofpilings a t the outboard corner of the pier and then ei-
These factors all affect the docking of a ship. Modifications will be dis- l~er come ahead on a bight led as a spring line or have a tug push on the
cussed briefly in subsequent sectiuns, but keep in mind that it is impracti- bow to bring the ship in to the slip. As ships become lnrger it's increasingly
124 APPROACIIING THE DERTH STERN-IN API'HOAC II TO,\ PICH

impractical to come ahead again!.t a spdng in the classic manner to warp a

ship into a slip 0r berth. Tugs arc generally required in th"!se cases (fig. PoSIIton ptvot point
so stem sv..ngs :!ear
4-4). ano snop lines up
with sti~.

Optional spring line 0 !f!lo- - - - : ; -

) c
0

r
I
.--- 0

I
I
~- .... _
----·----r . ~"
I I
' I
', I
' I
' ._.)
/{\-\:::-
Current
Fig. 4-4. Docking in u slip with a strong crosscurrent.
STERN-IN APPROACH 't'O A PIER
Whan dodcing stern in, use the location of the ship's pivot point as a refer-
ence when estimating both the distance that you should pass off the end of
the pier, and the point at which you should turn away from the pier and be-
gin backing (fig. 4-5). The angle of approach is less important when back·
ing into a slip since the tugs are used to steer. Because the stern tends to
walk to port when the engiue is backed, it is desirable to have a small an-
gle toward the berth when docking starboard side to. If the tugs have a
problem holding the ship at the desired angle, the engine and rudder can
be used to aRsiat, coming ahead for sufficient time to move the stern in the
desired direction but not so long that the ship gains headway. While figure
4-5 shows the tt:gs maae up on the bow and quarter, the after tug can also
be used at the :>tern on a hawser when berthing the ship stern in. This ht?s
many advantages. The ship's engine can be used with ahead revolutior.s
together with the rudder to steer the ship, while the tug continues to keep
her moving astern by pulling in opposition to the ship's ~ngine. Ce>nsider
using a tug on a hawser in this situation. · engine is going astern.
0
Tug may be used on
hawser astern Instoad
or on shtp's quarter. 0
I I
Fig. 4-5. Docking stern in at a slip.
Always avoid pushing with the tugs so long that excessive lateral mo-
tion is developed towards the oerth, causing the ship to land heavily
against the stringpiece. It is the lateral motion that the less experienced
shiphandler has the most difficulty detecting and controlling, and a mari-
ner will never become a shiphandlcr without being able to appreciate
sideward motion.
The importance ofhaving the stern tJg stand ofT until actually needed
was discussed in the previous chapter. This is especially important when
planning a stem in docking. The stern lug must not ma ke fas t u r. til th.:
ship has turned to bring her stern toward the slip and is dead in the water.
Until then, the tug aft is of little help and may fall J.ro;;r,d ll.!idC'r tht co~r>
ter and have an effect opposite lo that desired. Preferably, t.he aft tug doc.s
not come alongside t:ntil the .3hip is entering the slip, since once fast, tit e
after tug-by her w~ight and underwater profile alone-sets the stern to-
ward the pier as the ship comes astern. This eiiecL is amplified when dock-
ing porL side to since the stern tends to move to port anyway when the
126 APPROACHING Tl!F. 13ERTH APPHOACJ; Jl\G A WIIAI<F- CURH8NT AS'n;HN 127

The bow tug is best made up with only a backing line so she sin1pl:' fol- Ship s:opper1 .e1a1oe to tile b<'ltom.
11 n u n
lows the anip into the 3lip, trailing on the line in a position uow tc bow with
the ship. She comes ahead on either bow to s t.ePr the ship into the slip as +
r equired, without havinJ the effect of se tting the s hip towardAthe b<'nh
that would result from being made up on one bow.

STEMMING THE CURRENT AT A WHARF Current

Berthing starboard or port side to a whal'fwhile stemming the current is a
straightforward job that should be approached ac described earlier, with
some adjustment for the prevailing wind and current. There is usualh·
some set off the wharf as the ship comes alongside, in a direction contrar;.
to the current in the stream, which is running nearly parallel to the ship's
h eading. This set off the pier is caused by a combination of the eddy cur-
rent that forms along the shore or shoal area, which exists in almost .ll.
ca1:1es under the wharf, and the hydraulic cushion that is created between
the hull and the shallow area under the wharf. This cushion is quite signif-
icant when the face of the wharf is solid, or nearly so, as is often the case
when a wharf is constructed using a bulkhead to contain the bank behind
the slringpiece. This setoffthe wharf should be planned for so the ship can
be brought alongside and held there until made fast. Tools available to the
shiphandler to accomplish this include tugs, steaming against an anchor,
or good breast lines. Do not expect to simply bring the ship alongside and
have her lie there without some assistance until the lines are run ashore.
APPROACHING A WHARF-CURRENT ASTERN
Docking at a wharf~ith the current running from astern requires greater
planning and sJ:till. The ship comes up to the berth with the intent of back-
ing into position since she will be making sternway throu&h the water
when st<.opped in position relative to the wharf. If the shiphandler thinks of
the job in this way, that the ship is coming stern first into the current to the
berth, the maneuver beccmes much more straightforward .
Come abearu of the assigr.ed berth with two tugs rnade fast and take
all headway ofl'the ship. Continue backing the engine while keeping the
stern 11ngled s hghtly towarci th~ wharf and, as the ship gains stern way
through the water (while stopped or nearly stopped relatiue to the bot ·
tom), the c11rrent on the ship's cfl'shore side moves her laterally tow1u·d
the wharf (fig. 4-6). Use only enough speed to hold the ship in position
a nd use the t ugs as required to control the ship as she is set alongside by
the current.
S~ip making stemway through the water.
Fig. 4-6. Approaching wharf, current from astern.
Once alongside, the tugs hoid the ship against the eddy current tha t
exists at. the wharf. The mate on the stl!rn must keep the propeller clear
while running stern lines since the engine is used contin uousiy to hold the
ship in position against the cwTent. The tugs can also help to hold the ship
in position by keeping an a ngle into the current ra ther than being at righ t
angles to the ship's hull. Their thrust holds the ship alongside and up to
t he curren t (fig. 4-7).
Berthing with the current from astern is not u problem as long as it is
kept in mind that the ship is effectively ba::hing stern firs t into position. By
adjusting the angle that the r.hip makes to the currenl:r-st.cru toward the
dock to move in that direction, stern parallel to the dock to check the lat-
eral motion toward the pier or JTiove away from it- the ship can be effi-
ciently and safely berlhcd. AnyprobletnB that arise when docking with the
current from astern usually result from trying to push the ship alongside
with the lugs, rather than letting the current set the ship onto the berth.
The vessel gets away from the shiphandler because the current takes
charge. Use the tugs only to assist to keep the needed angle as the ship is
set alongside.
~t 9 9 ~·
\J'-..----------...:-
C=ur=re=n;_
t- _ _ . . _ - - ' S ~
f \~ ~~
Fig. 4-7. Tugs wurl: at a n ::mgle t.o hold ship alongbitlc a nd inlo current.

CliAlYfEH FTVE
DOCKii~G
Cal)tain Ball, on the bridge, heaved a sigh. "Ring off the
engines," he directed; and somewhem down below, the
telegraph jingled. Suddenly, disturtingly, the decks
ceused to throb and the stanchions to tremble. After
eighteen pulsing days the ship seemed no loncer to be
alive. Silence, torrents of silence poured in from all
sides.
"Hell's bells!" remarked Captain_Ball, unbuttoning
his overcoat and taking a cigar from his nightshirt
pocket, "What a trip that wae.!"
-Guy Gilpatric, Mary, Queen of Scots
"It's been a pleasure to watch your crew work, Cap', a real pleasure. They
know what is needed and go to it without a lot oftalk 01~ the danm radio."
The expression on the old man's face made it obuious that he agreed
with the docking ma.'>ter's observations and was proud ofhis ship and crew.
"It's true Pilot. They do work well-probably because most of them are
pemuznent aboard and know what is expected ofthem," replied the captain.
"Th~y r:;tate cts a team-mates and engineers, and most of the unli-
censed crew-so they /mow the ship and each other. Makes for a safer and
more e{fic:ient operation, that's for sure."
"How .::ome more ship.<; arer~'t manned this way, Cap'?"
It is a subject the captain felt strongly about and he went irtto a lengthy
explanation, interrupted only by an occasional engine or rudder order as
the deep laden bulk carrier slowly approached the berth.
"Too few owners appreciate the importance of a trained and organized.
crew, and uf keeping a crew aboard ship as a unit. The .~am~ shoreside maTL-
ager who crie~:. like hell if he has three personnel changes in his office in one
year thinlls that the staffaboJrd ship can be shuffled from uessel to vessel at
ra11dom and still be well-trained, k."'OW their ship, and worh efficiently."
"Well, it's obuious from the way that eueryone atoard your ship works
like a team that it makes a dif(erence, ··replied the docking master. "We're
getting close--better moue out 01~ the wing."
128
USING WIND AND C:UI!H£:'1:'1' TO AD\',\~;'1',\GJ·:
,I
They moued to the port WLng and continued th!! discussion.
"Another benefit of havtn!f eu.?ryone in the crew stay to11ether is tha t the:-
talw n lot more pride in thrir worll and the cp!!•·c:tz..,:: of thczr .• J:ip. G;..! .><:
that's the lwy-since they lwep coming boch to n pamwwntly c.ssl!!lt<Jd
ship, ihcy feel an iJLtcrest i1t her and it shows in lhl.!ir wurf.o."
"I see a lot of this on the bcttcr.run ships such as yours, Captai11. '1'/u•_,
have bridge teams that arc trained together, and permanent unit crt:ws,
shipboard management schemes, and a lot of other good 1deas."
The subject was dropped as the first heat:ing line snal •cl ashore; the
doclting operation nbw required their full allention. After the en •inc was
rung off the captain inuited the pilot to his cabi1: for a heave ahead be(ure
going to his next job.
''Yep, this unit crew business should be started on more ships, Car' l
sure see a diflerence when I move ships set up that way. Things go much
smoother, and it mahes ship handling and doching a lot easierancl safer."
"Hopefully, more ~ompanies will begi1~ to app,-eciate that it's the hey to
efficient and safe operation ofships, Pilot. This crew evw trained as a unit
in navigation, bridge procedures, and shiphandling, and there would boJ
rw point in all that training ifthey were split up after their first VCLcation. ·•
As they parted with a handshahe, the CCiptain added, "I've been going to
sea for over twenty years and llmow that having permanent, wdl-trau"·d
crews maJws a difference in the stw.dard of ship uperatiu11."
USING WIND AND Ci.JRRENT TO ADVANTAGE
Too often the seaman brings a :;horeside mentality aboard ship and thus
lcoks upon wind and c·urrent as hindrances to be overcome, rather than as
aids to be u.;;ed with the rudder, engine, tugs, and anchor to put lhe sh1p
alongside a berth in a safe and scamanlike manner. A powerfult,ug can
combat a moderate wind and cw-rent, although at be:;t the docking will be
sloppy, but even the finest tugs do not make it possible to fight a 1'troug
wind or current. Nor is it necessary for them to be asked ln.
Before starting th,:! docking, get out on the bridge wing and feel tht..!
wind anJ weather on ·your hce. Look up at the stack and dow:~ at thew::.-
ter. Look out to the horizon and \:heck wha.: the future weallwr condi ticn:;
might be. Constant awareness of wind, weather, and current is cssenti:1l
to efTective shiphand ling.
How do the effects of wind and current compa re? Air is abou t nin e hun-
dred times less d<!n:>e than water, so for a gir..•en velocity wind has mu.:l1
less e1Tccton the ship than current. An increase in the velocity of either the
 130 DOCKING
wind or curren t will increase its efTect on the ship, both varying as the
square of the velocity. The relationship ofdeGsity and velocity to prcr,sure
is expresi<ed:
p = pVz
2g
where
P = r esultant pressure
p = density of t he fluid (air or water)
V = velocity of the fluid
g accelera tion due to gravity (32.2 ft./sec' )'
A 30-knot v.ind e xerts the same force on a n equal area as a 1-knot cur-
rent. This ratio is altered by variables such as the surface area ofthe su-
perstructure, the rat:io ofthe ship's draft to her freeboard, and the vessel's
trim . While the shiphandler should not apply this formula to every dock-
ing situa tion, the ratio 30:1 can be used a s a base to help understand the
relative efTect of wind and current.
AB a s hip's speed is reduced, the momentum of the ship and the effec-
tiveness of her rudder and engine decrease while the w:ind and current re-
main the same. When the ship is dea d in the water, only the wind and
current &.et upon her, although at some prior point these outside forces
have become dominant f.fthe docking has been properly planned, the ship
is so posit ioned thnt as the wind and current "take charge» they assist the
ship hand ler in docking the vessel. Until that time, the ship's angle of ap-
proach and speed are adjusted to compenEate for wind and current , and
anchors and tugs are u sed as n ecessary.
Let's look at some of the ways in which the wind and current may assist
the s hi p:
1. A wind blowin g off the ber th can be used to overcome a Bhip's lateral
motion toward th Rt ber th , instead of u sing the tugs und engine.
\ J . A wind blowin g on the berth can ea sP. a shi p a longside if the
shiph andler stops her a few feet off the berth .
1 R. S. Crensha.w, Jr. , Naval Shiphandling, pg. 15.
USI NG WINO AND CUHRENT TO AD \ '.\.'ITAGE
3. A current that runs across the end of the berth acting on the s!H p's
quart er can assist the s hip in turning into a slio. She is landed and
pivoted on a cluster ofpilings o•· a camel rnt !.er than being Elean'0d
into the slip while fiehting the cur:ent. (S~ figu re 4-4 .)
Don't fight a wind ~!owing ofT the berth. Posi tioo your si1ip at a greater
angle to the berth and delibera tely give the ship more laU!ntl motion as
she comes aiongside. The engine is kicked ahead with the r udder hard
over to move the stern towards the berth and the ship is then held along-
side by tugs. The larger auglc of approach compeosates for Lhe wind's ef-
fects wh ile the ship has headway. As she slows, the lateral motion
overcomes the wind (fig. 5-1). In stronger winds put an anchor down as de-
scribed in chapter 8 to check up the bow and amplify the lateral motion as
the ship comes alongside into the wind.
The tugs and rudder move the ship wward the berth, the nnchvr holds
her up to t he wind, and the wind checks the lateral motion that develops.
A strong wind on the berth causes 1.he ship to land with too much lat-
eral motion, so it may be necessary in such a situation to back the tugs or
ease alongside with an a nchor as described in chapter 8. Plan so tugs are
Kick stern toward dock
to create lateral motion
into the wind before
backing.
Approach at a greater
angle lo compensate
for leeway.
Fig. 5-l. Don't fight. external forces-work with them.
 132 DOCKING
in position to perform this work, or have the anchor on the bottom and
ready to use.
When the wind is qui te strong onto the berth, put the ship alongsid<'
earlier in docking. Don't fight a strong wind: let the ship go a longside and
slide up the stringpiece into positior.. The ship can't b~ olown heavily
against i.he dock after stopping in position if she is already alongside.
These are but a few examples of ways in which mariners use wind and cur-
rent as tool!! rather than allowing them to become problems.
MEASURING SLOW RATES OF SPEED
The minimal speeds useJ while docking can be accurately measured with-
out instrumentation or complicatic•n using thls rule of thumb:
"A ship moues 100 feet per minute at 1 knot."
!fin doubt of a ship's speed, note the time on your watch and the ship's
position relative to a bollard on the pier. After any convenient interval of
time (say thltty seconds), again note the relative positions and you will im-
mediately know the ship's speed.
You C.on't know the distance between bollards or other convenient ref-
I' erence points? It can be estimated with sufficient accuracy by comparing
I the distauce between points with the shlp's beam.
I Having moved in one r.1inute between two bollards placed 150 feet
I apart, you know the ship is maki~g 1.5 knots. ·
When determining ship's speed, don't ignore the obvious. Engine revo-
lutions equate to speed through the vrater. This is so obvious that it is of-
ten forgotten during the approach to a pier or when proceeding in pilot
waters, yet engine revolutions are nearly as good an indication of speed
when maneuvering at low RPM as when at sea.
Learn your ship's RPM/speed ratio. Ii 10 revolutions equals 2 knots,
then 60 revolutions equals 12 knots-it isn't necessary to continuously
consult a detailed table to determine ship's speed through the water.
\' DETECTING LATERAL MOTION
It quickly becomes secord nature for an experienced mar.ner, who lives
and works more closeiy wilh the elements than pnrha;:>s eny other profes-
sional, to make allowances for wind and current. It is eq_ually important
that the shiphandler also develop an appreciation for the less obvious lat-
eral motion that results from:
1. Turning a.3 the ship is approaching the berth.
SF;TIING Ul' TO IlACI\ 133
2. Extended use of tugs.
3. C'1ecking or holding the li:1es before the shit> is alongside.
These actions cause sidcward motion independent of any mNion
caused by the wind &nd current, even when the ship is :naking no head-
way. If not checked, .t he ship move:s laterally toward or away from th11
berth or comes alongside with excessi,·c force. Lateral motion may be de-
sirable at times and is not so much an eiTect to be avoided as a factor to he
watched for and used to advantage.
Lateral motion is easier to detect wl.cn working from trc centerline of
the ship because you have a better view of the vessel and her heading.
Watch objects ashore located ahP.~d or astern. Use their change in ali gn-
ment as a range to detect latera1 motion, and note when the distance from
the pier increases or decreases independent of heading, wind, and current.
The ability to detect this sideward slide through the water and make
use of it is a mark of an accomplished shiphandlcr because it is one of the
effects that is least appreciated by an inexperienced pilot or master.
SETTING UP TO DACK
Prior to going astern, especially when docking without a tug aft, a sin-
gle-screw ship should be set up so her inherent twisting ciTecls are an aid
rather than a hindrance. Since the approach is plmmcd to allow for this ef-
fect, only one additional mancuver is required.
When going starboard side to the berth, put the rudder to port and kick
the engine ahead until the stern develops a slight swing to starboard. Note
that it is necessary to consider the rudder's effect on each end of the ship
¥ather than simply on the ship as a whole. Near the berth the rudder is of-
ten used tu move the stern rather than to change the ship's heading. After
this slight swing of the stern to starboard has bebrun, go astern to 3low or
stop the ship. While backing, the :;;tern checks up and probably moves to
port as the propeller and quickwatcr take over, but any movemen t of the
stern to port is minimized since you shaped up to back prior t.o pulling the
engine aslern. Thu maneuvcr is repeated as requ1rcd !>ll the ship is
s!.oppeJ in position and pc.rallel to the pier or wharf (fig. 5-2).
When berthing port side to, the ship i1:1 set U!J to allow for t.hc sarne
swing of the stern to port. Since the ship's angle of approach decreases
each time the engin11 goes astern, the initial angle of approach is greater
for a port side to docking. The rudder and engine arc used to check the mo-
tion tt. port as r.ccessary so the ship does not come parullcl t.o the berth
 134 DOCKING IHUDGE M1\HKEH$ 135

1. ·'Kick' the engine ahead, rudder hard left,

I swmging the stem toward tho dock and
countering the twisting ertect as (see no. 2)
2. The engine is po.11 astern. The swing is
\ ch ec~ ed !Jy the ,...,jpeller's to•qu;, 12nu
the quickwc.ter as the ship stops
U~c the lwisling cllcct
\ ~_ parallel to the dock.

:=.'\== r;r--u ----e···">

when backing to
simultaneously tum
and stop the sh•p.

-- - .......,;._)~"!:) .... ~--~--- -

F ig 5-2. Docking st.arbonrd side to-set.ting up to back.

-------

un tii she is in position. The quickwater partially checks the sw:ng so the
ship la P.ds easily.
Knowing that the ship swings in this manner, it is logical to use astern
bells to change her heading to starboard rather than only the rudder. This
provides an opportunity t.o simultaneously slow the ship and change her
heading (fig. 5-3).
Don't overuse the rudder when docking. The rudder can oflen remain
hard left during t.he final stages of a docking maneuver whether docking
port. or starboard side to, s ince it has so little effect at these slow speeds. The
hard-over rudder is in the position in which it will most likely be needed,
and having it in this position saves time required for the steering engine to
move the rudder should it be needed to check the ship's swing. Do the same
when backing the engine in an anchorage or during other maneuvers when
the ship has little or no headway-the rudder need not be shifted when
backing the engine unlt!ss the ship develops significant stemway.
QUICKWATER
Quickwater develops when the flow from the engine going astern starts
moving up the ship's side. This occurs first on the starboard side at about 2
knots and by the time the ship has little headway there will be consider-
able flow u.p both sides of the :::hip. The quickwater strikes first on the
quarter so the stern moves away and the bow heads toward the berth, and
its effect is more pronou'1ced when docking starboard side to. The quick-
water eventually moves up the full length of the: ship so she is affected
equally fo:-t> and aft, the cushion being used by t.he ship},andler to reduce
the ship's lat eral motion or move the ship away from the dock.
Like other forces that a ffect a ship, quickwater is planned fur and used
as a n a id by th e compete nt. shiphandler . Quickwater affects a docking or
\~;.
~
·\':\
h
:\0,\
\\ \i
j_.,\ \ -~.
----....,.,,R' ~·,.\y :.
L~·J}
Fig. 5-3. Coming alongside-port side to t.he dock.
undocking ship but is strongest wh en there is shoaling or a bulkhead un-
der the berth. This contains the flow and increases the presst..re acting
upon the hull. If the ship approach~s with excessive speed, it is necessary
to back more strongly than desired for a grea ter length oftime, and result-
ing excessive flow of quickwnter becomes a problem in spite of the best
planning. This is one more reason for approaching at the minimu m possi-
ble s peed.
BRIDGE MARKE RS
Common sense dictates that a ma rker or light be placed on the stringpiece
to show the location of the bridge when the ship is in position. Unfortu-
nately, this is rarely done. Too often the ship is alongside with the first lines
run before someone on the dock decides that she should shift 50 feet ahead
or 30 feet astern. Aside from being botr. annoying a nd unprofessional. this
?ractice cost" both -h':! sh1p and the terminal a great dca! of li m~ and
money. The stevedore or terminal operator knows where the working h!itch
or m anilold should be spot ted, and every shipmaster knows the distance
from the bridge to t.he bow or manifold, so the bridge location can easily be
m arked on the dock prior to bringing the ship :llongside.
Shipmast.ers and pilots must. wor k to make the use ofbridt;c markers
and lights more common.
 136 DOCKING
USE FINESSE, NOT FORCE
Keep in mind when going alongside that you are bringing a moving object.
of r.onsider:1ble 'llass alc•t'gside ar. llnforgiving and immovable p1e1 or
wharf, an evolution that requires some degree of finesse. Beware tlw
sh i}'ma t:~tcr or pilot who tells in most graphic tcrn1s how the ship wus
"forced" into a berth against wind and current, having beeu ''belied" full
aheaci and full nstern until she was "driven" alongside the berth within
feet of certain calamity. This is no professional speaking!
Shiphandling, like lovemaking, is a subtle art: the ship is not driven by
the shiphandl ~::r, she is caressed, and this must be foremost in your mind
as you give those last commands to ense the ship alongside.
GOING ALONGSIDE
It is extremely ioportant that the ship is flat to the stringpiece as she co-
.II mes alongside. This i3 true for several reasons:
~ 1. The frames through the entire midbody of the ship can absorb the
impart of landing, rather than having the impact ccncentrat.ed
wi~hin a small area of the hull.
00
00
Fig. 5-4. "... and just think, First, that pilot dockeJ with 'finesse.'"
Al.L ';ECUHE
2. A p;.rallellanding traps th(' maximum quantity t-f water bt>twccn
the hull and the pier or wharf, and thus develops th,• m:1ximum
cnhioning effect.
3. The eddy currc.mt. ar.t11 equally n!,JIIg the cnlin: lf.mglh of the ~ hi 1J,
l.llowing hc1· Jutcralmot.ion and UHI.ling the lnnding.
4. If Lhe ship is docking with any current, having the ship's upstrea m
end hard alongside keeps the current from ge ...ting m salc the ship
and forcing her back off the berth.
5. The maximum cushioning effect is gained from the sh1p's qu ic k-
water when the ship is parallel to t.he berth.
When the impact oflanding is spread over the entire lcnglh of lhe nnt
parallel midbody, and several hundred feet of nearly incompressible wa-
ter cushions that landing, the ship can go alongside with surprising force
without damage. The reverse is true when the ship lands at. any angle to
t.he berth. It is common to see water trapped between the hull ami a
solid-faced pier or wharf go several feet into the air as the ship coml!s
alongside, indicative of the energy that this hydraulic cushion is abso rb-
ing. If the hull has any angle, the wa ter rushes toward the end that. is fa r-
thest off the pier and the cushion is lost.
ALL SECURE
The ship is alongside and the lines are being run ashore one afl.er tlw other
to make her fast. The number an d placement of these lines vades with the
location and construction of th e pier, the type and size of the si">ip, and the
weather a nd current condi tions that are expected.
Ships usually run s ufficier.t. head, spring, and stern lines that. kee p
the ship from moving forward and aft. Unfortunately, tncse li nes arc of-
ten a :1indrance rat.her than an aid in keepin g the ship alongside in a
strong current-especially after t.he ship has been allowed lu gel off th e
pier at one end. The tidal current t;ets on the inshore side of t.he hull ::.t
the bow or quarter, an eddy current develops to further increas(' the
strain 011 the lines, and the ship moves ahead or usLCrn into the curn n t.
The ship rides outward a nd ahead on the lines, pivoting on tilCm much
like a wr tHskier at. t.h e er.d of a towline, while the lines at the oppostle
end of the ship pull her in so she begins s urging up and down the p1 cr.
This surging occurs because there is a greater strain on th:! upstn~.-:. m
lin es than on those lead in!: downl.ltrcu m, nnu cnuses shock lv~uling that
parts lines.
 138 DOCKING
Breast lines, the lines that a rc most ~ffect.ive in keeping the ship along-
side, are too often overlooked although they should be doubled up like any
oth ers. If there are sufficient breast lines to keep the shin along:-:id", the
strain on t:1e lines leading forward and aft remains equal and the ship
does not begin su"'ging.
The surginr, is aggravated by passing ~:~hips whose hydrodynamic
forces move the bertherl vessel first away from and then i..oward the mov-
ing vessel, while also pulling the docked ship off the wharf. A pressure
wave moves ahead ofthe approaching ship, and there is a decrease in pres-
sure between the two ships due to the flow·ofwater as they pass. It is espe-
cially important that the ship be kept hard alongside, wit:1 sufficient
breast lines run and ulllines up tight, at berths exposed tJ passing ship
traffic.
Remember too, Mate, to call the ship that is approaching at. excessive
speed on the VHF radio and tell her to slow down. No longer is it necessary
to stand by and watch a catastrophe develop because you cannot commu-
nicate. Look over the side and make sure the ship is alongside, then go to
the VHF radio and tell the passing ship to pass at minimum speed with the
'I
engine stopped to ensure that your vessel is not pulled off t he pier.
I ginning of another. Perhaps it is just because your work has these bcgi n-
.J
CHAPTER SIX
UNDOCKING
Many are the boys, in every sea pm t, who arc drawn
away, as by nu almost irresistible attraction, from their
work and Sl.hools, and hang about the docks and yards
of vessels with a fondness which, it is plain, will ha"e its
way. No sooner, however, has the young sailor hcb'Uil his
new life in earnest, thun nil thb line dro cry falls ofr,
and he learns that it is work afl.cr all.
-Richard Henry Dana, Two Years Before the M0$1
Cargo operations complete, the ship lies quiet for the first lime in many
hours. The shore staff are gone, leaving you with a desk heaped full of
memos, magazines, and unopened mail. The short stay in purt was hectic
but you enjoyed it both because it marked the en4 of one uoyage and the be-
nings and endings, rather than going on interminably as jobs ashore seem
to do, that you.stay at sea.
The telephone interrupts your reuerie.
"The pilot is on the bridge, Captain."
Another voyage has begurl.
PLANNING THE UNDOCKJNG
Take the same care when briefing the undocking piloL as was taken with
th e pilot who docked the ship; exchange •,he same information and data
card. 13e sure to inform the pilot of the status of the anchor in addition to
all the other items outlined in previous chapters, especially if they are
backed out of the hawsepipe or if one wus left on the bottom after docking.
It is surprisi.::~g !1cw cftP.n the doc!dng pi!o~ flnds out that there are two
shots of chain in the water after letting go the last line.
As you did before docking, get out on the wing and feel the wind, check
its direction by looking up at the stack gases, 9.lld look over the side to cheek
the current. No matter how many instruments you might have to supply
such information, it's still important that you u.c;e your own senses and get a
feel for c>xisting conditions before planning this or any other maneuver.
139
 140 UN DOCKING
Too often, the less experienced shiphandler looks upon undocking as a
relatively stmpl~ opc.raticm and does not properly plan the evolution.
The ship is usualh undocking stern first from a berth, so she steers
poorly if at all. Since she is starting from alongside, the shiphandler I, as
fewer options available that make use ofthP. wind and current as the ship
begtns ba eking from the berth. During a docking, wind and current are fc>lt
when the stern is in clear water and the angle of approach can be adjusted
to make use of these forces. This is not the case when undocking.
Even the rr.ost careful planf may have to be altered after the linea are
let go since it is difficult to determine which of several conflicting forces
will most ~ffect the ship leaving the berth. Often the shiphandler lets go
expecting to be set ofl the pier by wind, only to remain hard along3ide due
tO s ubsurfr.ce current. If this occurs, take time to replnn the undocking be·
fore touching the telegraph. The ship isn't going anywhere-more acci-
I I' dents occur because of inappropriate action than delayed acticn.
. ··-1
I DRAFI' AND TRIM IN BALLAST
The directional stability and handling characteristics of a loaded s:1ip
were discussed in previous chapters, so it is assumed that the ship is now
in ballast and light. Ideally, she is ballasled to at least a moderate draft to
submerge ';he propeller, rudder, and bow thruster, and to reduce windage.
Give he~ a few feet of drag. The amount of trim by the stem depends on the
handling characteristics of the ship, but it is better to have a bit too much
drag tha~ not enough. Try to at least get the stem well down if stress or
loading conditions limit ballasting since:
1. The ship has excellent directional stability with good drag.
2. The propc.ller and rudder are then most effective. With a deeper
draft aft the ship steers better, requires less distance to stop, tv:ists
le:Js when the engine is put astern, and requires less rudder to coun-
ter the torque of the propeller when going astern.
3. It is. preferable that the bow also be ballasted to at least a moderate
draft to reduce windage and submerge the bow thruster so it is ef-
fective .
If a choicP. must be made, however, between getting the bow down or a
proper draft aft, choose the latter. It can be a challenge to hold a light bow
into the wind until headway develops, but it can be done usiug a tug or the '
USING QUJCI<WATF:n w m ;N UNDOCKING 1·11
anchor. In most situations, the advantages of having the stern down out-
weigh this di~ advantage.
SINGLING UP
After u. 1docking shi 11s for many years, pilots an cl seafa rers alike tend to be-
come compiacent about singling up mooring lines. Too often it becomes a
habit to single up at a particular berth in the same manner with every ship.
"Two and one fonvnrd and a stem line aft, Male," and without fur ther
thouf,'ht the docking master heads for the coffee maker.
Singling up is usually a routine operation until the night when from a
warm, quiet wheelhouse you underestimate the force of the wind or cur-
rent. It took several lines to hold the ship alongside. Yet., when singlint~ up,
the ship is left hanging off a few parts strekhed fiddlcstr 1g tight. Wa lk
out on the wing, feel and sec the conditions, and really think a 1)out how
many and which lines should be taken in.
Ideally the lines are taken in systematically while the ship is held in
position without overloading the remaining parts. Which lines should be
left until last? This depends on the existing conditions, hence no rule of
thumb can suffice. Basically, it is preferable to leave short lines until las t,
that is, a short headline and spring forward, a short. stern line and breast
line aft. Run a bight or two in place of a single line if the wind and/or cur-
rent are strong. It requires only one winch to heave that bight aboard when
taking in the last lines, but the bight provides twice as many parts to hang
on while waiting to Jet go. Use tug assistance to hold the ship alongside
and reduce the strain on remaining lines while singling up.
Short lines hold the ship alongside more effeclivc!y and still keep her
from moving forward or aft, and they can also be brought aboard quickl y--
especially important aft since the propeller should be cleared as soon as
possible so the engine can be used.
As ships get larger, winches are geared down to handle the highe r
loads and thus are slower. It is therefore importa nt that the crew be: in-
formed if the iast lines must come aboard particularly fast. The mate can
leave the shortest line ~ntillast, ar.d lead it to the winch bcfc-rt: }e ~t!n~ ;;o
to get the propeller clear quickly.
USING QL'1CKWATEH WHI::N UNDOCIGNG
The shtp's quick water can be an effective tool during the undocking, c:.pt!-
cia lly when backing from a wharf or pier, since the ship is passing through
the quickwat.er as she moves astern.
142 UN DUCKING Ul\OOCKll'G FHOM A W!IA!n'

Leaving a starboard side berth the quickwater forces the stern away
from the dock or wharf, the•1 moves the ship laterally and, when there is a 1. Current hits bow (and ship t:.od'ly)
good flow striking the hull forward of the pivot point, ch~:cks up the swing Jway from tho wharf. R.Jddor and
engono move me stem.
0 1 tne bow toward the pier. The more restricted the flow of quic.Kwater
along the inboard side of the ship, whether due to shoaling under the berth

~c:
or to the pier or wharfhavin~ a :>olid face, the more effectithas on the ship.
Quickwater ha:; less effect when leaving from a port side berth since it.
is inherently leFs strong on the port side of the ship and is .\cting in more
open water due to the ship's angle to the pier as she starts to bark. 8
Quickwater has a minimal effect. ".lut does reduce that angle to the berth as :·----- ,.,,-:__ Current
-- --
\\ -----~-----------------
it strikes the forepart of the hull.
.Af"
With somo planning, the quickwater can be used to neatly move a ship ,-- I ..... .....

with the min.mum of bells and rudder orders. For example, a ship can be
started astern until the stern begins to lift off the pier. The engine is then
::::::/~
. -- ---------- ------------
........ \l,
v e .. '>
'

stopped and the ship drifts astern while the quickwater moves forward
to strike the hull ahead of the pivot point. The swing of the bow toward
the pier is checked and the ship backs straight astern, clearing the berth
in a neat a:ad seamanlike manner. Quickwater is discussed further in
chapter 5.
UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF
Take advantage of any current from ahead when undocking from a wharf.
Delibetately get that current inside the ship and create the situation you
have been avoiding while the ship was berthed. The current moves the
bow off the wharf as you use the engine and rudder to lift the stern without
developmg any head or sternway over the ground (fig. 6-1). The ship
moves lRterally off the berth.
A certain feel is needed when adjusting engine revolutions so the ship
makes no headway but sets away from the berth in the current. Use suffi-
cient engine revolutions to keep the ship abeam of a selected point on the
wharf while walking her laterally away from the berth. When wind and
space limitations make tug assista nce necessary, the tug is backed as re-
quired to maintain the ship's angle to the whP.rfwhile the current takes het
off the berth.
Greater lateral force a nd control are needed when ships are berthed
close ahead and ustern, or a wind blowing on the wharf overcomes the cur-
rent. Eithl!r use a second tug or back the bow tug while the ship's engine
turns aheaci with more power and hard-over rudder (fig. 6-2). In the latter
case, the tug and engine work against each other to prevent h eadreaching
2. RPMs adjusted so the st.ip makes no heact...ay
over tho bottom Yihllo moving laterally.
Fig. 6-1. Undocking-current from ahead
while moving the ship off the dock laterally. The ship maintains an nogle
to the wharf so the current can assist the lug and engine in moving the
ship off the dock. A more detailed d;scussion of this technique is found
later in this chapter.
When the current is from astern, the ship is undocked in much the
same manner as she was docked under the same conditions. Work the bow
toward the wharf using the tug, engine, and mooring lines, and then back
into the stream. Ifa vessel is berthed astern, use the engines as necessary
to match the current as the ship works laterally ofT the wharf. Again,
maintain a speed through the water that matches the drift of the current
so the ship moves laterally over the ground.
A ste'lm-turbine-powered ship can easily maintain the required speed.
Communicate with the engine room by t.ele_r,hone rather than telegraph tO
obtab specific revolutions instead of using standard maneuvering speed3.
A motor ship requires more attention since a high-speec.i diesel has a
dead slow that often exceeds the required speed. The engine must be
stopped intermittently to make good the needt:d speed, a maneuver that
requires .1ome praclice. A variable-pitch-propPlle:d motor s:1ip has ar. ad-
vantage in this situation since the pitch can be ,reduced to exactly match
t he drift of the current. '
144 UN DOCKING ilACKING FHOM A SLIP 1-15

I
1ug's power opposs:- the ship's ongine. 1. Sh•P baciting from a bcr1h.
Ship mov11s away from the benh but makes 2. Come ahead, ruddor hard left. to

c
no headw3y PIVOt ship. Don't kill stcrnway.

==============~+================
I \I
----=------ ,~~···,·:,,"
(AB+ A'B'
B

=0]
,,

A'
Jl ,,•

Current
J
F ig. 6-2. Moving the ship luterally off a berth (one lug).

To take a ship off a clear wharf at slack water, put her bow nt a small
angle to the berth and steam ahead. Use the rudder with car~, lifting the
stem while maintaining the ship's angle to the wharf. If the wharf is not
clear ahead, the ship is either worked off u sing the engine in opposition to
a tug, or the bow is pushed in toward the pier and the ship backs off as de-
scribed later for a port side undocking from a pier.

BACKING FROM A SLiP
This comm<in undocking situation has as many variations as there are
piers. All have some basic similarities though, and the shiphandler uses a
knowledge of seamanship to adjust methods to suit the local conditions.
A ship berthed starboard side to needs no angle when backing from a
pier, since the torqu~ of the propeller and the quickwater move her stern
to port, clear of the dock. It may be necessary to use the bow thruster or tug
to check up tr.e resultant starboard swing of the bow so it clears the
stringpiece, or tc intermittently come ahead with hard-over rudder to
steady up the ship before continuing to back. If the ship is to back to star-
board after d earing the slip, go astern unm the piuot p oint is well clear of
the pier and then come aread with hard-port rudder to walk the stern to
starboard as the bow swings clear (fig. 6-3). Ifthe turn is begun before the
pivot point clears the pier, that part of the ship aft of the pivot 'oint will
close on the pier as the stern moves to str.rboard. This is so whether the
ship is turned with the engine alone or with tug assistancE, as a tug does
not lift the ship bodily- it pivots the hull about the pivot poin~a point
th at flhiftR a ft to about midships as the tug pushes or pulls on the bow.
Before backing from a port side docking, work the bow in and get the
ship at a good angle with the stern well off the pier. This can be done by:
1. Pushing with the bow tug.
2. Heaving on the headline while holding the forwa rd spring.
3. Backing a stern tug, if used.
4. Coming ahead dead slow agaiust the s pring line with the rudder
h a rd over toward the deck.
It is becoming less practical Le work against mooring lines as ships in-
crenae in size and power. Diesel-propelled ships oft.en have a dead s low
speed of 6 to 8 knots and are especia iiy difficulL to undock by wo rking
against s~aip's lines.
The torque of a propeller going as tern walks the stern to port so the
ship comes back parallel to the berth as ~tern way ncvelops. She then co-
mes easily out of the berth and is turned as required once th~ pivot point
clears the pier (fig. o-4).
Whether backi ng from a l'Or t or starboard side benh, the bow tug ei-
ther ba cks along with the shi p, using a stern line as required, or falls
 146 UNDOCI<Il'\G !lACKING F'HOM A SI !I' 147

safest mnneuvcr when there 1s no tug assbta1 cc Sl!l~'t' the sh:p i:;
alongside at ull times until clear and thus cannot be blown ugain.::>t
1. Work the bow In until lhc pier and dnmnged. ~he may ln:-H' H'lllC pui;,t w!1ilc slid in:; alone
ship is at ;: good angle
2. Propeller's torque but this is inconsequential since Mp.1int ::omes in buckets whde :slei!l
twtsts shtp back cnmes in shipyards."
parallel to the
berth as shtp backs. 2. Putting the ship at a good angle to tlH' berth by working against the
spring line and then backingclear.llowcver, the entire ship body, or
more likely the ship's bow, may be blown back down on the pier and
damaged when undocking in this manner.
'' 3. Breasting the ship ofT with one or two tugs.
'
'
The ship's behavior once sh<' develop!.i stern way is primarily a factor of
..
'
Tug ahead pushes
~asy to keep some
her superstructure and freeboard. She may set back on the pier bodily, or
thtl bow oniy may set. down toward the pier as the ship backs into thtl wind .
' ,.
! ~3 ! angle to the p l e r . L - =
' "
The llhiphandler must be prepared for eithtr silualion un ~~ss the ship is
'
I being slid along the st.ringpiecc.
'
Another situation develops w:1en Lhe llhl'd doors on the pier are closed.
An eddy often forms as the wind reflects o!Tthe closed doors and the ship is
Fig. 6-4. Undocking-berthed port side to. set. ofTt,JC dock rather than on it. This simplifies the undocking_ Since the

I around .1.nd follows the ship while hanging on a single line. When there is
sufficient room between the hull and berth, a tug line trailing stem to stem
can work against either side ofthe ship to lift the bow and steer the ship as or
\ I she backs from the slip (fig. 6-5).
7

It would seem quite simple to back from a slip when a strong wind is
blowing off the pier but this is not always the case. When the ship is dead
in the water the wind teuds to move her bodily off the pier; this effect is
modified by a large stack or forward or after house, which causes the bow
or stern to come awa:r more quickly. AB the ship develops sternway, she of-
ten backs into the wind so the stern usual:y moves toward the berth, o"er-
coming the torque of the propeller during starboard side undocking or
accentcating the twisting effect in a port side un2ocking.
A wind blowing on the pier holds tho ship alongside. While more eso-
te ric ma neuvers can be \.:~ed-the ship can be pulled off the deck with 'lD
anchor dPployed during docking, or a lashed-up tug can be used-more
common options availabll.! for undocking in this situation include:

1. Sliding along the stringpiecc until the stern clears the outboard cor-
ner :>f th e pier and the ship is turned fair in the channel. This is the Fig. 6-5. Tug working at the bow-backing from a berth.
 •• 148 UNDOCKING CO:O.IlNG OFF PARALLEL 1'0 A tEHTI! H9

•• s hip will lie some distance ofT the stringpiece rather t han hard against il
in this situation, the s hiphandler is awa re of the condition and can plan

••
accordingly .
In any case , the ma riner again uses the wind rath er tha n reacts to 1t.
Anticip2.te wind efTectc; and adjust the ship's angle to the berth so the wind

•• helps her maintain a desired heading. A shiphandhr who waits t:niil

these effects occur <1nd then responds to them soon feels like a cat cb'lsing
its tail.

•• COMING AHEAD FROM A SLIP

This s traightforward and s~mple maneuver can generally be performed

•• with minimt<m assistance. In a clear slip it's often possible to depart with-
out tug assistance unless there is a strong wind or current holding the ship
on the berth. Even under these conditions a ship can sail withcut a tug if

•• there is good maneuvedng room off the end of the pier.

Undocking when the wind is ofT the dock is a simple maneuver, the ship
steaming clear until the stern has room to swing and then tuming fair in
Fig. 6-6. Uodocking bow out fr om a slip .

COMING OFF PARAIJ~EL TO A BERTH

t I the channel. A tug may be required if the channel off the pier is not wide
t I enough to per:nit turning unassisted. The anchor or spring line can also be
used to work ~:he ship around the end of the pier as describeci in previous
t chapters.
t II A wind blowing on the berth presents some problems to a ship docked
stern in. Usually a tug is used to lift the bow while the rudder and engine
'I move the stern away from the stringpiece. The ship may depart without a
tt I tug though, even in a moderate wind, ifthejob is planned to make use of
Often a s hip must come ofT a berth while remaining parallel to the
stringpiece, such as when s he is berthed in a oan ow slip, or docked star-
board side to with a ship as tern, or bcrliled at a wharf with ships close
ahead an d astern. There are several wuys to accomplish this:
1. Use a second tug made fc.st aft to lift. and control the stern dming the
undockiog.
2. Lash up the bov.: tug facing aft and use that tug agains t the ship's en-

"
existing conditions. Let go all lines and steam the ship at slow speed up the gines as discussed in chapter 3.
stringpiece keeping the rudder about 10 degrees toward the pier to hold 3. Make the bow tug fast in the u sual mann er and back that tug to lift
t the ship lightly alongside. If the ship were to come off the pier and then the bow while the ship's engine is coming E head with the rudder

•• blow b~ck down again she could be damaged. As the pivot point clears the
end of the pier , incre.1se the revolutions and rudder angle, turning the
ship across the end of the pier and lifting the stern clear. The ship must
hard over toward the dock to lift the stern. Sufficient engine revolu-
tions must be used to coun t.E:r t he tug's power as they work agains t
each other, so tilC ship maintains her position over the bottom , th at
• have enough speed to overcome leeway v. hen she clears the end of the is, relative io the berth, but moves laterally away from the stri ng-

.•
stringpiece-2 to 3 knots usually being ~ufficient. The stern lifts neatly p;ece. (See figure 6-2.)
away from the stringpiece as the ship clears the berth and turns to head
fair in the channel (fig. 6-6).

•
The only safe manE>uvcr when the ship is stern in and has to turn a wny
rt from the pier with limited maneuvering ruom is to wait for a tug. There are
maneuv~rs that can be used but they depend on so many things going well
• that the risk of accident is excessive .
Thes<' techniques can be used a lone or in combination with other previ-
ously discussed methods for undockmg to turn a ship around in a limited
space, or to accomplish wor k with one tt'g that might ordina rily require
two. Such options augment the more common backing and pushing wo rk
with tU[S.

•
t
•
150 UN DOCKING
BACKiNG A SHIP TOWARD A HAZARD
Given a choice, a shiphandler ne·•er presents the stern of a ship to dan-
ger-never ba<'ks tc>w~rd a shoal or anot!:~r ship ifth<Jrc is any option. lt.1s
preferable to bAck into clecr wflter even if this mean:; turning the iong way
around to go to sea.
A ship can go bow first into a bank or shallows without carnage, bnt put.
her rudder into the bank and she will probably be spe!lding time in a ship-
yard. Back toward another ship and have an engine failure (an event suffi-
ciently common with motor snips that it should be planned for), and
certain P.mbarrassment will result. Back toward open wabr, though, and
have an engine failure, and you just back a little further than planned be-
fore getting an anchor down and the ship stopped.
Make it a rule-when handling a ship, back toward open water.
I,E:FT-HAND AND VARIABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
Keep in mind that the maneuvers dt:!scribed herein are for a ship fitted
with a right-hand or clockwise turning propeller. The rare ship having a
left-hand turning fixed propeller is handled in a manner opposite to that
described, that is, a starboard side undocking (or docking) of a ship fitted
Fig. 6-7. "Rule number une, gentlemen. Always back awa:v from danger."
TURNING TO SEA 101
.vith a left-hand turning propeller is done in the manner previou;,ly Je-
scribed for a port-sirle undocking (or docking).
Variab!e-pitch :>hips often have right-hand turning propciicrs. Th~se
propellers turn in the same direction whether the ship is goir.g ah<>::td or
astern nnd only the pitch is rcvenied to back down. The propeller is there-
fore turning clockwise when going astern, just like a conventional fixed
pitch left-hand propeller, so such ships are har.dlcd hke vessels with
left-hand turning propellers when docking and w1dock.ing. Variable-pitch-
propelled ships should be 3tandard.ized, all being fitted with left-hand
turning propellers so they back iike other ships that. the shiphandler is ac-
customed to handling. There is no standard at present, so the shiphandler
must check the direction of rotation of every variable-pi \.eh-fitted ship be-
fore planning the docking or undocking.
TURNING TO SEA
Turning in relatively open water is a st.raig~tforward joL as long as the
shiphandler minimizes the ship's speed. Th<: basic behavior of sl.ips when
going astern, and during the bacKing and fi~ling maneuver, are discussed
in chapter 1. There are, however, additional points to consider if the ship
is t.o be turned in a restricted area.
It is possible to both turn a ship around and control her position in a
channel or turning basin while she bus stern way. While moving ast.ern,
the ship can be steered using the engine ahead, shifting the rudder to di-
rect the propdler's flow in the neected direction much like a thruster. The
flow acting on the ship's stern is the resultant of both t.he astern and
athwartship vectors of this flow. While moving astern remember
1. To reduce or killst.ernway, put the rudder amidships, and direct this
flow aft.
2. To continue moving astern while going to starboard or port, put the
rudder to theE ide opposite that to which you wish the stern to move,
thal is, to move Lbe stern to starboard, put the rudder to port and the
~ngine ahea~.
3. 'l'o change the magnitude of this turning and stopping force, in-
crease or decrease the engine revoluLions.
Think of these changes as one mai,euvcr, much as you increase, de-
crease, or stop a bow thruster, rather than as several separate ami distinct
maneuvers (fig. 8-8). '
152 UN DOCKING TUHNrNG TO Si::A 11'5 3

The shiphandler wlH' finds the ship car rying her stern way longer t:1an
desired often increases eugine revolution s but leaves the rudder hard
over. The rurlder should be put amidships to direct the increased flow from
the propelle1 diredly astern. After the speed has decreased sufficiently,
the rurlder is shifted back to the right or left. to renew tha stern's swing.
Face in 'the direction of ship movement- if going astern, face aft, it' ..
where the action is. This simple change of position d·)eS much Lo improve
the marin~r's shiphandling technique; seagoing professionals, mat;('s, and
masters spend so much time looking ahead at sea that they tend, out of
habit,, to handle ships in confined water while watching only the bow.
If the ship is \..o be turned in a basin
1. Turn in the direction that keeps the stern in the best water.
2. Take nearly all sttmway off the ship before starting to swing her.
3. All factors being equal, turn the ship to the right to take advantage
of the ship's better turning characteristics backing and fiiling in
that direction.
4. Position the ship's pivot point so the stern swings clear.
5. Fix the diameter of the basin in your mind before starting to turn.
6. When possible, put the end of the ship to be S\\'ung in the a r uu of
maxir.tum favorable current.
7. Put th'! s!:ip at the end of the bus:n from which tr•.: cu :Tcnl i" Ouw i ,,g
when stC~rting the maneuver.
Discusr the depth and profile ofthc basin with the pilct, ns the locntion
of any shoaling depends on local condit.ions. Lacki ng bertCI inform atwn
you can estimate the location ofshoaling based upon the basin's proximi Ly
to turns in the channel (fig. 6-9). The deepest water in a basin at location
"A" will usually be in the band away from the point, and the stern should
be swung in that direction. Above or below the turn, at locaLion "13," the
deepes t water lies on the side nearest the path of the ebb tide as it fl ows
from one bend to the next. Midway between the turns the deepest wat er
would generally be in midchannel so the ship can probably turn in the
most convenient direction. Do not present the stem to potential dangers.
It may be impressive to watch a ship performing several maneuve rs si-
multaneously in t.he basin as she is both stopped and swung but, if the ship
is not nearly stopped before being turned, there is li ttle margin for e!TOrs

~
\\} -...\}
/\.
Put enginu ahead
to reduce or kill
(\
Increase revolutions
sternway.
to increase tuming
To move stern
and stopping forces.
to the side,
shift the rudder.

Fig. 6-8. Turning a ship with sternway. Fig. 6-9. Common bottom configuration in Lends and reaches.
154 UN DOCKING DlS .\IISSING THE TUGS l.i 5

ir.jurlgm;.mtor for any unknown current. Reduce the ship's sternway, then
turn h<'r.
The stem c'ln be put in the mud an cl the ship pivoted nrcund on the bov:
if the cun ent s trikes t he quarter in a favorable direction. The anchor can
be used in the same manner, either alone or in conjunction with the bank ,
to swinJ the sl.ip :fig. 6-lm.
Watch natural rar.gE:s ashore, both ahead and astern to deternine if
the ship is being set along the axis of the channel, and abeam to check that
the ship does not develop u:1wanted headway or sternway over the bottom
as the tugs and engine are used. Don't be in a hun-y to come ahead with the
engine aftE"r the midpoint of the turn is passed-wait until the turn is
nearly complet~d before startinc to come ahead over the bottom.
While swinging, the banks ahead and astern appear closer from the
bridge than they actually are so it is important that you flx in your mind the
basin's dimensions before starting the maneuver. When the banks start to
appear close, re mind yourselfofthe clearance that you know is avauabl e, and
you will avoid the apprehension that causes unnecessary maneuvering.
DISMISSif'TG THE TUGS
Dismiss the stern tug as soon as her work is done. Do not carry the stern
tug along after clearing the slip since, as previously discussed, she is only
a hindrance.
Keep the forward tug as long as it might po:;sibly be cfassist.ancc. Ev<' n
ifthc ship has a bow thruster, a tug that has beenuserl coming into the s il p
should ht:' kE'pt fast until the ship is headed f.,::-, clc:~r of all o b~ truct iur.:-
and any traffic that might be a problem. You have paid for th•' Lug's ~e r­
vices, so make her cam her money.The bow t.hru!>ter may quit or refust• to
stop when used, o~ a problem may arise th.1 t requires more effective power
than the bow thruslcr can develop as lhe ship's spcNl increases.
When dismissing the tug, lower her lines with a messenger. Dcn't d•·1Jp
them from the ship's deck since a line in the water may toul the tug's screw
or your own. Dropping the li ne also makes unnecessary work for th e tug-'s
crew since the line could have been lowered on deck rather than ha vi I ll{ t.o
be dragged wet from the water. Listen for the tug's signal, often a long
blast on her whistle followed by two short blasts, so she cun be let go
promptly as the ship starts to come ahead. Keep at least two crew m em-
bers and a mate standing by a t.ug at all times, <.>ven if she is to be held for
some period after clearing the berth.
The ship now turned and headed fair, lhe docking mast r wishes a ll a
good voyage and climbs down the ladder to the waiting tug belo···.

'----------------------------------------

f;
"-
Currant

1. Ship dead In the water,

let go anchor (aporox.
2 x depth).
2 and 3. Steam around anchor,
making no headway.
4. Drop b'lck to c-urrent-
heave up.

-
Fig. 6-10. Turni'lg short on an anchor.

CHAPTER SEVEN
\ DEPARTURE
Captain N. D. Pa!mer was a rough old sailor. He ·vas de-
tennined to sec me gel along, and helped JT1e more than
any other man to know my duly as an officer and tJ f.t
me for a 1\~aGter.
- r.nplain Charles Porter Low, Recollections
Downbound and light, she mad£ good time despite the flood tide. The uld
man, tired {1·om the short, hectic stay in port, left his chair only to glance oc-
casionally at the chart on the wheelhouse log desk. He had little inclination
to make conversation with the pilot, now ten minutes into a monologue to
which only the third mate was really listening.
Fresh ~offee in hand, the mate returned to the log desk. She noted the
i time on the chart as the ship swung onto the next'1ange, comparing the
course that the ptlot had given to the helmsman with the previously inked
and labeled courses on the chart.
\ "Right to one, five, four."
Checking the swing, the A.B. on the wheel repeated the new course,
"One, five, four, Sir."
"Very well, steady so."
"Trouble is, Mate, they always have to be looking for problems, and if
there ann't any they create some. It's part of life today but it sure is hurting
the marine industry."
The mate had heard all this before, and always some mysterious "they"
were causing the problems.
"Who are 'thev 'Pzlot?" she queried.
"Industry gro-~ps, government agencies, the Coast Guard-<Lnd why do
we have .:z military service regulating and policing professionals in a com·
mercial industry anyway? The Air Force doesn't regulate the airlines!"
The captain sat bauk in his chair and tool: all this in. He had heard
many such discussions recently and, while the Coast Guard was often the
target of the seafarer's frustrations, the problem obviously went beyond
that agency. What the mariner basically obje!:led to was the preponderance
156
DE: PA RTU H I~ S PI~ED 157
of oft en irrelevant rl!gula tions that interfered with his worh, ond the exclu -
s ion of the nctiue marin e professionalji·om the process th at deueloped those
reRu i~tiuns Some rep rese1tta!ion { "0111 iho ~cl il!e :>l'':!cJOII•C communzt~•• at
both th e national and international lel'cls, was long OPerclue. The captuu:
appreciated and shar..:d thl'se coltcents.
"There is n lot of exp ertise c.m the water todtJj', Mate, an cl the stand c. rds
in the industry suffer whw actiue professionals a re exclucleJ.ji·vm discus-
sions of matters affecting the marine industl)'·"
Picking up the phone to instruct the standby to rig the pilot ladder, the
third mute nodded her agreement.
"You're right, Pilot, we're letting the tail wag the dog in our ind ustry. n
"It's a good way oflife, Mate, and we can't let others use politics to down-
grade it. We haue to become more involved in matters affecting our profes·
sion ... (Note: This was written in 1983. The situation has not improL..;d.)
DHOPPING THE PILOT
Well before arriving at the pilot station, the master a nd the mate on watch
discuss inbound and outbound traffic with the pilot. All slups arc identi-
fied by name and their intentions clarified 30 there is a smooth transition
oft.he conn from pilot to master. It's easy for the pilot to discuss any pot"n·
tial problem situations with the other ships before he leaves s ince he h as
radio contact with both the other pilots and the pilot station. They know
the destinations, drafts, nationalities, and intentions of the :;hips moving
in the area, and are able to assist the master in making safe meeting a r-
rangements before the pilot disembarks.
Until t.he master is fully coniide.1t that there will be no problems as the
ship departs from the port area, he should not release the pilot. Being a re·
sponsible professional, the pilot has no objection to perfonning this last.
service before leaving and the master must not. hesitate t.o r equire it.
DEPARTFRE SPEED
A lee is made and •hr· pilot boa rds his boat tn go ashore. The sh1p returns to
her heading and proceeds to the departure poinL at a speed tha t matches
the flow of outbound traffic. Moving at tl.at speed obviously reduces by
half the amount of traffic that must. be deall wit.h since now only crossing
and meeting ships present any potential problem::;. Time saved does not.
justify excessive speed, and any fool can engage in false heroics wi th a shi p
that belongs to someone else.
 158 DEPARTURE
I her your sidelighl-and there can be no doubt about your intentions. Refer
I pecially keep in mind that ships of ot.her nationalities do not arrange pass-
r ing situations, but primarily discuss alterations in h<:ading. If uo one on
Fig. 7-1. "Cap', could you slow her down a bit while I board the pilot
boat?"
Speed i& also limited by depth of water. Trying to push a ship at a speed
faster than proper for the depth of water causes excessive squat and suc-
tion and, since the flow of water to the rudder is restricted by the
underkeel clearance, the ship becomes hard to steer. Increased difficulty
in steering and the pronounced vibration that can be felt throughout the
ship are certain indications of excessive speed.
This remains true until the ship leaves shallow water conditions, not
just while the ship is in a harbor or channel. AB the ship reaches deeper
water, her speed should be increased incrementally, rather than being
brought to sea speed upon departure. This is increasingly important as
ships get larger, not only hecause of the inherently greater drafts of
VLCCs, but because of the higher horsepower and tendency of the larger
hull to develop harmonic vibrations under shallow water conditions. As
5,hip size increases, the master must adjust shiphandling habits.
Make every effort to move with the flow of traffic whether there is a for-
r:~al ~raffi~: s.:parat;on scheme or not. If a problem develops, do not hesitate
to slop the ship and let the situation clear itself up. Since the master and
mates have developed their shiphandling skills, maneuvcring while
maintaining heading and position should present no problem. Too often,
lhe less experienced shiphandler t<!nds to increase speed to "get away
from a potentially dangerous situation"-the experienced master or pilot.
MANEUVEHING WlTH OTHER Sill PS 159
uses the opposite tactic and slows or slops the l'hir. The other ships n.re
movinti ahead to create the potentially dangerous close qut~ricrs situa-
tion. If.vou slop, you nvoid reAching th<.? p:oblem n:-es. ur.til tl.c si:.uution i.;;
resolved. Stopping, not rushing on, is the action of tha professional.
HANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS
Make your actions known to olher ships hy whistle signals allll by use of
the VHF radio. Make any changes in course or speed large and obvious. By
making larger than required changes in your heading, espccidlly at. night,
you arc efTcctively talking to that other ship with ) our lights-showing
to the section in chapter 1 concerning the proper use of VHF radio, and es-
either meeting ship speaks English fluent.ly, t11cre is a chance for misun-
derstanding when you discuss a port to port passing since this may be in-
terpreted by the other vessel as a request for an alteration ofcourse to port.
To cfTeclively mancuver a ship and continually assess tr'lnic, the con-
ning master or mate must be relieved of other navigational and adminis-
trative tasks. The pilot develops an intimate knowledge of local waters
and is able to navigate mainly by eye, so full attention can be given to traf-
fic and sbiphandling. The shipmaster visits many port.s and cannot possi-
bly develop the pilot's working knowledge of any particular pori; another
person is therefore needed to do the navigating so the master t-an give suf-
ficient attention to maneuvering the ship.
It's true that the master alone can do other work when traffic is light
and conditions good, but as soon as any one task requires more than pass-
ing attention, it is necessary to coll'promisc the major duties of assess-
ment and shiphandling unless additional help is available on the bridge.
It is not suggested that the merchant ship resort to having a horde of peo-
ple on the bridge performing nonessential and redlllldant tasks, as is toe
oft.en found on naval vessels (and perhaps the latter will find they can op-
erate more effectively if their number is significantly reduc~d). but there
should be one additional persor to compensate for the local knowledge
thnt disappeared when the pilot went down the ladder.
The ;naU. on watch continues to carry out the tasb that were being
done whi le the pilot was aboard, while the additional mate plots traflic as
necessary and navigates. The information obtained is passed to the mas-
ter, who needs only to check the work oflen enough to be sure that it is
160 DE?ARTURI!:
being done correctly. ThE' additional officer should be the chie f m a te when
possible, since he i8 gener ally the most experienced as well as being the
one who will most benefit from the opporbmity to be involved as the ship
enter s and leaves por:. T oo often the m ar iner spends several years as chief
male, shuffii ng pape1 s io the ship's office during arrivals a nd departures,
only to be prom oted to m aster a nd thrust back into the world of navigation
and sh iphandling. By as3isting the master, the chief mate is gaining t he
knowledge r equired for that mos t. responsible of position&, and a cquiring
the skills required to be an effective shipmaster and shiphandler.
The plethora of bridge equipment has not relieved the master of any
tr ad itional tasks, and in fact :>ften creates distractions for the otl:er offi-
cer s so that ess ential tasks required by good seamanship are overlooked.
Any imprE:ssion that this equipment makes it possible to conn a ship with
a bridge team that is one third sma ller than the master-pilot-mate team is
illusory-bring an additional officer to the bridge until the ship is at sea,
clear of navigational hazards and traffic, so the master can in fact be the
shiphandler r a ther than the navigator.
Fig. 7-2. "Ya see, Miste r Mate, if you come up to &ea s peed t :>o s oon s hE:
may vibrate a li ttle."
COUnsE CAHD AND PASSAGg PLANSI"'\1 1Gl
Fig. 7-3. The pilot. departs off Cape Henry. From an oil painting by
M aryland Pilot Captain Brian Hope.
COURSE CARD AN D PASSAGE PLANNING
The passage outbound should be as carefully planned as the passage in,
with a char t in the wheelhouse avai lable fo r consultation, courses inked i n
with pertinent information labcled, and a course card made up by ~he mas-
ter.
The course card minimizes distractions and allows the master to re-
m a in a t the centcrline window to coon the ship. The pilot. is able to draw
t he chart of the port from memory yet ~arries a course card; how ca n the
m aster effectively coon the ship withou t one? Thl' card ~;h ou ld contain the
r eaches or r anges in order, wi~h the course, length of thE: r each, a nd tu rn-
ing point at the end of each r each noted. This information can be put. on a
t h ree-by-five card and kept in the shirt pocket, eliminating the need for re-
peated t rips to the chartroom to pick ofT each course. The shiphan dler can
then spend that time watchi ng the tug at.d tow that ma} be crossing the
bow, wh ile being more certain as the sh ip is brought to each new heading
that there will be no errors in course.
The course ca rd should be made up for the en li re run from the dock to
sea, not j ust. fur the purtion cfthe passage after the pilot has disemtarkcd.
T his effort will be especially appreciated should a rain squall or fog set. in
m idway to ~·ea since the master will need only to glan ~e at the cou rse card
to check the h ~ad ing as the ship feels her way.
Too often the te r m "passage pla nning" conjures up the vision of
m ates laying out pages of detailed cours es , distance, navigati on aids, and
 162 DEPARTURE
estimated runs at various speeds. This is fine for voyage planning, but a
i'orm-uast>d passage plan alone is not suitable for navigating in restrict~d
pilot waters. Indeed, a r.hiphandler working from pages of detailed infor-
mat.ivn alone, without, m::~rked up charts a.td a proper course card, is much
like :!n actcr readmg from u script during a performance. 'l'his is distract-
ing. H lends to put mental limits on the mariner when eituations arise
that are not provideJ for in the original plan. Put complete ir.formation di-
rectly on the chart and course card prior to arrival or departure to eiimi-
nate the chance of err,•r inherent in transferring information from the
plan to the chart to the quarter•master while actually conning the ship in
traffic and restricted waters. A passage inked in advance on the chart with
turning bearingR, courses, and distances noted, together with the pocket.
course card, are very much a part of any proper pasaage plan.
With a proper plan, properly marked chart, a course card, and effective
bridge resource management, the mariner can give the maximum atten-
tion to handling the ship. A more complete discussion of the course card
and passage plan can be found in chapter 12, and excellent texts on pas-
., sage planning and bridge resource management are included ir, the Bibli-
'• ography.
ABILITY TO MANEUVER
Do not be too quirk to change to heavy oil when handling a motor ship that
can maneuver only on light diesel fuel, or to bring a steam turbine ship to
sea speed when this means that you cannot then reduce speed without de-
lay. The pilot station is the wrong place to increase to sea speed, or to be
unable to stop or go astern on short notice, since at that point ships a re
converging from all directions rather than moving in a predictable man-
ner within a fairway or traffic scheme. The in bound ships are eager to get
into port, &re preparing to take the pilot, and probably are in the highest
risk location of the entire passage. Perhaps the haste to increase speed is
understandable, since those aboard want to get the ship to sea where the
routine will settle down and life will return to normal, but wait a little lon-
ger unlil traffic is astern.
YPs, contrary to the landsman'e opinion. the seaman does consider life
at sea normal!
CHAPTER EIGHT
ANCHORING AND
SHIPHA.!'JDLING WITH ANCHORS
I had no means of kl1owing that what i1.1d happened to
me was a manifestation of the sixth sc:u;t.! pllssess.:d by
every born seaman. You can train a man in navigation,
seamanship, celestial observation and the computing of
tide, current, speed, wind, and drift, and yet he will
never be a sailor unless, at the moment of truth when he
is forced into a comer from which there is no way out ex-
cept by instant intuitive action, he unerringly makes the
right move.
--Jan de Ha rtog, The Captain
Too often a mate is promoted to apositionfor which, throug'• no fault of his
own, he is not ready. The principal cause ofthis is inadequate on board ex-
perience, especially "hands-on" experience (or junior of{tecrs under the su-
pervision of more experienced of[tcers. 'l'his lack of experience is especially
significcnt in the area of ship handling, including the conning of a ship in
restricted waters and the use ofanchors, although it is important that such
experience be gained in all the shipboard skills. In an indw;try that oper-
ates in an enr.;ironment alien to the novice, it's i1.zperatiuc that knowledge
be passed from one generation of seamen to the next if professional sta n-
dards are to be maintained. The fine training schools and maritime acade-
mies that sen·e the seafari ng corr:.munity offer an excellent theoretical
beginning, but it is only that-a beginning. There is much that can be
passed to a new officer only by example or instruction.
Pride in profession, app.-eciatiou of the relative importance of t•arious
tasks, and v.cquisiciv'• o{that intanginle char Mpamtes the exceptional sea·
farer from the avera!fe-sea sense--can only be glt!aned by observation of
others experienced in IJiorking c..t sea. The planning and effort required to
give junior offic~:r:; onboard experience is cs important as any other ship·
board task and deserves the same attentiort from the seasoned master, mate,
or chief. Hands-on training ensures both better operating ships and a con t tll·
uation of seafaring traditions and fhills. Let the chief mate conn the ship
163
164 ANCHORING AND SJIIPHANDLING WI't'Il ANCd ORS
and pick up tlu> pilot; haue the second mate plan a cargo loading under the
supervision of the mate; on<Lgiue the third mate a chance io handle the ship
during Williarr.son turns and other maneuuers at sea. Insist that these and
other tasks be c.arried cut oroperly. To ensure that high standards ofseago·
ing life are maintained, it is •tecessary that the master be a st.Jm tashmasl('.'"
ar.d demand that thos~ worhing for him perform to the highest sto ndards.
In no art!a is hands-on experience more important than in shiphandling.
It is possible to watch a shiphandler work for years and still not acquire a
feeling for that art. Arriue at the pilot station a bit early and giue the mates
an opportunity to perform the maneuuers described in chap:er 1. Let those
officers put the ship to anchor. While maneuuering, explain why you cho?se
a particular heading to allow for wind and current. When one of th ese
m ates later has to alter course on the mid-watch for a fishing boat not seen
until close at ha.-ld and is able to maneu::cr without hesitation or mistake,
the effort put into training will suddenly be worthwhile.
A s a young mate, didn't you appreciate the master or chief mate who
took time to pass along a hint or to recount a sea story with a lesson at cofiee
time? You haue the skill<; now, and a pride in what you do-it isynur turn to
pass them along!
ANCHORS FOR ANCHORING
The master's most common shiphandling task may be simply putting a
ship to anchor. The skills involved are so basic, so essent:al, that no mari -
ner is qualified for command until he can put a ship to anchor safely, expe-
diently, and with confidence under all conditions.
On almost every voyage a master anchors for some reason. Done well,
the task is completed without fuss or confusion. Done poorly, it becomes
an unnecess':lrily complicated and dangerous evolution as the ship works
agains\. nature and the anchor, rust and mud flying, the chain straining
and jumping across the wildcat. The skills of the master or officer at the
conn make the difference and, forLunately, anchoring skills are easily
mastered with practice and planning.
At fi rst glance there seem to be many different, unrelated ways to an-
chor but that reai iy Isn't the case. Tn.le, a ship might use one anchor or
two, placed in linP. or spread, from bow or stern, with equal or unequal
amounts of chain stretched out or underfoot, but in every case the task is
basically the same. A ship approaches a n anchorage, maneuvers as closely
as possible to the desired fi nal heading, slows or stops, and drops the a n-
chor or a nchors to the bottom.
K.NOW YOUH S lllP 165
On the other hand , there is no one anchoring technique ·'for 311 :;ea-
so ns" becm";e then! are an infinite number of combinalions of weather,
:;hip ty ues. anchorA'!e locatior.'l, an d other factor:: lu c~nsi d e r; so it IS t.oth
impnssible and unnecessary to try to cliscu:.;:; every conce;vuble anchc.ring
method ns t. distinc-t ana different evolu tion. Instead, thi::. te.x t d i~cusso :;
only the most common anchoring situations and ba.,ic anc horin ~ tech-
niq ues that any reasonably skilled shiphandler can then ada pt to m ost a n-
chOI;ng s ituations.
KNOW YOUR SIIIP
It is impossible to plan an approach properly without c;o mc lmowledgc oi
your ship's mane uvering characteristics. Per form as much of the master's
t ria ls r ecommended in chapter 1 as possible now, if you haven't already
done so. The hands-on experience of man euvering the s hip during these
tria ls gives the shiphandler a feel for the ship's response t.o rudder and en-
gi ne and confidence .in his skill and h is ship's ability to complete the ma-
n euvers safely within the confines of a par ticular a nchorage. Ships arc too
valuable to maneuvcr by a wing and a pr ayer, and it's cs:.;ential to have this
knowledge and experience before having to anchor in a difficult s ituation.
Knowing the ship's maneuvcring characteristics means understa nd-
ing both what a ship can do and wha t it cau not do. Knowing when not to
anchor is probably more important than h ow to anchor. When th e anchor-
age is crowded or the weather adver se so the ship cannot be safely a n-
chored, co nsider a ll alternatives including ordering a lug to assist, a nd if
the job ca n't be done sa fely, lay off and wai t for conditions t :> improve.
Remember too that maneuvering char actcriEtics ar e not static and a
particula r loading cond ition such as a very light draft, or greater tha n no r-
m al drag, or reduced undcrkeel clearance, may significantly alter a sh1 p's
n ormal behavior. Some ship types are more afTccted by these cha nges
th a n others: a high-sided ship or a heavily loaded ship may handle much
difTerently in strong winds than in light airs, and a loaded tanker i ~ a co n-
s iderably diff~:rent s hi p from a tanknr in ba llast. s:lips cha nge, conditi ons
cha nge, and the weather changes. so don't fall into the tra p of trying t0 de
th e j ob the same way every time. Each anchoring i:; a new task : pla n ac-
cordingly.
A bow thrus ter sig-nificantly changts a ship's handli:16 charactens tics
du ring ma1.euvers al slow speed in a n anchor age. Ma neuvering is simpli-
fi ed if the th ruste r is u:;ed to turn a sh ip lo her final heading, set u p to
back, position and hold the bow, and periorm lhe other shiphandl ing tasks
 166 ANCHOFING Ai'ID SHIPHANlJLING WITH ANCHORS
as the ship go~::s to anchor. Most ships do not have bow thrusters, though,
and thrusters <.ren't really effective unless ships are movmg at speeds of2
knots or less, so the assurr.pt10n is mad~ in this chcpter that no thruster is
ava1iable.
AGAtN, PLAN AHEAD, TIJINKAHEAD
Here again, the same bas1c principles for successful shiphandling and ma-
neuveriag ap~ly. Plan the overall maneuver prior to arrival using infor-
mation from the charts, pilots, and your local knowledge about the port
based on past experience. Apply your understanding of basic shiphandling
principles and your appreciation for your ship's manet:.vering characteris-
tics learned curing the master's trials. Reduce speed early. Adjust the ini-
tial plan to use existing conditions and forces to advantage to assist the
ship's rudder and engine in maneuvering, then think ahead of the ship,
adjusting the ot'iginal plan as events develop, planning several steps
ahead of the ship's maneuvers. Plan the anchoring as a series of simple
steps, and always think alu!ad, think ahead, think ahead.
Consider anchoring in two phases because anchoring is an exercise in
both basic seamanship 'lnd shiphandling. Decide how the ship will be an-
chored, and then h ow s:-te must be handled to accomplit>h that task. Any
good seamanship book dir,cusses the first phase fully, so there is no point in
repeating that discussion. The assumption is made here thd th~ reader is a
knowledgeable mariner who is aware of the seamanship aspects of anchor-
ing and has already correctly planned that part of the evolution, so this
chapter will stress primarily the second, shiphandling phase of anchoring.
ANCHOR IN STEPS
Keep the si:liphandling phase of anchoring simple. Look at anchoring as a
series offour steps: approach, placement, laying out, and fetching up. Plan
\ each step separately as a series of small basic tasks rather than trying to
plan the entire anchoring as one long, complex evolution and think ahead
of the ship so each step leads more smoothly to the next.
A ship might need to enter an anchorage, reduce speed, back and fill
aro\1nd to th<' final heading, maneuver to the selecreJ anchonng location,
stop, and then move slowly astern, all as part of what might appear at first
to be a complex approach and anchoring evolution. In fact, reducing speed
is one s~parate, basic task, as is backing and filling, and stopJJing whilP-
controlling the ship's head, and most of these individual tasks have al-
ready b~en di~cusscd in some context in this book. Conaider each task sep-
PLANN ING 1G7
aratcly, ns you proceed slcp by st.ep to t1'1..:hor, and even rulativcly
complex, challcnginc a nchoring job:; b':!come !:in1ply a series of Em all Jobs
that most mari nei'~ have mastered.
l~ L-\.NNING
Every mariner studies the charts, sailing direct;ons, predicted wcattwr
conditions anJ, as the ship gets closer to the anchore.gc, the radar presen-
tation oflhe anchorage, looking for several types ofinformation, includ1ng
l. Dire<'tion and strength of wind and current.
2. Depth of water.
3. Type of bottom.
4. Location of Ice shore, shoals, or other ha zards.
5. Maneuvering room for approach.
6. Number and location of ships already at anchor.
7. Conditions affecting visibility, weather, and currents.
8. Local customs and practices of the port.
9. Swinging room afLer anchoring.
Unfortunately, mariners too often weigh these factors only Lo decide on
the best location for anchoring, the amount of chain, and the number and
placement of anchors. They forget that shiphandling is an inherent part of
anchoring and that this same in('Jrmation must also be used to plan the
shiphanciling phase of the anchoring evolution. Look at the situation
again and plan each step of the task using existing conditions to advan-
tage to help rather t.han hinder the work as much as possible.
It is as important to have an altematiue "bail out" plan in mind ns it. is
to have a primary plan of act10n, before entering the anchorage, in C•tse
things don't work out as expected. Generally, such a plan consis ts oflcav-
ing the anchorage until conditions improve or, if it is too late or impossible
to leave, putting down an anchor and riding to a short stay while you sort
things l)ut. Remember, havmg those two anchors hanging at the bow is
like having two tugs standing oy forward ready to :told your ship and pre-
vent accidents. Bailout plans vary widely depending 0n conditions, and al-
ternatives are discussed in appropriate sections of this chapter.
Keep in mind too that any plan mu11t be flexible ~ince all too often an-
other ship will be anchored in your selected spot or in the way of your ap-
proach Th(; plan is only a starting point: Use your shiphandling skills to
adjust to existing ccndilions as they devel op.
168 ANC HORING AND SlllPHANDLING WirH ANCHORS
Let's look at some of the fact.ors to l:e considered when a ship is going to
anchor.
WI:\ D .;.;;n Ct.;KRENT EfFECTS
Wind &nd current dete r mine the preferred direction for app:oaching the
anchorage, the final heading after anchudng, and to some extent the
ship's behavior while maneuvering in the anchorage.
Set and leeway increas~ and the shtp's turning circle becomes elliptical
because of the winrl and current, the longer axis of the ellipse lying in the
direction of the wind and current. The effecls of wind and current on navi-
gation and ahiphandling increase dramatically as a ship's speed decreases.
The mariner, acc11Stomed to navigating at full sea speE:d where set and lee-
way are much less significant, has to plan n10re carefully and make
greater allowances for wind and current effects while moving through an
anchorage at rP.duced speeds.
Don't fight t.he wind and current. Review previous discussions on their
effects as a ship slows, stops, a;1d then moves astern, and plan the maneu-
ver to use these external forces, not just to compensate for them. Current
can be a problem, setting a vessel toward other ships and shoals, butitcan
also move a ship away from hazards. Wind causes leeway but it can also
assist the shiphandler, helping to turn a ship around short, for example,
as a ship with sternway backs into the wind. Think ahead and use these
external forces to advantage.
Plan to pass downstream and to leeward of ships , buoys, and hazards
to navigation, or, if that isn't practical, allow pltmty of searoom and sev-
eral degrees for set and leeway to be sure to pass well clear. The two or
three degrees allowed for set and leeway at sea just isn't enough in an an-
chorage; think in fives and tens, when maneuvering at slow speeds.
Don't, under any circumstances, pass close upstream or to windward of
bu oys, obstacles, or ships at anchor. It is a most helpless feeling to be pass-
ing close across the bow of a ship at anchor as the current se ts you swiftly
toward her stem. There is little that can be done in that situation except
come full ahead, put the rudder hard over to try to move your ship's stem
eway from the other vessel. and pray you pass clear-and that me.neuver
isn't very effective if you are in real danger of colliding.
And how far is far ~nough to pass clear? That depends on current and
wind strength, and the speed at which the ship is moving. In any case, par-
ticularly at the very low speeds at which a ship is usually movil1g in an an-
chorage, it i'3 probably farther than you might expect. The 100-foot ruk
WIND ANO CUHHt:N1' HF~:<:T:-: 169
discu~~ed i11 chapter 5 applies in thi~ situation just a~ ebewhere. when
calculating the effect of both wind and current and estimating the dis-
tance a !;hill will move iT! a SJJCci!ic period of time. By using t!1at rul.::, and
the length cf your ship as the basic unit of distance, you can caslly esti-
mate a safe: passing distance. For example
A ship moving at 3 knots is moving ahead at approximately 300
feet per minute. A 600-foot-long ship willtnke two minutes to
move ahead one ship length and pass clear of a fixed point. A
2-knot current on the beam will set that same ship 400 feel, or
two-thirds of a ship length, during that time.
The distance of one ship length that looked quite ::;uflicient when ap-
proaching an anchorage is not a safe clearance for a 600-foot-long slup to
pass clear of anoth er ship at tulchor at that speed in this situation when
there is a strong current or wind on the beam. If you arc the master stand-
ing or the bridge, maneuvering under these circumstances, the approxi-
mately 200-footclcarance after passing in this example will be too close for
comfort.
The term "sail area" gains new meaning when maneuvering high free-
board and light draft ships in a strong wind in an anchor~ ge. Passenger
ships, containerships, car and gas carriers, 9.nd other similar ship types
present a significantly larger profile to the wind relative to their draft and
make much more leeway than a\ erage ships as they move slowly through
an anchorage. It is even more important that these types of ships don't at-
tempt to pass close aht>ad, to windward or upstream, of other ships and ob-
stacles.
Both ships with large sail areas and common :;hip types at light draft:;,
moving at slow speeds in an anchorage, may be difficult to turn to wind-
ward when strong winds retard the bow's upwind movement. It is oft.cn
better to back and fill the "long way around" t.o a new course, backing the
ship'::; stern into t..he wind, if the bow won't come through a strong wmd di-
rectly <.o the desired heading. 'l'"O oiler, ~he master stubbornly fights the
wind, repeatedly working the engine full ahead and full astern to bring
the bow through the wind, forgetting that the longe~t way around is some-
times the quickest a.nd safest when maneuvering in adverse conditions
(fig. 8-l).
There will be times when winds and currents arc so strong that even an ,
•. expert shiphandler cannot maneuver to Lhe final heading before letting
170 ANCHORI NG AND S HI PIIANDLING WITH ANCHORS
F ig. 8-1. 'I'u.."'l the long way around in strong winds.
go, yet it is under these very same conditions that a master most wants to
be on that headillg to minimize the strain on ground tacUe and ship's
gear. Put down one anchor and a shot or two of chain and turn on the a:t-
chor under these conditions, as described further on in this chapter, or call
for a tug, or stand off until conditions moderate. Consider these alterna-
tives well before arrival at the anchorage, not when the situation arises, so
contingencies can be arranged in advance.
DEPTH OF WATER
Shallow water affects the ship's maneuverability. As the depth decreases,
the ship's tact-ical diameter increases and she becomes more directionally
s table. The sl:ip may need as much as twice the room for large course
changes in shallow water as she would in deep water, so it becomes in-
creasingly important to approach a shallow water anchorage at slow
speed, in a position to back and flll to assist in turning the ship as re-
quired. Remember also that the ship will twist somewhat more in shallow
water whil.c going astern during a maneuver. Mentally review the section
on shallow water effects while going astern duringthatmaneuve1·. Review
the section 'Jn shallow water effects in chapter 1 and figure 1-7 for a more
detailed aiscuss10n of these changeF;.
Deep water also affects anchoring because the anchor has to be put
down differently in an unusually deep anchorage. In depths greater than
about 100 feet the brake may not be able to stop the chain if the anchor is
let go from the hawse, because the chain's vteight and the mom~ntum de-
veloped as the anchor and ch~in free-fall that distance ext::eed the capacity
MANEUVERINU HOO~I 17 1
of the brnke. The anchor should be walked out in such deep anchorages by
engagi ng the wildcat and backing the chain out of the locker using the
windlass. lowering- the awh"r nearly to th e bott::,nt ~efore disengaging tr.e
wildcat, and letting the anchor fali free the last few fa thoms to the bctt.om.
Du ring these operatioll::l the shiphandler mus t hold the ship in positior. for
an cxi.cnded period o( time, even in s trong winds and currents, a task
m ade easier if the ship can first be brought to her final he:;.ding.
MAN EUVERING ROOM
The number and location of ships at anchor , nearby shoals , a Ice shore,
and other hazards to navigation limit mancuvering room and make it
m ore difficult for a ship to enter, mancuver in, and depart froM an anchor-
age. The s hiphandler has to make plans that match the ship's maneuvcr-
ing cha racLeristics LO the a vailable space in an anchorage, adjusting his
game plan to the size of the playing field.
Consider all options before entering so your ship and crew are pre-
pared for whatever is r equired; once agai n, don't hesit'lte to mancuz.:er on
the anchor if there isn't erwugh space to tum or back and fi ll un assisted. A
tug can be ordered to a ssist your ship when mancuvering r oom is limited,
but a shiphandler who is reasonably skilled in anchor work can usually
turn and position the ship without a tug.
On occas ion, there just isn't enough scaroom in a crowded. or small an-
chorage to turn to the fmal heading before lt.tting go, and there w11l ~no
option but to let go, heading with or across the wind and current as dis-
cussed later in this chapter. Adjust anchoring plans to the r eal world w hen
you arrive a nd find the anchorage smaller or more crowded than ex peeLed;
use your shiphandling skills to adapt thl! ship's maneuvering ':haracte ris-
tics to the mancuvering room in the anchorage or- iftherejust isn't enough
r oom-don't go. Even the handiest ship may, under som~ circumstances,
have to anchor elsewhere or stand oil and wait for conditions to change.
Maneuvering r oom is as much a considera tion when leaving an an-
chor age as it is when arriving. There may not be enough maneuvering
room to turn and depart from an anchorage, even though ther!l wa:; ~u.ffi­
cient room when yuur s hip arrived. Other ships m a:• a nchor a fter yours, or
your ship may swing to a new heading so there is no longer sufficient r oom
to turn and depa rt. The same tcchuiqucs that arc used to maneuver at ar-
ri val- including backing and filling, using wind and current to a d,·an-
t age, heaving s hort and steaming around on t he anchor, or turning .,.,;th a
tug-ca n be used to turn a shi p departing a small anchorage.
172 ANCHORING AND ~H I PHAN DLI NG WITH ANCHORS FI NAL IIE.\Dil'\G 173

BRIEFING OFFICERS Visuu! navigat ion is prt ferablc when g<'i11g 1.o anchor hccnuRc lhc sht p
Discuss the anchoring plan , including the intended approach and the loca- will usually be fol lowing a circuitous route rather th a n a sl!·nighL l rnc k
tion for letting go, with the mate on t-he bow. the mat<' on the bridge, and, if line, bnckinl! a ud fillin g and turn ing as nccdecl t0 round up into th" wmd
uncommon maneuvering is involved, the engineer on watch to be su re and current. If visible marks and aids a re not used. you ha ve to continu-
th ey a ll know their responsibilities a s th~ s hip is put to anchor. Be s ure the ously in t.en~.opt. your shiphandling work t.o refer to the shi p's cha r ts.
mate knows Accurate naviga tion is fine and important but 1C can, at ~im cs, be O\Cr-
dC'ne. Pilots routinely anchor while na,rignting by eye, a nd calmly and qul-
1. Which a nchor or anchors to u se. elly place the anchor at least as precisely as a team of nav1gators shouting
2. Whether the ship will turn to the final heading before letting go. bearings a nd distances to go and distracting the shiphandlcr fr om the im -
3. How mur h chain will be put out initially. portant work of maneuvering the ship to anchor. ln most cases, a few
4. Direction, ahead or astern, and approximate speed cf the s h ip over well-chosen leading marks a nd an abcar.1 reference visible to the ship-
the b0ttom when the anchor is let go. handler , together with a minimum of fixes aPd some shipha ndling skills,
5. Whether the ship will be turned on the anchor . arc more than sufficient to position the ship as accurately as the often rc-
6. Whetner the anchor should be held at short stay for m a neuvering. c.lundant distance circies and continuous cross bca nngs that a re too ott.c n
7. If more than one anchor is used, how those anchors will be laid out. relied u pon while going to anchor. Quite simply, it i ~ a matter of profes-
8. Final amount of chain to be used. sionalism.

FINAL HEADING
This briefing is important because neither you nor the mate nor the en-
gineer needs a ny surprises. A neat, seamanlike maneuvcr will be spoiled The ter m "final heading" has been used several times in discussing an-
if the ma te &lacks out too much chain when you intend to maneuver on the choring plans, but just what does the term mean and why is it important?
a nchor or turn short in a crowded anchorage, or holds tho chain too Eoon so The final heading is the di rection in which a ship ,~;lllie when at ancho r
the ancho:r drags and the ship is set beyond the plann~d anchoring spot.
Planning completed, it's time to go to anchor, so let's look at the most com-
mon method fur anchoring a ship.

NAVIGATE BY EYE
Study the charts and publications carefully, well before arrival, and com-
mit important information to memory. Select some prominent landma rks,
aids, and ranges to lead the ship to her selected anchorage and prepare a
pocke t course card showing these leading marks as well as t he approxi-
mate cours~s to the anchorage. Depending on the situation , the pocket
card might have the courses and aids listed on one side. a s described in
chapter 12, and a sketch of the anchorage sho\1.-ing the intended track and
}Jrominen t aids and hazards on tile other.
N avigate by eye as the ship approaches the anchorage, conning t he
ship to anchor using landmarks and aids that form natural ranges and
leading marks. The mate will navigate as u eual, as a backup to keep the
master or conning officer informed of the ship'!:' progress, using char ts on
which the intended courses are laid down m advance. F.g. 8-2. "Aren't you overdoing this 'navigr:tc by eye' business, Jerry?"
 174 ANCHORINI.i AND SHI PIIANDLING WITH ANCI!ORS
heading into ~he resu ltant of all external forces, prim arily the wind and
current acting on her superstructu re and underwater h ull, after the a n-
chor has fetched up and the ship has swung Prou n d to bring a ll t hos~
for ces inw eq \!i l:brium.
T here an:: several reasonu why it'l3 better to let go wh en the s hi p is on
her final heading, and t he advantages of doing so more tha n compensate
fo r any additiona l time spent ~r.aneuvering to that h eading. When the a n-
chor is let go lln tne fi nal heading
1. The chain will lead clear of the hull a s it's sla cked out.
2. Wear and E.. train on th e cha in, stem, win dlass, and the m ate's pain~
bud get a r e minimizec.
3. The chain is laid .:>ut along the bot tom neatly and quickly.
4. The ship can be positioned among other ships and obstructions
without concern about swinging clear after the anchor fetches up
since your vessel is already on the same heading as those ships.
T h e more res tricted or crowded the anchorage, or the stronger the
wind or current, the more important it is to anchor on this h eading.
In some instances it is essential to anchor on the preferred heading.
Large bulbous bows can be damaged by a chain leading under and
a r ound the bulb with a heavy strain and, even more importantly, the
chain itself may be damaged in such circumstances. Naval vessels often
have s ensitive sonar domes and other equipment protruding from the
bow that can be easily damaged by the chain. Heavy winds, swell, and
str ong currents exacerbate the problem as the chain works and surges
mor e heavily a gainst the wildcat, and the stem, bulb, and any protruding
ship's gear.
Obviously, it isn't always possible to maneuver to this final heading be-
fore letting go, especially when the anchorage is small or crowded, or the
I win d or current is quite strong or from the wrong direction, or visibility is
I restric•.ed. It isn't always necessary to do so either since a ship ruay anchor
I on any h eading in light airs or slack water-in a calm, every ship in the an-
I chorage probably lies at a different heading anyway. A real professional,
t hough, tries to bring the ship to her final heading before letting go in even
a light bre~::ze or weak curr~nt and, in practice, a reasonably skilled
s hiphandler is us ually s uccessful in doing so. There are methods for an-
chorir.g to minimize the strain and problems wh en it is impossible to let go
to the fina l h eading, and they are discussed later in this chapter.
ANCHORING On ' TilE 1-'JNAL HEADI NG 175
How is the final heading determined? L<..ck at other ~hips and boats an-
chored in the a rea th:1t a re alr~ady lying to the wind and currrnt or esti-
m a te th e headinl! if !.here are no shi p~ in an anchorage. Sea ~~nse :!nd
so me experi ence with a particular ship ore im·aluable in the laltr' r ca::;c
aince the final heading is afTected by t.hc ship's draft, her fr eeboard, th e
strength oft.he wind al\d cur r ent, and the location of the s hip's superstru c-
ture and deck load, if any. In practice, this presents little problem s ince
the ship only needs to be on the approximate heading before letting ~o;
h aving the wind and current a few degrees on one bow or the other, rath er
t h an dead ahead, won't significantly affect t.he ship or strain her gea r.
A master could also compute lhe final heading by vector analys is, but
the calculation would be complicated and ilnpractical in clay-to-day work,
and there would be no point in doing so when such exact information is not
needed anyway. A practiced seaman's eye, current tables, the knowledge
th at a 1-lwot current has approximately the same effect as a 30·knot wind
over a given surface area, and &ome seafaring experience arc really all !.ha t
are needed to determine this heading with reasonable accuracy.
ANCHOniNG OFF THE FINAL HEADING
Under some circumstances, it may be nece$sary to anchor heading across
or away from the result.ant of wind and current. In a light breeze or wea k
current th is presents no problem since the ship can turn to her fi nal head-
ing after the anchor fetches up. In stronger win ~s or currenU., though, it is
us ua lly best to let go an anchor and one-to-two shots of chain t.:lly, an
amount equal to about twice the depth of water , while the ship moves
slowly ahead. The ch~in is held while the ship makes a controlled t urn on
her anchor to the final heading, in the least possible space, as the anchor
a lternately digs in and breaks free with little str ain on the vessel and h er
gear ,
When letting go on or near the reciprocal of the final heading, start the
sh ip tu rning to starboard and let go the starboard anchor, to lake advan-
tage of the twisting efTeel ift.he engine is nc<:ded astern t.o assis t in turning
the ship.
·when lettir.g gll u:ith the final heading on the port or starboard side,
turn u p in to the wind ~r currer..t toward the fi nal hnading and use the u p-
stream or windward anchor so the bow comes u p inlo those forces and l he
chain leads clea:- of the hull. In bot.h cases, turning in this fashion rr.ini-
m izes str ain on the g~ar and ship while lhe wind and current assist l he
s hip in t urning (fig. 8-3).
1'16 AHCIIORI !'I.G AN D S IIIPHANDLING WITH A!\lCHORS '!'liE APPROACH 1 77

Come a head with the rudder hard over in the direction in which the Wonc:tcurrcnt astern
ship is to tum, backing a nd filling if required, as the ship swings arou.1d 1. Put down s•arlloau.J <~nc.t oor.
2. T~:n ;o s:JrLv,jrJ ;JI) :11 ..
on this slowly dragging anchor to the final heading. Stop the en!;ine when
anchor to !r·.dt hc:.donq and
the ship is on er near her final heading. Ease the anchor's brake and s !ack 3. Ease out aodrtron,JI ct;ain
the chain to bring the ship to anchor as the '.':ind and current check the to anct:or.
~-
ship's headway und then move her astern. Don't just open the brake widG ',{........ ___
®_
as the ship falls back before the wind and current, ease it so the chain is
laid out slowly or the wind end current will take charge and bring the ship
up hard against the cham and gear, possibly damaging the ground tackle c:
or pulling the anchor free. 0 "'
c 8
This technique for anchoring off the final heading is especially useful .!!! "0
when turning in a strong current such as is found on the Mississippi Riv~r
'3 c .,
a:"'"' "0
c ) ~ Wrndlcurrcnt to side
and other estuaries or in a strong wind or heavy swell that would put. ~ ._- 1. Let go ancnor on srde
h eavy strain en the ground tackle. toward final headi'lg.
2. Maneuver on the anchor into
BASIC ANCHORING the wind/current and
3. Ease out chain to anchor ship.
Anchoring is almost always a "plain vanilla" routine. The ship enters the
anchorage, turns as nearly as possible to the fmal heading, and backs
down until she starts mo•riog slowly astern over the bottom. One anchor is
let go and the chain is slacked until the desired amount is in the water.
The engine is then kicked ahead, if necessary, until the ship loses nearly
all stern way, the brake is tightened, and the anchor fetches up. Port after Fig. 8-3. Anchoring ofT the final heading.
port, voyage after voyage, the ship usually will anchor in this simple man-
ner, so, for the sake of clarity, we'll discuss this routin& in some detail and closer and more distant objects. The apparent movement of references
then briefly mention some of the less common alternative methods for an- ahead and astern of your ship indicates lawral motion while references
choring. abeam or nearly abeam show headway or st,crnway. Your s hip's move-
ment can be detected by eye with surprising accuracy, using this method,
THE APPROACH long before any change in position is shown by traditional methods of navi-
The master or conning officer approaches along the planned track, navi- gation. Use this technique by day and by night, during each s l:.cp of t he a n-
gating by eye using leading ranges and selected aids as previously dis- choring evolution, especially when moving at very slow speeds and when
cussed and progressively reducing speed. Less speed means more time-- backing down and laying out ti1e chair,.
time to plan, timE: to respond, and time to ~;top the ship if a problem When should a ship start to turn ir, the anchorage? The nraster or officer
arises-- and when speed is reduced, the engine can be used ahead and conning knows thP. ship's ta: tical die:r.e: er at sio·,..• ::;pl.!cds from l11e mas·er·"
astern us needed to maneuver without concern about being ov~r speed trials and, allowing for any poss1ble set and leeway, estimates by eye and in
when the final anchoring location is reached. some cases by fixes , the point to start the turn or turns. It is best to simplify
Detect your ship's movement over the bottom u sing the apparent mo- mancuvering by making any large -::hangcs in headir.g well before reaching
tion between other ships or objects in the anchorage and more distant ref- the location where you plan to anchor since you then only need to stop the
erences a float and ashore. Closer ships appear to move across , in front of,
background r~ferences because cfthe differences in perspecti·1e between .I vessel prior to letting go. Tlus isn't essential, and in a restricted or crowded
anchorage, it. isn't always possibl~, but it sure makes the task easier.
178 P NCHORING AND S HIPHANIJLING WITH ANCHORS
As a rule of thumb, a ship turning at a constant engine speed in deep
water, that 1s, water more than one and a half times the ship's draft, will
be ~bc ut thr·ee to three and a half ship lengths ahead of:1er s tarting point
and abou t one and a half ship lengths to port or starboard after turning 90
degrees, a nd about one ship length ahead of her starting point and thteu
and a half ship lengths to port or starboard after turning lAO degrees.
These distances are significantly redur.ed in an accelerating turn using in·
creased reualutions. In shallower water, the turning circle will increase
uP.til, when the water depth is nearly the same as the ship's draft, the dis-
tan ces required to turn are approximately doubled. These distances are
not exa ct , but they are close enough for day-to-day work, especially if you
make any needed small adjustments to the estimates to allow for maneu-
vering characteristics of a particular ship and for the wind and current
that make the ship's turning circle more elliptical as previously discussed
(fig. 8-4).
The following hints should prove useful in maneuvering into, around,
a nd out of an anchorage:
1. Searoom permitting, a large course change as the ship swings
around to her final heading, as described in chapter 1, will signifi-
cantly reduce headway as the ship approaches an anchorage.
2. Turns to starboard are preferable to turns to port, to take advantage
of the t-.visting effect as the engine is backed to reduce headway a nd
stop t.he ship.
T Conditions: Rudder hard over, engine
/ speed constant, water depth over 1.5
times ship's draft.
Results: (1) 90" from track, 317 ship
lengths ahead, and 117 ship length.; to
317 port or starboard of start point;
(2) 160" from track. 1 ship length ahead.
1
and 317 ship lengths to po.rt or
starboard of start point.
1 .C.s water depth decreases. distances
1 1ncreasa. Whsn .:!9pth almost equal;;
~---------317--~J draft, the distances are doubled.
Start
Fig. 8-4. Approximate turning circles in deep watet·.
l'I..ACING TilE A..'I;CHOH 179
3. A kick ahead will accelerate the rate of turn, reducing the ~uruing
circle withou t a Significa nt increuSC in Spt>ed. fie ca reful, though,
that speed isn't signi!i.:.antly incrca.,.,d b:, ,ucce;;si, <! KJck:s ahead, u:~
i f might be impossible to slu p the ship at the selected .mchoring loca-
tion.
4. Backing a nd filling near the anchoring nrNl, as described in chapter
1, i:; usually preferable tl) succedsive kicks ahead whe;'l about to an-
chor. as t he s hip can be turned nnd simultnncou:sly slowud and
stop ped.
From the tri :1l maneuvers, the master knows app roxilll nlely how many
ship lengths the vessel will acivance after the engi 1e is put as tern and thus
at what point the s hip must go astern t.o be dead in t.he water at the se-
lected anchorage. For safety's sake, back down at least once before reach-
ing that point to check the ship's speed, using the location of the ship's
quickwa ter as described in chapter 4. (See figure 4-2.) Too oflc n, a master
r educPs to wha t, after sever al days a t sea speed, seems like a slow speed in
a n anchor age., only t.o find that the shi p is actually m oving much faste t·
t.han anticipated when he backs down to let. go.
Put the engine astern well before r eaching the selected auchoting loca-
tion when anchoring at night., or in a crowded or restricted anchorage,
when speed is both more difficult to estimate and more critical, and back
until the ship is dead in the water. There is then no doubt about. the ship's
s peed: it is zer o. Come ahead again, s lowly rnc.ve the last few ship lengths,
and let go.
PLACING THE ANCHOR
The ship slowly :nCives the las t few hundred feet to the selected anchorage,
on the fina l heading if possible, using the leading marks and ranges to
n a vigate by eye wh ile the maw checks the s hip's position. Convert dis-
ta n ce to the selected anchoring location from yard~ or fraction~ of a mile to
ship lengths or feet, u nits of measure the shiphandler navigating by eye
can use most efTectively to est11nate stopping and tu rning distances d•.lr·
ing the lasl fe w s hip length., of the approach.
The a .1chor dr ops from the bow, net the btidge. It is the bow's location
t.h at matters when letting go. Too often shipha ndlcrs overlook this simple
fact and esti ma te distances from the bridge lo the shore and other sh1ps.
This can rause significant errors when anchoring VLCCs or other lnq~e,
bt·idge afl ships in restricted or crowded anchorages where the stern may
180 ANCHORING AND Si!IPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS LAYING OUT TilE CIIAIN 181

a
be as much as a quarter-mile from the anchor, or when anchoring car Cl'lr-
riers or other bridge forward ships when the shipha,1dleris nea1·er the an-
chor out 700 t.:> 800 feet from thf> st~rn. Pllt the bow, U0t tlte bridge, whare
you want. the anchor to lie before letting go.
Flooo
---·--. ... ----c=J
(;\
•• _______
\V •• J'
Do not routinely anchor in the middle of an open anchorage, so far from
other ships and obstructions that you swing clear by several ship lengths
no mat~r how the wind and current migh":: turn your ship. It is un- Ebb
seamanlike to wa.>te space in the anchorage; it causes problems for other
ships anchoring after yours and it also causes problems for you, since
other vessels are forced to anchor closer to your ship than might be safe be-
cause they have to use whatever space you leave. It is also unnecessary be-
[l Incorrect: Anchor le I go
midway between ~htps

cause most ships swing to new headings at the same time, staying clear of
each other, unless tneir draft, freeboard, or size are so different that some
swing before the others. So there is no need to, at all times, be able to swing
clear over an arc of 360 degrees.
Anchor only as far from other ships and obstructions as necessary for
your ovm ship's safety and put the anchor closer to ships ahead than
astern. Your ship lies back from the anchor and the ship ahead and, as the
ships turn to current or wind, the ship ahead swings away from you. ~n
print, Lhat may sound like common sense, but it is amazing how often ex-
perienced masters and pilots put the anchor in the center of an open area
and fmd they are anchored too close to ships astern when the chain
stretcheu out. This can be an even greater problem when the tide or wind
changes and the ship astern becomes the ship ahead. Place the anchor
closer to the ship ahead, not in the center of an open area, when letting go
(fig. 8-5).
Think ahead of the ship as you place the anchor. Set up to back and
maintain control at all times when the engine is going astern. When an-
choring a ship fitted with a right.-hand turning fixed propeller. under most
conditions, on or near the final heading, kick the engine ahead ' vith the
rudder hard left to start the bow swinging to port and then put the engine
astern. Back until the quickwater reaches amidships and then continue
backing until the ship starts moving astern. Ideally. wh.m anchoring close
to thP final heading, the bow should steady up as the engine goes astern if
the starboard anchor is to be dr0pped, or begin swinging slowly to star-
board if the port a:~chor is to be used. When a nchoring at some large angle
away from the final heading, the bow should be swinging away from the
anchor, an the chain pays out, as previously described in the section "Final
Heading" in Lhis chapter.
Flood
(2·--..-i2\"·-·;
~-- ---··' --,r--,
'-...____.-)
Ebb
Correct: Anchor leI go
closer to sh1p ahead
Fig. 8-5. Anchor closer to ships ahead than astern.
.
Masters too often stop the engine when Lhe quick water reaches a mid-
ships be•.:ause the flow ofwatermovingup the ship's sides c1eates the illu-
sion that the ship is moving astern when actually she is then just c..lead in
the water. The chain will only pile up on Lhe bottom and stop running out if
the anchor is let go without some sternway. Continue backing until the
quickwaler is forward of amidships so the ship is moving astern, open the
brake, and let go.
LAYING OUT THE CHAIN
The brake is tightened and eased as necessary to control the chain as the
ship moves slowly astern, laying the chain evenly over the bottom rathe r
than ir:: a pile that could foul the anchor or damage the gear as the sh 1 p
falls back, until the chain is brought up tight against the anchor with a
heavy strain.
The mate on the bow must keep the bridgr. inf01·med of the lead and
weight on the chain at this point. The mate is the master's eyes as he ma-
neuvern Ll move Lhe ship slowly astern at the be:;l speed and heading .
 182 Al'JCIIORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITII ANCHORS
keeping f\ light s t.rain on the chain at all times so it is laid along the bottom
clear of the stem and bulbous bow. The mate notifie'l the bridge as soon ns
the ordered length of ch:1in is out so the engine can be put nheao to reduce
stern way, if nf!cessary, before the anchor fetches up hard. EvP.ryone gets
back to bed much ::;ooncr if the mate ke eps the bridge well ir.formed with-
out having to be repeatedly asked how the chain is leading.
Tighum the broke enough to check the chain and control it, but don't
set the brake so tight that the chain is held and the anchor flukes dig in
prematurely. When the flukes dig in too soou, befo1·e the shank is nearly
parallel to the bottom, the anchor may break free again- ·so balled with
mud tLat it can't dig in when the full scope of chain is out. This is less of a
problem when the anchor is intentionally dragged, because it is less likely
to hav~ dug in so fully that it comes free with mud and rock jammed be-
tween t!.e flukes and shru1k.
Keep in mind that it is movement over the bottom that's important
when letting go, not speed through the wa\.er. When drifting with a strong
current from ahead, the ship will have sufficient sternway over the bottom
to lay out the chain when the quickwater reaches amidships, since she
would then be moving over the bottom at the speed of the current. Obvi-
ously, if there is a 1-knot current from ahead and you back until the water
is midships, you will be making 1-knot astern over the bottom and the
chain will lay out nicely.
I
The aforem:mtioned apparent motion of ships at anchor relative to
I backgroi...Dd references afloat and ashore is the best indication of ship's
movement once the ship starts moving astern. The quickwater forward of
l I
midships c.nly tells you the ship has sternwuy, while the Doppler log often
becomes useless once the quickwater moves up under the hull. Watch the
movement of vessels and objects against the background shoreline a:1d
move the ship slowly astern over the bottom.
DIGGING IN
Tighten the brake when the required amount of chain is out and, if tl,e
ship still has significant sternwRy, put the engine ahead one last time so
the chain isn't parted due to excessive sternway as the anchor fetches up.
You might use hard-over rudder while kicking the engine ahead at tl}is
point, if required, to bring the ship clos-:lr to her final heading and to keep
tne anchor chain clear of the stem, bulb, and any underwalcr gear. Re-
nembl!r that the rudder directs propeller thrust, and the stopping effect
as the engine turns ahead is m.1ch greater if the rudder is amidships.
SWING INO HOOM A1' ANCIIOH
The !:!ngine is used ahcnd only long cnou~h to reduce strrnway. Don't
stop the ship completely. Hold the chain nnd let the ship movr sluwly ba ck
ngaim:t the ancl,or ::.> the cat.cnary caused 0y the ch11ie·s weigi1t absorbs
most. of th~ force of the rcmainir1g stem way. The ship must have a bit of
stern way to work against the anchor aud dig the flukes well in to the bot-
tom. Back the engine again, if the ship inadvertently stops t.oo quickly, so
the anchor is well dug in before the engines are rung off.
'
SWINGING ROOM AT ANCIIOH
Obviously, masters prefer to anchor far enough from other ships and ob-
stacles, space permitting, to swing clear on bolh the present heading and
all other possible headings on which the ship might later lie nt a safe dis-
t ance from other ships.
But how far are you from ships ahead and astern? In a crowded anchor-
ag~. especially after days in the oven ocean, other ships always look closer
than they actually arc due both to your height of eye and to the lack of vi-
sual references wit.h which the distance between ships can be compared.
Even P.xpe"icnced pilots arc often surprised when, afler anchoring a ship
in what appeared to be close quarters, th:!y get. into a launch to go ashore
and, from a more distant vantage point close to the water, look back to find
that the ships actually are quite far apart. Unfortunately, the master and
deck officers are rarely able to view their vessel from a launch, but they
can walk down to the main deck when: the true distance between ships be-
comes :mmediatdy npparr.nt. Try this the next time you arc concerned
about the distance between anchored ships.
It is sometimes difficult to actually measure the distance to othe r
vessels anchored close to your ship. Radar, while excellent. in open an-
chorages, is often less effective for measuring absolute distance be-
tween closely anchored ~hips because it measures dist ance from you r
radar mast to some not always definable poin t. on the other ship, to an
accuracy of fractions of a mile, not yards or meters. Stacks and ship's
ge ar also obstruct the radar and r.hips anchored ir. those olind areas arc
not visible to !.he !"ad~r e t a! I Racar is u;:uall:r mort:: ht:lj.Jf c~i to dewcr.
changes in distance, such as when one ship or the other drags closer or
farther a way, than it is to measure absulute dis tance between ancho;·ed
ships.
Estimate distance from other ships by eye using your ship's length as a
reference and measure the distance from o Uv~r ships ahead and astern to
your bow or stern, not to yo•Jr location on the bridge. '
 184 ANCHORING AND SIIIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
Some pilots swear :.hey can estimate distance more accurately by bend-
ing over a nd looking hetween their legs. Pilots and seamen oflen joke
about this technique hut, quite frankly, it Reems to w0rk. It's probably
better to try it without an audience, though, as shipmates may think you
are a bit ctrange, standing bent over looking between your !egs at ships
forward and aft, but it helps-so bend over and look.
It may be necessary for a ship lying at anchor in a crowded anchor&ge
to maneuver on the anchor using the engine, rudder, or bow thruster if
available, to swing clear of other ships as she turns to a new tide or a shift
in the wind. Calculate tide and current changes and watch the weather
and oth~r ships closely. Have the engine and thruster ready well before
the calculated change and, in a particularly restricted anchorage, have a
~I
I of an a.ction-parkE.'d, high-speed anchoring maneuver under something
I
I similar to a running moor, as described in the section on five- an ri
Fig. 8-n. "He says things look better that way."
:'-IOOHING AND ANCHOH!NG W!Til TWO ANCI!OHS 18.)
tug ordered :\nd standing by to assist in turning. Don't W!!il until the other
ships start s·.,inging to make these preparations.
The mastE.'r ma~ also decirie to ;>ut -:!owr. rw~ a1 •..:hors in,, sm .. ll an..:hol-
age to limit the ship's s·....ing. Mooring tot\\ o anchors may be lhe best ac-
tion under some circumstances and common methods for doing so arc
discussed later in this chapter.
It may not always be possible to moor to two ru~chors in a crowded an-
chorage if other ships close by are riding Lo one anchor. They will move m a
wider circle and your ship, restricted by the second anc:1or, may not swing
clear. Either use one anchor, or be ready to maneuver or to heave up the
seconcl anchor if other ships start swinging toward you in such circum-
stances. Local practice is important, since all ships will generally follow
the custom of the port when anchoring or mooring so that all ships swing
together.
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
Any number of seamanship books present the reasons for mooring and an-
choring to two anchors, so this text will briefly discuss only the ship-
handling nspects of these evolutions.
The running moor is a maneuver for putting down two anchors in line
while the ship has headway. The ship is brought to her fmal heading,
stemming the current and wind, and the fi.Tst anchor is let go. That chain
is slacked as the ship continues moving slowly ahead to drop a second an-
chor. The first chain is then heaved ir. as the second chain 1s slacked so the
ship drop:; back to ride between both anchors. The two ar.chors can be laid
along the axis of a channel or in line with a current so the ship rides be-
t ween and swings within nearly her own length to each turn of the tide.
The running moor is sometimes called the (lying moor. The name is col-
orful, traditional, and unfortunately misleading since it conveys an image
less than perfect control. No competent shiphandler does a flying ar.y-
thing and the term should be avoided. Walking moor might be a better
name!
The ship Ca::J ah:o anchor to two anchors laid vut ahead in a maneuver
seven-point moorings in ch apter 9, perpendicular to the wind a11d current
llSing the same or different lengths of chain to minimize yawing, increase
holding power, or hold a ship's head to a swell to reduce rolting- while work-
ing cargo. A simila r method for anchoring to two anchors, for ships fitted
 186 ANCIIOHINO AND SHIPilANDLI NG WIT!l ANCHORS s·n:HN M-IGllOHS 1H7

other so it becomes impossible to heave the nnchors home. W1th t> modi-
cum of Sl'amanship and shiphandling skills. thcsl! turns en•• be prevented
by fuming the ship in the opposite dtrt!.:!ion at r:ach tum of tht ~id. o.
change in the wind (fig. 8-8).
I Tum the ship by putting the mddcr hnrd over anti Kicking the engine
ahead as needed, or have a tug p~sh on the quarter or tow the stern around
I
l
on a hawser. Start the ship swinging in the prefen-cd direction, putting the
current or wind on the proper side so 1t too pushes the <>hip around alt.cr-
n ately clockwise and then countcrclockwise on suC'cc:ssive ti des. Seamanship
I texts also discuss can ling the ship using hard-{)ver rudder, but the ship's en·
gine or a tug is usually more reliable and effective in turning :.Oday's larger,
more diverse ship types, which may not respond to the rudder alone.
Mooring to two anchors may be the best way to anchor under some cir-
cumstances, in spite ofpotl!ntial problems with rou nd turns in the chain,
and every seaman should know ]v)\v lo prevent round turns and how to
clear them if they do occur.

STERN ANCHORS
By Captain Warren G. Lebach, Master Mariner
Stern anchon are most commonly found aboard the great n umber of nu val
landing and assaul t vessels built duri ng and since World War 11. 'l'hcse
Fig. 8-7. "1 thought shiphandlers never did a flying anything."
a n chors give an added measure of vessel control, prevent broaching uuc to
with bow thru~ters, is described in the section "Mediterranean Moor~ in w ind, swell, tide, a nd current, and arc used to kedge ofT a beach.
chapter !1.
A standing moor or ordinary moor is similar to t!1e running moor ex- I
..-"
I
I I
cept the ship comes to her final heading, backs until she has sternway, I I Swing ships moored to two
I anchors 1t1 !he oppos110
drops her first anchor, and slacks the chain as she maneuvers astern to let duechon lo consecuhve t1dcs.
go the second anchor. The first chain is then heaved in while the second is 'I
sla cked until the ship rides between the two anchors. The standing moor ....:"""~
is more commonly used to lay anchors in line with a CUlTent since the ,-,r"' :
shiphandle;- has less control of a ship when going nstern, while the run- / /
/ /
I I
ning moor witl-. s teera ge and headway is more cften used to lay anchors I
I
I

perpendicular to wind and current.

Seamen are often reluctant to use two anchors for mooring or anchor-
ing because of problems dearing round turns in the chain, se you may go to
sea for years wi thout mooring in this manner . Round turns are causo.;<l by
Flood Et.b
t.he ship repeatedly swinging t o the current a nd wind in the same direc-
tion, d ockwise or counterclockwise, wrapping the chains around each F ig. 8-8. Prevent round turns when moored.
 188 ANCHORING AND SIIIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS STEHN A~ C II O R S 189

Stern anchors prouably ca me into use shortly after man put to sea. 4. The steering gear and engine must be used j ud iciously, especially
Kedge (stern) anchors were used to hol d a si tip of the line in pvaitior. to pro- once the stern anchor is let go.
I vide a steady platform when bombardir~ shor~ batteries or vp~v.sing 5. T:u o:.:ghout the maneuver the u1as lt:r wusllhiuk ahead of the ves-
fleets in numerous naval ~f\ttles curing the '>ixteenth through the eigh- sel and adjust for chr..nges in wind 1111d current.
teenth centu ries. One of the more memorable naval en~agements in which
stern anchors were used was the Battle of the Nile where Admiral Nel- ThP.rc is a significant risk of damaging the rudder and propeller wiLh
son's Mediterranean fleet caught the French fldet at anchor in Akubir the stern anchor and its chain because of tile stern anchor's locatiOn. De
Bay. Nelson divided his fleet int.o two columns, ran down both sides of the certain all slernway is off the ship before letting the stern anchor go. Limit
French fleet and, using kedge anchors, positioPed his vessels so they could sternway when heaving up so the chain leads af: with a light strain at all
pour deadly broadsides into the opposing fleet.. The outcome changed Na- times-the ship must not overrun the stem anchor-and wait unlillhe a n-
poleon's plans to advance into the Middle East. chor is in sight and clear before putting any headway on the ship.
Unfortunately, few merchant vessels ot!-ter than those designed for In an open roadstead both bow anchors and the stern anchor are laid out
specific trade routes are presently fitted with stern anchors, so only a in a "Y" pattern to form a three-point moor. The mancuvcr is straightfor-
iimited r.umber of masters and deck officers have had an opportunity to ward. Aficr all planning and preparations for mooring ha vc been complet.cd
use them. As with any gear that receives only limited use, there are nu-
merot~s theories about the use of stern anchors-some correct and many 1. The ship begins her approach at the minimum speed required for
incorrect. stccrageway.
A few steamship companies, including Grace Line, Inc. and El P aso 2. The moor is made, scaro:>m pern1itting, with the bow to sea ward.
LNG Company, fitted their vessels with stern anchors. Grace Line fitted Approach from sea to the left oflhe intended moor to take advantage
their folli:' Santa Lucia class vessels, thtir post-World War 11 C-2s and cftliL ship's abHity to back and fill to the right. Make the approach
their C-2 combination passenger/cargo vessels with stern anchors. ThP. as wide as searoom allows.
anchors were used to keep the ships in position while lying at anchor in a 3. Come up to point "A" as shown in figure 8-9 so the three predete r-
number of open roadsteadR along the west coast of South America. mined bearings intersect.
El Paso LNG Company fitted their nine liquefied natural gas vessels ·a· ·c· ·o·
with stern anchors. These anchors are to be used in the e"ent of either a ' ', '
rudder or engine failure to slow the ship and give directional control and to ' '
'' ; '
make it possible to anchor these large ships in the Cheoapeake Bay and ' '
the narrow channels of the Savannah River. They are of sufficient weight '
and are equipped with the amount of chain needed to hold t:1e 950-foot '' ;
,
ships in the strong flood and ebb tides found in these areas.
When using a stern anchor I
I
" I
: !
' ! ! :

1. The master must have confidence in his sh1phandling ability and

understand the &tern anchor's uses and lirilltations.
2. The mooring maneuver must be carefully planned in advance aud
put. on the chart with three predetermined reference bearings lai-:i
down.
3. The rnaneuver must be reviewed \vith the other officers so they are
thoroughly familiar with the plan and its alternatives. Fig. 8-9. Mooring' with a stern anchor.
190 ANCIIOHIN,; AND SHIPHAND LING WITH ANCHORS
4. Proceed down the reciprocal of bearing line "B" with the port anchor
backed out and ready to lnt go. Back down as the ship noflrs the dn>p
point, take all headway off the ship, and let go the p'>rt anchor.
5. Eack t.he ship sil)\'lly along the recipro::al of bearing line "B" and
turn her to bearing line "D."
6. Come ahead and proceed slowly down the reciprocal of bearing line
"D" while keeping the port chain slack until the drop point for the
starbo:\rd anchor is reached. Take off all headway &.nd let go the
starboard anchor.
7. Back the ship to point "A" while controlling the ship with both an-
chvrs, then continue backing along bearing line "C" to the drop point
for U:e stern anchor.
8. Mn~{e sure all atern way is off the vessel so the ship cannot override
the anchor and chain, and let go the stern anchor.
9. Reeve the bow anchors while slacking the chain aft until the ship is
riding to all three anchors and the three-point moor is complete.
To unmoor, slack the bow chains and heave the vessel astern using the
stern anchor. Bear in mind that you must pay out the bow chains slowly to
Fig. 8-10. "I got ten shots out, Cap', and she seems to be taking a strain.~
TilE ANCHOR AS A Sllli'IIANDI.ING '1'001. Hll
contrr.l the \'esse!. (Remember, you must not ovt•rrun the stern ancho•·.)
Wait '.lr.lil the stern anchor clears the water and is in sight before moving
the ship ahrad. Heave both h"w chain!: .si..mlt:mer.usly u•itii puiut ·A'' j,
reached, and d1s~:1gage the starboard chain. Continue tu heave on the !JOrt
chain until the !:hip reaches a positiOn approximately halfway between
point "A" and the pc,rt anchor drop point. L<'ck in the starboard anchor
again. Resume heaving; by the time the port anchor is aweigh, you will
have a slight strain on the starboard chain so lhc vessel will not sag down
on the beach.
The same sequence of maoeuvers, performed whiie the ship is st.cm-
ming the current, is used to anchor a ship fitted with a stem anchor in a
river or restricted anchorage. One bow anchor may be sufficient in some
cases, but the maneuver is slill performed in basically the same manner.
THE ANCHOR AS A SIUPllANDLTNG TOOL
The anchor is rarely used when handling a ship, and now usually seems to
be thought of as a tool of last resort to be used only in emergency Situa-
tions. This is unfortunate since a ship can be maneuvered using an anchor
m ways not possible with only the engine, rudder, and tugs. The anchor is
called the "poor man's tugboat" for good reason-it is often more effective
than n tub.
When haHdling a ship with an anchor, it is essential that the mate as-
signed to let go the anchor be well versed in the use of anchors and be thor-
oughly trained in handling ground tackle, letting go the anchor properly,
and putling out the correct amount of chain. The importance of having a
man on the bow who can handle the anchor and be relied upon ~ put out
the co1 met amount of cha:n cannot be overstressed.
l'erhaps the most fundamental misunJers~anding about shiphandling
with an anchor is the beliefthat a ship sheers in the direction of the anchor
that is put down. This is not so. Sheering is not a significant consideration
when selecting the anchor to be used. The bow of a ship with hcadwa~ is
steadied by the anchor •egardless of which anchor is used, and i:c: not
pulled in any particular direction. The hawsepipe, and hence tt:e l;;;,J cf
the cham, is so close to the centerline of the ship as the anchor drags that
only a minimal pivoting moment develops (fig. 8-11).
The pivoting effect can become significant, however, ;r a large turn is
deliberately initiated using the engine and rudder after the anchor be-
gins to drag. The pivoting moment increases as the direction of the ..m-
chor's retarding force and the ship's fcrward momc11Lum shift in oppo,;itc
192 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
di rections away from t h e vessel's centerline and each oth er, as shown in
posi tion 2 of fig ure 8-ll.
T his delayed pivoti ng eff€:ct occurs only a fter the ship develops n signif-
ica nt swing, and r equires deliberate action by the shir. ha ndler who m ust
start the !!hip swinging. The resultant reduction in the diam eter of the
t~hi p's tumin g circle is one of the desirable effects of anchor use when ma-
neuvering. The sheer ing or pivoting to one side is neither an immediate
nor a n inevitable result of dropping a particular anchor. It does not occur
without deliberate action and, fo r practical purposes, the magnitude of
this pivo ting force is equal for a turn to port or sta rboard regardless of
which anch or is put down.
Th ere is some disagreement a mong m a riners over which anchor to
drop (fig. 8-12). Some s hiphandlers contend that the lee anchor, or inboar d
anchor when docking, should be used becau se it leads under and agains t
the h ull and therefore will hold better in a beam wind. They also claim
that u sing this anchor puts less stress on the windlass brake due to the
friction between the chain and the hull. Others feel that the windwar d a n-
chor, or offshore anchor when docking, should be used since that a nchor
leads clear ofthe hull and requires more chuin before it digs in and holds.
The latter choice is recommended because
1. The anchor should not hold.
2. The chance of damaging the hull with the anr.hor is minimized if th e
wind. ward (or offshore when docking) anchor is u sed since the chair..
tends away from and clear of the hull.
1. Initial turning moment G ' - A' is insignilicant
as anchor drags on short scope of chain.
2. If vessel deliberately swung, the turning
moment G' - B' increases and sh'p pivots
against '.he anchor.
~·..·----·-·-
//{._' ---...__ ~'·--.._
/ / . --...... - ~ ···-,'-·-·-..._
.......... ... - ...... ~ ..........
Fig. 8-11. Pivotin g effect of a dragging anchor.
Til E ANCHOR AS A SHIPIIANDLll'G 1'001. 193
/
/
/
{/
~~t
-'Y.
'
~ I
/
.- - - -
--
----
Fig. 8-12. Lead of inshore anchor versus offshore anchor.
3. It is easier to work the ship up to the dock when us ing the offshor e
anchor since it does not tend to fetch up as it would when the ship
works across and over an inLoard anchor.
4. The ou tboard anchor can be left in the wat.er ready to heave the ship
back off the ber th, and can be heaved up with out damaging the
chain, hull, or antifouling coating.
5. Heaving the ch ain hard against the ~ull may damage the chain a nd
the ship's hull:
By us ing the outboard orwindw.ll'd anchor there is less chance that the
anchor will hold even if a little too much chain is inadvertently put in the
wate r. It is always possible to slack '110re chain, but a go.Jd docking will
come to a halt if the a nchor fetches up and the shi p has to stop to heave the
ch ain back in.
When the chain is heaved against the hull, each link bears against and
is bent ar ound the relatively small radius of the hull in the area of the bow,
whether it leads across the :.;tem, under the foot, or around a bulbous bow,
and the chain is therefore subject to damage. The presence of a bulb is rea-
son enough to avmd u sing th<> inboard or lee anchor.
The ease with which the oiTshor-; anchorcan b~ heaved up is an im~Jurtan t
consideration if the anchor must be heaved home afi.er docking. The offshor e
anchor comes up easier because of the more direct lrad from hawsepipe U> an-
chor, and without causing any of the aforementioned damage.
Some ma riners a re concerned that it might be difficu lt to stop the chain
afte r letting go because of the ship's motion over the bottom. This concern
I 194 ANCliOH!l'<G AND SHIPI!ANDLING WITH ANCH ORS OOCI\lNG WITH AN ANCII OH 195
I
is especially prevalent when hanr:lliug larger shi!Js. This is not a problem.
Static frict iol~ is three times greater than dynamic friction for an asbestns
! brake band bearihg on the windlass's drum. ThP. brake h as three times as
much holding power when the wildcat is stopped as when it is turning. The
chain only runs out, after t i1e• anchor :;trikes bottom, until it goes slack.
I The brake is th~n set up. The anchor digs in ai'l the chain again comes tight
I and then is pulled free from the bottom before static friction is o·1ercome,
dragging along a~ the flukes ball up with mud. Additional chain can then
I be slacked to achieve the desired eiTect.

SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS-HOW MUCH CHAIN?

Have the anchors manned and ready to let go when maneuv(;ring in re-
!!t.ricted wat.ers. Slv:>uld the anchor be required during a maneuver, let go
only enough chain to a llow the anchor to first grab and then break loose
and drag. The anchor mUBt not dig in and hold.
For the anchor to be most effective, an amount of chain equal to about
twice th e depth sh ould be {:ut well in the water and the brake screwed up
Light. Ifnecessary, the second anchor can also be let go with a like amount
of chain. The ship slows and stops as one or both anchors drags along the
bottom.
There is a common misconception, especially in an emergency, that a
large amount of chain should run out so the anchor digs in and stops the
ship. To stop a vessel in this manner would require the relatively small
brake on the windlass to overcome the inertia of the e:ntire moving mass of
your ship. It will never happen! The brake will probably bum out and all
the chain will run out while the ship continues moving ahead. Ifthe brake
does hold, tbe chain often parts as it comes tight. It is most unlikely that a
chain would be able to ·Nithstand the shock load and almost instanta-
neously stop a moving ship, as it would be required to do if the anchor is al-
lowed to dig m hard. Instead we want the ancho~· to break out and relieve
the strain on the chain before its breaking point is reached.
What a helpless feeling one has as the ship heads toward a bank with
no engin e to slow her headway while the mate on the bow lets the chain
run out to t1e bitter end in a cloudofdirtandrust! A deeply laden chemical
tanker was transiting the Panama Canal a few years ago when the- ship's
wheel was put the wrong way by the helmsman. The ship dove for the hank
and anchors were ordered let go, only to have the chain continue to run as
shot after shot passed over the wildcat. The chain did finally stop running
and the ship came to a sto:::>-but only when she was hard against the ban!c
Fig. 8-13. "I think we should have used the offsl.ore anchor."
a t Contractor's Hill. A ship's windlass just doesn't have a large enough
brake to stop a loaded ship.
The proper use o~ anchors is in danger of becoming a lust art. Be sure all
deck cAlicers understand what they are to do with the anchors, and espe-
cially how much chain to slack out, before they go forward to stand by. Too
few mates do!
DOCKING 'WITH AN ANCHOR
Most dockings can be done using an anchor rather than a t ug, although
the tug Jenerally is ·more ::onvenient.
When using an anchor as an aid in dc.cking, sufficient cha in is put out
to eliminate headway when the engine is at dead slow or slow speeds. How
much chain is required? That can only be determined by increasing the
length of the cha:n a few links at a time until the desired effect is obtai ned ,
since there are :;e\ eral factors affecting the ship &nd a11chor, and their net
effect cannot be predicted. When the ship is held in position both la terally
and fore and aft, with the engines coming ahead slowly, you have put out
the proper amount of chaiu.
Drop the anchor well before arriving at the berth and drag it into posi -
tion. Done properly, the anchor takes nearly all headway off the ship si nce
 196 AN Cl IORI NG AND SH IPilAND I.ING WITH ANCHO HS
an amount of chain has heen slucked tha t is sufficient to slow the ship when
th e engine is 1:1 lopped. The: ship will ma ke no headway until the engine revo-
lutions are increaRed to at least slow ahead. Spend s ufficient time adjusting
the leugth l•f the ch1:1 in, putt;ng out a few links c.t a t ime until you feel you
have total control over the ship. It is obvious to the s hiphandler '"her. the
proper amount of chain is out-the.s r.ip makes no hea dway a t lower engine
revc,lutions, as you work her around the anchor with the rudd er, and slowly
develops hE'a dway when revolutions are increased.
Since the sh ip s 1ows and stops with her engine stopped, as the anchor
drags along the bottom, no twisting occurs and the ship remains s h aped
up for the berth.
Th ere is no reason that the engine cannot be put astern if needed, a l-
thou gh this is n ot usually necessary.
Wht!n docking with an anchor down (fig. 8-14)
1. 'I'he sh1p is eased straight ahead towar d her ber th-adjus ting en-
gine revolutions to maintain the desired speed and u sing the rudder
I to maintain heading.
I'
® anchor without difficulty.
® vessel proceeding up a narrow channel. The rain reduce:: both visibility
® and the radar's effectiveness, so t he master and pilot are unable to dist in-
1}\'
F ig. 8-14. Docki ng w ith a n anchor.
HOLDING A VESSEL Wl'rll THE .\..-.:CllOH 197
2. Reduce engine revolutions so tho ship Ios~:; headway und,
3. Use the rudd!!r to r;hangc her angle of approach by mov t n~ the ,,tern
t·1wards or Rway f:-~m t ne bcr t.:,.
4. After her heading is altered, increase engine rcvolutiotir. tu move th•1
ship nhl!ac.l, bringing the bow nearer the lwr th.
5. Reduce r(!"olutions again so the ship loses hcadwHy and thu bow
noves no fa rther ahead. Let th<.> er.gine work slowly ahead and use
the rudder to bring the Rtern laterally toward the pier or wharf.
In eiTect the bow and stern are moved separa tely as the ship is docked
while excellent control is maintained over the forward and la teral motion.
Revolutions are adj usted so the anchor either holds or drags a nd the ship
is moved nearly sideways or directq ahead as desired with a surprising
degree of control. The key lo docking with the anchor is slacking sufficient
chain so the ship remains in position at low re\'olutions but moves ahead
as the revolutions are increased.
HOLDING A VESSEL WITH TIIF ANCHOR
Often a ship must proceed at a slow speed with a strong wind on the bea m,
or main tain her position in a channei because of res tricted visibility or the
late arrival of a tug. The anrhor greatly simplifies this work, no ma tter
how large the ship. The technique varies a bit with larger ships because of
the incre.1se in mass, but ships a thousand feet long are worked a gainst an
A heavy rain squall, with strong winds and blinding rain, strikes the
guish lhe aids or the bank on either side, and the ship is unable to proceed.
This .:~.~.n be a moment of great stress-or the anchor can be put down uo ti I
conditions improve.
An anchor is let go and a shot of chain put well in the water. The brake
is set up while the engine is used ahead only to maintain the vessel's head-
ing, the ship slowly losing headway due to the dragging anchor. \\'h.,r, th·~
s hip is dead i11 the water her engine is put slow or half ahead and s h e
works against the anchor, additiona l cha in being slacked as rcqu i red un ti I
the ship jul' t holds her position while the qua r lcrm&::;tcr steer;; by cnmpass
to main tain the heading, since no landmarks a rc visible. Those on the
bridge can now relax, adj ustins the engine revolu ~io ns occasionally to allow
for changes in the wind while the ship, which had been setting sideways
 198 ANCHORING AND SHII'HANDLING WITH ANCHORS
ou t oft he channel and n o•. answering her helm , s teadies up nicely with the
anchor down.
Tf a single: anchor is not sufficier.t. a second anchor can bP. putnowr. in ~'~
simila r ma nner. It is best to put that anchor down while the ship still has
some headway, so the chain is laid out prcperly and the anchor's flukes fall
Oat, ensuring that the flukes do not sot against the hull. The amount of
chain needed for one or two anchors depends on the profile of the hull end
suverstructure, that is, the ship's "r.ail area," the type of~ottom, and the
strength of the wind. Initially a shot is put in the water and additioual
ch ain is slacked until the anchor takes charge of the bow, although the
st eadying effect ofthe anchor is felt immediately after the anchor begins
to drag.
Use only a minimum amount of chain until the ship has lost nearly all
her way, since the holding effect of the anchor increases as speed is lost.
You don't want so much chain out that the anchor fetches up as the ship
loses headway.
ANCHORS TO ASSIST STEERING
When meeting another ship in a channel so narrow that there is danger of
sheering as the quarter feels the bank. or when negotiating a turn smaller
than the ship's tactical diameters, or when proceeding at slow speeds in a
strong vrind so it. iu difficult to steer the ship-use your anchor. The anchor
steadies the bow laterally and retards the ~:~hip's headway despite higher
engine revolutions-or conversely, higher revolutions can be used to in-
crease the rudder's effectiveness without increasina headway.
Less chain is used so the ship maintains some headway as the anchor
drags along the bottom. Let go well before the critical point in the maneu-
ver so the anchor has time to ball up with mud and you have time to adjust
I the amount of chain and achieve the desired effect. The length of chain is
increased a few links at a time until this balance is found. The amount of
I chain is ncl critical so long as so much chain is n0t put out that the anchor
fetches up.
I Once the anchor becomes effective, the ship turns in a much smaller di-
I ameter and 1s easily controlled. The pivot point shifts forward so that the
ship pivots around a point nearer her bow. Advance is reduced, becoming a
factor of the scope of chain and revolutions used during the turn, that is,
the degree to which the anchor is allowed to drag.
Since the pivot point is farther forward, the stern initially swings in a
wider area than it would without the anchor, but the overall turning diam-
E~IEHGENCY USE 01~ TilE AI\CllOH 199
eter is greatly reduc~d. StP.ering becomes more precise and the ship more
controllable due both to the restricted movement ol the bow and tht
greater now over the r udder for a given speed made god O':cr .he bottv<.:
ANCHORS TO BREAJ·: :\ SI-U::EH
Should the ship take a sheer, the a nchor can be used to reg11in control and
prevent collision or grounding. It is im portant , though, that the anchor
not dig in when used at such a time, so n·· ini mize the amoun t of chain
slacked. Ifihe anchor were to fetch up, the a lready present sheer would be
accentua ted because the pivot point then shifts a head to the hawsepipe,
and the sudion of the quarter, in combination w: th the ro tational momen-
tum already developed, takes charge.
When the anchor is dragging properly, t.he b0w immediately steadies
up a nd the rudder becomes more eiTecLive, the stern lifts away from the
bank, and the sheer is broken. The a nchor has both checked the swing of
the bow and retarded the ahead movement of the ship, while the engine
continues to come ahead forcing a maximum flow over the rudde r to
quickly increase its effectiveness. Needless to say. the shi phandler has
also increased the engine speed to fu 1l a head to bre,tk the sheer (fig. 8-15).
This same effect is used to assist a ship in negotiating a bend with a ra-
dius that is less than the ship's normal turning radius.
EMERGENCY USE OF THE AN CH OH
Today, the anchor is most often u sed for emerge ncies and it is an ex-
tremely effective tool for preventing grou.1dings and acciden ts when the
1. Suction on the quarter ca..1ses sheer.
2. Anchor is put down and bow stead1es up.
3. Rudder becomes more effective so stern
lifts from the bank.
4. Sheer is .>roken ano sh1p proceeds safoly.
Fig. 8-15. Anchor used to break a sheer.
 200 ANCHOR ING AND SIIIPHAl'!DLING WITH ANCHORS
engine or ste·~ring is lost. Because the ship continues along her track
slowly losing headway after the anchor is down, sh e can be brought to a
controlled sl'>p under moc;t circumstances if there is sufficient sea room
ahead.
Two anchors can be u;:ed to increase the stopping force in an emer-
gency but neither anchor should be allowed to fetch up for the reasons ex-
plained earlier. If a stem anchor is available, it is manned in narrow
channels and used in the same manner as, and in conjunctiou with, the
bow anchors. The stern anchor is especially effective for ~toppir:g a ship in
a short distance while maintaining her heading, and holding the ship lat-
erally after headway is lost. Obviously though, if it is necessary to work
the ship around a bend or change her heading while stopping, the stern
I anchor would not be an appropriate tool. For further discussion on the use
of stern anchors, see the section in this chapter entitled "Sterr. Anchors."
I Some steering control can be maintained despite a loss of rudder power
by making use of the ship's natural behavior in conjunction with the an-
j chor:
1. The ship can be tu.rPed to the right by backing the engine and taking
advantage of ·~he tendency to twist in that direction.
2. 'l'he ship can be- turned to the left by using bank suction on the star-
board quarter.
3. A conventional ship will turn into the wind when she ha.s headway,
or lie at some large angle to the wind when dead in the water.
4. If a ship develops sternway she tends to back into the wind, after
wh1ch the anchor c~:.n be put down so the ship l>acks nearly straight
A recent grounding of a VLCC might have been prevented had the mas-
ter made use of this tendency of a ship to back into the eye of the wind-the
I
ship would usually baclt into the same wind, which in this case blew her
onto the bP.ach.
If dragg~ng anchors cannot stop the ship bE fore grounding, and if the
boU.om is S•)ft so there is no chance of damaging the hull wher the ship
goes aground, slack more chain when one to two ships lengths from the
shoal so the anchor or anchors are laid out and <eady to pull the ship back
off. This decision has to be made only by the master at the moment of cri-
sis, but it is an option that is available. The shiphandler's responses to
such situations are more effective if possible emergencies are considered
before they crise and actions preplanned. When things go wrong, they go
LYING ALONGSIDE A BAN I\ 201
wroTlg in a hurry and reaction time is brief: by !'lanning for such contin-
gencies, the response can be instinctive and immediate.
h1t.ling the engine full astern is often the worst response if steerin{; is
lost. 'rhe prO!JCrly used anc11or will stop a ship in a reasonf!ble distance,
and backing should be minimized in such ~ituations because of the ship's
tendency to twist and behave with less predictability.
Anchors are a lso the mariner's most effEctive too! wh..:n the engine is
lost. The rudder can be used so a ship can be steered and drifteJ until she
is nearly dead in the water. Do not be too quick to get. the anchors down in
this case, since once the anchor takes charge much of the rudder's cffec-
ti veness is lost due to the stabilizing efTect of the dragging anchor. When
possible, wait until the ehip loses st( eragcway or until a straight ruach
lies ahead before letting the anchor go o.o ::top the ship.
Due to the stress of the momen~. and despite the. shiphandler's ac-
quired ability to function under pressure and make immediate decisions
for which he alone holds total responsibility, the master may hesitate to
use the anchors in an emergency situation. Th is hesitation is born of lack
of confidence. From time to time, get to the pilot. station early and put an
anchor underfoot so that you can perform the m'lneuvers that have been
discussed. Let. the other mates try them as well. Confidence comes with
practice.
LY1NG ALONGSIDE A BANK
At times i', is necessary to anchor a ship in a narrow channel and be confi-
dent that shE' will not swing with the tidr or lie across the channel and im-
pede the movement of other vessels. If the bank has a steep gradient and is
of a soft material such as mud or clay, the ship can be put alongside and
held with the anchor regardless ofthe direction oflhe wind and current.
!{the current is from astem the s!.ip is brought to the starboard side of
the ch·mnel and speed reduced to bare st.ecrageway. Dro;> the outboard or
port anchor and slack the chain until the same cor>trol is gained as in pre-
vious maneuvers. Do not put out. so much chain that the ship stops before
she is alongside the bank. If the anchor fetches up too c;oon, tnc current
from astern takes charge and causes the nhip to get. crosswise in the chan-
nel. Ease the ship aheac against the anchor and, as the ship n ears the
bank, put the rudder to por-t. Reduce RPM or s~op the engine nnd lay the
ship easily alongside ut a slight angle to the bank. The stern lies aga1nst
the bank and the anchor holds the bow ofT as the current from aft. stnkes
the hull on the port side (fig. 8-16).
202 ANCHORING AND SH IPIIANDLING WITH ANCHORS GO ING ASTEHN WITH A." .-\NCIIOH

Current However, should the ancnor be allowed tc fetch up so all astern motion
is lost, the ship walks only to port. It's Lherl!forc important thalunly the
minimum chain required to steady the bow is us£>d .
\V hen using an anchor in this manner in a strong wind, a tu~ must also

~-- . ·- -·:=:::>
·- ............. - 004-· •.••. ···- ··- ···-
Fig. 8-16. Lying alongside a bank.
Should the curr£:nt change direction, come ahead with a few revolution~
and put the rudder hHd to starboard to lift the stern. Let the ship fall back
wit:1 the current, kicking the engine ahead as necessary to keep the stern
off the bank until the ship is riding to her anchor. The eddy current between
the bank and the hull then usually holds the ship a short distance off the
bank so she lies nicely until the next change in the current. The ship is later
put alongside as the tide turns and floods again, the procedure being re-
peated as necessary for as long as the ship needs to remain at anchor.
be used aft on a hawser. The anchor holds the bow up to the wind while the
tug both pulls the ship astern and holds the stern up to t.he wind. In this
case, slack the chain until the bow no longer falls off us the tug pulls aste>m
and to windward. Due to the heavy strain on the nnchor, the ship's e>ngi ne
is needed to assist the tug during the mane11 ver. It wilt probaLly ue neces-
sary to increase the amount of chain used once the ship begins moving
astern under these conditions, since the anchor balls up with mud ar.d
loses some holding power. When the buw starts to feel the wind, slack
chain- if the anchor fetches up, incrc.ase revolutions astern t.o work it
free. The tug continues to pull throughout the maneuver, since it is pri-
marily holding the stem to windward while assisting t:lC engine to move
the ship aft.

GOING ASTERN WITH AN ANCHOR

A ship being maneuvered astern for uny distance can use an anchor un-
derfoot to st.ettdy the bow and make the ship back almost directly astern.
The anchor replaces a bow tug and the engine is used to move the ship
astern, either unassisted or with a tug on a hawser a:.;tern to tow the ship.
Skill is required when using the engine alone in this manner, since the
ship pivots to some degree when the engine turns £.stern evtn though the
anchor is stead)';ng the bow. As the ship backs with the anchor down the
resultant motion is almost directly astern, the stern walking to port at a
much lesser rate than it would when backing without the anchor under-
foot (fig. 8-17). When th~ stern does begin moving to port, the engine is
stopped and k;cked ahead v.;th hard-over rudder to bring the ship back to
th e desired heading and then the backing mantuver is resumed .

·~
. --CD-- -- -
Fig. 8-17. Moving a ship astern with an a nchor.

CHAPTER NINE
SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Ca1Jlain Ironsides was as cool a::. a cucumber. He moved
hh. ship about with geometric precision ... th~ ship
seemed to perform a slow, formal danc~ to lhe accompa-
niment of whistles and kettledrums; every move fol-
lowed a rigid pattern.
-Jan de Hartog, The Distnnt Shore
The nwmiag is wet and still. A light mist born ofchill night air still linger-
ing within the jungle's ferns and coconut palme rises vaporlike up the sides
of the cone-shaped hills. Even the hard case sea man lingers on deck to enjoy
this moming as his containership eases slowly toward Gatun Locks and
begins her crossing from the Atlantic to Pacific. The Panama Canal severs
the Isthmus of Panama, forever changing the patterns of world commerce
but altzring not one bit of the tropic splendor of this land.
Thousands of ships ear:h year parade up, over, and then down the far
side of the spine ofCentral America, yet so professionally do the pilots and
others involved with this enterprise work that the innately impressive oper-
ation seems rour:ine, almost mundane, to casual observers. To seamen
though, whether old hands or first trippers, the Panr.:tma Canal is fascinut-
ing. Ships anchor, berth, meet in narrow channels, lock up and down, and
maneuver in wind, tropic rain squall, fog, and spill current with and with·
out tugs; the canal is a microcosm of the shiphandler's world.
The pilot watches from the starboard wing, radio in hand, preparin15 to
put this ship smoothly into the lock with but 2 feet ofclearance on each side.
His skillR and con{ulenr:e are a product of hundreds, even thousands, of
transits.
"South four, this is Gatun east side. We hal'e your ship scheduled for
twelve wires, and will be back for her in about ten minutes."
"Roger."
A Laconic reply, but all that is needed.
Time is paramount if the canal is to operate safely and efficiently so the
ship contin~.:-es to ease steadily toward the lock, moving at the pace ofa slow
walk to arriue at the center wall simultaneously with the Locomotives re-
204
Ct\1\ALS A.'\1) LOCKS 205
turning down the mile long tri'Jckfrom the ship ahead. Few words are spu·
ken. The silent loclwge is a characteristic of the Panama Canal tran s!l of
..vhich th.: pilots areju,tly proud.
Heaving lines drop from the ship to the small slli/( lying uffthe now lwr·
izontal arrow at the north end u{the cetller wall-the Pacific lies just c1ghc
hours away.
CANALS AJ\1) LOCKS
Mariners routinely handle ships in canals nnd locks throughout their ca-
reers at sea, be they the locks at ti1e entrance to the tidal basin in Bombay
or Buenos Aires, or those at the Panama or Welland Canal. Each passage
is unique since specific approach and lorkage techniques vary to suit the
conditions of a particular port or wate~way. By understanding the prob-
lems and methods common to most of these facilities though, the mariner
can develop an appreciation of their cperation.
Most seafarers transit the Panrura Canal at some point, so this watcn\•ay
will serve as a basis for discussing sh.iphandling at all such installations.
This canal presents a composite of conditions found in most Jock-type
canals-fresh- and saltwater sections, single and multiple locks carrying
ships both up and down, and a restricted channel with all its inherent
shiphandling problems.
A passage through locks can be divided into four segments: the ap-
proach, entrance, m:, and departure. During the lock age a ship is affected
by the same laws ofhydrodynamics and the same effects of wind and current
as a dockin ~vessel, and also the combined effects of the spill and turbidity
currents found to some degree at alllockR. It is a common misconception
that there are no currents in the Panama Canal, or at other lock-type ca-
nals. There are, in fact, strong curr~nlS lhat can reach a velocity of 3 to 4
knots at the lock's entrance or jaws.
A huge amount of water flows fror:1 a lock chamber as 1Ls level is low-
ered, forming a s,?ill current that follows a predictable pattern for which
the p ~lot must compensat.c during the approach (fi g. 9-1 ). The spill current
is primarily a surface current and its .:fTect varies with Lhe shi/s draft.
Many locks connect two bodies of water of different density. For exam-
ple, the last or sea-end lock ~:~.t the Panama Canal moves the ship from th~
canal's fresh water lake and locks to the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean salt wa-
ter. A complex density current forms when those lock gates are opened e.nd
the heavier water on one side of the gates mixes with and di~placcs the
less dense water on the other s'de. While t.h e surface pattern of the
206 SPECIAL MANEUVERS CANALS AI\ 0 LOCKS 207

Sml!ller 3hips approach the center wall in the area of the jaws, or the cn-
tran::e locks, and then !lring the stern in toward the wallas th e bow enters
the locks U!ld the loromotive':' are mac!~ f....st. Lar~cr or more: deeply laden
shif)s qre kept ::loser t.o the center wall during the ap_proach as shown in
figure 9-2 and, in the case ofPanama.x ships, the bow or the entire ship is
brought hard up ag~:tinst the center wall prior to the time the ship reaches
the entrar.ce to the Jock chamber.
Speed of approach is very important because the engine will have to be
kicked ahead to alter the ship's heading as t11e ship nears the jaws. So long
as speed i1> reduced to a minimum during the app t ouch (usually l to 2
knots is satisfactory), the engint> can be used as needed without develop-
ing exrensivc speed at the entrance. Speed is c1itical at the Panama Canal
since the locomotives move at a maximum towing speed of 3 knots and
thus cannot put wires aboard a ship that exceeds that speed.
At the locks a ship must have only an officer ar.d crewmembers forward
Fig. 9-1. General .m rface current diagram. and aft to operate the line handling winches, and supply two mooring lines
at the bow and stern in case it is necessary to tie up at some point. Tlw ca-
nal seamen supply all other gear. Other canals, such as the Well and Canal
turbidity current is similar to that of the spill current, below the surface and Saint Lawrence Seaway, require the ship to supply all gear and to
the heavier water fonns a current flowing in the opposite direction, toward h andle her own lines. Local rules must be carefully read to determine the
and und.er the lighter fresh water, affecting the ship in varying degrees and requirements of a particular water.vay.
directions depending on her draft and the period of time that the masses of
the water have been mixing. In the Panama Canal specifically, the more
Li.. • ..... ...__ • • 4. .. ... - · c - • - .... .-..
dense salt water outside the entrance to the first lock (the "sea entrance")
begins to displace the lighter fresh water in the chamber as soon as the
gates are opened. AB the fresh water is di5placed it flows out ofthe chamber
in a strong surface current reaching down to a depth of 20 to 25 feet.
® _.. ------·--- -.. -..
.--...----
Because of these cUITents, the pilot may have the gates kept closed until -· (
'·--.. '. ~'
the ship is almost to the jaws or entrance of the lock and until the bow wi:es ----- .....
are aboard the ship and fast. At other times this cUITent will be allowed to
dissipate before a large Panamax-class ship approaches tl.e locks.
Centerwall I
At the Panama Canal, ships follow an "S" pattern J.S they approach the
locks to compensate for this complex current pattern (~'ig. 9-2). Compare
figure 9-1 with figure 9-2 a.1J it is obvious why ships approach in this man-
:? ( ~ :--~-,·_-.i:-0
-:_~-; . . --.. -.,-:-.. --:.,- ·:-
ner. The wrrent flows strongly for about thirty minutes after the water
.........-·-· ~ ~
··................... ··--·- ···- -. ---· -·-·- ..
steps spilling from the chamber, the gates are opened, and the spill cnr-
rent &.nd density current combine to affect the approaching ship.
The distance between the ship and the center approach wall varies de-
pending on the ship size, the current strength, and the ship's draft.. Fig. 9-2. Allowing for current during lock approach .
208 SPECIAL MANEU'IgRs
Communication is by walkie-talkie with hand signals to back up the rn-
dio in case of failure. The ship's whistle is also u sed to communicate a dan-
ger signal to the lockmaste.· and locomotives should some problem develop.
Anchors are kept reAdy for letting go, but must be stowed in the
hawsepipe, rather than backed out, so the wires and messengers will not
be fouled on the flukes .
Tugs arc •Jsed in the same manner as discusserl in previous chapters to
assist larger ships dunng the approach. The bow, or the entire midbody of
large, deeply loaded ships, is held against the fendering on the center wall
by the tugs and locomotives during the latter stages of the apprcach. This
minimizes the risk that the current will force th~ ship's bow into the
knuckle, as pilots ca'l the corner where the side approach wall meets the
side wall of the lock chamber. (See figure 9-2.) The tugs are kept working,
using the tug signals discussed earlier in this text, to adjust the tuf'S
power, and push to hull against the center wall until the bow is well into
the chamber.
Interestingly, there are significant difTen.nces between the methods
used by very experienced pilots putting the same Panamax-class ships
into thn locks.
Some pilots put the entire ship against the wall. They hold her flat
alongside with the locomotives and tugs until the forward sections of the
parallel midbody pass inside the locks. The theory is that by keeping the
ship alongside the wall, the hull is as far as possible from the knuckle.
More important, because the ship is tight alongside, there is no way for the
current to get between the ship and the wall t~ force the ship away from
the center wall.
Other pilots believe this is quite wrong. They hold the bow alongside but
allow the stem to stay a few feet from the wall while t.hey slide the ship into
the locks. This group believes the ship actually stays alongside easier if it is
angled toward the wall. If the bow does get off the wall, it can be eastly
brought back alongside because water can flow freely astern rather than
being trapped between the hull and the wall. This seems to be borne out by
the fact thc..t only one tug is needed to keep the ship alongside during the op-
erations and even that tug usually comes ahead vnly at a slow S)!eed rather
than being used full ahead as is needed using the first method.
The second method is used by a growing number of pilots who fmd th ~y
have less problem keeping the bow dear of the side wall if the stem is not
hard alongside. The point, though, is that both methods work well. Which
is besl? The method the pilot feels most. comfortable with or, a~ a pilot
CA..'\ALS ,\.l'\10 LOCKS 20!)
might sa), "what works for you." Tlaere are obviously wrong ways to do a
job but, s1nce thousands ofPanam:!X :>hips have been :.:.ut safely into locks
for the better part of a century using eit h<',· method. it i~ really only a ~1-:­
ter of personal preference. Keep this in mind the next time someone in-
sists tbere IS only one ·.vay to do a job. 1"ain't sv, as the aforementioned
variations in working by some of th£: lint•st shiphandlcrs in the world
clearly demonstrate. Again, it is only important to undcrslund ship-
handling techniques and principles ofhydrodynamics, plan ahead, use e:x-
tern al forces to a dvantage, and to do the job in ~'.he manner wi'h which you
arc most comfortable.
The locknge procedure is the same regardless of whether the pilot puts
only the ship's bow or the entire midbody alongside. Wires nre tnken from
the locomotives as the ship passes along the ccntcr wall, the number of
wi res depending on the displacement and length oft.he ship as determined
using an empit;cal formula developed over nearly a century of operation.
Sidewall wires are taken aboard during the entrauce stage of the lockage
and, when aboard, arc used to center the ship and assist her in moving into
the chamber. The engine is used throughout the approach to move the ship
and to posi tion the stern.
Larger s hips mus t be driven into the lock, often at full ahead. Their
beam and draft fills the cross-sectional area of the chamber so that the wo.-
ter cannot flow out as it is displaced by the entering ship and a piston ef-
fect is created.
Using the wires from the locomotive's two constant tension winches,
and the braking and towing effect derived from the undercarriage dri ve
th.1t meshes into the drive rack, up to 70,001) pounds of pull is exerted on
the ship by each locomotive. 'l'he rack is located between the locomoti\'C
tracks that parallel the chamber. The "mules" are po:;itioned ahead of the
ship's chock to center and tow the shi:>, or abeam or abaft the chock to ::en-
ter or brake the ship as necessary, depen-ling on the instructions received
fro m the pilot over the walkie-talkie. A set of idler wheels under the loco-
motive locks into the cambered sides of the drive rack Lo ensure that the lo-
comotive i.:l not pulled into tne chamber.
All locomotives are s hifted to a braking position abaft the chocks as the
ship nears the gate ahead and she is stopped in the chumber to await flood-
ing or filling. Due to the aforrmenlioned piston effect, large ships practi-
cally stop themselves after the engine and locomotives are slopped. Oftun
a ship's 1nastcr is ne~dlessly concerned tha t the ship is going to strike the
gales ah~.;ad, not realizing that the vessel actually tends lo stop on her
 210 SPECIAL MANgUVERS
own. In Lhe Saint Lawrence Seaw:1y and olher locks without. locomotives,
the vessel is stopped using tJ,e Pngine and piston eiTect alone, ar. effect
th at increases rapidly as the blockage factot approaches unity.
The entrance phase complete. all locomotives shorlen u ;:> their wires Lo
geL Lhe beRt lead to hold the !>hip centered as the chamber fille. The ;m-
mense gate valves arc opened, the "'ater flowing down the length of the
cenler and stde walls and through lateral culverts beneat!l the ship. The
design and constructi m of Lhis engineering masterpiece makP.s interest-
ing reading and several recommended titles can be found in the BiLliogra-
phy. The ship is usually held in the center of the chamber in the Panama
Can a l while Lhe water level is raised or lowered. In other waterways that
u se ship's lines or wires rather than shore-based locomotives, Lhe ship is
kept. hard alongside the wall during the fill or spilL
Uo and down lockages differ greatly. The ship lies quietly during a
down lockage as the placid water drains out from under her. During an ..1p
lockage though, the ship surges heavily as the water comes into the cham-
ber at a high rate, either from the bottom or side depending on the design
of the lark. Filling from the bottom is preferable because the movement of
the water is then pnmarily vertical and the ship is less likely to be forced
into Lhe wall. The positioning of the vessel, centered or alongside the wall,
is peculiar to the lock system but in all cases the ship must be held in that
position throughout the fill and not allowed to develop any athwartshi:,:>
movement. A ship held alongside by proper fenderingwill not be damaged,
nor can there be any damage to a ship held in the center of the chamber.
When a ship starts to move about in the chamber though, the forces acting
on her sides become unbalanced and she begins to surge, de' eloping mo-
mentum and probably being damaged a~ she comes alongside one wall or
the other.
The fill or spill is completed and the massive gates swing open as the
ship moves ahead using her engine and the towing locomotives. A large
ship is f'..l.rther assisted out to the locks by putting water into the chamber
behind h'!r; she is "flushed out" of the chamber. The displaced water does
not then ha\ e to flow through the restricted area between the ship and the
lock wallo and floor as the ship departs the chamber-instead a head of
I water is created behind the ship to assist her in leaving.
As thP. ship clears the jaws (fig. 9-3) she is put at an angle with the bow
away f:·om the center wall. This angle helps to compensate for the imbal-
ance of pressures as Lhe ship passes along the cenier wall after clearing
the chamber. The wall affects the. ship in Lhe same mannc~· as the close
I
Sl!'/GLE·POINI' !\IOOHING ~ :2 11
Cenler wall
(-)
~~~~·-----------L~----~--~~~~
"'(-....;::::------~::::-==:::..---
. . . ..... '-'·.- -- - -- - --
-------------~--------7'7/
Fig. 9-3. Keeping sufficient angle as the ship clears the j aws.
bank described in chapter 2. lly keeping sufficient angle, maint aining a
balance between the turning couple created by the rudder and the s uction
effects on her quarter as she moves along the wall, the ship is s lowly
steamed from the locks. Alternatively, s0me pilots choose to put the s hip
against the center \~allfende1;ng and slide along •mtil the ship is clea r, e.s-
pecially when moving larger ships that. will usually be drnwn onto th e cen-
ter wall anyway. The previously discussed curren ts at the seaward ends of
the locks assist a departing ship to clear the centcr wall and Lhe ship can
basically be steamed straight from the last or sea-end rhamber.
Since the ship obeys the same physical laws, and is handled in th e
same manne: as for any other narrow cl'annel durin g her passage across
Gatun Lake and through the narrow and rock-edged channel of Gaillard
Cut, a ny discussion of that phase of the transit would be redundant. S uf-
fice it to say that this transit. otTers an excellent opportunity for the mari-
ne::- to obse!'VE! ship behavior when meneuYenn g fllld when meeting other
ships :n t ~nfineJ waters.
SINGLE-POINT MOORI NGS
F ew ports in the world can accommodate deeply loaded VLCCs and
ULCCs, so offshore oil Lcrminals such as !.he LOOP termina l in the Gulf of
Mexico are beirg r.ons tn~cted as a practical and efficient a lternative. Be-
ing a rel a tively recent innovation, these t~rmin a l s have been visited by
212 S PECIAL MANEUVERS S INGLF·POJNT MOOR!;>:<.:-; 213

only a small nutnber of seafarers to date and only a few mariners nave
brought a ship into such a facility.
The LOOP te,..minnl is typical of offshorP ports usi'1g ~ingle-point
moorings. The ft..cilities at LOOP lie in water ranging from 100 to 125 fe<•t.
in depth, appruximately 19 mil<'s off the Louisiana const. 'l'he designated
pol"t area is reuched via a defined fairway under the guidance of a pi-
loUmooring master.
After completion of a prearrival inspection to ensure that a visiting
VLCC or ULCC meets the statutory requirements for tank vessels, she is
brought int0 the terminal area in which three single point mourings (SPMs)
and the pumping platform are located. The ship is turned to the heading at
which she will lie after mooring is .:ompleted and brought up to the buoy.
Unless the ship :ras been at anchor in the vicinity of the port area, the
best indication of the required approach heading is the direction in which
the floating cargo hoses trail from the buoy. Coming from the anchorage,
the ship approaches on the heading at which she was lying while at. an- Fig. 9-4. Approaching a single-point rr.ooring.
chor; the ship does not know whether she is ~:winging on the buoy or the
anchor and will lie at the same heading in either case. If coming from sea, laterally away from the buoy; the buoy remains at the same relative bea r-
approach straight up the hoses since they at least lie to a resultant of the ing fine on the port bow. This feel that the ship is "in a groove" is one of the
surfa I!(' current and the prevailing wind. It would be advantageous to have best indications that the proper heading has been found. Instrumenta-
a current meter at a mid-draft depth of 40 feet on the buoy anchor chain to tion, especially a Doppler log reading speed over the ground laterally and
supply su.bsurface current information, and such equipment should be in- fore and aft, is especially helpful at this point, since a heading that elimi-
stalled on all SPMs in the future. nates all sideward motion ov.:!r the ground can q11ickly be determined as
Since tu gs are not generally used, the ship must approach on a heading well as speed over the ground towards the buoy.
that balan ces the forces of wind and curr<'nt or she will be set away from There is greater room for error in determinjng the approach heading if
the buoy b~fore the mooring lines and chafing chains are brought aboard tugs are available, but the technique for approaching a.ud mooring re-
(fig. 9-4). The relative effects of the wind and current depend not only on mains the same.
their absolute forces and direction relative to the ship's heading but also Speed c f approach is important of course, and by usiug methods dis-
on the ship's draft. Refer again to the discussion in chapter 5 on wind ver- cussed in previous chapters to slow the ship the approach can be com-
sus current forces. It would seem that, because of the VLCC's greater pleted efficiently while ensuring that speed is reduced to minimum
draft. the current would "J.sually overcome the wind, but this is not the steerageway for the last few shiplengths oft he maneuvcr. Most import 11nt
case. VLCCs hnvc a great deal of sail area and even a 15-knot wind signifi- is the significant reduction of headway during large changes in c0ursc typ-
cantly affects the approach heading-that heading is a resultant of the ical with ships of this size; if the ship has to change heading durin~ the ap-
wind and current in a.ll but. the lightest breeze. proach she can proceed at a greater speed prior to the course alteration.
The headir.g is adjusted during the final sbges of the approach when Plan one large change of heading during- the last stage of the approach
effects of the outside forces increase geometrically as the ship's headway rather than using a series ofsmall alterations in course as would ncrm r.J ly
decreases to the less than 1-knot speed that is necessary tc safely com- be done when approaching a berth. The ship can then approach at 3 to 4
plete this evolution. Once the proper approach heading is found, the ship knots until the course change, rather than approaching at lto 2 knots co n
maintain& that heading without a large amount of rudder anci will not set her final heading, and the last 2 miles can be covered in about one hour
214 SPECIAL MANEUVEHS
rather than t.he two or more hours that. would be required at 1 kno~. Since
the approach with a VLCC is made over a distance measured in miles
rather than feet, these co:1siderat icns are significant.
The ship is st.e:::.died on her final heading well before reaching the buoy,
since th~re usually are no tugs to check any resi<lual swinr~ after the ship
l0ses headway/steeragewny. Despite their 75- to 80-foot drafts, VLCCs
and ULCCs generally steer very well at minimal speeds with the engine
stopped, so this final approach can be made at very slow &peeds. Dur!ng
the final 600 feet of the approach, the crew heaves the pickup line aboard
unrler the dirP.clion of the assistant mooring master, the ship proceeding
with only minimum headway so she can be stopped when 100 feet. from the
buoy. The pickup line brings the chafing chain aboard to be made fast
with either n chain stopper or S1mt bracket (fig. 9-G). The chain stopper,
which resembleo thn traditional riding pawl assembly used for the ship's
anchor, is preferable to the Smit bracket since there are no connecting
links and shackles to handle and the mooring can thus be completed
fat>t.er aud more safely.
The pickup hawsers are not to be used to heave the 350,000- to
600,000-ton ships to the SPM. The ship must be steamed to the buoy while
these lines are used only to bring the chafmg chain aboard.
Fig. 9-5. SPM pickup rope and chafing chain.
5 11'-iGLE -PO I:-IT ,\!OOai:-\CS 2 1:1
·~ -~- ~~ ~~ ~":• ~-~ .J~- ~~-~..--.
·-~ . -~-==--- -- -=--=·-
......;&:-=-
-- .·- -
.:.:=
- --
-~---:-
---:---:::
_....___, _
Fig. 9-6. ~The toughe~t part of pulLing a VLCC to a mooring is
remembering that the guys on the bow may be in a different time zone."
Two service craft are generally used to assist during the mooring, one
moving the hoses offto the ship's port hand and clear and the other bring-
ing the mooring lines to the ship to be brought aboard. The hoses and buoy
are kept on the ship's port bow so the ship can pass clear without damag-
ing the installation if there is any error in estimating the stopping dis-
tance required. The port bow is chosen because the ship's bow swings to
starboard away from the hose and buoy ifthe engine is put astern. Do not
have the boat pull the hoses clea:· to port until the ship has nearly reached
them, since the hose string is used to determine the aprroach heading.
A second pilot or assistant mooring master must be on the bow as the
ship approaches the SPM. When within a few hundred feet of the bow, the
buoy is no longer visible from the bridge and the assistant mooring mas ter
then conns the ship, giving helm and engine order:; via the walkie-laikto t•'
the mooring master. For this reason, the man on the bow should also be a
pilot qualified to handle ships of this size.
Communication is by UHF walkie-talkie with VHF b.1ckup. The ship
supp'ies \.WO 20-falhom messengers to bring the buoy pick up lines aboard
and any of the international standard mooring systems such as
1. Bow chain stoppers (fig. 9-7) designed to accept the 76.1-mm (3-inch)
section of chaGng ch'lin. (This is the preferr~d mooring system.)
 216 SI'EI::JAL MANEUVEHS
2. Smit brackets built tv Oil Compani ~s International Ma rine Forum
(OCIM.F) standard dimensions.
3. Moo.cing bitts suitably positioned and of adequa te strE:nglh.
In all c&.ses Lhe ship :11ust havt:J two closed chocks leading fair tot he moor-
ing equipment that are suitable for the 76.1-mm (3-inch) t:bafing chain.
A mooring line must be ready aft to be used by the W'Jrkboat as re-
quired to hold Lhe ship off the SPM during discharge. Constant attention
is required during t.he discharge operation to be sure the ship does not ride
up on the hoses anci buoy. It is usually necessary to use the ship's engine
aste rn at 8-to-10 revolutions or a line boat pulling astern to preveut this.
Because the wind and current are usually at some angle to each other, the
ship sails up Lo and across the buoy, much as she tacks bac.k and forth
across her anchor in an anchorage.
Despite her deep Jrafl, a loaded VLCC is as much affected by the wind
as a smaller ship, since she presents a sail area of the same proportion to
the below water hull as any other vessel.
When the moori.:agis completed, the hoses are picked up from the water
and bolted up, using ship's gear under the supervision of the assistant
I facilities, but it is a workable substitute with which the mariner t hould be
II
I Certain preparations are necessary prior La putting a s maller "off-
Fig. 9-7 . Cham stoppers for mooring a VLCC at a single-point moorina.
SlllP-'1'0 Sli!P LIClll'l'C:RlNG ~][
mooring master. The equipment used for ~he actual oil lransfPr operation
is beyon:l Lhe scope of th is text.
Ex cept in the worst of weather, it is possible for the l>hip tu mak (• up
a nd t o stay a t an SPM. The pr imary limiting factor is tne s..Ja slate: duriPg
the makeup as even moderate seas make it impossible for the line honts to
h andle the hoses.
So long as speed iS kept down to bare stecrageway during the final a p-
proac:l, and the ship is put on a heading close to tha t at which she .,.,;11 lie
after mooring, the manenver to make up ut an SPM is a safe a nd s trai ght-
forward task (fig. 9-8).
SIIIP-TO-SHIP LIGilTERING
By Captain William Deaton, L:ghtering Master,
and Captain Marshall Irwin, L ightering Master
A great Jeal of offshore ship-to-ship lighiering is being done throughout
the world, especially off the coast of the United Slates where the shallow
ports and the lack of oflshore facilities make lightering necessary so oil
can be imported in very large crude carriers. Offshore lightc ri ng is less ef-
ficient than transfer via conventional multiple- or single-point moori ng
familiar. For clarity, the abbreviation VLCC as used throughout this sec-
tion includes both the very large crude carrier and her still larger relative,
the ultra large crude carrier.
takern (a smaller ship that accepts the oil from the VLCC) alongside a
VLCC. Under supervision ofthe lightcring or mooring master, fenders arc
rigged on the port side of the offiaker. These fenders are placed on the
offtaker even though it would be more expe:'lient to rig them on the VLCC,
which will be receiving a number of ships as her car go is discharged . By
having the fenders on the smaller ship when she comes alongside, the
::<hiphandlt!r is able to ensure that the offiakcr lands on the fenders. if the
fenders were on the VLCC it would be possible for the offt.akcr ;.o land be-
t we~n fe~ce:-s and daruage one or both sh1os.
Two types of fenders are used while li-ghterine. Four or more large
floating "Yokohama" type fenders, specially fitted for lightcring, a l'e
floated along the parallel midbody of the ofitakcr, and two smallcr" pillow"
type fenders are hung off, one at the shoulder forward a nd the other on the
quarter. Typically, the floathg fenders arc made fas t by a wire that leads
 SPECIAL MANEUVEHS SHIP-1'U-S!IIP LIC1IITERINC
218

Fig. 9-8. Cc,mpleted mooring at an SPM. Courtesy LOOP, Incor~orated.
from a forward bitt on lhe ship's deck dowT:; to the first fender fl o,1llng
along the c;hip'!' side A mooring line joins each fender nnd another line
run~ back up to a hitt "'l the E!:!p'., after duck (fig. ~l-!J).
HavC' nll the necessary equipment laid out and ready aboard both ship!:
before the operation ~egins. Walkie-talkics arc used for communication
b~tween the mooring.masters on the bridges of the two ships and between
the bridge, bow, and stern of each vessel. Have several long 3-inch mes-
sengers and sufficient heaving lines on hand forward and aft to run the
mooring lines.
Mooring lines with synthetic ~.ails arc laid out to be taken first from the
oiTtaker and later from the VLCC as the mooring opera lion is completed.
It is important that the wires have synlhetic tails or pendants so the ships
can break apart quickly in an emergency. The weather can detelioratc
with surprising quickness and it may not dways be possible to slack ofT
mooring lines so they can be let. go. A smull crew can handle synthetic tails
more easily and the synthetic tails absorb some of the shock of loading if
the ships do begin to work against each oLher after mooring. 'l'he tails can
be cut to break apart as a last resort in an emergency.
The mooring master aboard the ofl'taker has overall command of the
mooring while the second mooring ma:;ter aboard the VLCC maintains a
steady course and speed as required by the ofTlaker. The VLCC steams
into the wind and SGa at the minimum speed possible, only kicking the en-
gine ahead to maintain steerageway. This minimizes the hydrodynamic
effects between the two ships, especially ti1e effect of the accelerated flow
between them that draws the ships tflgether and c<:.uses them to land with
excessive force. These are full bodied, relatively low-powered merchant.
vessels and the maneuver for pulling these ships together is much differ-
ent from that described for underway replenishment maneuvers with
fine-lined, high-powered, highly maneuverable naval vessels. A constant
speed and reading are maintained by the VLCC while the light otrlaker
comes alongsic!e to make fast. If a cross swell makes it imposs1ble to head
into both sea and swell and keep the ships from rolling, abort the ligh:.er-
ing operation until the cross swell moderates.
The otftaker approacnes the starboard side of the VLCC, rcmaimng
wide until abeam of the flat parallel midbody ofthe larger vessel. It is very
importa'1t. that th~ smaller 11hip slays clear of the VLCC'l> quarter, since
suclion between the ships in that area will dra .v the ofl'takcr rapidly into
the larger ship's quarter (fig. 9-10). When parallel to t..he VLCC's midbody,
so both ships are h~ading into the wind, begin easing the smal!cr ship
 Sllll'-'1'0·81!11' LIGIITEl~!Nt; 221
I· 220 SPECIAL MANEUVERS

I
I
I
I

.- · ------~3----,)

·-------- .. -----
I \::.) ,

:-------®---)
.... _______ ----~

Fig. 9-10. Keep the offtaker's bow ciear of the VLCC's quarter while
going alongside.

alongside while using the wind as a tug-keep the w;nd on the starboard
bow to bring the offtaker alongside, or put the wind on thP port bow 11' she
is closing too rapidly. '!'he wind has a significant effect on the olftakcr at
this point since she is light prior to loading.
Continue to keep the smaller ship flat to the VLCC as she lands to
spread the force of landing over the entire midbody of the offiaker. Land
on all the floating fenders simultaneously to create the maximum hydrau-
if
lic cushion between the ships to check up the lateral motic.n.
The offtaker first passes a forward spring to the VLCC, followed by two
headlines to work against while the remaining lines are run. The course is
then changed to put the wind on tne offtaker's starboard bow to hold her
alongside.
Although the pattern of lines can vary depending on the deck layout of
the two ships, the suggested lines are (fig. 9-11)

1. Offtakerruns 5 headlines, 2 forward springs, 2 afl{!r springs leading

from the main deck forward to the VLCC, and 3 sternlines.
2. VLCC runs 3 wire headlines, 2 forward spring wires, and 2 st.ern
wires. De sure to get 2 good spring lines run irom the VLCC's main
deck in the area of her manifold, leading aft to the offlakcr towing
springs, to tow the smaller ship during the operation.

Always run allli::les regardless of the weather conditivns or prognosis

at the time, since the running oflines is a time consuminr: operation that
may not be possible later if the weather deteriorates.
If" eather pern1its, an:hor the VLCC prior to hooking up hoses. Use
min.mum revolutions astern to stop the two ships, drifting headway off
Fig. 9-9. Rigging fenders for ship-to-ship light ering. Courtesy Gulf Oil
the ships rather than backing, so that a combination of the momentum of
and Seward International.
I 222. SPEC iAL MANEUVERS SII!P-TO-SI!I P I.IGIIT£RI:\l; 223
l
I

Towing springs
I
I
I First lines (from offtaker)
• Main deck spring
• Two headlines
• Two after springs

Fig. 9-11. General arrangement of lines for lightering.

the offtaker plus the quickwater moving up between the ships as ihe
VLCC goes astern does not force the ships apart and part their lines.
Should weather and sea conditions later change, the VLCC heaYes up and
resumes stee.ming slowly on a heading that minimizes rolling. Steam ai
minimum speed throughout the operation if it is not possible to anchor.
The rate-of-turn indicator is used to steer at minimum speeds, kicking the
engine ahead only to check any swing that develops. By maneuvering in
this manner the heading is maintained into the wind and sea while head-
way remains almost nil. Keep the wind and sea a point on the VLCC's port
bow during the transfer so the larger ship can provide a lee for the
offtaker.
The ships remain together for the transfer operation unless the sea
conditions deteriorate and the ships begin rolling. There is then a danger
of parting the ship's lines and hoses. Don't wait until the weather deteri-
orates 80 much that lines start to part, as it then becomes too dangerous
to let go, aud a vesse I finds herself in a position of being unable to stay
alongside and unablE! to let go safely. Watch the weather reports and lo-
cal conditions nnd break up the operation before conditions deteriorate
(fig. 9-12).
Keep t!J.e lines tight and the deck well ;ighted throughout the operation
as good seamanship dictates for any berthing situation. Retain the ballast
aboard the offtaker for as long as possible while oil is being transferred.
The sooner the offtaker develops a deeper draft, the sooner the wind's ef-
fect on her rlecreases and the operation stabilizes. Keep sufficient crew on
deck. The lines require more attention, and are more difficult to handle,
than at a terminal sir.ce the drafts ufthe two ships simultaneously change Fig. 9-J.2. Offtaker E sso Zurich lighiering Esso Atlantic. Cour tesy
in opposite directions. Exxon Corporation and Blac k Star P ubli:;hi ng.
 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
It. may be necessary to get undcrway on shor t notice to either steam as
a unit or br('ak apa r t , so keep the engi ne ready to m a neuver a t all times.
When the transfer has been completed, let go all the VLCC's lines and
s ingle u p the offtaker's lines to two headlines, P forward spring, a breast
line aft, e nd the after main deck spring th at leads forwa rd to the maLl
de~;k of the VLCC. This line keeps the offtaker from slidiug aft und(!r the
VLCC's quarter, and is used to work against as the offtak er is broken
away from the larger ship, and will be the last line let go. Throw ofT the
h eadlines, thP-n the lines aft as the bows begin to separate. If there is no
win d, heave on the after breast line to bring the bow off, and then work
I against the main deck spring line to develop a significant angle to the
VLCC. Steam slowly away from the larger ship, again keeping the wind on
I th e port or mner bow as the "poor man's tug," to separate the ships.
I Iflhe shifS are already underway at the completion of the transfer, the
I lines are taken in the same order, but the force of the water passing be-
tween the two ships is used to separate them as you hold the 1ast s pring
.j line aft.. When there is sufficient angle between the shi;~s, let go .t he last
line and depart without increasing speed until the ships are well sepa-
rated. Avoid increasing the flow between the ships as this would create
suction and draw them together again.
Done properly, the offshore lightering operation can be completed
safely, although care is required and none of the described precautions
should be overlooked. If there is any problem during a ship-to-ship trans-
fer, it is usually the result of complacency that develops after a series of
routine l~ghterings.
FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS
By Captain Carl R . Dingier, Mooring Master
Five- and seven-point moorings are used primarily on the west coa st ofthe
United States. Deep water is available close to shore so moorings can be lo-
cated Xto 1 mile from the shoreline, making this type offacilily attractive
and p:.:'adical. Five or seven mooring buoys are positioned to hold the ship
into the prevailing wi nd and sea and over the 10- to 16-inch submarine
hoses. The vessel moors under the direction of a mooring 1naster, using
two bow anchors and ship's lines to the buoys lying abeam and a::;tt>m .
Genl)rally, the five-point moorings are used for ships to 35,000 tons while
the seven-point moorings accommodate ships to 165,000 tons. Tugs may
assist ships over 80,000 ton s deadweight when mooring.
FIVE· AN D SEVBN·POINT MOO!< I NOS 22/i
Prior to a rri\ing at the mooring t he shi p prcparl!S Lhc followinh :
1. LJ p to fou rtPPn synthet!c ::1001i ng !ines (two !ine>: for each buo:,· Lob(;
used).
2. Both a nchors, backed out below the forefoot and :·eady to dt·u o>.
3. Boo:-n or crane and other hose hand li ng gc<:r a t tl:e tnanifold.
4. ~od stoppers for all lines with extras for douc li ng up a:; needed.
5. Walkie-talkics on the bridge, forward, and aft.
The size of the lines depends on the dcadwcight of the ship, but they
must be a full coil in length so they can be run lo the buoys without having to
marry more than one line together. Wir<'s may be substit.ut..cd for moot·ing
lines although the practice ofmi:r:ing lines ru1d wires varius from ono t.cnni-
nal lo another. If wires are used they must be at least 800 feet in length.
Both anchors must be backed out and rcndy to lel go, cJ,..arly marked so
they can be placed accurately without the mate on the bow having lo guess
how much chain is out.
Gear required at the manifold for handling the hoses includes a boom
or crane with a safe wor king load of at least 7 tons to pick up the hose;
buoy, hose, a nd chain bight slip ropes as specified by the por t and rooming
master; a handy billy; and a boat hook. The boom must be ri&ged for its full
safe wor king load to handle safely the loads involved when picking u p the
hoses s ince a 12-inch hose places a dynamic load of 4.'7 loos on the gear,
while the load when handling a 16-inch hose is 7.2 tons. Wire r unners
must be rigged and the gear and Pmncr should be in excellent condition.
The ship must supply a wire pendant with a hook if a running block is used
so the la unch crew does not h ave to handle the weight of the block when
picking up the hoses.
Quar ters should be prepared for the mooring master and the launch
crew.
The lines and hoses are handled by the ship's crew U11der the mo•J!ing
master's direction. Before reaching the berth. the moon ng maste!· briefs
the ship's master and officers on the mooring procedure and ir;spects the
gear that is going to be used.
There a rc some significant. differences between berthing a ship at. a
mooring and docking he r, and the maste r must keep t hi:; in mi nd as the
moorin g master is bringing the ship into the mooring. The vessel ap-
proaches on a heading approximately 90 rlegrecs to the axis of the berth
along t.h~ line on which the anchors will be laid f fi g . 9-13). Recau.~e the
 226 Sl'l:!:CIAL MANEUVlo:HS
mooriug lies into the prevailing wind and the sea, the approach is usually
made with the wind unci sea on the bc.am. This creates some problems for
I the mooring master and means that higher speeds than might. otherwise
be destrable n•ay be reqU1r3d during the approacn. The mate stand::; by t.1e
offshore anchor that must be let go immediately at the mooring maste1'~
11 command so it is precisely positioned relative to the mooring. When the
anchor is let gt>, all the required seven-to-nine shots of chain are allowed to
immediai.eJy run out.
Do not check the chain, since this will cause the ship to pivot on the an-
chor and may a~so possibly drag the anchor out. of position. The ship's han-
dling characteristics ch.mge immediately as the anchor is put on the
bottom, since just the drag of the chain is sufficient. to steady the bow and
shift the ship's pivot point forward, altering the ship's behavior relative to
the wind and her response to the engine and rudder. The mooring master
allows for thi!> during the approach.
The ship carries her headway past. the axis ofthe bE:rth before stopping
and letting go the second anchor. The ship is not backed and filled into po-
I ! sition for dropping the second anchor, she is swung and maneuvered into
'' I .
,:;.
I there is a significant amount of strain double stoppers must be used.
\
1. Let go the port anchor.
2. Let go the starboard anchor.
3. Hold port anchor as ship
backs and fills to berth.
4. Run lines to buoys.
• During the transfer operation, the mooring ::11astcr wo::ks with the
Fig. 9-13. Berthing at multiple-buoy mooring...
?NB· ANU SEVEN·I'Ol~T ~IOOH!l'\GS 227
position. The amountofswingput.on the ship u:·ior to kttmg go the ~c cond
anchor· is critical r.s tlse stern must be positioned so the ship's tenciency to
back to port when going astern into the b~rth is allow<:-d for. Let go the sec-
ond anchor and t1ghten the brake on the first nnchor so it fetches up and
takes n strain. Tne ship goes astern whi:c the anchors arc used to as~i;:t in
steeri ng the .ship into position .
':'he stern moves in a direction that. is opposite to the side on which tl.e
ancho.- is held. Hold the port anchor and t h~ strain on the chain causes thL
ship to back to starboard-hold the s ta rboard .:nchor and the ship backs to
port. If the chain on both anchors is kept slack, the ship usually walks to
port, although the wind will affect the ship to sol!le extent, as always.
This same technique of laying out and then steering with two anchors
is useful when making a Mediterranean moor.
Slack both chains as required as the .ship backs into the mooring atH.i
run the ship's lines to the buoys using the line boot. It. is essential that ev-
eryone involved be safety conscious at tlu.; point so no <..le is hurt while
putting out mooring lines. There is a heavy strain on these ];nos while
working into the mooring. The mates must be instructed to alert. the
bridge before stopping off lines so the smp can be maneuvcred to relieve
the strain until the lines are on the bitts. This is especially important aft
since the crew working on the stem cannot. be seen from the bridge. If
Do not. allow the propelll:!r to be t•mwd while the lires arc going out ex-
cept by direct order from the mooring master. Since the mooring master is
communicating with the line boat by r adio, the boat can tell him when the
lines are clear of the screw. The fu·st lino is usu ally a breast line from the
main deck on the up current. or windward side of the ship, followed by the
other lines as directed by the mooring master. The order of the lines de·
pends on the weather and current. conditions. When all lines are out, a
strain is taken on both anchors to position the ship over the submerged
hose. The anchors fo rm an equilateral triangle and hold the ship into the
predominate weather. (See f1gure 9-13.)
crew to keeo tht ship over the hose or hos!;!::. ZlO\\ connected to the mnn.-
fold, adjusting for the change in drnft. as well as for any change in the
weather or sea conditions.
Based on his past experience, the 1.1ooring master advises the ship'::; offi-
cers concerning weather conditions rnd the advisability of remaining at the
mooring and transfening cargo if the conditions dcterioraU.!--a signilic~Ult.
 S t>ECIAL MANEUVERS
res ponsibility in view cf the time ;equired to break up the mooring as op-
!):>seu to the po!:sible consequences if the ship remains at the mooring too
lor.g. The direction of weather and sea is as important as its state when
making the decisior-wnen the weather is from other than ahead, the
str::~in on lm..:s becomes heavy, while as long as those force!! a re from ahead,
the strain is on the anchors and the ship can remain longer at the mooring.
The value of a mariner'e experience in situations such as this is not fully ap-
preciated by the landsman, since ashore responsibility is uuually shared
and the re&ults of a dacision are rarely so immediate, be they right or wrong.
Keep the engine ready in case it is necessary to leave the mooring anJ
maintain a full watch both on deck and below. Maintain a continuous
watch on the NOAA VHF frequencies since conditions can deteriorate rap-
idly and sufficient warning is aecessary if the ship is to break up the moor-
ing before unsafe conditions develop.
When transfer is completed the hoses are lowered back to the bottom
and the lines s ingled up as the line boE.t trips the hooks on the mooring
buoys. The ship then departs the mooring, the exiting maneuver varying
depending on whether lhe ship is light or loaded.
A loaded ship brings the lines aboard in basically the reverse order
from that in whkh they were run (assuming that the conditions are still
II
the same), until all lines are gone and the propeller is clear. Heave the an-
chors as the breast lines are let go, using the engine and rudder as necer-
sary to hold the stern in the center of the berth. Come ahead as the anchors
come clear and steam away from the buoys.
A light ship takes in the lines in the same manner but uses the anchors
to compensate for her light draft while working clear of the berth. Heave
the starboard anchor short to two shots in the water and then heave on the
port anchor. Work against t:1e starboard anchor while heaving on the port
to keep the ship's bow into the wind. The ship must not fall off the wind or
she will wind up on t~e buoys. As soon as the port anchor breaks free the
ship is driven out of the berth, dragging both anchors until clear. Heave
the port anchor home uud then heave up the l&~;t two shots of chain on th e
starboard anchor and proceed to sea.
MEDITERRANEAN MOOR
By Captain Earl R. McMillin, Master Mariner
Until the advent of roll-on vessels, the Mediterrauean moor was us ed only
in less developed pods with limited facilities. Several ROIRO ships fitted
1\lEDITEHRANEA.."i MOOR
with stern ra mps, which commonly dock stern to the bc·rth with ancho r·,;
laid out ahead , a re now in ser vice, so more deck o!ltcers need to be fami li ar
with ti1is maneuver.
The procedure fo r putting a tanker into a fi ue· or :.euen·point mouring ts
also th~· most efficient m aneuuer for completing th e M editerranean moor.
The ma n~U\'cr is described completely in the previous secti on and it. would
be redundant to repeat the steps for m aking a proper approach, laying out
the anchors, and backing into the berth using the a nchors to ass is t i n
steering. Ideally, the anchor s are spread at an angle of 60 d~grees so the
bow is held in position regardless of wi nd dir ection. T his may not be poss i-
ble when maneuvering room is limited. Pla n the moor iug so the anchor s
nre let go far enough from the berth to give a good scope of chain, and d rop
them far enough apart so the chain and s pread between the anchors fo r m
legs of an equilateral triangle. The ship should finally be moored wi t h at
least one shot more chain than would be used to anchor in water of the
same depth as is found off the berth (fig. 9-14 ).
Unlike the five-point moorings, a cargo ber th is r a rely built with a ny
regard for prevailing \vind and sea conditions, so these forces are m or e
commonly from some direction other than a head. It is necessary to a llow
for set and leeway to one side in these conditions, primarily by adjus ting
1. l et go the starboard anchor and
keep the chain slack.
2. l et go the port anchor.
3. Hold tile starboard anchor and
back to the berth.
4. Heave into position with stern lines,
then take a good strain on anchors.
Fig. 9· 14. Medite rranean moor.
 230 SPECIAL MANEUVEHS
t he amount of c;wing that is put on the ship prior to putting down the sec-
ond anchor , a nd by holding one anchor o,. the other a s the s hi p backs to the
l)erth.
Pla n the approach and mooring procedure with the mates who will be
stationed forw&rd and aft. The mate forward must let go the a nchor im me-
diately \\ hen ordered se the anchors are properly placed anrl then control
the chain precisely as the ship backs to the wharf. The mate aft must keep
the bridge informed of the bearing and distance from the ship's stern to
the berth as the ship backs to the pier (and more importantly the rate at
which the bearing and distance are changing) since RO/RO ships usually
have the bridge well forward where it is difficult to see the stern.
A line boat should be available so the stern lines can be run to the berth
I as soon as possible, after which the ship is backed as the mate forward
I walks the anchor chain out under a lig-ht strain and the crew aft heaves on
I the stern lines. Keep the stern lines clear of the propeller since it must at
a ll times be por,sible to use the engine to hold the ship in position and then
I s top her as the stern nears the stringpiece. The vessel in now under total
control and can be brought up close to the berth. Don't use the engine to
back the last few feet-heave the ship astern so there is no chance of an a c-
I
I
cident from a delay in engine response.
Use sufficient linas or wires aft so a good strain can be taken on both
anchors after the ship is fast. Heave the chains partially out of the water
I so the ship cannot move astern if there is any later change in sea or wind.
' The stern is right up to the berth so it must not be possible for the ship to
move any further astern after the mooring is complete.
Relieble bow thrusters are available, and all ships fitted with a stern
ramp, which will commonly berth stem first, should be fitted with this
equipment A thruster greatty simplifies positioning the bow prior to let-
ting go e&ch anchor, and steering the ship as she backs to the berth. When
weather conditions and the layout of the berth require it, the ship fitted
with a bow thruster can lay out the an.;hors without being perpendicular
to the berth. moving the bow laterally with tl-.e thruster to get into position
for letting go the second anchor. Restricted maneuvering room may re-
quire th1s. Here tofore It was necessary at times to wait for favorable condi-
t ions prior to berthing stern to a dock. The bow thruster makes it possible
to moor Mediterranean fash ion in all but the worst conditions and no ship
that work'> cargo over the stern should be built without one.
Departure from the Mediterranean moor varies with weather condi-
tions, of course, b•1t generally the ship takes in lines aft and immediately
WILl IA!>ISON 'I"UHNS ~3 1
begins heaving on the windward anchor. Heave short to two shots ,md
then hca\ con the lee anchor while steaming against the weather anchor.
Maintain position and heading so the ship isn't ~et back again;:t the berth
as the anchors come clear of the bottom. Start moving the ship ahead as
soon as the lee anchor breaks free, hca \'ing and dragging both a11cnors t:n-
til well clear cf the berth. He a vc the a nci1ors home and proceed to se<> .
WILLrAMSON TURNS
The clas!;ic Williamson Turn is described in most textbooks on seamar. -
ship. The turn works well and is especially useful as ship size increase:!.
Ships with h igh block coefficients lose headway faste r than smaller,
finer-li ned vessels, and a VLCC will typically have lost most of her head-
way by the time she has reached her recipr ocal course at the completion of
a Williamson Turn. Little a stern maneuver ing is then required to stop t.he
ship and pick up a person or object on the water. llcca use of this, and be-
cause of the predictability of the vessel's path, the Williamson Turn is
preferable to a round turn or othermaneuver for putting a sl)ip on a recip·
r ocal heading.
The path that a ship follows dnriug a W11liamson Turu becomes even
more predictable if the variables of the maneuver a rc eliminated. For ex-
ample, ir.stead of s tating that the ship should be steadied up a fte r she has
reached a course that is 60 to 65 degrees from the ship's original course, it
is preferable to state that the helm should be shifted at some predeter-
mined point and left in that position while the ship checks up and then
swings to the reciprocal of her original course. If the classic instructions
arc followed, the turn is less predictable because the time to check the
swing and the amount of rudder uscrl are dependent on the helmsman's or
deck officer's experience and judgment. The resulting track can ,·ary
greatly.
Further, the classic turn always uses a 60-degr.!e change ofheading as
a basis for shift ing the helm. Ships h ave changed grea tly so neither this
nor any other ftxed point \l.ill sufiir-e for all sh; ps. The Willi&m:>on Turn
m us t be performed routi nely dt:.ring an ocean p11.ssage as part uf th£: crew
e·11ergency training, a nd the point at wh ich the helm is to D<:! ailiacd
should be determined by trial and error during those exercises. If a deeply
loaded , la rge beam ta nker tha t is dircctionally unstable we re to follow the
classic instructions, she would never return to her original t rack. If the
ru dder is s hifted when that vessel is 60 degrees from t he initial heading,
she swings well past the desired point since it takes a grea t deal of time to
 232 SPECIAL t.iANEUVERS WILLIA~I:)ON Tl'l{;>;~

check the swing of 3uch a ship. The directionally unstable vessel then man-overboard maneuvcr used, /he persc·z or vbj~·c/ in the wat,•r m u s: bt•
turns more rapidly toward the reciprocal heading since her turning rate is watched at all times; this is even more important than the cancer. cx~cu­
so muclt great er. tion ofthc Wiliiamson Turn. If sight is lo::;t of a P<'"~on in th,.. wale:-,;, is (: X·
A particular VLCC rf'turned to her own wake when the rudder was tremel~· difficult to local!" the person agrrin in any b~.:t perfect condttl•ms
shifted when she was 35 degrees from her initial course.' By experimenta- By thro" ing a life rintt and oi.i rer :wailublc objects in~o the water d:> <:l11st::
tion, this point and. the amount. of rudder needed to steady the ship wcr•'
dofinecl so all variables were climinat.ed from the maneuvl"!r. In this case
the rudder was shifted hard over to check the swing when the ship's head-
ing was 15 degrees f:om the reciprocal. Similar te~ts should be done by the
master for his particular ship before the need to maneuver in an actual
emergency arises.
A Willia m son Turn is defined as follows:

Put the rudd~::r hard over toward the side on which the person has gone
overboard and keep it there until the ship is 35 to 50 degrees from the
initial heading. (The precise point for a particular vessel is to be prede-
termined by trial.) Shift. the helm hard over in the opposite dirEction.
Keep the rudder in this position while the ship swings all the way
around toward the reciprocal of the ship's heading at the time the Wil-
liamson Turn began. When the ship's heading is 10 t.o 15 degt ees from
the reciprocal of her initial course, at a point predett>rmined by trial,
shift the helm hard over again so the ship steadies up on the desired re-
cipiocal heading (fig. 9-15).
\ Note that only three movements of the rudder are necessary, and that
these chacges in helm are at defined points thr..t are not dependent on the
watch officer's judgmEmL.
The engine speed is not changed during the Williamson Turn, a l-
though the engine is put on standby so the engineer on watch can prepare
for maneuvering. By maintaining revolutions, the rate of turn is predict-
able, the ahip returns to the desired point in the minimum time, and speed A. Shift helm when ~eading 35•-ss•
is still sufficiently reduct?d. The ship i::; then stopped using maneuvers de- froM base course as dclerrmned oy tr;als.
scribed in chapter 1.' B. Reverse helm when 10•from
reciprocal of orog•nal course.
The man-overboard routi..lle fc: a particular ship and crew are beyono
the scope of this book. It is stressed, though, that regardless of the

1 Captain Daniel H. MacEirevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuuering Trials.

2 Master Pil~t Captain Brian Hope, El Paso Consolidated Maneuuering Trials Fig. 9-15. ''Three helm order'' Williamson Turn.
234 SPECIAL .MANEUVERS
to the pe rson or object ll S pos8il,le, with a light, dye marker, smoke Hare, or
other air! attached, the task of locating that person is greatly s implified. It.
is important that a light be put into the water at night. There is no substi-
tute for repec.ted man-overboard drills, and during drills it beco:nes obvi-
ous just how difficult i ~ 15 t.o see a person or object in the water.
Using the desc1ibed Williamson Turn, a VLCC returned to the originai
location in eleven minutes and was making 4 lr..nots when the reciprocal
course was reached, although the engine remained at full revolutions
throughout the maneuver, which began when the ship was making 19
knots. The ship was easily brought dead in the water at the desired point
so that. a boat could be launched.'
TWIN-SCREW SHIPS
There is a misconception that twin-screw ships inherently handle bet.t.er
than singlf!-Fcrew ships. This is not necessarily so.
The type of propulsion anu the number, configuration, and location of
the rudder 1)1' rudders affect the maueuverability of twin-screw ships and
some twin-screw ships handle more poorly than s;ngle-screw ships in
routine opera-c;ing situations. Older turbine-driven twin-screw ships with
s ingle rudders usually handle like water-soaked logs. Most modern diesel-
propelled twin-screw vessels with either conventional propellers or con-
trollable pitch propellers, bow and stern thrusters and, in most cases, twin
rudders, are excellent handling ships.
Today, the twin-screw configuration is found primarily on passenger
vessels when~ it is used both to miniPuze vibration while operating wth
higher horsepowers and greater speeds, and to facilitate maneuvering in
the smaller harbors increasingly frequented by cruise ships looking for
new and less spoiled ports.
Diesel- and turbine-propelled twin-screw ships exhibit tht: same engine
response characteristics, for the same reasons, described for single-screw
diesel and turb1ne ships in earlier chapters of this book. Diesel ships re-
s pond mure quickly to engine orders, so tho> effect. of"kirking" a diesel-pro-
pelled twin-screw ship ahead fvr a short period oftime to move the stern
laterally without gaining headway is significantly greater. Because of this
faster response, diesel-propelled twiu-screw ships also react more quickly
than turbine ships when a master or pilot twisttS or turns the vessel within
a Captain Daniel H. MacEirevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuuering Trials.
r.tANEUVC:HING TWIN·SCHEW SIIII'S
her own length using one engine ahead and the other asle:-n or wa/h ~; a
ship sideways by using the rudder in op pcsit.ion to that twisting effctt.
Twin-screw, twin-rudder ships are inherently more respons ive at:: low
s peeds than ships with single rudders, regardle:;s or engine type, smce
tw in rudders a re located aft. of the twin propellers and the flow of wa t<:r
from th e propellers p.tsses directly over the rudder's s urface. Without this
flow, the ship's rudder has lit.Llc eflcct untillhc ship gains sufficient. hc:..1d·
way to r.rea! c a flow over the surface ofthe rudd er Independent of the flow
from the prope:ller.
It should be noted that shiphandlers find twin-screw, single-rudder
ships generally steer better at very low speeds when the engines are
stopped than when they are coming ahead. When the engines are stopped,
t.he minimal flow past the rudder tha;. d oes elcist is not. disturbed by the
turning propeller:; and the i'lherent directional '5labi!it.y of the spread pro-
pellers that counters the turning moment created by the rudder no longer
exists. Try stopping the engine if a twin-screw, single-rudder ship w ith
headway is behaving poorly at very slow speeds, ins lead of working one
screw against the other to twist the ship to a new heading.
l\lANEUVEHING TWIN-SCREW SH IPS
If the propeller shafl.s arc well separated, and especially ift.he ship is die-
sel- rather than turbine-propelled, a twin-screw vessel can be turned 111 a
uery small area by working one propeller ahead wd the other astern. By
using the port. engine ahead and t.he starboard engine astern, t.he s hi p is
turned to starboard. By adjusting the revolutions of both the ahead and
astern tu:ning engines, increas ing and decreasing speeds of either th e
ahead or astern turning engine as appropriate to cancel any headway or
stern way that might develop, the ship can be turned literally within he r
own length. Because a propeller is more efficient when turning ahead,
fewer revolutions are us ually needed on the shaft turning in the ahead di-
rection to turn the ship while maintaining its pos1lion (fi g. 9-16).
The twm·screw ship can be moved laterally using the engines in oppos·
ing directions aheati and astern to move the stern in the desireu direction
"'hile a tug or bow thruster is used to move the bow 111 th e same dirt:<.:li un
For example, to move a ship siueways toward a berth, the outboard prOJif 1-
lcr- th e propeller away from th e dock or oth2r stru cture towaru which th~
ship is to be moved- turns astern, whi le the inbuard propeller turn:::
ahead (fig. 9-17). The t wo prop.Jllers arc then rotating in the same din!l.'·
tion (clockwise or counterclockWISe) but. thn.st.ing in opposite uin:cti<•n:;
23G SPECIAL ~fANElJVEHS
Fig. 9-16. Turning a twin-screw ship to starboard.
(ahead or astern), simultaneously walking and twisting the stern toward
the berth without developing any headway or sternway. A~ the same time,
the tug or thruster is used to push the bow toward the berth so the ship
moves laterally and bodily toward the berth. Before landing on the pier,
the direction of rotation of ·~he propellers is reversed to check the lateral
motion oftne stern so the ship is laid gently alongside without the assis-
tance of a stern tug.
Obviousiy, the direction of rotation of the propellers is important
during this maneuver. Usually, outboard turning propellers are more
effective than inboard turning screws when moving the stern laterally.
A ship maneuvering utarboard side to a berth uses the starboard screw
ahead and ·~he athwartship component of force created by this clockwise
turning propeller walks the stern toward the dock. The port screw is
used astern and, since the left-har.a screw turns clockwise when going
astern, the athwartship component of that screw's forces also walks the
stern to starboard. These forces complement the opposing fore and aft
flows from the two propellers, the starboard propeller operating ahead
and the port propeller astern in this case, that are minimizing the fore
and aft movement of the ship and also driving the stern to starboard to-
ware the dock.
Very good handling, high power, twin-screw, twin-rudder ships such
as naval crafL, supply and reseatch vessels, and very high-powered pas-
senger ships can be moved lat'?rally without tug assistance or -:r bow
thruster by using a maneuver that, at first glance, seems to contradict ev-
erything l:!aid above. Consider again the situation described where the
ahip is being moved toward a doc:k on the starboard side. To move these
special case, tigh-powered ships with twin rudders toward the dock, th<:
~ 1 ,\;-ll':lJVlWINO '1"\Yiio( .::;i'H I:W Sllll'S
Fig. 9-17. Moving a twin-screw ship laterally
rudder is put hard left to move lhe stern to starboard, but the engine::: are
used in the opposite direction to the example above-in this case of high-
powered, twin-screw, twin-rudder ships, the port engine turns ahead and
the starboard engine turns astern to move the bow to starboard. The rud-
der and engines are then opposing each other with the nete!Tect ofmovmg
the ship laterally to starboard.
Consider the forces at work here. The rudder eiTecl from the wash of
the ahead-turning engine flowing over the rudders put hard left creat..cs a
force that moves the stern to starboard and the bow to port, as is normally
the case. At the same time though, the engines are operating in opposing
directions, the port engine is turning ahead a"ld the starboard engine
astern, in a manner that would normally move the stern Lo port and the
bow to starboard-the opposite direction to that in which the rudder is try-
ing to m•)ve the bow and stern. The net effect, in the case of these very re-
sponsive ships, is that the rudder ove1Tides the engine forces so the stern
moves to starboard, while the rudder and engine forces counter each other
to the extent that the bow does not move to port. The ship maintains. or
nearly maintains, its heading while the ship moves laterally to the right,
toward the dock on the starboard side.
Shiphandlers are again cautioned that th is is a special case that is on!y
effective when handling very powerful twin-screw navai vesseis, suppiy
boats, and passenger ships with large twin mdders that can develop the
strong opposing forces needed to move the ship in ti'is manner. H. dues I'Ot
usually work for the common merchant vessel. ~lost shi p.:; would simply
respond to the opposing engines, moving the stern t.oward the sidt.! r, n
which the propeller is turning a head , with the rudder having liltle ellect
except to reduce, to some extent, the turning <'ffect created by the engines.
238 SPECIAL MANEUVSRS
It may be necessary to increase the revolutions of one shaft., when I!Hl-
neuvcdug t.wi n-screw :::hips in a shallow channel, to compensate for an un-
equal flow or water to the !>crew that is closer to the ban!c or shoal. or wht> n
one propell~r is turning tn the shallower area through a mud bottom. The
t.wi11 -screw ship in ~hi~ si•uation is ~ore likely to take a shf"er than a ::iP ·
gle-s<.rew ship, due to the proximity of the offset propeller to the shallow
area, t.he restricted flow to the propeller and rudder in the shallower area,
plus the usua! ur.balanced forces experienced around any hull passing
close to a bank or shoal. It is also more difftcult to recover from that sheer
due to tne same reduced flow and imbalance of forces. The shiphandler
has to take special care an d watch more carefully for signs that the ship is
taking suction when maneuvering a twin-sc.rew ship in this situation. One
such sign would be repeat~ d, large rudder angles as the helmsman tries to
mair.~ain a course along a straight. reach in the channel. Another sign
would b<> t he need for unusually large rudder angles to start a ship swing-
ing in a turn from one reach or straight. section of;;he channel to another.
Anotlwc pot.ent.ial problem develops with tv•in-screw vessels when one
engine st.aii.s before the other, or when the revolutions are not mat.ched
while the ship is steaming. Especially when handling a motor ship, plan to
start. oue engine before the other and plan maneuvers to allow for the re-
sulting ship bE:havior. Start the second engine after the first is turning
ahead and, since you are now set up for the worst case, there will be no
problem should either engine not start immediately. This imbalance has
less immediate effect while steaming since there is a good flow past the
rudder and it is possible to compensate for the sheering that results when
an engi::te doesn't start 0r the revolutions are not properly matched.
When near a dock or wharf, especially if the berth has a solid face, the
inboard screw can be used to advantage to lift the quarter and keep the
~>hip from going alongside prematurely. Put the inboard engine astern
when the quarter sets toward the berth. The off-center propeller twists
the stern away from the berth, and the quickwater moves up the side and
lifts the entire ship. just as iL does when handling a single-screw ship.
Therr are several oth~r concerns when maneuvering a twin-screw ves-
se! ne'\r· to an Cl alongstde a berth. As w1th a single-screw vessel, you must
be aware of the propeller's position relative to any hazards, especially a
bank or shoal area anti the bert:1 itself. However, greater care is needed
with twin-screw ships because the propellers are placed ofT centcr, which
leaves them more exposed. On some modern twin-screw ships the propel·
!er· blades arc very nea:- to or even outside the line ofthe hull. Be especially
' MANEUVEH!NG TWIN-tit 1U:\\' :iHII'S
alert that. the ship does not dcvP!op any angle lhnt '' lll cause th t> prop1.·ll Pr
to louch the berth or s hoal. Take care that s tern lines arc not fouled i11 tht·
pn>pellers wl,en :hey arc sent nshnr·~ or l•rour,ll' 3bonn1 ln;:tru::: · :.e
.ship's rrew, linehundlcrs, and turr crews not to throw linl'S ill Lhc w,,a·r
when undocking. Consideration n.usl also be gi'l'n w the plat:t•nll-r,· ol'
tugs. Any tug- working aft must be maJe up clear of the propellers. w i.tch
may prevent them f,·om w01·king as near to the ste;·n as ucsircd. It lil-t: be
preferable to have lhe after lug work on a hawt>e r. Here, ilS alway~. tlw
Ehiphandler's must rely on his experience and professional judg ment
An interesting ,·nriation that overcomes many of the disadvattlagt::= of
the twin-screw ship and still allows the use of high horsepower propu !.::loll
systems is the triple-screw design used on sonH' recent contninershtp,.;.
The center shaft is used at maneuveriug speeds, allowing the shtp u, lJl'
handled like any other single-screw ship, and thr outboaru eng-ine:> n nu
r>ropellers are used only at high speeds when the ship will be in open w;nt•r
where tLe disadvantages of a twin-screw ship are not important. The IA:st
ofuoth worlds is achieved for the naval architect and the mariner.
The twin-screw configurations with single and twin rudders were oncP
found primarily on passenger ships, where it was used both to mllliuuze
vibration while operating with higher horsepower and greater s peed a mi
to faci :it.at.c maneuvering in the smaller har!Jors frequented by crut~e
ships. Twin rudder configuration!' have almost totally re placed the s ingle
rudder for p..tssenger ships.
There has also been a trend to replace the twin screw, twin-ruJdcr um·
figurat.ion beginning in the lat.e 1990s when the cruise iudustry began fit·
ling many of the new, large cruise vessels with electric-podded propubwn
or Azipods. At the san1e time, other segments of the maritime industry bt:-
gan building more twin-screwed vessels, und it is now common t.o find the
twin-screw configuration aboard virtually any t.ype of vessel when the ad-
vantages of that arrangement are great cnot·gh to Justify the higher co:;t.
The Vi1lax VLCCs' are examples of vessels built t(• take full advanWg1•
of the twin-screw c:mfig-Jration as a tnCU!i., for improv;i1g hnndltng t:h ar·
actcristics. The:.;e ships a:e desi1511L·d with an unu~ua i iy T•ci c bear~ ! :
their length w ma.xmtize ca-rying capacity. All other factors bctllg equ,,l,
increasing a vessel's length-to-beam ratio i'l thil; manner reduces t ht.:
ship's directional slabihty, with a signiiicant advl:r:'ie e!l'ect on lhl: ::;h.:·,.
4
Tlwse VMax s hips are owned and OJH:mlt•d b) Cum·•Hth.• .\ 1an i11J it' Steu.l
Dulk.
 240 SPECIAL M~NEUVI::HS
U.)W LENGTII ·TlJ·DEA.II I~ATIO !:ii!II'S

mancuvering characteristics. (Sec chapter 1 and chapter 2 of this text.) To

counter the effects oflhis high beam-tc-length ratio, the VMax vessels arc
twin scr·ews and twin rudders mounted on exaggerated twin skegs placed
a;, far outboard as pract;cal.
LOW !..ENGTII-TO-BEAM RATIO SHIPS
By Captain Daniel E. MacElreuey
Delaware Bay and Riuer Pilot
A vessel's carrying capacity is one of the characteristics that determine
whether the ship will be profitable on the route it serves. Quite simply, the
larget· the ship, the more cargo it can carry and the greater the operator's
profit. Hi~torically, technological breakthroughs have been necessary to
permit the construction and safe operation of larger ships. Today. port
I constraints are the main limiting factor to increasingly large ships, and
the most common constraint is channel depth.
a general shi p type as owners with ships calling at relatively shallow U.S
ports look for ways lo increase carrymg capacity.
VMax li hips arc built with a muc~1 la rger beam than vc~scls of suntl ... r
length. They nr·e l ,1tlu iC''t long With a beam of230 feet. Vessels ofsuml::!r
icr.gth have a beam 430 to 50 feet less. The length-to-beam ra tio of the:
VMax ships is 4.8:1 versus a~ I IB of£:;.5-fi:l for other VLCCs. For corn pari-
son, an 850-foot Panamax ship has a lcncth-to-beam ratic of 8:1.
Again, all other far.to,·s being equal, a vessel with a low length-to-beam
ratio will respond poorly to its rudder. Masters a nd pilots repo r t that thts
is not the case with the VMax ships. Whatnakes these vessels difTcrent?
The Vl\iax vessels arc fitted with twin skcgs, t\1 in rudders, and twm
screws-placed as far outboard as practical (fig. 9-18).
The twir.-skeg/ruddcr arrange:nP.nt acls to improve the ship's direc-
tional stability a nd also provides a much larger tu:-n!ng force than that of
a single, centerline rudder. The VMax s hips have a cut-away stern section

Carryi.1g .:apacity can be increased without increasing a ship's draft ei-

I ther by inueasing its length, its breadth, or a combination of the two. On
many routes, vessel length has been increased to the maximum practical
due to the physical constraints of the port itself. Unfortunately, increasing
the beam relative to the vessel's length reduces the length-to-beam ra tio
(UB ratio) and decreases its directional stability. It therefore requires
more rudder to check the turning vessel and steady on a new course. On
the positi've side, this effect also results in a smaller turning circle than a
vessel of the same length but smaller beam. Vessels designed with a low
length-to-beam ratio usually require a great deal of attention in order to
be handled safely.
However, some recently built vessels demonstrate that it is possible to
design vessels with a low UB that handle superbly. An example of this is
t he VMax VLcc•. It might have been more fitting to call these ships DMax
VLCCs a;, one of the goals in designing these tankers was to provide the
maximum carrying capacity possible without exceeding the channel re-
strictions cf the; Delaware Bay and Rn·er.
Crdiaan:y, inciJvidunl ship dasse"' anci rrpeF would not be discus:~ed to
any length, but it appears the VMax ships arc. the first of what will become

Fig. 9-18. MoJern VMax twin-screw vessel with skewcd propellers and
high-cffictency rudders with skcgs to r.Juximizc 3lecring controls. Photo
s Ibid. cou:-t.csy Concordia Maritime.
24-2 SPECIAL MANEUVEfiS MOV1NG UP TO L,\HGEH '3 11 11': ' 2·1.3

that. places the rudders at the extreme end of the submerged 11rea, where
Lhey ure most effective. The cut.-away stern also allows maximum water
f1ow hv the rudders aPd "ignificantly redUC(:S v;bration while underway
a nd proceeding at higher RPMs.
Contrary to exp~ctat.ions, these ships handle well due to t.hal cnnfigu-
raticn Compared to other similarly sized vessels, less rudder is neP.d~ d to
start. a turn, the rudders are left on for longer before placing them amid-
ships and less rudder is used to check the ship's swing. Often, the rate-of-
turn decreases once the rudders are placed amidships. Additionally,
steerage is maintained for a long time with the en~;incs stopped, and they
will remain on a nearly constant heading when b?-cking with both engines.
Many pilots feel that the ships handle better than predicted by early simu-
laLions, a:.1d lhey certainly handle better than other ships of similar size
and hull iorm.
To further improve maneuverability, the rudders can be used sepa-
rately at slower speeds. This is especially useful when swinging about af-
ter gettir1g underway from anchor and when turning around to go
alongside a berth. By operating one engine ahead and the other astern,
'
the ships ~an be turned about in their own length. Using the rudder that is Fig. 9-19. VMax owner and archilect consulted with ship officers and
on lhe same uide as the engine going ahead while leaving the other rudder pilots to design efficient br:dge equipment and controls and ensure
amidships enhances the twisting effect of the engines by taking advan- success of lhis new ship type. Courtesy Concordia Maritime.
lage of the capability to split rudder control with this class of vessel (fig.
9-19). uations so that they occur on s t.ro.ight reaches and where channel width
The ships are noteworthy for several other reasons in addition to excel- permits. Even small angles ofhc~l cr eated durin g turns ca use a consid(:r-
lent handling characteristics. There is a complete redundancy in the oper- able increase in draft so the maximum allowable rlrafl is reduced lo 38 fc<'t
ating and control systems to increase safety, two engine rooms separaled as compared to a max imum draft of 40 feel for lllOst tankers. Atld itionally,
by a fire bulkhead, and & fully integrrted bridge that provides near 360 de- Lhe combination of their beam and freeboartl make it impossible to see the
gree visibility. When designing the VMax ships, the vessel owner and ov- tugs on the offshore side oft.hc ship when working from the inshor e hr iuge
eraLor consulted river pilots, harbor pilots and tug companies, the loading wing, and, as with any twin-screw vc:>sel, care must be taken when ma -
and discharge porL authorities, and the chartering company to obtain in- neuvcring near berths, when handling line.; nc nr the stern , unci \\·IH:n
put on fea tures most needed to make these ships successful. Further, they working with lugs afl.
worked with the RTM STAR Cent.er in Flcrida to develop a simulator- The;e vessels have been extremely weii received. an d the dc rLLlll -
based training course for bridge personnel and the river pilots that would c:l r:.tted succes<' of this design makes !t likei·: tL t:.t :J~:l !lY Sllll :la:- ·:cs..;eis
be handling th~ VMax ships. The pilots' association felt the vessels were wdl ue constructed in the near fu tu re.
sufficiently different from other VLCCs to rt!quire its members to make
several trips with experienced pi lets before handling them on their own. MOVING UP TO LARGER Stlll':-3
Althvugh great effort was made to make these vessels extremely safe, The handling characteristics ofVLCCs and l"LCCs 1re su r pri;.ingly sill:i -
there a r e slill several considerations to be made when handling t.hem. lar t.o those of s mall~r ships. The Esso Osalw t e,; L-; demons tratl•tl the exct-l-
Their extreme brea.:ith necessitates planning meeting and O"ertaking sit- lenl handling characteristics of very lar.5(' ship:;, and th e conclusions
 244 SPECIAL :.IAN£l 1\'ERS ~ lOV I NG Ul' 'I 0 1..\ HG I·: n :::!1 11'$

drawn from t hese tes ts have been confi!·med by pilots an d moor ing mas- Lions is obvious . The sa me head sea ,.,.ilJ sel in th" pial}:; at the bow uf a
ters w ho ha nd le t hese s hips. Espe::ially appreciated by master s iRthe abil- VLCC without being felt significnntly on th e bridge. i>1on• deli bcr.uc
ity of tlv:!r-" s hi ps to steer al ver·y low l"JlPPO!' with minimal U'"' "f the th nug•·.t i,.. th erefore n~qu i red wher. h:l!,d!• :~g t!w 1:- :·ger ship, :,ince !L i-;
engine. not possible tv co nn her i~ a seaway by feel alone. Bec<.1use ofi11cr~a :sed
Sloppi:1g d islH nce changes geometrically as ship size increases , so it 1s mass and leng th the punting and siam mi ng stresses, as the ship pounds
important that. th e shiphandler think even [urther a heud when altering in a head sea, arc a ct ually m uch greater even th ough the poun ding itself
s peed or m an e uver ing. These ch a nges are exacerbated by the higher ton- may be hardly felL
nage-to-ho rsepower r a tios typical ofVLCCs. Some typical r atios m ight be The hogging, sagging, and wrncking ::trcs:;cs tha t are not us ually cuu-
siderc.:l at sea aboard smaller ships now becvnw importan t. A VLCC
VLCC = 380,000 tons dis placement = . wo rks dram atically in a seaway as she alternately h an~·s s us penJcd be-
95
t!O,OOO horsepower tween two r.res ts at her ends a nd then is :;upportcd by Lhe sea amidsl11p
while her end~ fall into lhe trough. Closr attention to bendi ng m<Jnwnls
B ulk carrier
80,000 tons d;splacem<Jnt = 5 .0
a nd sheer stresses is , of course, required wh ile loading a VLCC, and ul sea
16,000 horsepower
t.he manner aboard a VLCC mus t. reduce speed and/or alter course to re-
Con tainershi p
65,000 tons dis placement = 1.1 d uce severe hoggi ng and sagging stre.;:.es that are rarely considered wilh
60,000 horsepower smaller ships. The rna riner m ust recJgnize tha t the sam e sea slate that
damagPs :... smaller· ship also damages a VLCC and r edur.e s peed or a lter
Obviously, while the displacement of modern ships is much greater,
their horsepower has not inc:reased proportionally. It is no longer practical
to r ely on engine power alone to stop a ship, but VLCCs and ULCCs can be
safely handled in restricted waters by planning ahe'id and using the tec.h-
I niques previous ly described to slow a vessel. Too ofLen the nonseafa rer
C AP, I DON'T T HI N K WE SHOULD
\ makes much of the fact that more searoom is required to stop a large sl1ip
I when, in rea lity, that ship will usua lly alter course to avoid a close qua r- s LO\.J HER DOWN. A Ll T TL E
ter s situation , taking a dvantage of the excellent steering characteristics HEAVY WEATH E R
I ofVLCCs to compensate for her relatively low backing power. A S H IP THI S GiGA NTI C.
The large ship's m a neuvering characteristics must be consider ed
when determining mooerate speed in r estricted visibility or areas of
hea vy traffic. The COLREGS recognize this fact and stipulate that a ship's
man eu·terability is a s ignificant factor ""·hen determining safe speed a t
any time. Since the \ TLCC's most effective res ponse in a close quarter s s it-
ua tion is an alter a tion of course ra ther than a reduction in s peed, the ma r-
iner m ust plan on this alternative when possible. If conditions m ake a
reduction m s peed necessar-y, howe·•er , it wi.l! be immediately appa r en t
why safe s peed for a V LCC in a close quarters situation is s ignificHntly
less th an for s ma ller ships.
In a ddi tion to changes in handling char acter ist ics, a VLCC is affected
differently by changes in sea cond itions. A sm aller s hip pounds h eavily
in a hcao sea, :-;o the need to reduce speed or a lter co urse in thos e condi- Fig. 9-20.
246 ::;pg('JAI. ~IANgUVEHS
counw accordingly to ease the vessel even when these stressc3 arc not ob-
vious frvm her m<'tion.
Instruments are being tested that may in the future give mariner"
more ahsolute information ahout the forces of the sea acting on a l>ull, but
presently experience is the best guide for the master or deck officer. Sea
sense, and the mariner's cppreciation oflhe environment gained over the
years spent at sea, becom<' extremely important when making qualitative
judgrr.ent.s such as when to ease a VLCC's motion in a seaway.
Shallow water effects are fell as the ship nears land or shoal and, since
the VLCC's draft is often twice that of the average ship, these effects are
f<'lt sooner and in deeper water. The changes in the ship's directional s...a-
bility, the larger diameter of her turning circle, and the increased twisting
effect are all felt in water that the mariner aboarci smaller ships consiri-
ered opHn and deep.
The COLREGS define (Rule 3.h.) a vessel as being "constrained by
her draft" when, because of her draft in relation to the available depth of
water, she "is severely restricted in her ability to deviate irom the course
she is following." This should be interpreted to include not only restric-
tions on her track resulting from having to keep sufficient water under
her keel to avoid grounding, but also restrictions due to shallow water ef-
fects, which degrade the ship's maneuvering capabilities. There is some
uncertainty whether this is the present intent but such interpretation is
proper and. consistent with today's understanding of hydrodynamics and
ship behavior.
In port, tne mass and hull form of the VLCC becomes more significant;
bottom effects increase as previously discussed, while the ship's reaction
time when correcting for the results of such effects is significantly longer.
The shi;>handler must plan the passage and maneuvcrs, must thi=lk
ahead of the ship, with greater atwntion to these effects. It is stressed,
though, that there are no mysteries; very large ships obey the same laws of
hydrodynamics as other ships and the differences in behavior are differ-
ences in m agnitude, not character.
Forward speed of a VLCC is more difficult to judge not only because
orthe greater height of eye from which the shiphandler works, but also
due to t.he subtle differences between proper and improper speeds
through the water with a ship of such mass. If thE: mariner is handi-
capped by lack of proper instrumentation, there is no option but to err
on the safe side when moving a VLCC and the ship must progress at
very s low speeds. When eMtimaling safe speed of approach remember
MOVING UP TO LAJ,UJ-:tl ~Il l I'~
1.) • -
- I'
that. a VLCC moving at. less than 2 knots sti ll re4u ircs more th.m a ;;h 1 p
length tc stop . Fitting large ships with state-of-the-art. instrUIIICll' a-
f.it•n m->kes it ;-~~!:ible t.:. J.. o\·c such ships ilh.Jrc c.,pcJicutl) a:::'~ ell '1"
nwre silfcly.
Due to the 6reaLer mass, some adjustment in technique i:-; n:quin,<J.
1. Tugs are less effective.
2. It is impractical to warp a 'ILCC alongside using s hip's line~ on!~.
3. A ship must be stopped further ofT the pier and pushed along ~tde
due to the need to land Oat on the slringpiecc or rlustCJ s.
4. Mini-num lateral speed is important. if the ship is to land v. it hour
dan1agc.
il. Doppler speed indicators showing lateral motion as well as ahc<:1d a no
astern speed are essential if the VLCC is to be docked expeditiously.
The ship must come alongside flat so the forces generated as the sht p
lands are distributed throughout the length of the midbody and are ab-
sorbed by the maximum number of frames. The vessel's great leugth
makes this more difficult, perspective causing the bow to appear much
closer Lo the dock than the slern when actually the two ends arc equidi:;-
tant. from the stringpiecc (fig. 9-21). Obserue the rate of closing forward
and aft, rather tnan only the apparent distance ofT, since the relati,-e clt!;·
lances forward and afl. will appear to decrease ut the same rate. eve n
though the distances themselves do not appear equal when the s hip is par-
allel to the berth.
When the mariner steps aboard a VLCC for the first tl!nc there 1s of-
ten some trepidation about handling this different ship. The differe nce:;
are really only of scale ar.d timing-ship behavior is no different and the
mariner will quickly adjust work haLits to these dtfferences in magni-
tude. No new skills are rcquirPd, only grcate:- attcn~ior. to th e- adq;.nc ... .j
planning IH::ede:d to stay ahead of the ship and greater patH:nce '\ hil~
waiting for her tO reepond. With a good professicnnl !la.:kg:c··Jnd. a tnr ,.
petent shiphandler can handle a VLCC as well as any other type oi shtp.
Too much is made today of qualifYing a pilot for ~'very different t~ p~: of
ship that shows up at a pilot station, whc11 it is generai expenence gauwJ
over severa l years of doing gradually more -lemanding work that prt•·
pares a s hiphandler for a particular t::~sk , not two hours of obsen ·a ti on
time abonr·d a "new" class of ship.
 2'!8 SPEClAL MANEUVERS HEI'LE>:l$1L\IE:->T AT SEA

Rl!:PLJ-;NJSii:\IE~;T .\ f SE.\

\ througl-:out the maneuver, hut it is greatest as the !>ow of the maneuvcrmg
I bhip passes the larger ship's quarter. This "danger zvne'' (fig. 9·22l slwuld
Fig. 9-21. Allow for the "railroad track" effect when estimating a
VLCC's distance ofT a berth.
A small but _,;b:111i~ ... nt nt•mbur uf :ships c11,;agc 111 n·plellll;lllllelll OJwra-
lions at. sea and this numu(;r can be expt>Cli!d to incn•asc If the tn·nd
toward ,.;realer u~c of merchant ships to support naval operations co•nin-
ues. 'fran;;fer by helicopter will be cons:dered separately and only s~ip­
to-~hi p transfer of equipment, oil, and s tores will be cons1dercd h..:r'~ln.
For clarity, the shi p that mai.1tains course and speed during the rna-
ncuver is designated the "large ship," because this ship il; usuall~ the
physically larger of the two vessels involved. The st•cond vesscl1s t.hc "l!la-
ncuvcring ship."
Initial ulanningbetween the two vcss•.;Js i:; <.lone by radio.:\ I ase cnu r·sc
and speed is rietennincd to put the sea two !>Oints on the lu:m •Jfthc "L :-gc
vessel" that will be away from the operation. to make a lee and minim1ze
rolling and yawing. The steering gear must be te:;led and in:;pccttd c:lre-
fully prior to commencement of the operation, and a seaman tramcd m
shifting from bridge to local trick whl!cl st.eering must be ::;tationctl in the
steering ;.:ear flat. The "A" frame or other :-i& is ,et up ;>nu ali acces.-.()1-y
gear is iaid out.. Sufficient crewmembers are assigned to the deck nntl
bridge, and a good helmsman-preferably experienced in stcuring Juring
ship-to-ship transfer operations-is assigned to the wheel.
Usually the larger, or, ir. the ca:;e of n:lval vessels, the supplying mer·
chant ship, maintains the base course and speed throughout the evolu-
tion, and all maneuveri..ng is done by the approaching ship.ln a heavy sea,
il may be prudent to have the larger ship maintain course and speed, and
put the sea 1n the prescribed position, no matter which ship IS doing the
supplying, to ensure the bestlPe for t.he transfc1 operation.
When within one half a mile ofthc large or steadied up vessel, th e ma-
neuvering ship come:; to a heading that parallels the large ::~h1p's wake.
Speed is 1djusted t.o be abom 3 to 5 knots greater than the 5pecd of the
large ship and the approac-h IS begun. J:\'olc llwt rnor~ spccti !s ap J;ropr:a~~
for this operation than for o!Tshore iightenng. '' ht-n the maneuvering :-hi?
actually goes o.!ongside the large ship. Ther._. 1~ inte;acuon bet wcen .5h 1:->"
be passed through before t.he speed ofthe :nnneuvcnng shrp 1s n~ducetl to
the final base speed to minimize the passage and c11sure gfltJJ rudde,- cull·
trol while in il. High-powered n:wal vessels'' ill often approach at much
higher· :;peeds and back down just before com1ng <lbLarn, llllt. this is not :1
250 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
~~
Fig. 9-22. Area to be 'lvoided duting approach.
prudent Rpproach when two merchant ships are involved. It i& not practi-
cal for m erchant ships to back down since the effect on steering will be
significant and their backing power is not sufficient to slow a ship from
the higher speeds used by the handier naval vessels. A ll)wer-powered
merchant ship continues at a speed greater than that of the steadied up
ship until past the danger zone and then reduces engine E~peed and slowly
loses headway until she is moving at the base speed.
One hundred feet is generally c proper separation distance between
ships, although some rigs used for transfer require lues separation. Don t
allow the ships to be pulled together by constant tension winches during
the transfer operation. The maneuvering ship heads a few degrees away
from the larger ship to compensate for the pull of these winches and also
for the suction effect between the two moving ships.
When in position abeam, the ships pass a distance line forward,
marked at intervals to assist in maintaining the required separation dis-
tance, and then pass the highline aru other rigging required for the re-
phmishment operation. Course is adjusted by giving the helmsman
headinga to steer rather than using helm orders, to ensure that all
changes are minimal so t he ships don't develop any radical swing while
alongs id E:. T he continued intP.rship attraction while in this posit ion,
caused by the r edu<.ed pressure a s the water flows between the two
sh ips, presents n o problem as long as the specified dis tance and slight
angle is m aintu ined between th e ships. If the s hips get closer t o on e an-
other th ey could be drawn togC'ther . The mariner can do little to counte r
inter s hip s uction if the two s hipEI arc allowed to get too close , s ince th is
I IELI CO PTEil OPE H.ATIO;>;S 251
precludes the mancuvcring ship gettiag s ufficient ~nglc nw uy from thn
larger ship to overcome the suction.
Wl1ile alongside, the moncuverir.g .;hip adju::.t,. .speed a few revolutions
at a time to match her speed with tl1atofthe larger ship Do not m ake uny
large C;hanges in revolutions (such as would result from using th'! tele-
gra ph to change speeds). Use abeam bearings and watch the d!st.ancc !me
to maintain the ship's po::.ition during the transfer.
To depart, open t he angle ut. the bow slightly u 1d let the maneuver ing
ship come slowly a way from the la rger ship, increa sing revolutions only
enough to overcome any decrease in speed due to the change in heading and
r udder. Do not. pass ahead of the latter shi p si nce any machinery fa il ure
would result in almost certain collision as the departing ship veers across
the other ship's bow. Don't. increase ship's speed through the water untll
well clear of the larger ship, as this increases the inter ship suction.
IIELICOPTEH OPERATIONS
It used to be that a helicopter was used only for emergency evacua lion of a
sick or injured crewmember. This task was accomplished by hovering over
the shi J. and lowe1i ng a littC'r to the deck. Increasingly, helicopters are be-
ing u.;ed for crew changes and storing of VLCCs and ULCCs en r oute from
port to por~the helicopter lands on the ship's deck t.o make the necessary
transfer of stores and crew.
In ei ther case, it is preferable to put the ship on a heading and adjust
speed to cr eate a 15 to 25 knot relative wind on one bow. This gives the
h e licopter a headwind, minimizes the turbulence o,·er the deck tha t would
be cr eated by the s hip's superstructure if the wind is put dead a head, anci
carries the stack gases to one side away from the approaching helicopter.
It is stressed t hat it is the relative wind that. is importan t and a ma neuvcr-
ing board plot should be done if necessary to find th e heading that pru-
duces the desi red relative wind direction and force. Often the necessary
heading is not obvious, es pecially ifLhf' true wind is s tronger th an the de-
sir ed ~ 5 knots.
Communication !;hould be es~:.!.blished ·:>.·ith the helicopter on V.PF
as soon as practical so maneuvers can oe agreed upon. The he licopter
pilot may recommend course and s peed changes . When the s hip is roll -
i ng more than a few degrees, and the helicopter is to la nd on deck fo r the
transfe r , the master must warn the helicopter off since it is da nge:rou:;
t.o land under such conditions . If the he licopter is only to hover, t his is
n ot a problem.
252 SPECIAL MANETJVERS

Lov.er the dipole antenna and remove any other obstructions prior to
the helicopter's arrival so lhey do not fcul the helicopter's rotor blades dur-
ing the operation. An unobstructed deck area must be provided, clearly
marked with the ir..ternationally recognized letter "H" surrounded by a
circle to dE:signato the clear area: Have the engine ready to maneuver in
case any problems develop during the operation. Hoist a flag forward and
another (In the flying bridge so the pilot can judge the wind direction and
speed during the operation. Light the ship well so all obstructions and the
landing area are clearly visible, but use lights shining forward so they
don't blind the pilot a& he approaches.
Do not touc.h a basket or litter when it i3 lowered. Allow the basket to
land on deck so the static charge is discharged before anyone handles it.
While putting a man or gear into the basket or litter do not secure it to the
ship in a ny way.
CHAPTER TEN
TRAINING
... the redeeming aud ideal aspect of this breadwin ning
, is the attainment and preserva:.ion of the highest pos::.i-
ble skill ... It is made up of accumulated tradition, kept
alive by indiVJdual pride, rendered exact by professional
opinion, and, like the hi gher arts, it is spurred on and
sustained by discriminating praise.
That is why the atlPinmcnt of proficiency, the push-
ing of your skill with attention to the most delicate
shades of excellence, iL n matter of vital conccm.
-Joseph Conrad, The Mirror uf the S ea

Like other professi9nals, t he novice seaman mul:it learn new concepts,

skills, laws, and practices; W1like other profesfiionals, though, a seaman
must apply what is learned in a new environment, and become so adept a t
living and working in that environment that once-alien reactions become
intuitive-the mariner develops "sea sense." Training for a maritime ca-
reer is therefore ofgreater depth than in many other professions, begins a t
a more basic level, 1U1d mt: st be continu<..'<i throughout a mariner's caree r.
It is both formal through various private, union, and governmental facili-
ties, and infoflilal through continuous self-study and contact with s hip-
mates, be they peers or senior officers.
Formal t raining receives the ·most at tention and is handled well in
most cases. Equally important informal training unfortunately gets less
attention, yet it is through this type of t raining that a seaman learns pri-
orities anJ adjusts q10ory to reality.
Only rudimentary training in shiphandling and pi!oting is provided a t
the maritime acad<?mies. Signific:.111L lraini.ng in th i:> a;·e;J o~pns aLoard
ship and is received fr om several sources including

1. Masters and senior officers, primarily covering at-sea s hiphand ling

and anticollision mannuvering, and maneuvering at the pilot sta-
tion or anchorage.

253
 I
i. j 254 TJ{AINING ON BOARD TRA\Nl t'IG OF Sl' IP'S OFFJ CEHS r: -
2,)\)

2. Pilots and docking masters. Few mariners take the initia tive re-
quire'.! to tap this source of tra ining, which is unfortunate since p1-
l0ts are proud of their skills a nd generally willing to share much
informa tion. In reality, pilots primarily train other pilots.
3. Passive observation of shiphandlers at work, a laudable but rcla-
tbely unproductive exercise similar to learning heart surgery by
watching a transplant operation on television.
4. Sh:dy of textbooks and video training material, both persona l and
company supl)lied.
5. Simulator-based training programs and scale model basin training
facilities, where a mariner or pilot can obtain a good grasp of
shit:handling and bridge operating procedures in both routine a nd
emergency situations.
·I
I ONBOARD TRAINING OF SHIP'S OFFICERS
Every officer is serving aboard a multimillion dollar training aid. The
ship, and the company and personal material aboard her, are available to
the mariner; it is in the master's and company's interest to encourage use
'1 of that training aid. Training opportunities are limited only by master's
Fig. }.0-1. "Only training and 'hands-on' experience t.ake the mystery
l imagination and initiative, and include om of shiphandling."
" ii
1. Bridge demonstrations and critiques of situations that arise a nd ac- Use all available lime in the ship's schedule to train the ship's officers,
tions taken in those situations. using the techniques described for instruction in previous chapters. Select
2. lnformul coffeetime discussions of professional subjects including scenerios that are comr.10nly encountered and re-create them in an an-
shiphandling at sea and in rort. chorage or open roadstead while waiting for a pilot or ber th, allowing each
3. Planned training sessions covering anchoring, stopping a snip, con- officer to handle the ship a nd complete the planned maneuver. When rou-
ning techniques, making a lee for a pilot, Williamson Turns a nd t inely mnneuvering the ship, explain to the deck oflicers what you arc do-
man-overboard exercises, and other appropriate shiphandling skills. ing and why-action taken in a par ticular situation and the reasons for
that action are not obvious t.o the less experienced officers unless you get
Training should start. at the most. basic level. Masters must insist that them involved. Point. out how t.he ship bac~ into the wind or the bow fa !ls
deck officers conn the .ship t.o new headings at sea, rather then just. giving off to star board as the engine goes astern, since seeing th is ac tion once
the helmsman a new c0urse to s teer, so that they develop a feel for the ship ma kes a more lasting impression than readt ng about iL a do;r.en LimC':>
and th~ amount of rudder needed to handle her. Deck officers shuuld ha n- Beca~se of inexperience, too many deck ofiicers suffer from the udon't
dle the ship when anchoring or picking up the pilot, whi!P. the master ob- touch" syndrome. The less experien ced oflicer is not. initially comfottable
serves and corrects the work as necessary. Every mate mus t. be prepared with bridge equipment, so the re is a ve ry rea l hesitancy to use it. It is irn-
for the duties of the next higher position, especially the chief mate who pOI'tant that these ollicers overcome this hesitancy or t,hey can never be-
must d'J as much shiphandling as possible. A promotion is not an opportu- come profi cient. If shipboard lraining accomplishes nothinrr else, it ts
nity t.o start training. It is a recognition of skills already posse3sed. irreplaceable if the officer becomes more wi lling to lake action.
256 TRAINING
Hold a "hands-on" se~sion and encourage each officer to use the bridge
equipment-insist !.hat they repeatedly use the telegraph, whistle, put
thf' ruddE'r hard over (yes, a t sea speed . . . it will not da ma r£e anything). Ex-
plain that each officer is just to grab on and US(' the gear repea '..edly and to
its max!m urn, then stand back. Go ahead Mate, use the whistle . .. sound it
again . .. put the rudder hard over . . . put the engine astern, ahead, astern
again. Now that mate has started t0 be a useful and competent deck offi-
cer. Few drills will ever be more productive than these initial hands-on
sessions.
There is no magic to sl)iphandling, just experience, good sense, and
confidance in one's skills, and no one can become proficient until they are
toi;ally comfortable using bridge equipment and making the ship respond
to their demands.
A new 1,000-foot ship went aground a 1Env years ago while maneuver-
ing to avoid fishing craft in the straits of Gibraltar. During the ensuing in-
ves tigation the master was asked why he repeatedly altered course to
avoid or.e vessel after another rather than slowing or stoppmg the ship.
He replied that he wanted f:.o go astern but hesitated because he didn't feel
he could Lack the ship at the speed she was making without losing control.
He wasn't 3ure how his ship would behave if the telegraph 'Nas put astern!
A beautiful, new ship would not have settled on the ror.ks if a short, simple
hands-on session had been held aboard ship at Rome time during the mas-
ter's twenty years at sea.
Most ship:3 have a video recorder on board, and several good training
films on all maritime subjects including shiphandhng and ship behavior
are available for lease. Maritime academies and union school libraries
maintain source lists for such material, which can be obtained by a tele-
phone call if you do not already have addre.>ses of suppliers. Companies
leasing or selling these films also advertise in maritime publications, such
as the excellent Safety at Sea and Professional Mariner magazines, which
should also be put aboard ship as training material. Obtain training films
for use throughout the fleet, in conjuacbon with training sessions nod ma-
neuvers, to get the maximum benefit from an onboard training program.
Some masters combine fire and emergency drills with training ses-
sions, and hold the sessions prior to each drill. By gathering officers and
crew in the lounge and discussing a particular s11bject over coffee (the sub-
ject usually being complementary to the drill although this is not re-
quired), the crew and officers develop greater interest in drills and
training in ger.eral. The crew is soon requesti.ng that specific subjects be
ONIJOAIW TRAINI NG C F PILOTS ~G7
discuss()d a nd contributed t0 the discussions. Mos t oft he crew is involved
a n d interested in shiphandling and it should be included in this train ing
p:-ogram
Distr ibute edurational ma terial obtained frum professional publica-
tions to ail onboard, licensed and unl.icensed; your intcre:;t is con tagious
and your satisfaction great.
ONBOARD TRAlNING OF PILOTS
Even with modern simulation, there is s till no better, more efi'e ctive trai n-
ing for apprentice pilots than ''har.J s-on" experience aboard ship. ll has
become increasingly difficult for ship's officers to develop s hiphandli ng
skills aboard larger, fas t-turnaround shi ps with ever smaller crews, but
pilots, by the very nature of tlh~ir work, still have daily access to the ulti-
mate training tool, the ship.
Unfortunately, there is presently a tendency to downgrade the impor-
tance of such training in favor of written tests and licensing, classroom
time, standardization of t rain ing requi rements, and simulator traim ng.
This only reflects a lack of unders tandi ng ofp iloLi ng since the state of the
art of other teaching systems simply has not reached the l<>vel of sophisti-
cation required to replace shipboard experience.
Appnmtice pilots must make full use ofthe ship, just as ship's officers
must use every opportunity to gain information on shiphandling fro m a pi-
lot. A great deal of money is being spent for pilot association-own ed,
shore-based training facilities, which is commendable, but the ship itself
is not being fully util,ized as a training aid. Use the various types of cqui p-
ment, including raJars, in euery possible mode, to keep skills current. Too
many pilots put the radar in the "head-up" presentation as soon as they
get to the bridge (even before getting a cup of coffee!) because that is the
only presentation with which they arc comfortable. You can't nlways effec-
tively wa tch the relative motion of other ships when the radar is used in
the head-up presentation and the t argets are changing their location on
the PPI (plan position indicator ) as you maneuver, yet when feeling your
way up a na rrow channel in the fog, thrre is less chance of enor when op-
eratmg in the head-up mode. 'l'here is a proper time for each mode and the
ship is a laboratory in which to experiment (fi g . 10-2).
Question the ship's officers about any new gea r found aboard ship.
This is their fi eld of expertise a nd they are trained in the use of such equ ip-
m ent. Exchange your knowledge of shiphandling fo r information about
the ship's new equipment.
258 TRAINING ONIJOAHU TRAI!\ING OF PILOTS 259

Fig. 10-2. Make use of staLe-of-the-ort ship's equipment to continuously
update shipboat·d skills. Courtesy RTM STAR CenLcr.
sages and trips on difficult s!1ips lo give the brondest pvssible base of Pxpe-
rience and ensure the learning of good .vork habits. A spe:cific pilot in thi!
assori".tion sh::~l...! be responsible fc: L~nl;Jing, and continu<•l!y revi~w and
update training requirement, to reflect the changes in ship lypeti nnd lo-
cal conditions. Training, be it. for lhe !:hip's officer o r· the pilCJl, is too ilnpor-
tant. to b<> left. to happcnstancc.
There is a great deal ofpolilical pressure from within the industry to
standardize and formalize pilot training and have pilots work only under
a federal license. It. is obvious t.o the working pilot that conditions arc loo
different. in each port t.o adupt standard requirements-that is the very
reason that pilotage services are needed as ships move from port to port.
There is, however, some basis for criticism at present as some pilot associ-
ations h ave no formal training program, and each pilot. follows an infor-
mal path to qualify for his various licenses. Other associations have
formal training, strict;y enforced standards t.hat usually far exceed any
statutory requirements, and a system of peer evaluation that again is of-
ten more effective than any federally administered licensing schem<!. In
self defense it is time that all pilot associations establish formal training
programs and definite standards t.o qualify an apprentice to serve a~ full

Work with all of the navigation equipment including GPS units,

ECDIS, ARPA, faLhometers, and Doppler equipment, and learn aboullhe
latest types of steering gear so you are as familiar with them as the ship's
officers. Try to become comfortable and proficient in their use, P.SpeciaEy
with the systems that are most useful for piloLing and shiphandling. Too
often a pilot must ask for help to perform even the most routine of opera-
tions despite having had the opportunity to use the same piece of equip-
ment aboard other vessels. Further, most shiphandlers, ship's officers,
and pilots alike, tend to u se the equipment in the open ocean and never de-
velop techniques they need when the rain squall hits while handling lhe
ship in a narrow channe:. Overnavigrte, even though the last Lhing yl)u
might need is a fix as you m eke you lhot1sandth ttip up the river on a clear
day; it >ha rpens your skills and may save you from having to rely on a less
than cvmpetent mate when the fog sets in on a strange ship.
When t-·aining an apprentice create opportunities to use tugs or an an-
chor in less common situations and insisL that Lhe apprentices occasion-
ally navigate by radar on clear days. Require mult.iple trips undc1· difficult Fig. 10-3. "Captain Buck is in charge of pilot training and lakes the Jub
condition!;, Insist. that an apprentice make a large number of night pas- very seriously."
 TRAINING
pilot. If the associations don't do this, others will, and the piloting profes-
sion and the industry will suffer for it.
SHlPIIANDLING SfMULATORS
Teachers have used books, lectures, and written tests to teach the theory
ofshiphandling and other miiritime skills for generations. Countless sea-
farers learm.d their trade through this tradit1onal instruction and then
went directly aboard ship to apply their classroom knowledge in the real
world where most did an excellent job in a profession where skill develop-
ment was motivated p1;marily by tradition and professional pride.
This training served the industry well even though it failed to address
some seriouE gaps between theory and application that the mariner was
forced to fill by trial an C. error at sea. These gaps were at times sizable, as
most mntcs .standing their first bridge watch alone will attest. Who forgets
that first watch when, after dropping the pilot and putting the ship on
course to her next port, the master stepped below leaving the new third
mate, alone and untested, to deal with navigation and traffic. The young
mate, who had read all the books and mastered countless exams, quickly
learned, during the next few proud but nerve-wracking hours, that a
sometimes horrifying gap exists between theory and application. Most of
us survive to serve without incident through a career stretching for years
and hundreds of thousands of miles at sea, but there is ne denying we all
would have henefited from some form of training that more closely resem-
bled that first watch at sea or first encounter with some new situation.
With simulation, mates, m as ten, and apprentice pilots have an oppor-
tunity to apply theory to real-world situations without being aboard shij),
and simule.tor-based instruction is now part of training in shiphandling
and bridge operations at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, the state
academies, the union schools, private training facilities, and sevetal sim-
ulator facilities worldwide.
These institutions realize th&.t the simulator offers mariners the op-
pvrtunity to experience, in a relatively short period of time, a multitude of
situations that would take years to witness "on-the-job." MorP. impor-
tantly, thE:se situations can be cout.rolle:d f\nd responses can be evaluated
and cntiqued without. bending a single plate of steel.
THE RULES OF THREES
An overview of simulation training .lS it impacts on shiphandling is p"e·
sented in this •;hapter and the practice maneuvers in the book's last pages
SI~It:LATOHS AS INNOVATIVE TRAil\! NO AIDS
can be used as part llf a sirn:.tlator-bascd shiphandling program. More de-
tailed information al.>out a curriculum and teaching techniques are out-
side the scope of this text nnd r(;aders sh0uld consult specialized texts! see
tnc Bibliography), such as c!1apter 8 ofWatchstanding Guide for the .\fer-
chant n{ficcr, for a more detailed discutsion on t~is rapidly deveioping
field. Complete report,Q of studies and guidelines for simulat.or-bascd pro·
grams have been produced at the CAORF fa::ility at Kings Pvint and arc
available for rf!view.
Simulator trair.ing follows two oasic Rules of Threes:
• There are three componen:s to a good simulator program-the sim-
ulator, the instructor, and the curriculum.
• There are three steps to efi'edive simulator training-dassroom
presentation of ~hcory in a detailed briefrng session, the !.raining
exercises on the simulator, and an nll-imporumt debriefing session
where '1erformance is reviewed and cr.tiqued.
Together, the three components and the three steps form a teaching
p1·ocess t.hat. changes the very nature ofinstruc.iou for several facets of the
work done by shipmast.ers, deck officer.;, and pilots as well as for operat1ng
tasks performed by professionals in other demanding po1.itions, such as
airline- pilots and power plant operators.
Simulators are powerful tools for training in the very important opera-
tional work done on the ship's bridge and in the engine room, but simula-
tion is not. a panacea. Mariners are geoeralisw in an era of specialization
and simulator-based instruction is not, at least ut llus lime, useful for
teaching every type"of work that deck officers routinely perform.
SIZ..fULATORS AS INNOVATIVE TRAINING AIDS
S!mulalors fill a long recognized gap between classroom instruction and
hands-on application of many operating skills including shiphandhng,
rules of the road, radar. navigation, wetchkeeping and bridge procedures,
and bridge resource management. For the firs"L time, with simulat.ion. dy-
namic n al-world situations can be created ir. a controlled classroom en\'i-
ronment where ship's officers and pilvls can
1. Practice new techniques and ~>ki ll s with an instructor and peers .
2. :"ra ns(er theiJry to real-world situations in a classroom en \'i ran me 11 t.
3. Deal with multiple problems concurrently rather than sequ::!ntially.
262 TRAINING SCALI!: 1\!0 DJ::IrllASW 1:!1MULATOHS 263

4. Learn to prioritizc those multiple tasks under the 3ame high stl"Cil:>, SCALE MODEL-BASED 3D!ULATORS
changing conditions faced in actual shipboard operations.
Scale modr:l-bascd s imulators at facilities in Grcnoble, France: the South-
a mpton Institute in the United Kingdom; and thu presently cl oiled U m Led
Shiphandling and many other facets of the merchant mariner's and pi-
States Navy school in Littlu Creek, Virginia, use large scak models of var-
lot's work are operating skills. The principles can be learned from bJoks
ious ship types to simulate uctual ships and shiphundling si tun lions. The
and lectureR, but proficiency comes through practice. Befor~ simulation,
student and shiphandler/instructor ride in the modeh (fig. 10-4 ) on rela-
there was no way to ccmplete the learning process without actually going
tively large, specia lly designed takes l ~id out with modeled channels,
aboard shit> and working at the job. As stated elsewhere in this text, one
docks, locks, canals, mooring buoys, single-point. moorir.rrs , a nd a nchor-
does not learn to play the piano by reading about it, and professionals do-
ages to recreate a wide range of shiphandling activities.
ing operational work do not learn their craft through study and classroom
instruction alone. Mariners master their craft by doing it aboard ship but.,
with simulation, it ;snow possible to at least practice fundamentals, cor-
rect. poor work habits, develop procedures, and demonstrate basic profi-
ciency before :1ctually going aboard ship.
This is a major advancement in maritime training. Textbook instruction
can be put into practice and, at least as important, skills can be applied in
real-world situations where several tasks are done simultaneously, not
one at a time. Before simulation, shipboard skill.s were discussed and
tested !~equentially, because there is no way to address several tasks si-
multaneously on paper or to learn the all-important art of prioritizing
work. In real life, deck officers and pilots deal with multiple operating
tasks simultaneously and, through practice, they learn ~o prioritize in-
stinctively and, most importantly, to shift priorities, in c.hanging routine
and emergency situations.
Simulators are bringing a new dynamic into the classroom where expe-
rienced mariners or pilots teach s:cills using books and lectures with the
added dimension of real-time experience to actually teach operating skills
rather than just e.-cplain them.

TYPES OF SIMULATORS
There are two basic types of simulators-model-based simulators in
which pilota and deck officers ride in large scale models while learning and
practicing sh.iphandling, and computer-based simulators using a bridge
mock-up ar.d a computer-driven presentation. Computer-based sirr.ula-
tors use either an image of the selected geographic area generated com-
plei.ely by the computer with the ship's behavior programmed a:, an
overlay, or a computer-generated image together wit.h points of light pro- Fig. 10-4. A typical scale training mo<.lel with rid ing positions fer tlw
jected oa that image. Each has advantages and disadvan;;ages and both instructor and student. Courtesy the Southampton l n.;ti tu ~c, :'\lanltme
types, properly operated , are very effective training tools. Opera tions Center. P hoto by Steve ~Ja r k.
264 TRAINING COMPUTER-BASED S I~I UI..ATORS 265

The model-based s imulator gives a dynamic presentation of bottom and

bank etfe~ts, wind and sea conditions, and iniership effects created as two
ships pass. Scenarios are created lo provide a wide range of shiphandling
experiences (fig. 10-5). The ship models respond to exten1al wind and t'ur-
rent and behave like an actual ship when backed and t.urned. Anchor work N
is prncticed in the model-based simulator under normal and emergent'y sit-
uations in a very realistic environment where a real, albeit. S'11all, vessel i·;
manenvered using an actual anchor. These are real floating craft iu real
water behaving according to the laws of hydrodynamics, so the effect expe-
rienced by shiphandlers is correct even though it is sc~led down.
Ber.ause t.he simulation is scaled down, neither the external effects nor
ship behavior can be in "real time ." There is some difference of opinion
among experienced shiphandlers who have worked with both computer- '·:--·--J: •••l; •••
driv':!n and model-based simulators as to whether this scaled behavior sig-
nificantly de~reasef.. zhe effectiveness of this training. ·~
C C I

c "'
~ "'
SCALE-IS IT IMPOR'l'ANT? ,_:>CC .
i·

Shiphandlers speak of "having a feel" !'or a ship-being able to take the

correct action at the correct time based on an almost instinctive sense of a
particular ship's behavior. The ability to anticipate ship response at this
level is gained by actually handling similar ships for several year;. It
would appear, therefore, that the lack of real-time response would be a ma- ..., (J
jor disadvantage to any system that is being used to tea.::h shiphundling. 0
::l ..c
.....
In fact, most ship's officers and pilots insist they quickly adjust to thh; "0
'(; Ill
>.
CJ
scaled time, so it does not seem to degrade training. Further, any disad- (J t:
::l
vantage that. might exist is partially offset by the fact that many effects ..!..:
0
..:l ()
and situations can be simulated, and actually felt, in a dyt:.amic, scaled- ....
down vessal moving through the water, that cannot be re-created as effec- ....0
C!l
rr,
~
'f)

tively using p::esent computer-driven equipment. There seems to be gen- ;; ·c::;

....
E (J
eral agree-ment, especially among experienced pilots and shiphandlers 1/l
X
(J

who have actually spent. time on both typeJ of simulators, that scale does "0
;,; u
c
not degrade the effe<.tiveness of scale model simulators as learning tools. ~ c
Computer-driven and scale model simulators each offer advantages and, ~ ....
::; " -'
-:;)
generally, the more experienced shiphandlers seem to have a greater ap- 0 '-
c
preciation of scale-model training. E f/)
(J
< 0.
>.
COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS .....
6"'"' ~
Computer-based, full- and part-task simulators are proliferating at mari- ....
(.)
~ >
time schools, union st.:hools, and private training facilities worldwide as tZ (.)
'1:
266 THAINING
ship bridge simuldion hecomes an afl'ordable and effedive marine train-
ing tool. This growth of mari11e simulation, and particularly ship bridge
simulation, is very much technologically driven as equipment devP.lops to
fill a long-known need for a means to teach operating techniques that, be-
fore simulation, could not be taught in :1 classroom (fig. 10-6). Smaller,
faster desktop and mini-computers with greater memory capacity ha,·e
made it technically and financially practical to builtl equipment that sim-
ulates complex hydrodynamic models moving over realistic visual scenes
at a reasonnble cost. Early simulation with rather basic, cartoonlike pre-
sentatiom: and simpl:stic ship models have evolved into detailed and visu-
ally accurate scenes with complex models and multiple meeting and
crossing vessels. Limited ahead-view only screens have evolved into 240-
to 360-degree presentations that usually provide a view aft so the com-
puter-driven simulation is useful for pilots and deck officers.
There are two basic leuels ofcomputer simulators, defined by complete-
ness of the simulation and purposes served. Part-task simulators present a
Fig. 10-6. The modem simulation uses state-of-the-art high-definition
project0rs to provide 360-degree photo-quality scenes. Courtesy RTM
STAR Centcr.
COMl'UTim-llASED SIMULAT0HS 267
limited number of fea tures, typically one or two systems, a .. d are intcnd~d
for training in u specific task such as radar, rules of the roud, \RP A, or
cargo system training, where it is not. necc!:'sary to use a mor•' expen:;ive,
complex full bridge simulation. Full-task simulators, alsc referred t~ as
full-mission bridge simulators, present r1 complete environment, such as a
complete engine contr:ol room or a full ~hip's bridge complete with naviga-
tion equipment, radar, steering stand, communications equipment, en-
gine control, and all the other systems that would be present in a modern
wheelhouse. A full task or full mis~ion simulator is designed tc crcaLc a re-
alistic environment in which the ship's officer or pilot can train and prac-
tice the same full range of tasks in a rea 1-time scenario that they would
experience aboard ship in routine and emergency bridge watch silualions.
Full-task simulators, regardless of type and builder, share a common
background. All begin with a mathematical model developed from data
collected in shallow water tests ::>nd sea trials of the class and type of ship
being simulated. The hydrodynamicist supplies the ship data to program-
mers who create a visual presentation that moves across a set of screens
re-creating vessel motion and the hydrodynamic and environmental ef-
fects suitablfl to the particular training Ression, limited only by available
computer memory and speed. Experienced pilots then spend many hours
working with the programmer anu hydrodynurnicist tailoring the model,
modifying the data-based presentation until it "feels". to the shiphandler
like the class of ship being modeled. This modification or tailoring of mod-
els is -:ontrovemial and obviously unscientific but, \vith current simula-
ton and the maneuvering data available to the hydrodynamicist, it seems
necessary to blend the experienced mariner's intuitive evaluation with
the theoretical model to develop a sufficiently accurate simulation.
Simulators have o. mock-up of a generic ship's bridge with some type of
front or rear projection visible forward of the bridge upon which the visual
scene and the ship's deck are either projected or developed (figs. 10-7 and
10-8). It is generally accepted that the simulator's bridge should re-create,
to the maximu:n extent possible, the actual shipboard environment. Most
facilities include a chart room. ship's passagewfys, and the usual naviga-
tion equipment, reference books, and instruments found on a typical
ship's bridg~. The visual presentation should present at least a 240-dcgree
field of ,;sibility, since shiphandlers depend as much on a view aft, or at
least abaft the beam, as they do on the view ahead when moving ships ir.
pilot waters and close quarters situations (fig. 10-8). A greater arc of visi-
bility is desirable when workir1g in very close quarters situations, and a
268 TRAINING COMPUTEH BASED SIMULATOHS

t.ures used by the ~;hiphandlcr maneuvering in the pori. Condiliun:; of

restricted visibility, day and night scenes, the effects ofwinJ forr.es on wa-
ter surface, l.moy and navigational aids, a.1d the ;;,lunds of whistle:; and
buoys are included in the simuiE lion.
Incre"\sed computer power makes it possible to simulntc more curn-
plcle vessel behavior in given wind and current. conditions and in re:;pom.;a
to changing bank effects as a ship proceeds along a channel. Intership ef-
fects between passing ships are presented with reasonable acc.:uracy al-
though computer-driven simulation is waiting for the next gotHll'ution of
computers to be able to handle the complex calculations needed to repro-
duce fully the interaction oft.wo ships passing. The most modern simula-
tors are also able to simulate at least the basic effects of dragging and
steaming on anchors and the use of an anchor in emergency situation:>.
The technique used to actually generat.e this "isual presentation is of
more importance to the simulator operator than to the student. The simu-
lator user is more interested in the following:

Fig. 10-7. MITAGS simulator uses a hydraulic system to move t.he

wheelhous~ platform and add roll, yaw, and pitch to the simulation.
Courtesy Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies.

view astenl is now available in a few simulators for training in docking

and undocldng.
Various ship types are simulat.ed. Depending on the work to be done,
the mathematical ship model might be specific, such as when doing port
research or training for a new class of ship, or it might. only simul&.te an av-
erage ship of a pnrticular size or type for less specific instruction in bridge
operations and general shiphandling. Effects inherent to the slJip, includ-
ing steering characteristics, engine response ahead and astern, eil'ects of
backmg, t.wist:ng, trim, draft, and directional stability or instability are
all included in the ship's program. Shallow water effects, the hydrody-
namics of bank and intership action, and external forces such as tugs,
wind, and current effects that change as the ship type and loading condi-
tions are altered, are overlaid on that &hip's program. The ship and the Fig. 10-8. U.S. Merchant Marine Academy cadets gaining expet·ience
forces affecting it are overlaid on a representation of the port or open wa- cc•nning and handling ships underway on a real-time simulator.
ter maneuvering area that. includes the visual cues and prominent fea- Courtesy© United Stat~s ME:rchant Marine Aca<.letny.

J
I I
I 270 TltAINING
1. The accuracy of th e mathematical s hip model over a fdl range of
maneuvers ahead and astern.
2. The detail or fide.'ity of the visual presentation.
3. The arc of visibility presented.
4. The l'ccura cy with which the external forces arc re-created to simu-
late tlv~ effects of wind, current, bank and shallow water effects,
intership action, and the effects of tugs and anchors.
5. The degree to which the simulator re-creates the bridge environment.
There is some debate concerning the need for highly specific mathe-
m atical s hip models and detailed visual scenes, and the impact of added
detail on the effectiveness of the simulator as a teaching tool. Academics
tend to feel detail is not a s important as application while mariners , the
users, generally contend that. realism is important to make the simulation
believable but, as computer power increases and cost declines, the debatC::
will probably become moot. Simulators will provide increasingly accurate
reproductions of the ship and the environment in which she operates sim-
ply because technology makes it possible to do so at ever lower costs.
State-of-the-art computers capable of presenting complex hydrody-
namic effects are now available at. a reasonable cost so there are very few
areas where initial training cannot be provided using simulation. Simula-
tors can be used for training in techniques like the proper way to meet and
pass other ships in narrow channels with sufficient realism to be used for
initial trnining of pilots and ships' officers. The exception might be the use
of anchors for routine and emergency maneuvers, which is not currently
simulated with sufficient accuracy to be useful to a rilot or mariner.
On thfl other hand, the effects of dragging and maneuvering on one or
two anchon; are poorly simulated at best. This is probably the case be-
cause programmers and design engineers don't appreciate th~ important
role anchors play in emergency and routine shiphandling and the lack of
sufficient real d'lta that can be used for programming. The anchor looks to
them like a big parking brake. Thi" shortcoming is significant because the
anchor is the primary tool in emergency situations when power or steering
is los t and, since simdators are touted as tools for teaching emergency
maneuvers, the effects of the anchor must be simulated accurately. The
most recent gl:!neration of simulators seems capable of doing this to a lim-
ited degree, but simulators will not reEtch their full potential as tooln for
emergency training until the eflects of dragging and working with an-
chors JS fully and accura tely documented and simulated.
CO:'IIl'AR!SON 01-' MODEL ANU COMI'UTI-:H SIMUL:\1'0HS ~71
COMPARISON OF MODEL AND COMPUTER SIMUT .ATORS
There are S0"1e !ld\·;mtages :>'1d disa~·::mlagc.s tu both mvdel- and com-
puter -based ~i mulators, independent of the operational differences be-
t ween the two types.
ModPl-based s imulators need several acres of n atural or man-made
lake, so that. there are limitations to where this type of facility can be lo-
ca ted. A suitable natu ral or man-made lake and a fe w acres of open land
are needed for the facilities, so the model facili1y may have to be estab-
lished in an inconvenient, and possioly expensive, location . Computer-
driven simulators can be set up lite.·ally anywhere without r egard to prox-
imity to water o: large areas of open land since only a few r easonably sized
r ooms are needed fo r the equipment. and bridge mock-up. The facility can
be built in a convenient , low-cost location although the site cost consider -
ation is at least partially offset by the high co!'t or purchasing, maintain-
ing, and upgrading the computer-driven simulator and its software.
Model simulators are affected by weather, which can significantly re-
duce the time this type of simul ator is usable. This can be a significant dis-
advantage in areas with severe winters and a high percentage of rainy
days. Computer facilities can be used for training year round independent
of weather conditions, although some m.1riners claim the r eal-life envi-
ronment of model-based simulators adds to the learning experience.
The very low teacher-to-student ratio inherent in a model-based simu-
lator, where the instructor rides with only one or two mariners for several
days, makes this type of instruction expensive. The teacher to student
ratio i&only marginally bel:ter for computer siruulators, so neither type of
simulator has a significant advantage in this regard. It seems U1en that
there a re no oven'iding advantages or disadvantages to one system over
the other and that each is m ore effective for teaching par ticular aspects of
s hiphandling.
Thnse design.s 2nd cos; differences tend t.o balance out, so the real con-
sideration is which type of simulator is most effect.ivc for leaching th e par-
ticular subjC'ct matter. Pilots seem to prefer the model s imulator that
effectively re-create;; hydrodynamic effects, extern al forces, anchor work,
and ship behavior both ahead und astern in very close waters, since they
are mo:e interested in the subtleties ofshiphandli ug and oper ations in pi-
let waters. Deck officers seem t.o prefer computer-driven simulators for
their abihty to simulate particular pOJi.s and a familiar bridgclike setting
0f a ship underway for training in bridge operatio ns, navigation, rules of
272 TRAINING Sn!ULA'J'OR VALIUA'l'l0:-.1 273

the road, and other operations more related to the work of a ship's officer. s ured performance, review, and repetition after a deol"icfing where each
Perhaps this io to be expected since the two user groups do have di fferent recorded session is reviewed by participants and the instructor. De critical
interests. of yourself and open-m;r.ded when reviewing record., of ca~.1 Pxcrctsc so
If a generalization can be made, it is that there nre advantages to t.he that subsequent simulator sesf\ions du more than reinfc,.·ce old, o:~en im-
ship-mcdel r.irnulator for teaching the subtleties of shiphandling, while proper work habits (fig. 10-D).
the computE·r-driver. bridge simulator seems to be hetter for teaching
many of the other aspects of the deck officer's or pilot's work. In any case, SIMULATOR VALIDATION
advantages of model simulation may be lost if the next generation of com- A simulator is of little use if the information presented is not accurate,
puter-driven simul:itors is able to re-create the effects that are presently since incorrect or misleading information :s worse than useless: it can be
simulated most effectivE>ly using models. Until that time, the best facili- dangerous. The process of evaluating the accuracy of the simulation is
ties will probably u.se both computer-driven ar,d scale-model simulators to known as validation.
teach those aspects of shiphandling for which each is most suitable. This is Studies of various means for measuring accuracy of the simulation
presently don.e at the Southampton Institute in the United Kingdom. and validating simulator facilities are ongoing in several countries but,
as yet, the criteria are nebulous at best, since Lhe use r is trying to catch
TOOLS OF SIMULATOR INSTRUCTION
up with the fast changing teclmology while, al the same time, deciding
Modern simulators creak an environment where performance can be
demonstrated, measured, and replayed, so that recording equipment of
several types is important. The simulator changes the methods used to re-
view and test learning in much the same way it changes the nature of in-
struction itself, because simulator recordings provide an active, dynamic
measure of performance rather t~an the passive pass-fail written tests
used in the traditional classroom (fig. 10-9).
Typically, the tools used to recor d both performance and behavior un-
der routine and high-stress emergency conditions include

1. "X-~.i" or similar plotters that reproduce a vessel's track and head-

ing.
2. Computer- or printer-generated graphs and tables of vessel speed,
engine and helm orders, rate ofturn, and associated data telated to
time.
3. Simulator playback capability, so that situations and performance
can be recreated for selected ti;nes.
4. Audio recording of pilot's o:: deck officer's orders and discussions
durir,g R simulator run.
5. Video recording of participants' actions and use of equipment. Fig. 10-9. Control room of a staw-of-the-art marir:e simulator with
computer input, monitors, and recording equipmcr.t to allow instructor
Use these records of <:ach simulatnr exercise in a debriefing session to and operator to manage and record the scssior. for later dcLriefing a.1d
review and compare perform~nco with past sessions and accepted stan- evaluation. Courtesy Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate
dards. Skills are mastered on a simulator through this process of mea- Studies. ·
274 TRAINING
wher l3 simulators fit into the m:::ritime t raining picture. Simulator vali -
dation is becoming increasingly im porta nt as simulators gain accep-
tance for rPquired t ruining, te Qtine, :::nd liceming, !m':! :1s compa.:.ies
increase t heir usP. of s :mulators for evaluating mates and m!lsters for
promotion and retention .
THESIMULATORINSTRUCTOR
The instructor is the second and most importantcomponentofthe simula-
tor package.
It is far too easy to overlook the instructor's essen tial r ole a midst the
bells, whistles, and fla shir.g lights of a modem simulator but, as impres-
sive as it migh t be, the simulator is ~nly a sophisticated teaching tool used
by an exp~rienced ma riner with the aptitude and training to teach a well-
planned course covering the various aspects of vessel operations and
ahiphandling to cadets, pilots, and deck officers.
An uncodified but nationally and intemationally accepted standard iu
evolving that requires very skilled mariners as instructors ~ather t han a
third mate wa iting for a job at sea, or a retired military officer with two
years' sea time aboard military ships that are very different from today's
large a nd often underpowered deep draft merchant ships. Instructors
should be experienced pilots, master mariners, or maritime professionals
who have in-depth experience in the particular miUleuvers being taught
and are also teachers trained in operating the simulator. At \.he better fa-
cilities, the instructors also have specialized training in adult education
and the techniques for using simulation effectively as a training tool.
When very specialized training is offered, the facility may use a team con-
cept with two instructors, one trained in teaching with simula tors and a
second who is usually a professional with current experience in the spe-
cia lty being t a ught.
Poor instruction only perpetuates the very shiphandling mistakes and
poor operatin g procedures t hat the pilot, mate, er master came to the
course to overcome, and courses taught by anyone other than senior , expe-
rienced mariners with training as instructors do a disservice to this a rea
of maritime education.
Companies, pilot or ganizations, and the mariners using a facility
sh ould con~ider the qua lificatious of the instructor as well as the capabili-
t ies ofthe simulator wh en evaluating a simulator program, a nd simulator
facilities sh ould budget for well-qualified instructors, not excess ively ex-
pensive equipment. A simulator with limited capabilities in the hands of a
1'11F. SIMULATOH CIJHH! CU LUM F'OH DECK OFI·' !CI::HS :2 75
s ki lled instructor with s trong ::o<Irse mate1·ia l is an excellent tra ini ng tool.
The best full-ta sk simulator is a weak teaching tool in the ha nds of a poor,
professionally mex perienceJ instrud or and a n instructo r who does not
take simula tion st:riously.
There are ongoing st u dies by the Internatio nal Maritime vrganiza-
tion, the U.S. Coas t Gua rd, and several pap~rs by various participants in
the international conferences on marine simulation concerning accredi ta-
tion of simulator instructors that will .:onsider professional exper ience
and training but, as yet, no such siaudards are in place in the Un ited
States . This certification should also include certification standard;; for
courses that trai n the trainer.
DEGREE OF INSTRUCTOR INVOLVEMENT
There are two schools of thought regarding the degree to which the in-
str uctor should be involved in the simul«tor exercise.
Some believe instructors should be on the brid~e workin g with the stu -
dent gr<?up. The instructor would explain maneuvers and actively guide
th e shiphandler or mate through the exercise so that each maneuver is
performed correctly.
Others feel the instructor should be at a separate operating console re-
moved from the students, who would go through each exercise independ-
ently after the briefing session. The ship~nndlers and mates are a llowed
io make mistakes and perform the exercise at their own pace, afte r which
the instructors and students go through a detailed debriefing cr itiquing
each other's work based on performance and records ofthe exercise. With
the plethora of excellent measuring and monitoring equipmen t availa ble,
most fa ::ihties an~ using the la tter method, which most s tudents and more
expe;ienced instruc~ors generally agree is :nore efTective. Specialized
courses sometimes use both alternatives. The expert simulator instructo r
works at the console, while a second ins tructor with specific skills in the
subject mat~r taught works on the bridge.
THE Sl~1ULATOR CURRICULCM FOR DECK OFF ICERS
The cur ricu lum is the third component of an efTectJve simulat,or program.
It is interesting to watch expt:rienced seamen get deeply involved in
well- planned shiphandling less :ms on a real-time simulator presentatio n,
responding emotionally as the fog set.s in or another ship ap proaches in a
narrow channel. This is perha ps the best testimony for the effectiveness of
such tr ai11ing.
 276 1'HA !N I NG
On the job, deck officers d o not routinely get er.ough closely s uperVll:>Cd
shi pha ndling training or hands -on experi ence in pilot wa tPr s, even if they
glean as rr.uch information as possible from 1:1 pilot a bvard their ship. For
them, simulation is especia lly important. Shipboard work is, to a lar ge ex-
tent, a solita ry ta~k, a nd marine t soften carry bad h abits through out their
career because there a r e limited opportunities in the norma l course of a
voyage for s omeone to point out their errors. The simulator is valuable if it
does no more than provide a briefing and debriefing forum with peer s, un-
der the supervision of experienced ship handlers and shipmasters with no
obligations other than to teach professional skills.
As already s tated, simulators are very effective aids for tea ching a
m ultitude of s ubjects. This text focuses on shiphandling and considers
skills only to the extent that they impact on shiph andling. In this r egard,
ship model and computer simulators are both very effective for teaching
basic sh!phandling theory and specialized piloting and ship handling tech-
niques, but more a<.'lvanced shiphandling skills must be honed to the lavE;l
expected by the maritime community, and the public, by spending h un-
dreds of hours actually handling ships.
It is generally agreed that detailed, carefully developed scenarios that r e-
flect situations a pilot or deck officer will encounter in the course uftheir work
should be used as a basis for instruction re.ther than a rote lesson. Plan a very
detaileci scenario that includes all the navigation, radio communications,
and intraship communications, watch reliefs, and other routine events in an
arrival, docking, undocking, departure, or other evolution being practiced.
Based on discussions with experienced instructors and students, it is
apparent that scenarios that closely track real-world situations are more
effective than impossible situations that degrade the sirr.ulator session to
the level of a video game. Avoid the temptation to overdo problems t o th e
point where exercises become unrealistic, no-win situations, but include
I all the wor:d. a shiphandler or pilot will have to do during the same evolu-
I
I
tion aboard ship so the work load and priorities reflect on-the-job experi-
~ ence. Ideally, the problems developed in those scenarios increase in
l
! difficult~' at the student's pace until realistic limits, rather than the limits
ofthe computer, are reached.
Subjects covered on the simulator vary depending on the intent of the
program, since a third mate needs material different from a master prepar-
ing to command a VLCC, but as a minimum the program should include
1. An introduction to general ship maneuvering cha~acteristics.
Tm: SI M ULATOH CU1UUCULUM l"Ort !)1•;{'1\ OH"ICIWH '27i
2. l3a::ic maneuvers as di3c.Jssed in the master's Lriuls.
3. ~l."e ~'illiamson Turn maneuvcr to demonstrate steering c.:haracrcr-
, ,:, .........
~.
4. \\" atchkeeping ::;cenarios requiring m.meuvering a s!rip nt sc.1 in
civ.:>e meeting and crossing sit uations (both when aboard Lhe gi·:ing
way vessel and the standing on vessel), stressing the im porta nee of a
round-turn man2uver in such situations.
5. Maneuvers to arr ive at a pilot station and make a Ice to embark a pi-
lot in all types of weather and s~a conditions.
6. Maneuvering,to make a lee to launch a lifeboat or recover a person
from the water.
7. Maneuvering in narrow channels and with traffic, including stop-
ping a ship in a nar row channel in the minimum time while main-
taining good contr ol of the ship.
8. Use of tugs in narrow channels and while dockin~:: and undockiJ,g.
9. Response to own ship machinery failu res and failures aboard ap-
proaching ships.
10. Methods for han dling a ship with stern way, with and without strong
winds.
11. Comparison of high-sided ver sus low-freeboard ships and their be-
havi•)r in strong winds.
12. Ifwithi n the capability of the simulator, demonstr ate techniques for
working with bank suction, intership action, and s trong river cu r-
r ents.
13. Proper communication techniques using sound signals, runn ing
lights, and radio, a nd stressing the importance oflim iting such com-
nunicatiou only to necessary info rmation.
Insist on proper procedures for every t ask and teach the full range of
work involved in a shiphandling exercise including navigation, rul es of
t he road in traffic situations , bridge organization, bridge r esource man-
a gement, a com ma nd presence, decision making and leadership skills.
and voyage planning techn iques nnder routine:- and !:"mc-rgcncy situations,
not j ust shiphandling itself. All ti1ese skills impact on shi phandling. The
pilot or deck officer r-x:ust mast•!r the entire package of professionals skills
a nd techniques of bridge r esource management w use the crew and equ ip-
ment to advantage. Use the &imulator's ca pability lo its fullest ex Lent so
th a t th e mariner is practicing the skills in as close to a rca l-worltl ·~nviron­
ment as possible. T hat is t he very esFence of the s imulator experience.
278 T RAINING
Bridge organization is discussed briefly in this text to the extent. it im-
pacts on ohiphandling, and some excellent texts on voyage planning and
hridge resource man::1gement are listed :n the Bibhl)graphy De velC'!' these
skills as part (If the study of shiphandline since they are an i.1tegrnl part of
that work. The simulaiur is the most effective tool for putting the concepts
of voyage planning and br·idge mt:nagement into practke, both of which
are integrated into every well-planned simulator program.
Plan exercises 110der progressivaly worsening weather conditions with
increasing winds and reduced visibility. Analyzo maneuvers done under
clear conditil)nS compared with those done as conditions deteriorate. In-
corporate several lessons into one exercise as the ship is brouaht from sea
to a dock. Practice manenvcring in traffic, applying the Rules of the Road,
making a lee and picking up a pilot, and learn to work with tugs, communi-
cate, organize the bridge in pilot waters, and understand hydrodynamic
effects rul in one exercise by being creative with carefully planned scenar-
ios. Bl' sure tQ do the same work under night conditions since the same
jobs appear different in the dark.
The sirr..ulator also makes seafarers, and particularly the younger
ship's mate, comfortable with the idea that. a ship is designed to be maneu-
vered. This may sound basic, but too many deck officers are reluctant to
take action when a problem develops due to a stigma of inviolability at-
tached to the bridge and its equipment. Effective course material takes
this into consideration during training in shiphan:iling, maneuvering in
traffic, and bridge resource management. The "hands-on drill" discussed
elsewhere in this text is alRo applicable to the first day on a simclator and,
after several days of simulator training, the reluctance to maneuver
should be gone.
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR PILOTS
As previously stated, deck oilicers and masters are having an increasingly
difficult time finding opportunitie~:~ to practice shiphandling t :> the degree
needed to develop strong shiphandling skills. Fortunately, this is not the
case for pilots who haYe no problem accumulating shipboard experience.
By the very nature of their work, pilots have daily access to shrps for trai n·
ing and practica of shiphandling and bridge management skills. They are
aboard ships in pilot waters, ma:1euvering, at all hours under all condi-
tions. They learn and practice their skills on a routine basis, under tute-
lage of experiecced, skilled pilots at no cost other than their time-they
train aboard the ultimate ship simul:;.tor, the ship, and that training is free!
THE SIMULATOR CUHHICUI,l':'\1 FOR PILOTS 279
Simulatcn:, in their present stnte of development, do ne~ giv._. pilt'ls a
sense of depth and distance or the subtle visual cues and hydrodynamic ef-
fects need~d to master close quarters shiphanoli ng. It is st.ill lhe ship that
best demoPstcates all the I!Uances ofshtp bt.havior a t the: ~vel required ~o
develop total competence under all the conditions encountered ~'Y a work-
ing pilot. Simulators, iu their present s t.ale, arc effectiv<;! tools to enhance
pilot skills but they don't replace th<' shi p for must pilot trainin;r.
Sim.rla t.ors do not present!y r eplace the traditional a pprenticeship-ori-
ented training methods that have served pilots so well, a nd any claim to
the contr ary does a disservice to the devl'lopment. ond acceptance of simu-
lators, but they definit ely ar c a useful tool for pilol::! for many purposes in-
cluding
1. Theory and basic techniques of shiphandling, il1cluding training in
emergency situations.
2. Bridge res('l urce manaremen t and br idge organi:t.ation.
3. Fa miliarization with new 01 unusual ship types not customarily
ha ndled in a pilot's home waters.
4. As a fo rum for pilots to demonstrate and compare various job t~ch­
niques with peers in a structured training environment.
5. Radar, ARPA, navigation, and communications training to update
knowledge of new equipment and techniques.
6. Port development and improvemen t studies to reconfigure ports
and establish parameters for h andling IiCW, larger, or unique ship
types.
7. New methods for dealing with r.pecia li:t.ed pilot tasks, such as han-
dlin g new or lar ger vessels and ma neuvering in r ealigned channels
and new pori configurations.
Technical reports from CAORF publis hed in Mar ch 1985 discuss simu-
lator training for pilcits in depth, and lhose repor ts provide r.n exceilent
basis for pla nning a ge neric pilot training program. More de finitive tratn-
ing mu3t be de,·eloperl in conjunction with the p1lots' association for th<>
pori or area simulated because pikting is inherenlly port specific and very
specialized. That is il,te very r eason pilots exist. No cne other than the pi-
lo ts themselves a ppreciate the techniques used nnd the loca l knowledge
needed to work sa fely and efiiciect.ly in a par ticula r pon.
Like ship's officers, piloie need training in navigati on, r adar, bridge
operations and bridge resource managcmen l, and emergency maneuvers.
280 TRAINING
Fig. 10-10. A typical modern simulator bridge inclu des full .
instrumentation and interchangeable control systems for training on a
full range of ship types und propulsion systems. Courtesy RTM STAR
Center.
Apprentice pilots especially must make full use of the sl-ip features and
equipment, rather than concentrating on shiphandling alone, since they
need the .'3ame training and experience in bridge operations as the third
mate. Agab, scenarios should be planned to include all aspects of a pas-
sage through pilot waters , notjusl; s hiphandling techniques, even though
the pilot may be inherently more interested in the Ehiphandling aspect.; of
the exercise, and the scenarios must be challenging but realistic, so the ex-
ercise remains a job to be done rather than a game to be won (f.g. l0-10;.
Spend time discussing hydrodynamics and theory of ship behavior
with pilots who benefit from a better understanding of why ships behave
as they do ;athcr than just knowing how they behave. An appreciation of
hydrodynamic principles and shiphandling g;ives pilots the basis for antic-
ipating ship behavior on the job rather than· reacting to it.
TilE SfMULATOH CURniCt!Ll'M FOH PILOTS 281
Have the pilot role-play as master, working with another pilot t0l:ettcr
apprecinte the master's position in the pilot-mnster relalion::;hip. Takl! a
ship into familiar pcrts. Broaden the pilot.;' experience by placink, i.hcn·, in
chr.llenging situations with larger ships nr.d ddTerent ship type!. frnm
Lhose being handled in the pilot's h~me waters. Use the r~..:ording and re-
play <::apabilities of t.he simulator to facilitate self analysis an~ peer cri-
tiques of not only the actual shtphandling performance but also brtdge
demeanor and bridge resource management. Even the most skilled and
experienced pilots find, when reviewin.; graphs and videos of their exer-
cises, that they may give many unnec<ssary orders or show signs of stress
that create unnecessary tension on the bridge in .:hallenging situations.
Pilots are using the playback and review process routi.11ely and pilot orga-
nizations are participating in bricge resource management courses on a
routine basis.
Bridge operations and resource management have become increas-
ingly difficult for pilots who work more and more with m!.lllicultural crews
without advance preparation to move a ship saf~ly through pilot waters.
The pilot organizations recognize this and the American Pilots' Associa-
tion is promoting bridge manage:nent training for all pilots.• In fact, pilots
insist that a simple requirement to communicate in a common tongue, usu-
ally Englis h, would do more to increase marine safety than a wheelhouse
full of new instruments or a volume of regulations. Communications and
bridge orgaO:zation remain a major cha ll enge to working pilots, and simu-
lator exercises provide an excellent opportunity to sharpen the pilot's
skills in bridge resource management and communications.
Training exercises should includtJ both vessel-specific exercises for
more senior pilots and nonspecific .txercises for less experienced pilots
learni '1f{ the basics of ship handling using gc ncric ships operating over the
pilo~'s route. Insist that all pilols involved in l.he course follow correct pro-
cedures and make every aspect of the training scenario as realistic as pos-
sible.
Pilots a1e also using simulators for port studies, familiarization with
new vessel types, and as a ro:Ltm with peers in the work place, practicing
shiphandling exercises and exchanging ideas on their work. Pilots nre
most famiiiar with ships that routinely cnll in the waters on which they
serve and, when radically d ifTer·~ nt types of sizes of s hips begin serving
1APA Promotes DR/If Training for Pilots. Wa:;hington, DC: American Pi lots'
Association, October 5, 1993. ·
282 TRAINI:'-IG ORIEFING AND OEUHIEFI~G SJ::SSIO::-:S 283

that port, they sometimes have to rein vent the wheel. Increasingly, pilots and plan the intended pasHHg(). Charts and tide tables must be ~tudicd
are getting together with peers from another port who have experience ll!ld a pussage plan de veloped. The more carefully the passage is discussed
with that ship type and are using simulators as a tool for transferring and planned, the :nc:·e benefi:i~! the suuscq..1ent :.imulnlor pcriuJ will he.
knowledge and. experience within the prCifession. This forum aspect of the After tho simul!ltOJ' exercise, there should be a l~ngd1y, careful!)
simulator e>;ercise provides a unique opportunity, since pilots normally moderated debriefing where bridge work is reviewed a td the pt>rfor-
work alone with 'littlc opportunity to critique each other's worh. and dis- mance of each of the inrlividu nls invobed in the lesson is crit;qt•ed. Most
cuss shiphandling. Piloting is by nature a solitary j:>b with little routine of the learning from a simulator session is done during this debriefing
contact between peers and the simulator c&n change this-serving as a when the users are led by the in3tructor to look criti cally at their perfor-
catalyst for professional discussion among pilots that can be quite benefi- mance and the results of their work and analyze what they might have
cial. done difTerently (fig. 10-11). The mates and pilots a re usually allowed to
So, is simulation effective in improving piloting skills? The pilots must critique their own performance with guiriance from the instructor using
think so since they attend both model- and computer-based simulators at reruns of selected sections of the passage, and a review of video, audio,
their own expense. They see the value oftrainhg that enhances their abil-
ities both in broad shiphandliJ1g skills and specialized areas pecuiiar to
their own port and work. Cost is an important consideration, though, since
simulators are expensive. Perhaps it is time for a nationally uniform
training surcharge on all pilotage fees that is retained by each association
to pay the cost of training :md educating its members. This equalizes the
cost of training betwe•;,n ports and cre:1tes a fund so that even the smallest
associatioDB t::an afford training paid for by the beneficiaries of that
training-the shipowner whose ships are moved safely and expediently in
that port.

THE THREE STEPS OF SIMULATOR TRAINING

As stated previously, there are three steps to simulator training: a briefing
session where theory and an outline of the simulator exercise are dis-
cussed in a classroom environment, the simulator exercise itself, and a de-
briefing se.;sion to review performance. Simulator training time seems to
be broken clown about evenly between these thre~ steps, so that only ap-
proximately a third ofthe total training time is artually spent on the bridge
simulator.
This is logical since instruction and appraisal is done by the instructor
through a well-planned r.ourse and, without intensive instruction ard
evaluation, the pilot, master, or mate would only be using simulator time
to practice and reinforce weak or improper work habits.
Fig. 10-11. Properly equipped debriefing room includes large area for
BRIEFING AND DEBRIEFING SESSIONS
group discussion and equipment to play back key segments of the
Time must l>e allotted for a classroom briefing before each simulator pe- exercise and review graphs and printouts of mancuvcrs. Councsy R'l'l\1
riod to discuss the theory and hydrodynamics involved in each problem STAR Center.
284 TRAINING
and chart reconis gives mariners a clear picture of what occurred during
the simulator exercise. Without this review , the period on the simulator
become::; e high-priced video game since the lessons ::lre never really fixed
in the user's mind.
It is surprising how often mistakes are not recogniz.ad ~uring theses-
sion but immediately se:zed on and discussed during the debriefing. Even
the most experienced mariners and pilotb often commenl; on work habits
they hadn't realized they had developed during years of work aboard ship.
This peer-to-peer review is especially helpful to experienced pilots and
shipmasters since they rarely have an opportunity to compare techniques
anrl develop improved work habits through discussion with their peer!>.
The third segment of the simulator training, the time actually spent on
the sim•.1lator, has already been discussed in preceding sections of this
chapter.
THE FUTURE OF SIMULATION
Simulation is a developing field. Technology, need, and application are
changing and improving rapidly as the simulator is more widely acceptec
as a useful training and testing tool in the marine commnnity.
Each generation cf simulator offers more accurate presentations and
better visual detail as more and faster computers are put into smaller
spaces at lower cost.
Several firms have built small simulators driven by desktop computers
for use aboard ship. This type of simulation is useful for learning the rules
of the road, ARPA and radar operation, basic navigation, anci other skills.
Some companies provide software so ship's officers can use desktop simu-
lators to become familiar with a port before arrival. That said, the dream
of developing desktop shiphandling simulators has been elusive at best.
Shiphandilng is an applied art, not a video game, and the restricted arc
of visibility, total lack of depth of field, and the plan view presentation
used in many cases has limited the usefulness of this equipment. Memory
capacity eud co1nputer speed conLinue to increase exponentially so it is
reasonable to expect such equipment to be '.lseful gt some point in the fu-
ture but, for now, shiphandlers should not place any faith in skills devel-
oped and practiced on desktop simulators.
Computers are developing because ofnniversal demand. There is obvi-
ously a much s maller demand for research and data needed to increase the
usefulness of simulation for teaching and testjng. Research is needed to
devel~p the human side of simulation add collect more complete data on
CO)IPUTERS "' OH TES'fll'iG A:-ID EVALUATION 285
the efTecti veness of instruction and ihe degree io I.L'hich si m ulaior ira 111 ing
transfers to worh aboard ship. Research is also needed on ship behavior in
shallow water. The accucacy o1 mathematical models is still limit~d be-
cause co:,L a!ld tight schedules make it difficult to collect dl-lta aboard ships
operating in shallow water and, without that information, much of the ba-
sis for current models is theoretical and extrapolutl'd from duep water !:>ea
trials and tank tests. The effectiveness of rimula tor training ai.d testing
will increase cs this information becomes available.
COMPUTERS FOR 'l'ESTING AND EVALUATION
Computers will be used more for assessments and license exnmination.s as
better testing criteria are developed. A great deal of work has been done in
this area in the past decade and reas<>nably objective evaluation criteria
has been developed for special purposes. For example, the RTM STAR
Center developed criteria that has been tested and, in the opinion of staff,
pilots, and state commissions proven useful for evaluating state piJot.s
prior to license renewal.
Simulators have been useJ for several years for deck officer license ex-
ams and pilot evaluations at maritime academies and union s imulator fa-
cilities to test performance· based skills such as applied rules of the road
and performance a& conning officer and officer of the watch in fog and
heavy traffic situations. The ability to eualuate a mariner's ability to prior-
itize tasks in realis tic shipboard scenario is a major step forward in exam-
ining performance-based skills. The testi"'lg becomes more valuable when
situations are introduced that test the professional's ability to apply ski!J s
under stress. Simulation is the best and, at present, the only method for
doing this.
The U.S. Coast Guard, the Maritime Institute ofTechnology and Grad-
uate Stuciies (MITAGS), the U.S. Merchan t Marine Acedemy, the HTM
STA..-q Center, and other training facilities ha,·e completed studies and cs-
tablishP.d some criteria for this type of testing and evaluation. The :-\2.-
tional Research Council's Ma rine Boa rd has also completed intens ive
studies and published recommendations for train~ng and t.esling u.:;1ng
simulation.
The testing usually meets with initial skeptici sm from mariners,, ho
feel there is some ga p between shipboard performance and pcrfor ma ncl' in
what they feci is a!l artificial em ironmeut in a !>i111ulator. In fact , thGsc
same mariners and pi lots usually change their 01-inion after experiencinJ
simulator-based testing. A good case can be made that pilots and ma riners
I 286 'UtAINING
bendil directl y from thif type of testing. There is a direct correlati(ln be-
tween tcsti::1g. licensing, and IJrofessional standards that raise the entry
threshold and protect jurisdictil)n for anyone moving l'lhips in rest.icted
waterR.
ThE' International Maritime Organization recommends performclnce-
based testing of uuder!ying skills rather than dependence on written
knowledge-based te~ting: This and other reports reflect a significant.
change in testing methodology a'll ay from traditional written multiple
choice examinations that test memorization more than the ability to pilot.
ships.
A cadre of senior mariners and pilots, independent from or contracted
to the U.S. C0ast Guard are needed to administer these examinations. To
date, technological developments in simulation have outpaced t.he uses of
this equipment for testing and assessment.
The RTM STAR Center in Dania, Florida, continues to develop more
and better criteria through their computer-based examinations for unlim-
ited ocean master licenses 01d the Alaskan Pilot Evaluation Program de-
veloped for the state of Alaska. Criteria developed for that evaluation
include a point scorir.g system based on lengthy tasks related to piloting in
Alaske.n waters that was developed jointly by the pilots and the facility.
The testing criteria were validated in several ways including having mul-
tiple instructors ~valuate the same pilot independently. This was done
during trial evaluations and scores were almost identical in every case.
The policy of having pilots eualuate p~lots is key to the success of that
Alaskan program. This pe~r review is a model for similar programs. There
are no hard and fast, right or wrong responses in a given test situation so
this application of simulation requires experienced peers to evaluate per-
formance.
I SIMULATOR VS. HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE
I In addition to license examinations, time spent i'1 simulator training is be-
ing considered as on-the-job experience when computing service require-
ment for original, upgraded, and renewed marine licenses. There is a
\ definite Ghift to a policy of equating written tests and licensing, classroom
time, and :>tnndardized training requirements with hands-on training,
and there are international and nattanal precedents for S'lbstituting si m-
2 Reuiew of the 1978 Standards o{'Fraining and Watchkeeping, IMO Subcommit-
tee on Standa.·ds ofTraining and Wntchkeeping, Section 4.2.3, October 5, 1993.
SIMULATOH \'$ II A.'\D5-(1!'1 EWEltli~NCE 2H7
ulat.or and classroom time at some multipie vfda;,-s credit for ·~ach day of
training.'
Th~re is serious doubt amung profc:::.ionai:~ abou L Lhis pracl1cc and
many feel simulation should be seen as ac additional tool for raisi ng :otan-
dards to me~t the requirements of an increasingly demanding profession
rather than as a substitute for other expNie•1Cl' and Lraini,..g. Pilots espe-
cially seem to feel simulator training enhances shipboard expericr.::" but
does not replace it.
Supporters of granting service credit at some ratio of equivalency con-
tend th£' structured simulator experience provides better training than
onboard experience. Opponents of equivalency contend time aboard ship
is meant to provide experience, not training, and that it is irrepla.::cnble
precisely because it is not structured. They mair.Lain that broad a nu ran-
dom experience seasons and prepares the officer for promotion and com-
mand. The latter group also feel the work of mates, masters, and pilots
encompasses much"more than just bridge operations, and reduci ng Lime
requirements also reduces important experience in areas not addressed in
a simulator exercise.
The U.S. Coast Guard currenLlj grants up to :oix days' sea time credH
for each day spent on a simulator with a maximum credit equal to 25 per-
cent of the total required time being granted. Whether this practice con-
tinues in this form will probaLly depend on the findings resulting from
present studies and input from the industry. It is possible that, in the fore-
seeable future, mates will both prepare and be examined for upgraded li-
censes on a simulator.
Simulation has matured into a 'videly used and effective training tool
for teaching basic shiphandling and other bridge skills. Simulation's place
in maritime training is in a state of flux, but there is no doubt it will play
an increasing part in the education and testing process for mariners and
operating professionals in many other high-skill fields.
3 Standards of Training and Watchkreping 1978 Regulation 11/4 , Allicle IX,
(1) Equivalents, and CFR T1tle 46-Sh.ipping, Pan 10 30·1-Substitution of
training for required service.

CHAPTER ELEVEN
MASTER/PILOT l{ELATIONSHIP AND
BH.IDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
If a pilot undertakes the Conduct of a vessel ... and
fails of his Duty there:n ... and the Merchants Sustain
Damage thereby, he shall be Obligated to make full Sat-
isfaction for the same ... and if not, lose his head.
-Ruie 23, Laws ofOlero
It must first be stressed that this chapter is not a legal treatise on the com-
plex relationship between shipmaster and pilot; it is a discussion of the
day-to-day working arrangements between two professionals. An excel-
lent discussion of the legal aspects ofthe master/pilot relationship can be
found in Law of Tug, Tow, and Pilotage.' This text was used as the princi-
pal reference for the :liscussion that follows.
At first glance the master/pilot relationship appears poorly defined.
Areas nfresponaibility seem nebulous and conflicting, with the master ap-
pearing responsible for much of the work perfonned by a pilot whom the
master does not select and is usually comp~lled by statute to employ. The
case law in this area further befogs the relationship, leaving the mariner
to figuratively "navigate under Rule Nineteen."
In pr&ctice, though, the master and pilot are experienced professional
seamen working together to complete a passage safely, understanding the
relationship between their two positions that has evolved through custom
and practice over centuries. 'l'he arrangement works well and thousands
of ships are mc>ved each year without incident. It i.s only when a casualty
occurs that thi~ informal but well understood and workable arrangement
becomes unnecessarily complicated.
1Alex L. Parks and Edwnrd V. Cattel~, Jr., Law of Tug, Tow, and Pilotage, 3d
ed., Centreville, Md.: COI·noll Maritime Press, 1994. · · Tra nsatlantique, 132 U.S. 406 (1901)
288
THE PJLOT AUOAHD SIIIP ~d9
THE PILOT ABOARD SHIP
The pilot comes aboard t..o take charge of the navigation of the ship from
the pilot station lo her destination, or to some mtermediate point i f'r.lU Hi-
plc pilots are used. The pilot moves t.hc ship toward her dcstinnLiou using
both local knowledge and a degree of shiphandling skill that the seagoing
master generally is not expected to possess. Local knowleclge is such a
broad ienn that it might be said t.o encompass the whole of the pilot's ex-
pertise, but. at least it would include:
L Local tides and currents.
2. Bottom and channel depths and configurations.
3. Courses, distances, aids to navigation, and significant geographic
features enroutc.
4. Local customs and pract.ices for snip movement.s.
5. Local weather patterns.
6. The shiphandling skills necessary to move vessels in the waters em-
ployed.
The pilot must, of course, possess many of the o.ariner's skills includ-
ing a knowledge of the rules of the road, navigation, and the use of all
forms of navigation equipment. Obviously then, ihe landman's picture of
the quaint old pilot standing at the master's side mumbling pithy bit.s of
local wisdom and advice, as the ship proceeds under the master's direction
toward her dc~stination, is patently incorrect and unrealistic.
A clear distinction must be made between voluntary and compulsory
pilots. A voluntary pilot is one engaged for the convenience of the vessel. A
North Sea pilot employed to take a ship between the Rotterdam and
Bremerhaven sea buoys would be one example of a voluntary pilot. No
statute requires a ship to have a pilot aboard, but the master or owner may
hire a pilot to aid in making the passage expeditiously.
The owner, through the master, has great control over the voluntary
pilot. 'f he pilot need not be hired in the first place, or the pilot's services
can be rejerted during th( passage anci the vessel crmtinue t.o her destina-
tion. The voluntary pilot is in a significantly different position aboard ship
than t.he rompulsory pilot.' Prac tically speaking then, the master can feel
2
Homer Ramsdell Transportation. Company u. Compagnie Generate
290 MASTEWPILOT HELATIONSIIIP AND BHIDGI:: RESOURCE MANAGEME:\T
5 HIP HASTE RS SHIPO\.JNERS
Fig. 11-1. "Pilot.s as seen by .. ."
much more free to advise or relieve a voluntary pilot-the voluntary pilot
is in much the same position as tho ship's mates.
A compulRory pilot, on the other hand, is one that is required by law to
be aboard while the ship is navigating certain specified areas. Penalties
such as fines or imprisonment, or both, are the hallmarks of compulsory
THE PILOT ADOARD SHIP 29 1
pilotage lnws. If a ship is allowed by statute to refuse the services o f <~ pi-
lot provided she pays a portion oft.he pilotage fee, the pilotage is not. com-
pulsory.=
The relationship between master and compulsory pilot is in ma ny
ways unic;,ue in that it is usually defined by custom, practice, and sta tute
rather t.hau ::ont.ract. While the pilot is generally ntJither an employee of
the ship nor a member of her crew, he is ultimately subordinate to t he
master, although the degree of s ubordination is less than popularly per-
ceived. The public and the industry benefit from this working arrat~ gc­
mer.t and from the degree of overlapping resfonsibility that. compels both
pilot and master to be concerned about a vessel's safety.
The compulsory pilot is not aboard in a purely advisory capacity. That
pilot is in charge of the navigation of the ship while aboard, and t.he ship's
crew is required to obey the compulsory pilot's orders relating to naviga-
tion unless the master determines it is necessary to intercede for reasons
yet. to be discussed. A compulsory p1lot is responsible for his own actions
and receives a significant fee because of this responsibility. In the pres-
ence of the compulsory pilot, a master's responsibility is not total and for-
ever. Both master and pilot have a job to do and bear an unusual degree of
responsibility not only to the vessel, cargo, and ere\/, but also to the public.
Except for American flag vessels operating in the coastwise trade un-
der enrollment, ships are requirea to have a pilot aboard in most inland
waters of the United States to provide local knowledge and shiphandli ng
skill. Most. pilots are compulsory and it is that type of pilot that is refencd
to thro1Jghout this chapter unless specifically noted otherwise.
An exception is found to the t.raditiona l.nastcr/pilot relationship at the
Panama Canal. The Panama Canal Authority accepts a greater degree of
liability in exchange for greater control of ships' naviga tion in that. strate-
gic waterway. Inside Lhe locks 0ft.he Panama Canal t.he Authority is liable
for payment for injuries to the vessel, cargo, crew, or passengers arising
out of a passage through the locks under the control of employees of the
commission, unle.ss the commission shows that the injury was cuused by a
negligent act of the uessel. Outside the locks the Authorii.y is liable for pay-
ment for injuries to a ve:;sel, cargv, crew, or passengers when such injun.:s
are proximately caused by the negligence or fault of a Canal Commission
employee ... prov!drd Lhet : n the case of a s~ip required to b!lve a Panama
3 The Merrimac, 81 U.S. (14 Wall. ) 19~, (1872).
292 MASTER/PILOT RELA'I'IONSIIIP AND BHIDGE RESOURCE MANAGE-MENT
Canal pilot on duty, damages arc only payable if at the time of injury the
navigation was under the control of the Panama Canal pilut.
Shipma~t.ers should bl! awr rc of the manne.- in which th l3 traditi onal
maste r/pilot relationship is distorted in this specinl circumslanr:e.
THE MASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN PILOTAGE WATERS
I.
The master retains overall responsibility for the vessel and her ope:-ation,
for having a competent watch on duty and seeing that they perform their
work efficiently, for being sure a proper lookout is maintained, and for
compliance with all regulations and statutes including the rules of the
road (COLREGS). The master's authority is never complE:tely in abeyance
even while a pilot (compulsory or not) has immediate charge of the ship's
navigation. 'rhe master is also responsible for his own professional compe-
tence, including having sufficient knowledge and experience to be able to
judge the pilot's performance and recognize significant pilot error, and to
have studied the local waters and be able to recognize known and pub-
lished dangers.
The master has a duty to advise or relieve a pilot in cases of
1. Intoxication.
2. G1·oss incompetence to perform the task at hand.
3. When the vessel in standing into danger that is not obvious to the pi-
lot.
4. When the pilot's actions are in error due to a lack of appreciation of
particular circumstances, including the limitations of the particular
ship being handled.
In carrying out these responsibilities the master may either advise or
relieve the pilot, at the master's discretion. In practice, there is a real bur-
den upon the master to justify relieving the pilot should some casualty re-
sult, so the ac~ion of relieving must not b~ arbitrary. Th~re are several
ways to do a job and, while adm1ttcdly some are more expeditious th::.n
others, the master must not relie·:e simply ~ecause he feels that he can do
a better job--the pilot should only be relieved when the master feels,
based upon professional experience and training, tht.t the vessel, crew, or
cargo is being pl~ced in real and imminent danger because of that pilot's
present course of action. On the other hand, the master is negligent if ac-
tion is not taken when required. The master first objects to an action, then
recommends an alternative, and only iri the rare case when the pilot·re-
"RELEASE FROM I.IADILI1Y FOH ~I S 293
fuses to accept a recommendation does the muster relieve u pilol m a
timely ma nne r-while it is still JiOSsiblc to a\'oid a n accident.
The decision about when to Lccomc invoh·ed is more difficult than the
c.bsolute problem ofwheth<:r it is ncct'!lsary to do so. There is a naturnl re·
luctancc lo act bocause of the ramifica tions in cnsc of a cnsualty, yet the
question of timing is mos t criLical. Relief usually occurs when it is too
late-when the situation h as deteriorated so fa r that even the most com-
petent shiphandler could not correct ma tlers a nd the master's efT·nts then
only complicate an already bad situation. There is no req~irement that a
ship be in extremis before the pilot is relieved , only that. the mas ter fore-
secs danger should a present course of action continue.
It is imperative that the master be sufficiently s killed in shiphandling
to recog-nize a problem early, and have sufficient confidence in those skiils
to take prompt and decisive action if it is necessary to rP.licve a pilot . The
correctness of action taken reflects the training and experience that a
master has had, and it is too late to compensate for years ofn eglc.ct in th is
area at such a time. The decision to relieve a pilot is not an easy one, but a
master who instead stands by us the vessel heads for certain catastrophe
remains a responsible party and must take action. It is a judgment that
can only be made based on professional experience and is but one exa mple
of why the title "shipmaster" bears a connotation of unus ual res ponsibility.
"IlliLEASE FPOM LIABILITY" FO R ~1 S
Occasionally a master is presentcd with a form to be signed releasing the
pilot from lmbility. These forms may be based on local practice or special
circumstances, such as a tugboat strike. The validity of these for ms in a
particular case is questionable and rlepends on !ocallaws and regulation;;
of which the master cannot reasonably be expected to have knowledge.
Inasmuch as the master may t>e under pressure not to delay th e ves-
sel, and may not be able to cons ult with anyone about the advisability of
signing a release, he may dcct to sign and note over the signature th ... t
the release is "Signed under protest so that the vessel may proceed." An
entry to that effect should be made in the ship's log. Forwa rd n copy of the
release to the owners so thny can advise you about signing such docu-
ments in the future.
In any case, the form will have no immedia te practical cfi'cct since th~
master has ultimate responsibility for the ship in any case, and the docu-
ment in no w1y alters the mas ter's conduct. during the docking or other
work at hand.
294 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHI P AND BRIDGE RESO~RCE MANAGE-MENT
<;OME PRACTTCAL CONSIDERATIONS
The real world mus t be kept ir· mind when discn<~s ing a r'?h:tionship be-
tween master and pilot. In practice, the pilot will not refuse t<l work more
safely, or to ,;low down, or use an additiona l tug when requested to do se by
the mas ter, so it. is extremely rare that a conflict over relative authority
arises betwM n pilot and master aboard ship. No reasonable pilot is coing to
reject a master's request. t.o work more safely, nor would any master object
to such a r~quest by a pilot. This duality of interest works to the obuious ben-
efit of all concerned. As long as one of the two parties has an interest in
working safely, ~he s hip is handled in a proper manner, and when both
work professiona lly the conr.erns ofone tend to amplify those of the other.
It :a a fact that very few casualties occur in pilot waters that do not. in-
vo~ve some degree of acquiescence on the part of the master. In ma ny
cases, if the master had done no more than s uggest that the pilot reduce
speed in fog or clarify a proposed meeting arrangement with an approach-
ing vessel, no accident would have occurred since the pilot will n ot refuse
to handle a situation more safely in such conditions. In most reports of ma-
rine casualties it is obvious that the master was reluctant to get involved
and allowed the pilot to act alone until it was too late to avoid an accident.
It is again stressed that the master must not wait until the situation is
hopelesR before getting involved. It is time to get involved, to at leas t ques-
t ion a pilot's intentions, at the first momer.t that there is any doubt about
the correctness of the pilot's actions.
What options do the compulsory pilot or master h ave when an irrecon-
cilable disagreement arises about a course of action?
The pilot can accept the master's recommendation s, or take the vessel
to the nP.ar.est safe anchorage until the ma tter is resolved, or stand aside
and allow the master t o complete the job. The master can relieve the pilot ,
complett! the mnneuver if conditions require it, and th en either return the
conn to the pilot or put U·. e ship to anchor. It is again stressed, though , that
the master in!.ervenes only when the pilot's work is endangering the sh ip,
car go, crew, or assisting lugs-not because the master feels a job can be
done in ano ther, more expeditious manner .
Let me reiterate for emphasis. It. would be wrong to give an impression
that such d1fferences occur with any regul ar ity. They do not! Both the
master and pilot a re professionals with a common interest and the fact. is
that irreconcila ble differences a lmost never occur because of the context
in which objection s to a course of action are made.
llHlDGE HJ:·:SOURCg MANAG C:ME:-IT FOH SHIPHANDLEHS 295
Recently, the relctionsh.p between the master a nd pilot has been corr:-
plicated by the growth in popularity of the "team concept" of shipboard or-
ganizatioP-. The pilut is oft~::u said to ue another member uf n team that is to
navigate ,, s hip from one point to ;mother, as if the pilot were employed a s
a crew member for the passage. This is clearly not. the case with a com)Jul-
sory pilot who is pr oviding a one-time scr\·ice to the ship, and it is unrealis-
tic t.o attempt to put any pilot. into that position.
The team concept in its intended form is :10 t new. The well·organit.cd
crew has a lways operated as u team under tne master , each me.oLer per·
forming assigned tasks to move the ship expediently from point. to point,
and the concept is valid as long as it is kept in that context. The team is or-
ganized vertically with the mate and hdrnsman, engineer on watch , und
others involved in the navigation ofthr ship performing f.~sks as assigned
by the pilot, through the ma.ster. These Uisks might involve machinery op·
eration , log and recor d keeping, position fixing, or radar plotting--all j obs
being performed to support the ma<>ter or pilot who has the conn. It is im-
portant to differentiate between th.is vertically organized tea m and a hori-
zontally organized committee. There is no place for the latter aboard
ship-any concept that diffuses responsibility beyond the mas ter or pilot
only confuses the relationshi;> that exists between those two and is coun -
terproductive to safety and sound operation. The shipboard team shou ld
exist only to supply information and assistance as assigned by the res pon-
sible master or pilot
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEME:N1' FOH SlllPHANDLEHS
Proper bridgE' organ ization is commonly referred t.o as Bridge Resource
Management (BRM). The organization is desi gn ed to reduce errors and
omissions th rough a system of checks and the delega tion of duties.
Tra ining in Bridge Resource Management is required by regulation
and the benefits of BRM are steadily being recognized in the mari time
commu nity.
BRM evolved from Cockpit. Resource ~1anagement thm, was developed
by t he airline inrlustry afte; s t.udii)s revealed human error was a cont.nb-
ut.ing fac tor in the majority of accidents. A train ing sys tem was devised t.o
produce a coordinalod effort among cockpit personnel, ens uring that each
member contribute in a s pecified manner to the safe flight. of the aircraft.
There are differences between the cockpit of a n airplane and t he bridge of
a ship, but many oft.he practices developed by the aviation industry have
been adapted to fit maritime dem:mds.
296 1\tASTERIPILOT RE LATIONSHIP AND DRIOOE R£SOURCE MANAOE-:,\IEN1'
This is not a text on BRM. The subject is disc~ssed in this book lo tl1e
cxlenllhat it effects sJ-.ipha ndling. Reader:; should consult a text dedi-
cated to the subject for a more complete discussion ofERM af:ectingvesscl
operations and day-to-day operations.
There are some key terms common to most discussions ofBRM that t•re
pertinent both to BRM and to this text because they are also central to
good shiphandling pract.ices including
• Error Chain: accidentA are often a result of a chain oferrors, a series
of minor mistakes or oversights, leading to a casualty.
• Perceived World: Many times the initial errors in that chain go un-
detected because \;he conning officer is working in a perceived
world, that is, he is interpreting the event as he expects it to be
based on assumption or previous experience that may not be appli-
c-able.
• Error R.acognition: The conning officer fails to recognize the errors
because of many factors including
• A los3 of situational awareness
• Failure to set prioritiP.s
• Inadequate monitoring
• Failure to delegate tasks and assign responsibilities
• Fnilurf! to use available data
• Failure to commu.nicate
• Preoccupation with minor technical problems
The bridge team shares the workload, obtains and communicates rele-
vant information early, and monitors the vessel's progress by cross-check-
ing the decisions and actions of all members of the team within the context
of the master/pilot relationship.
As previously mentioned, vessel operators must not confuse teams
with committees. A committee makes joint decisions and enjoys some
P.quality of decision-making responsibility. A ship's bridge requires disci-
pline, a defined chain of command, and a clear understanding as to which
officer has the cvnn, that is, 'vho is in charge.
Proper BRM formalizes the roles of the participants but it does notal-
ter the custcmary roles and relationship between the master and pilot a.3
appropriate for the particular waters in which the vessel is operating.
This is equally true when the pilot has gone ashore and the master or a
deck officer is in charge of shiphandling and navigation important in re-
llHIDOF. T<E ~OU HC ~: MANACm~I EN'l' FOil S llll ' ll .\N il l.~IIS 2!J7
stricted wa ters . The team s upport» a.'1d proYides feedback to the: ship-
handler.
From lime to •ime exp:ricnced pilo:.s board siups wher~ inappropri.s tc
BRM practices lead to confusion regard i11g lhe pilot's ro!c rela tive to th~
shi~'.; bridge team. In fact, the master-pilot relationship is not ullcrcd un-
der law or the practice of good seamanship, as dascnbed in this cha pte r re-
gardless of what might be sUited in a ship's operating manual since sh rp;;
operate in a larger world where custom, practice, and precedent pre varl.
The pilot comes aboard to take the conn, lead t.he bridge team as he finds
it, and assume responsibility s ubject only to a master's obligations w re-
lieve the pilot in specific circumstances discussed in this chapter.
On a properly organized bridge, each member ofthe bridge team serves
as a filter-removing extraneous information and duties so the conning of-
ficer is able to focus on safe movement of the vessel. The rol P.s of bridge
team members are discussed in l:ieveral sections of this text and in th e
many BRM courses now available to ship's officers. The waster and pilot
delegate tasks and accepts an open ~ow of information from bridge team
members. The shiphandlcr, be it the master or the pilot in pilot waters, re-
ceives timely, pertinent information from the supporting bridge team in
order to make proper decisions.
It is noteworthy that the bridge team has additil"nal responsibilities in
pilot waters, that is, under watch condition 4 as discussed below in this
chapter. The pilot's requirements ure more intense and fluid in nature as
events occur more qui.:kly and there is less leeway for error in pilot wa ters.
For this reason, pilot associations have teamed with the best simulator
schools to de·1elop bridge resource management ccurses specifically for pi-
lots. Shipmasters engaged in trades where they arc responsible for ship-
handling and piloting in narrow channels and inland wa ters should also
take these courses that arc designed when bridge team members have the
responsibility for shiphandling regardless of whether a pilot or master is
conning.
As prgviously discussed, the state-licensed, compulsory pilot brings
aboarc his or her own responsibilities as a thid party res!Jon sible to th~
state and federal government as well as for the safely of the vessel , it:;
cargo and crew. The pilot is charged by the commi ssioning authority to
navigate in the best interests of the staw and local er.vironment. Sound
BRM organizatior formalizes the responsibilities of everyone working on
the bridge, serving as lookout, or performing other duties as a team in su p-
port of the pilot to fulfill that responsibility.
298 MASTER/PILOT RELJ\'I'WNSIIIP AND BHIDG~ RES01 JRCI~ MANAGE-M~~NT 13:-lll)GE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOH SIIIPliANUI.t.:HS 299

I tj
What constitutes a bridge team? Basically, it consists of anyone Bridg~ DJty
needed for the safe navigation of the ship and may include- the ntaster,
deck officer':., uni;censed crPw, and the pilot. Th~ bridge learn must be of
Watch 1 Collision j I Other I I
Condition Co11.1 At•oidance, Radw Corn m. 'sj.\';.: ;gc:;.., .. Duti..!~ !!.:lm 1Lov,;.v ut
1
1
s ufficient size to perform normal bridge duttes, which BRM groups int.o 1 W:.t::h officer An
three general arid as: :2
-- Master Watch officer :\B ABIO:S
-
3 Master Watch officer .-I.•.U ABIOS
1. Colliaiun Avoidance-Detecting and avoiding other vessels and ob-
.t Pilot I Master I Watch officer AB ABIO~
jects.
2. Navigation-Keeping the vessel safely clear of shoal water, close to Note: "Other Duties" may include record keeping, tending the engine:
her intended track, and near to on schedule. order telegraph and/or thruster contr ols, mvnitonng equipment, etc.'
3. Admini~tration-Routine watch duties such f:IS communications, The division of duties is similor to the concept of triage. As the situa-
log keeping, and supervising watch personnel.• tion warrMts, additional personnel arc ndded so lhat the persun conni r.g
can foc us on the task at h and. There is considerable overlap of duti<:.>,
The aize of the bridge team varies based on the watch condition, which which allows members to cross-check each other. It might be better if this
is dil.!tateci by the environment in which the vessel is operating. The envi- chart were drawn with hatched lines to show that the division of duties i.:
ronment indudes factors such as weather, traffic, and vessel location. The not static or exclusiYe to a particular officer or crew members. EITccti...-e
following chart shows an example of watch condition criteria. BR.M dictates that duties are divided based on the expertise of team mem-
bers. For example, the pilot may handle most ofthe radio communication.:;
Watch
Ship's Environment5 during a passage, but he may delegate less essential communications t.0
Condition
the master or watch officer. If the master deems it necessary, there may be-
Visibility Waterway Traffic
two watch officers sharing naV1gatio'1 and other dt.tics.
1 Clear Offshore Light Unfortunately, in the real world the number and duties of bridge team
Reduced Restricted Moderate
I
2 members are often less than ideal when ships arc sometimes unde r -
3 Reduced Restricted Heavy manned and crews inadequately trained. Watch condition 4 may include
4 Reduced Pilotage Rea~ only the pilot, a solitary mate, and a helmsman. Solid BRM l.echniques are
even more important in these situations when pilots and shiphandlen;
'l'he watch condition may be determined by a combination of factors. must adapt ideal practices to existing conditions and use available per-
For exampl ~. if a ship were operating in clear visibili~y, in light traffic, and sonnel to safely accomplish the task at hand. There are also conditions
in pilotage waters, the watch condition would be 4. In a basic sense, as a when the available bridge team is unacceptable. Trained and experi ence-d
situation becomes more information intensive and/or less error tolerant, professionals recogni ze that point and put a ship to anchor until the bridge
more people are t·equired to perform bridge duties safely. is adequately manned. Always insist on proper manning for a given situa-
The size of the bridge ooam increases as the situation intensifies, and tion rega:dless of how vehemently others might object.
the followinl5 chart illustrates the w::J.y in which duties are divided as team
size increase~.
13 Ibid.
4 Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute .for ~raining. and Graduate 7Bridge Team Man agement, Maritime Institute for Traming and G:-aduate
Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Ltr.thicum He1ghts, Maryland, Studies, and American l'rcsidPnt Lines, tTD., Linthicu;n Hcightr., Marybnd,
1992. 1992. <Note: Several sections of this chapter were adupt.ed from the M ITAGS
5 Ibid. course nmteriul.)
..
~,,
.t
300 MASTEJUPJLOT Hl~LATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAC1E-i,1EI"T
Watch wndition 4 begins once a pilot comes aboard. The conn is ex.-
changed after completing the Master/Pilot Exchange (chapter 1). Tnis ex-
change of information familiarizes the cr~w with the pilot's role aboa:-d
the ship and prepares bridge team for the passage ahead. h helps to for:n
the "shared mental model" re11uired for effective BRM.
Bridge Resource Management principles recognize conditions aboard
ship are dynamic. Well-managed bridge teams are trained to adopt to
changing conditions. The Master is responsible for that trainiug so he or
she should schedule meetings at various stages of a voyage including
1. Pre-voyage-Prior t.o sailing, the master and deck officers :neet to
discuss the voyage plan, to identify potential problems, to ensure
that everyone is "on the same page," and ensure that members are
aware of their duties and responsibilities.
2. Post-voyage-Upon completion of the voyage, the team meets to
share suggestions for improving bridge team perfonpance and to
remedy any individual or team weakness.
3. Monthly-The master should conduct monthly meetings to rein-
force proper BRM practices, to provide leadership training, and to
encourage open discow·se among team members.
4. Spec~al-The master may choose to conduct special meetings to dis-
cuss emergency procedures, to resolve problems as they arise or to
provide training opportunities.
Experienced mariners realize that the principles of passage planning
and the concept. of a bridge team are not aew ideas. These are all tech-
niques that have been practiced for generations aboard well-run ships.
Certainly, each of us can identify particular masters, pilots, and officers
who were proficient in them. These individuals were identitied as true
professionals or "good" captains, and it was a pleasure to serve with them.
BRM training simply formalizes the bridge organization that, in the past,
war-; put in place in an inconsistent manner depending on the individual
shipmaster's ability to implement sound leadership ~ltills. .
Profes!'iur!al shiphandl~rs should add a text ded1cated to Bndge R~­
sourco Management to their professional library. The value of BR_M ~s
widely recognized and shiphandlerJ need to understand and work w1thm
that organization to move ships most efficiently and safely in pilot. wat~rs.
(See also the discussion of BRM aboard Azipod and other centrahzed
and automated control vessels.)
I
TH£ COST OF RES PO!-; S IBILJ T'V 30 1
THE COST OF RESPONSIBILITY
Authority, responsihility, and liability <He ;nseparnblc, so fnult will i.le: • i-
tably be assigned after any casualty according t.o perceived rcspon sibiln:•.
Fortunately, the day when pilots and mariners paid with their lives for tr-
rors is ;ong past, so present day penalties are primarily in the form of lost
income er fines.
Perhaps these penalties satisfy a perceived need to enforce standards
ofperfom1ance and assign blame. Unfortunately, it is inevitable that th E:y
become a consideration when the master thir.ks about relieving a p1lot.
The penalties might in fact be counterproducl1ve since their existence can
cause the master to delay in laking corrective action. In any case, it 1.s
doubtful that they serve any real purpose since casualties usually arc the
result of errors in judgment rather than gross negligence or intentional
misconduct. To make matters worse, the penalties are assigned after the
fact by a third party who usually has only a limited appreciation of the ma-
rine profession and the context within which the mariner's judgments are
made and actions are taken. Unfort•mately, there is no reason to expect
this situation to change.
It is essential that neither the master nor the pilot get. too bow1d up in
considerations of legality and liability in the course of their work. While
these considerations arc significant, there is an overriding professional and
moral obligation for both of them to exercise all their professional talents
to safely and expeditiously move ships. Both must appreciate the circum-
stances under which they labor, but their actions should be instinctive
and in the best interests of the ship in which they arc serving. When th~
master or pilot hesitates to act as they see proper because of concern for
some later review or liability, it. is time for trem to seek some other carec1·.

CHAPTER TWELVE
VESSEL OPERATIONS
Many officers spend much time in perfecting themselves
in deep sea navigation, where the ~hip is not endan-
gered, but make no effort to acquaint them:.~elves with
com'itions such as tides, currents, etc., when coming
into port, because the Captain or pilot will then be tak-
ing responsibility. This is where danger really exists....
-Mercha1tt Marine Officer's Handbook
PLANNING THE PASSAGE
Columbus wasn't sure what he would fmd at his destination or what
would be encountered en route, but he planned his passage with meticu-
lous care and made the best use of information available at that time. He
planned a stop at Gomera in the Canary Islands, and a track down the
twenty-etghth parallel, which he felt would take him to his destination.
Through the centuries masters and ships' officers have continued to plan
each passage using all avaaable information to safely and expeditiously
reach their destination. Passage planning is neither new nor any less im-
portant today whether a passage is offshore or in pilot waters.
Further, as discussed in chapter 7, the need to plan a passage does not
diminish with experience on a particular route or body of water; too often,
a mate or master neglects planning because "I've made this run a hundred
times." This is illogical, since no one plans a pas3age more thoroughly
than a pilot who has probably made a thousand trips over a route. Because
of the pilot's competence and experience, the planning may at times seem
effortless and sketchy although, in fact, the pilot has planned the passage
in great dEtail; an apparent contradiction since the pilot already has such
detailed knowledge of the area being navigated. The fact is the mariner
may not have sufficient local knowledgP. to appreciate the planning that is
required. The pilot checks cu:-rents and tides at several points, not just at
the pier as the mariner tends to do, ana compares dead reckoning to actunl
positions continuously during a passage. Notices to mariners are checked
even though the aids long ago became so well-known that positions are
302
PLANNING TilE J'i\SSAGl~ 30:3
Fig. 12-1. "Look, Chris, just because the Satnav is kaput is no reason lo
scrub the voyage."
reconciled almost without conscious thought. Distances ofT points and
aids are checked, times for standing by the anchors and taking tugs are
discussed, times for rising and cctling of the sun and moon arc computed
because of their efTect on available light during a passage, and weather
conditions along the route are studied. If the pilot considers all this work
essential~ it is only logical that the mariner who is less familiar with an
area should plan at least as carefully.
The hazard of overplanning and its effect on handling the ship musL
also be considcrr.d-and more significantly, the dangers of following an in-
flexible passage plan regardless of conditions that develop. Do not plan
the placement of every mooring !in<.! at Lhe dock and then atwmpl to
blindly follow that plan regardless of the: 30-knot wind that de\'E:lop& ofT
the dock after the planning is done, or despite the frc;;het found to be run-
ning across the berth. Select an area to anchor, but use your proiessior:al
skill to adjust when you find a ship anchored in your planned location.
This may sound obvious, yet a few years ago a ship's mate religiously fol-
lowed an overly detailed passage plcm until the sh;p's bow was 50 feet over
the Cristobal breakwater: It il:l not uncommon for a pilot lo board a ship
and find bridge personnr.l overly concerned because another ship has
stopped ahead on the preplanned track line that "we have to follow." The
 THE COURSE CAlm 305
304 VESSEL OPERATIONS

This information is also put on all the necessary charts as a reference

that will remam throughout the pasdage-a grapnic.: plan that 1s even
more important and useful than the tabular plan, since good navigation
practict> calls fv,· all navigation to bcl done directly OtJ the charts of an area.
As the passage plan is laid dvwn on the chart, the charted data is com-
pared to the tabular plan for errors or unforeseen dangers alonl{ the
planned route. Put this information on t.he chart in ink so it will remain in
its original form. This avoids the cumulative errors that occur when pen-
ciled courses are continually shifted as fixes are obtained during a pas-
sag~::. Daily ~avigation is done in pencil for comparison with the planned
track. Lay down arcs ofvisibi!it.y for all lights that will be used, and put all
distance, course, expected currents, and other information th:1. is shown
on the tabular plan into the chart.
Additional !nformation is required :n pilot or inland waters including

1. Courses and distances in each reach or leg of a port passage.

Fig. 12-2. "No one plans a voyage more thorc.ughly than a pilot."
plan is meant only as a formalized dead reckoning and does not replace
good seamanship, navigation, and shiphandling ability.
The at-sea passage plan begins in an abstract tabular format that in-
cludes
2. Each turning point, wit.h a reference buoy or bearing and distance
ofT a prominent aid or point of land.
3. Set and drift at several significant points along the route.
4. Time of high and low water at similar points.
5. Location of anchorages, pilot boarding areas, and the location where
tugs will be met and made fast.
6. Shoals and hazards 1 highlighted to bring them to the navigator's at-
tention during the passage.

1. Planned track with waypoints and junction points. Again, everything except the times uftides and current changes should
2. Courses to steer from point to point, or between waypoints. be in ink, both to avoid mi&takes and to save future work, since the courses
3. Distances from point to point, and for tile passage. and distances will not be lost when the chart is erased and will be aYail-
4. Estimated time of arrival at various points computed for selected able for subsequent passages.
speeds at half-knot intervals.
5. Lights and aids to navigation expected en route. with characteris- THE COURSE CARD
ti~s and range ofVlsibility. In addition to the chart, a pocket-size course card (described in chapter 7) is
6. Notations of banks, shoals, and other points of particular interest. prepa. ed by the master for reference during the passage to or from the dock
7. Port and pilot requirements, VHF working frequenries and report- (fig. 12-3). The pocket card minimizes distraction from the ship's operation
ing requirements, times of high and low water at the port. and allow::: the master to remain at the centerline window to conn the ship
8. Set and drift expected from ocean and loral currents. or observe the pilot's work rather than having to shift between the wheel-
9. Particular information required by any unusual conditions existing house and chartroom. The pilot has a course card eve:1 though he is able tu
along the track. draw the chart of the port from memory; how can the master effectively
10. Local vessel" traffic control practices and requirements.
306 VESSEL OPERATIONS IIHIOGE OESIGN :307

conn the fhip without one? The card shows the reaches in order with the 1975,' to develop practical criteria for bridge detiign. Tl1e study has s1ncc
roursc, le.1gth oftbc reach, turning point at the end of each reach, and the been ado1: tcd by the Intcrnutional Maritime Pilots' Association, has been
charadcrist.ics ofturning point lights noted . Put the iuformation on one or rev iewed and approved by over two !lUndrcd ship designers, builders , and
two :J-ty-5-inch rards, which are !~tlpt in the shirt pock(;lt. The cardl> arc owners, and was induJed by IMO 1n the int.ernat10nally accep~cd stan-
mean t tCJ s upplcmtd the charted ;nfo:-mation and to minimize distracting dards for bridg:.! design. This study is available from thos~ groupl> and
t.t·ips to the chartroom, rathe r than to replace t.he use of the charts com- should be consulted by mari:Jers, na\'al architccW;, and opera tions manag·
}Jletely The card must cover the entire area between the sea and dock, not ers when designing or updating a ship's bridge. Design criteria arc pre·
just the portion of the passage that is made without a pilot. sented, rather than a standardi~ed bridge design, so the re is no nsk of
This card will be esp:::!cially appreciated when that heavy rain squall or institutionalizing p:escnt-day technology.
fog set s in midway down river and the maflter .1eeds only to glance at the Standardized designs arc neither necessary nor practical; different
course card to check the heading as the ship feels her way to sea. types ofve!1sels, their ma nning scales, and their intended sen-ice all affect
design so that an "all ship" bridge is not feasible. Guidelines and minimum
BRIDGE DESIGN requirements do have value though, e1:pecially if devclopi:d by experi-
Good bridge design is essential ifthe mariner and shiphandler are to work enced seafarers and pilots so that6esign fits use, and good work hubits do
safely and effectively. It is difficult to use improperly located equipment, not have to be compromised to ada!Jl to impractical design. A small,
or to bring a ship onto a range that can't be seen because of obstructions bridge-con trolled coaster that docks with one ma n on the bridge re qui res a
placed in the shiphandl(;lr's line of sight. The mariner muet insist that na- more CPntralized layout than a VLCC, and the h eight and open design re-
val architects give the same consideration to good bridge design as is given quimd with a 900-foot-long contrunersbip is not necessary for the coaster.
to hull and engine room desi~, so the bridge is planned to fit the deck offi- It is counterproductive, then, for any study to be ovcrly specific: only those
cer's and pilot's work habits. The cost of installation should be s~condary features desirable on all vessels should be presented.
to good design and ease of maintenance; the bridge layout affecte the opu· Aboard new ships, miniaturized equipment should be grouped in clus-
ation and navigation of the ship throughout her life. ters or stations that don't interfere with the shiphandler or mate on
An excellent study was done by a committee ofmaster mariners and pi- watch. It is now technically possible to place all bridge equipment in one
lots chaired by Captains Wilbur H. Vantine and Robert D. Valentine in console, but this is counterproductive since several people must then work
in one area. Gear s hould be grouped by use so it isn't neces-sary to move
from one side of a 100-foot-wide wheelhouse to U.e other to perform a sin-
Pl\..01 VHF IGt ~ 1:2.. gle task, and place each console-mounted group in th at area of the wheel-
SEA To IJE:WTOWN WHARF-
house where it is most useful (fig. 12-4).
FilOM TO CH~STIC.COUQSE t>ISI.
No tw:> mariners or pilots will agree on the exact placement of bridge
6UO'r'oll8
l.T. -rowER.. Q<-FL R. 311 2.-~
equipment, but there arc general principles upon which all experienced
BUO'Y1t$ SUOV"·#a ~FL.W. "319 /.9 pilots and mariners concur:
auoY rr .JoNEs Pr. GP. R-wC~) o'2...7 2..7
JONe5 PT. euoy·~· QK. A... W 32.2- :2..:2. 1. A clear view must be provided on the centerlin e, or as near the ccn·
SUoY"'~p~· 8Uoy ''I7Ps('Fr• . w. c~~) 337 3., te rl ::1e as possiblt:, from the wi:Jeelhouse to the stern.
BUoY•17PR" BASIN 33'2... 18 2. The wheelhouse windows must be large and t,rivc a clear all-arou nd
SA:5fN VOCS(f'{, 32.2- 0·5 view of the hori zon, with as few bulkheads a11d pi!lar5 as possi ble.
lol'ALOisT.' /5.?MI.
VARIATIOJ 3 -5W.
1 Wtlbur H \'antine, "Good Bridge Design from a .Ma.; ter ~! a n•1cr·~ Point of
Fig. 12-3. Pocket courc;e card. View," pg. 99-104.
 308 VESSE L OPERATIONS BltiDCm DI~SIGN 309

10. A clear walkway is nt'!!dcd from one bridg!! wing to the other,
through the wheelhouse, with all equipment other than the conni!1g
l"tnti"n locate:! ;.,.~t of the Wiilkwa)'.

Naval architects seem to have a misconception about the hclmsmnn's

duties, so a significant. number of modern ships have the wheel located for-
ward at the wheelhous~ windows. Ships with the wheel in this improper
location seem inevitably lo sign on a helnu;man who is 7-fcct. tall, making
it physically impossible for the master O!" pilot. to sec! On future ships lhe
h elm station should be placed wcil back from the window and equipped
w.t.h a gyro repeater, {,'}'TO pilot controls, rate-of-turn indicator, and wheel
and ruader anf{le indicators (fig. 12-5).
If your ship's helm station is improperly located adjacent to the wheel-
house windows, give the helmsman o. stool t.o sit on in pilot waters. The pi-
lot or conning officer can then at. least. s~e over the helmsman's head.
Arrange a conning s tation around the cenlerline windows, the equip-
ment beinr bulkh~ad-mounted O\·er the windows and on a console aft of

Fig. 12-4. Group bridge equipment in clusters in a ppropriately lota led

con soles to incre ase efficiency of the bridge watch crew and conning
officer or pilot. Courtesy Kvaerner-Mass Yards.

3. There mus t be un obstructed access to the centerline wheelhouse

windowe-. so the shiphandler can see both forward a nd abeam wi th-
out having to move around the wheelhouse.
4 . A conning station is required ar0und tho centerline windows.
5. At sea, navigation equipment should be located so there is as n ear to
a 360-degree cle ar view as possible from th e ch a rt table.
6. The helmsman's sta tion should be located on the ccn terline well
\ back fr om the windows.
7. A ship ccn l rol console is required near the center of the wheelhouse,
located well back fr om the \vindows, whe-e the officer on watch can
clearly hear all helm and engine orders.
8. The wh eelhouse sh ould be .ooundproofed ; too many cas ua ltie::~ occur
becau se the mate or helmsman cannot h ear orde rs clearly.
9 . A conning atalion is requiJ ed on each bridge wing. Fig. 12-5. A proper helm slation. Photo Spurry l\!arinc Systums.
 310 VESSEL OPERATIONS PILOT NAVlGA'fiO~; EQUIPMl: NT 311

the window facing forward to keep access to the windows clear. It is impor-
tant that the shiphandler and mate on watch have an unobstructed v1ew
ahead and abeam while working. This becomes especially significant when
a light rain covers the windows with heads of water and it is impossible to
see out without getting right up w the glass. This simple detail-providing
unobstmcted access to the centerline windows-materially increases the
margin of safety when handling the ship. If you can't get up to the bridg~::
windows aboard your present ship, it might be possible to move a bulk-
head table or 0ther equipment to create the needed access. .-·
This c01ming station is designed to group in one location all the equip-
ment needed for shiphandling. Any changes you can make in your prest>nt
ship, such as shifting a tachometer, VHF transmitter, fathometer, or rud-
der angle indicator so they can be used while you remain at the center win-
dows will be worth the effort. Even if only a few pieces of gear are shifted,
Fig. 12-6. This modern bridge design provides unobstructed access to
you can create at least a minimal conning station. The optimmn station
the wheelhouse windows and a clear view ahead of the vessel. Cou1·tesy
would include a digital fathometer, VHF transceiver, wind direction and
/I ~IV Happy Riuer, Merwede Shipyan.l.
force indicators, whistle control, Doppler speed indicaton, bow thrus ter
controls, gyro repeater, tachometer, rate-of-turn indicatm·, and rudder an-
gle indicator. The radar/CAS should be placed to starboard of this loca- and accidents. Use an answerback system so Lhe male and helmsman can
tion, good seamanship dictating that the horizon off the starboard bow of a acknowledge orders, eith er via a t.alkback hailer arrangement or a walkie-
ship should be visible from the radar, so it can be used by the officer work- talkie. Japanese ships routinely have a microphone mounted at the s teer-
ing at the conning station. If this equipment is plal.!ed at one station, the ing console so the helmsman can repeat commands back to the conaing of-
mato or pilot can obtain needed information without having to move about ficer on the bric~gc· wing, and you could easily fit such equipment aboard
the wheelhouse. This is important, since it is difficult to remain oriented your present ship.
to ship motion, particularly lateral motion, if the shiphandler must con- Mariners and pilots should be consulted when designing the bridge
tinually movE: from one location to another to work (fig. 12-6). Japanese layout prior to construction of a new ship; once the ship is built, seamen
ships generally have such well-arranged conning stations that they could can make changes only where practical and then work around remaining
be a model for E~hips of other nationalities. restrictions placed upon them by poor design. ~1arin crs m~t insist,
A simila~· station should be placed on each wing. Less equipment is through the Council of American Master ~1ariuers and other professional
needed at this station, since the pilot or master normally works from the groups, ur. having some impact on hture design and regulation of the
bridge wing only when embarking or disembarking a pilot, or conning shi p's bridge and its equipment. Even if no change is made in b:idt"c de-
alongside a dock, a small boat. or other vessel. A tachometer, gyro re- sigr; otht:r than couniering the trend toward blocking access to the wheel-
peater, the YHF and mternal communications handsats, rudder angle in- house ·"'·;ndows with a helm station and operating ccr.sole. 3. r..r.j.jr
dicator, and bow thruster cont:-cls sho•.1ld be placed here. If the telegraph improvement !n desi~:,rn will have been made.
is not visible from this station, a small repeating indicator is needed on the
PI LOT NAVJGATION EQUIPMENT
wing J!.' your ship lacks these wing indicators, hove them installed.
Aboard larger ships, or ships with a high level of bridge noise, a c..ommuni- Laptop Systems and DGPS-Gen.:ral
cations system :s needed between the bridge area, helmsman, and mate on More a nd more often, pilots arc brin~:,Ting aboard laplop navigat ion sys-
watch to eliminate the shouting that leads to misunderstood commands tems and other aids specially designed for a particular port. Miniaturi zed
 312 VESSEL OPERATIONS PILOT :\AVIGATION FQUIP~ll:::ST 313

eled r onics m ake naviga tion equi pment smaller, less expensive, and more
portable so systems can be designed with software and features that are
port specific and extremely Uf;e ful. In some ports , pilots are now able to op-
era le in ice, fog and other conditions that would have closed a port in the
past bcC'ause they have these specially desiened and extremely accurate
systems.
It is im;lOrtant to note that the systems discussed in this sedion are not
simpl;y laptop computers with off-the-shelf chart programs. These are spe-
cially designed navigation systems. The equipment, programming, and
upgraded charts are expensive, but pilot asuociations and ports are realiz-
ing that this investment provides a payback ir. increased safety, greater
port efficiency, and improved navigation many tim3s the cost of the sys-
tem. Conunercial programs are basic aids to navigation but they will not
provide the degree of accuracy or other features discussed in this section.
These pilot systems are evolving year-by-year under various equip-
ment names but all share some common features to provide pilot-specific
informatiou for

• Navigation
• Shiphandling in channels
• Communications
. I' Fig. 12-7. Pilot laptop showing the Panama Canal CTAN system with a
• Traffic management
display of all traffic movements lo scale in real time plus an abundance
• Speed measurement
of navigation infor mation. Not.c the accuracy of the system as
• Vessel location and detection
demonstrated by the shi p moving down lhe centcr wall of P edro 1\.f..i gucl
• Transponder and vessel identification
Locks. Cour tesy Panama Canal Authority.
• Active vessel traffic management

An example of such equipment is found at the Panama Canal where pi-
lots are using C1'ANS (Ccmmunications, Traffic Management, and Navi-
gation System) that does all this and more. The system was developed in
the late 1990s by a pilot team working with the Panama Canal Commis-
sion a nd experts from the Volpe Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to
increase efficiency and safely in the P~<.nama Canal.
When using the CTAN system, each pilot brings aboard a single case
conta ining a combined satellite and UHF antenna, a lap top computer, and
a unit that combines a radio transceiver, DGPS equipment, and software
to allow everything to interface (fig. 12-7).
Within minutes afl.er coming aboard, the unit is set up and the system
is receiving the signals to support DGPS navigation a nd transmit and re-
ceive radio information between ships via a system of shore-bused trans-
ceivers and repeaters. The system processes the ship's movement as
m easured by sequential DGPS calculations tJfship position to calculate lo-
ca tion, speed, and course. Tha t information is broadcast from ships, tugs,
<.nd launches unde rway in Panama Can al waLer, tn a centralized lo~:at.10n,
w here it is combined with similar infonnatior. f-:om other -.·esseb and
rebroadcaol back Lo all ;:hips simultaneously.
Each ship broadcasts an identifier and preprogrammed infonnation
including speed, course, draft , length, beam, antenna location. cargo type,
pilot name, and other inforn,ation en tered when the ship en tered the sys-
tem. The information is used to genera;,e a gra_r)hic presentation of the ship
on every computer screen in the system. The rebrcadcast signals include
 314 VES3EL OPERATIONS PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIP:'-IEI\T

informt:.tion from every ship moving in the Panama Canal to provide a con-
tinuous, rE-al-time presentation of the entire waterway and all traffic. Ships
are shown to scale rather than as simple blips on a screen so pilo..s "s~e" ac-
tual ship locations a.."1d movements throughout the Canal. Information that.
is essential for safe and expedient maneuvering and navig&tion that was
previously unavailable or obtainable only through input from a t)1ird party,
is now readily available in display directly accessible to the pilot(fig. 12-8).
It is important tv note tr.at DGPS-based laptop systems are additional
r.avigntion aids that provide additional information to experienced mari-
ners. This standard caveat applies as much to the DGPS systems as it does
to other navigation equipment used by mates, master, and pilots. The
DGP:::i laptop system is merely an additional tool used to move ships more
safely and eft'tciently. The pi let should set up the laptop system so it may
be used in conjunction with the radar and other ship's equipment. Re-
member, like anything mechanical, the systems are z:>tillsubject to break-
down, and despite all their "gee-whiz" features, they will not detect any
vessel moving without the system on board such as th'lt yacht drifting into
your path or an oiT-st.ation buoy lying in the chr.nnel.
Pilots must siilllook out the window!
Laptop Systems and DGPS-Nauigatio1t a11d PllotinJ.:
Luptop-based navigation systems designed or modified for pilot or ship-
handlers' use in a particular port brings inland navigalion and piloting to
an entirely new level. The systems have many uses nnd are accurate to the
point where ships piloted by experie11ced and trained shiphandlers and pi-
lots can navigate in reRtricted visibility, ice, or other situations when aids
to navigation are not present. or visible. 'l'he axis and limits of the channel,
charted positions of buoys and 1 anges, and readouts of distances from the
c~nterline and distance to a course changr1 arc presented graphically on
the laptop screen. Ships can navigate in al: weather once users gain confi-
dence in the accuracy of the system.
To demonstrate this capability, feveral pilots navigated ships through
the winding Gaillard Cut in Panama u;ing only the laptop pr esentation.
They went through the narrow, t\vifting eight-mile-long Cutr-mnking
turns, adjllsting for bank suction and steering through each reach while
standing in the chartroom. The extremely accurale graphic presentation
of channel limits, shoreline, the axis of the channel, and own-ship shown
to scale using the known antenna location and the position of the ship's
bow and stern make it possible for skilled shiphandlcrs to proceed in fog or
heavy rain that closed the Panama Canal when ships used radar and con-
ventional instrumentation.
Is the system really accurate enough to be used in this manner? De-
signers for these pilot navigation and communications systems acknowl-

I edge accuracy to within a couple meters. In fact, pilots find the specwlly
designed systems to be accurate within a foot or two if the information is su-
II perimposed on extremely accurate charts. The Panama Canal is a good

\
............
............
....
___
,
.......
,...._.._..,. .....
..... ...._ __
...._._...........,..,....._.,..~~

__....__
_..... ..........
_.....,_
... , ... _.,.,._....,_.. ......
..........
,...,.,.~
test area to demonstrate that accuracy. The constantly updated and very
accurate sur-veys collecLed during a ceu tury of construction and operation
provide extremely accurate data that wa:; programmed point by point. ~y
c:---~~ - ...... ~c... .....

____
c-.•-x
t"'IIIII0.1UII
,... , ..a.o.:-..c--.....,._,..._ .._.-•,....
......... _.. ................
Fig. 12-8. Diagram of typicallaptop-based system with DGPS positions
and ship data broadcast to r~Jpeaters and rebroadcast to all ships
simc.ltaneously tv provide real-time area-wide informdtion. Courtesy
Panama Canal Commission.
....,_ ._ Volpe programmers to create extremely accurate elect.ronic charts. By vi-
sually corr.paring the clearance between a ship's hull and the walls of the
canal locks with the diRtances shown on the laptop presentation, it is obvi-
ous that the system is accurate to within a foot or less.
The charts are the limiting factor when determining the accuracy and
usefulness of the lap top presentation. OfT-the-shelf elec~ronic charts nnd
 316 VESSEL OPERATIONS
handheld or laptop computers are not acceptable f0r the uses described in
this chapter. Standard c:1art.s available for handhetd computers are con-
venient for routine navigation but only special purpose DGPS-based pilot
systllms can provide mformation on other ships and own ship with the ac-
curacy required for Lhe uses discussP.d in this section (fig. 12-9).
The srecially designed laptop-based navigation systems are a great
advance for inland waters navigation as demonstrated by pilot systems
used on Lhe DelawAre River, Tampa, the Chesapeake Bay, and other ports
where true pilot navigation systems are operntio~al. Even DGPS systems
that show only own ship and the channel axis and boundaries in real time
make all weath~r navigation possible. Ports remain open in the winter ice
when, in the past, they closed, and ships move in fog and narrow channels
even though ranges and buoys are not visil:>lE:.
Mt:>st systems also supplement the g--aphic-chart presentation with
continuously updated and accurate readings of the distance to waypoints
and the di.;;tance right or left of the centerline and passing ranges in a
channel. The system is even more useful when the laptop receives and
\ electronic charts prepared for pilot use in a portable presentation
I
I
I
Fig. 12-9. Typic.allaptop display for &pecial purpose pilot navigation
system. Photo courtesy Raven Industries and Pilots for the Bay and
River Delaware.
PILOT NAVIGATION EQt'IP:'>IE:-.IT :317
presents information to show course, spe1..d, draft., location, and meeting
points from other ships. Those systems cr.n be used for more <.;Ompl'.!te pas-
sage planning nod active traffic- managemciJL
The capabilities of such systems are still e\·olving. it iE not on exagger-
ation to say the laptop-based DGPS systoms take piloting services and in-
land navigation of large vessels to a ~cw level. In the past five years,
typical systems have added
• Rate-of-turn indication.
• Automatic calculation of ship meeting points that adjusl.s coni inu-
ously as ships alter e;peed and course.
• Extremely accurate calculation of own vessel speed \vith graphic
and audible presentation that is useful in close quarwrs situations
such as v. hen approaching a dock or lock without the; limitations of
Doppler systems.
• Constant readout of distances from centcrline and to waypoint.s.
• Weather, tide, and current information broadcast directly from in-
struments located at strategic points to the ship.
• Real-time information regarding tugs and availability of docks pre-
sented in a graphic fonnnt.
• Ship-to-ship and broadcast email capability for pilot communica-
tions.
• Direct readout of other ship's course and speed \vith greater accu-
racy, without the time delays required by radar-bused collision
avoidance systems.
• Range and bearing to shore and other vessels measured past bends
or obstructions in a channel based on either straight-line measure-
ments or following the axis of a .::hannel, which is often much more
useful.
• Direct DGPS-generated own-ship positions on extremely accurate
that pilJts eau move about thE: wheelhouse or to the !:>ridge wing as
work requirements cha:1ge.
Independent pilot carry-aboard systems have several advantages that
benefit both the shiphandler and the ship. First, the pilot-provided equi!)-
menl is independent of all ship's eqt:ipment so its capability and controls
are consistent. from one ship to another. The pilot can have confidence 10
the basic and ancillary systems and th~:: information provided is known. It
318 VESSEL OPERATIONS
is a fact that 1.he condition and maintenance of shipboard equipment var-
ies significantly fr(lm one ship t.o another. If the equipment is shoddy or
nonfunct:cning, t.he vessel cannot proceed until repairs are made or substi-
tute equipment 18 provided from ashore. The use of a lap top syst.em uperat.-
ing independent of shipboard equipment provides a degree of redundancy
the.t improves safety. Also, the ability to quickly obtain a replacement for
the laptop-based and portable pilot system should it fail is an obvious ad-
vantage over fixed shipboa,·d equipment that. depends on redundancy and
maintenance for measure of reliability. This is also a good reason to mini-
mize integration bet.ween the pilot.'s system and shipboard systems since
the systems are redundant rather than interdependent.
In practice, the DGPS syst.em provide11 very useful information with
only broadcasted data and information calculated by the DGPS. Chart in-
formation, speed calculations, and navigation information is at least as
good directly from the lap top system as tne information provided by inte-
grating ship's equipment into the laptop system. Accuracy does improve
significantly at very slow speeds with additional input from a flux-gate
compass or other heading reference.
The impact on safe and efficient ship movements of a system that
moves an almost infinite volume of directly measured real-time infonna-
tion to a shiphoard laptop receiver in a graphic format cannot be exagger-
ated. In fr..ci, it is impossible to provide this volume or type of information
via spoken broadcasts or printed lists. The impact of this equipment on
VTS is discussed elsewhere.
La.ptop Systems and DGPS-Shiphandling
In addition to collecting and distributing useful traffic and navigation in-
formation, the DGPS-based navigation system is also a valuable ship-
handling tool. The uses for shiphandling are evolving as pilots and
masters gain experience using the systems in restricted waters.
Making Turns: The DGPS-based chart presentation can be used to n1ake
al!curatE l;W"DS in r:hannels. Shiphandlers have been using radar presen-
~ation to make turm: for many years When using th~ radar, pilots fre-
quently start a turn when the ship reaches some known distance off a
fixed point ahead. These reference points are learned by trial-and·error
and refined through use. Every pilot learns one or more reference points
for every turn on a passage. The variable range marker (VRM) is set at
some known distance, and the turn is started when the VRM touches the
PILO'!' NAVlCA'l'ION E q l. I P ~! ENT 3 19
r~feren ;e point. The electronic bearing line (EilL) is commonly used to
monitor the ship's progress through a turn. I3y s~tting the EBL on the nex:
cour::.e, the pilot can watch as the EBL falls into rhc 1;cxt range. The heln:
is put over as the EBL nears the desired track .md the rnte-of-ium i'l ad-
justed so the EBL falls on the desired location in the channel when th~
turn is !irushed.
The DGPS-basc:d system is even more useful for this purpose because-
of the increased accuracy and the improved presentation although the-
method employed when using a DGPS-based sy~t.cm is very similar. ThE
majority oflaptop systems display lhe ciistance t(J the intersection of chan-
nel legs, eit.her as Distance to Go, Distance to Waypoint or some similar
term, and they display the distance of the antenna from the channel cen-
terline or the desired track lin.!. In lieu of using the VRM and EBL, t he pi-
lot uses the distance lo the intersectio'l when s tart.ing the turn and
distauce off the centerline of the next. leg to adjust the rate-of-t.urn. In ad-
dition, the range and channel are presented on a lapt.op screen indepe ud-
entofline ofsightso the system "sees around corners" and the ratc-<>f-turn
can be adjusted to put t.he EBL on the nex-t range even though the reach or
channel is behind a hill or other obstruction. (See figure 12-10.)
Again, through practice, the pilot learns at what. distance from the in-
tersect..ion he or she prefer3 to start the turn using the laptop system. Tllis
starting point is nonnally anywhere froru 2~to 3 ship lengths from a turn.
but it will vary depending on any number of factors including ship size a nd
hull fonn, direction and strength of the current, ship's speed and even
from pilot-to-pilot. Many experienced pilots find they can even make turru;
by simply watching the snip's position and oriP.otation in the turn and ad-
justing the rate-of-turn when the laptop presen~.ation shows the channel
and ship's hull to scale. Many DGPS-based set..s display this information
in that fonn. It must be noted that the information is most useful at very
slow speeds when the system has a heading reference generated from a
compass or gyro interface.
."vfeeting Points: The better system:.. also pro,;dc continuo.ily upd a t..."'<i
graphic presentation of meeting points of vessels being monitored. The
syst.em calrulates each ship's future positi(lns and the point at which they
will mf!e( using programmed information about courses in the ch&nnel
and a ssumingconstantspeed. This calculation is different from a CPA cal-
culat.ed using radar-based systems. Radar-based sys1.ems assume both
consta nt speed and straight-line course so CPA calculations are on ly
320 VESt>C:L 0PERATIONS
PILOT Nt\ VIGATION E•~L'I P ~IE~T

useful in open waler. The pilot system includes software and electronic was the best possible process when the passire rt·~~d tmffic systems were
charts so meetings are calculated along the course ofa channel with multi- designed. New DGPS-based real-time syt.lcms maKe the improved, mher-
ple turns. Tr.e pilot system measures both t>traighl-line distances and dil:!- ently safe and more eOicient acliue V'l'~ prnc::c::.~ ·.d~cr.; .h.:: o:nd t..~cr, Lnt
tances along the renterline of a channel so meeting points can be calculated master or pilot. has an :lciive role i!'l traffic mana;cr:~ent using unfiltered
using the IJGPS pilot system even though the tihips are changing course. and uninterrupted informatio:1 passed directly from one vessei to another.
This capability to predict meeting is parti.:ularly useful when ships Using active traffic management principles. th~ master or pilot can ar-
must meet or overtake in narrow channels and particularly in channels range safe and expedient meetings based on weather, ship ty;>e, and maneu-
where the vesEiels are not visible to each other. The process is simple. Se- vering characteristics of both own-ship and the other ship. Before these
lect the ship being met and initiate the meeting point calculation. The sys- laplop navigation and communications syslcm.s were available, the master
tem usually shows the meeting point as a small circle or ellipse. Adjust or pilot relied on simplistic dala inherent in the pa.."-';ve systems based on ra-
speed and watch the meeting circle shift as the system continuously recal- dio transmissions at designated checkpoints. With active systems, the deci-
culates the point where ships will meet. and pass. The meeting is arranged sion makers are experienced marinc.rs aboard ship \litl, firsthand immediate
with extreme accuracy, within a couple hundred feet, by adjusting speed knowledge of each ship's characteristics and e>.."temal effects at the time the
in this manner and observing the resultant change in the meeting point. ships are meeting because the data needed to arrange meetings and manage
Lapt(lp Systems and DGPS-Traffic Management trafficisnowmoved into the handsofthcend user aboard ship (fig. 12-10).
Traffic management mov~s to the next generation using two-way DGPS
systems. T'ne end user, the master or pilot, now has an active role in traffic
management. The shipboard user has better real-time data for ship posi-
tion, speed. course, and other data than the shore-side traffic control
watch officer using traditional reporting systems.
All ships and, when applicable, the shoreside centers have the same
complete r~al-time information. When equipped with a complete DGPS
graphics-bal?ed system, the pilot and ship master also have a constantly
updated presentation of meeting points for other ships being tracked as
previously ci.iscussed. No distractions. No delays. No chance of error due to
misunderstood or incomplete information. Meetings are arranged in ap-
propriate locations by two shiphanJlers using the graphic presentation
with no chance of the errors inherent in passive systems that introduce a
third party, thP- shoreside traffic coordinator, in the decision-making loop.
The value of this type data is most appreciated when the pilot adjusts
course and speed and watches the meeting point immediately change so
pilots and masters know the effect of any change wit.h certainty.
Pcssine us. Actiue Truffc Manageme,;;
Traditional passive traffic management systems rely on filtered in(orma·
tion relayed hy radio or, in more: modern systems, u sing AIS (Automatic
Indentification System) to provide information on the ECDIS or radar Fig. 12-10. Unlike radar, laptop navigation systems show ships behind
presentation. Information passed to ships is, by definition, filtered de- hills, around corners, and miles ahead in a winding channel. Courtesy
pending on standard procedures or the judgment. of the ~.:ont.roller. This Panama Canal Authority.
322 VESSEL OPERATIONS
Laptop-b.1sed DGPS presentations that receive and display positions
and data for other ships differ from radar because thE:y are not line of
sight.. This means actiue traffic management by the shipboard end user is
appropnate m almost all situations regardless of the configuration oftl.e
port or the channel. The bridge team can v:atch vessel movements miles
away around bends and behind hills using the DGPS pilot system. 'l'hey
know the location of every vessel in the system and the effect of every
speed &nd course change. No more simplistic "MV ABC just passed buoy 1"
or other limited and relatively useless information from shoreside centers
when traffic management shifts from a passive shoreside-based system to
the active shipboard-based system.
Technology has made the passive shoreside-based VTS systems obso-
lete. In the Panama Canal, for t:xample, the pilot has the ability to see any
section of the canal in real time and can plan to arrive at an anchorage or
arrange a meeting miles away while looking at scale presentations of ship
movements as they are occurring. They watch sh1ps leaving the locks,
movingb the channel behind hills and around bends, and see the location
of ships at anchor before arriving at the lock or anchorage.
It is noteworthy that these systems provide pilots with the navigation
aids recommended by the National Research Council Marine Board in the
definitive study and report Minding the Helm that was is!1ued in 1994.'
BRIDGE HEIGHT
Bridge height is a critical design consideration. Several years ago, a major
European containership operator put a class of vessel into service with a
wheelhouse so low that the tops of the containers were above the lowt:r
part of the wh~elhouse windows, making it physically impossible to coon
the ship from that location. The ship was a masterpiece of engir.eering, yet
the pilot worked hanging over the bridge wing like an old-time locomotive
engineer. The wheelhouse must be raised, even if it requires an extra un-
used deck, so the berth alongside and areas ahead are visible at a reason-
able distance. This is especially important aboard bridge aft ships, since
that design restricts visiuility over th() bow under the best of conditicns.
Keep m mind when working from th-1 greater bridge heights common
aboard modern ships that distance and speed of advance are greatly dis-
2 National Research Council Marine Board, Minding the Helm: Marine
Naui;Jation and Piloting, Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences,
1994.
BRIDGE llEI GIIT 323
torted as height of eye increases. The sh1p appears to be mu·.ing much
more slowly nnd to be much closer to point.s of reference than it actually is.
The height of eye aboa:d a modern LNG ~hip, for example, is 110-to-130
feet-working from that height. is similar to working from t:ll! roof of a ten-
to-twelve-story building.
Automobile carriers, LASH ships, RO/RO, smaller passenger vessels,
and similar ships commonly have t.ne wheelhouse placed extrerr1ely close
to the bow. Working 75 feet from the stem makes it difficult to est.imate
turning rates, so work looking aft, "Great Lakes fashion," when maneu-
vering in restricted areas and narrow channels. It is especially important
that these types of ships have a clear view from the wheelhouse to the
stern, both from the bridge wings and from amidships, and that the bridge
wings extend outboard to the maximum beam of t.he ship so the parallel
midbody is visible. 5ome arrangement must be provided that overcomes
the short bridge-to-bow distance that greatly reduces p~rspective. Most
commonly, markers are placed on the centerline-a pole or high vertical
jackstaff at th-1 bow and a marker on the centerline window in the wheel-
house-to provide a "gunsight effect" to make small changes of heading
more obvious. Since competent shiphandlers normally watch the stern
as much as the bow when working, a wheelhouse located in the extreme
forepart of the ship presents no significant obstacles, as long as the bridge
is propHly designed (fig. L"l-12).
Fig. 12-11. "Working from greater bridge heights creates new probleml:i. ~
324 \C:SSEL OPERATIONS NIG II1' VEHSUS DAYLIGIIT MA.' \ EUVEH!NG 325

4. Unlighted buoys and shoreline <.re no longer visible, so more reli-

ance must be placed on raJar presentation and local kl1owledge to
stay d ear of sh0ais and banks.
5. A poorly Eghted stringpicce must be avoided by ins tinct because i t is
not visible during docking.

Fig. 12-12. Ships with a bridge well forward need a centerline marker.
Prepare a visibility diagram for every ship you serve aboard, showing
areas not visible from the wheelhouse in light and loaded conditions, with
and without containers if carried, and post the diagram in tlie wheel-
house. Th!3 diagram is .>imple to construct using basic trigonometry and
the basic ship dimensions such as bridge height, bridge-to-bow distance,
ship's beam, etc. The diagram is especially helpful when maneuvering
around piers and in restricted channels (fig. 12-13).
Even the smallest increase in light helps, since some degree of depth
perception is regained. Do not make a passage without computing the
time of moonrise and. moonset for the night in question, and, given a
chance, delay a. particularly difficult passage until daybreak if there is not
at least a gibbous moon at the needed time. The ship's ETA is often an indi-
cation of the master's experience, smce a more seasoned shipmaster ap-
preciates the problems caused by darkness and delays arrival u n til
daybreak when then' is no real need to arrive at an earlier hour.
Some degree of experience is needed on a dark night at sea to estimate
distance from other ships, especially when :nasthead and range lights are
poorly placed, although radar overcomes this problem to a great extent,
and darkness is now much less a problem in open water navigation. Make
it a practice to estimate distance off f:.e(ore going to the radar so you can de-
velop the ability to judge distance visually with reasonable accuracy. This
skill is greatly appreciated when the radar goes down or when conning by
eye in an anchorage or congested area. Younger mariners especially need
to make a conscious effort to develop this ability, since they do not acquire
"KISO MARU" INVISIBLE DISTANCE

NIGHT VERSUS DAYLIGHT l\-IANEUVERING

Darkness creates new problems fur the shiphandler and there are two
pilotages in any water-a daylight and a night pilotage.

1. Speed and distance become more difficult to estimate. since depth

percept;on is lost at night, and relatiue size and chang(!s of relatfue
motion must be used to }udge d Lstance.
~
:lfSP\.AC(Jo<t O(T OfW"T w-MS' t O.SlAAtr ~ ~ VA• r r ' ~~,; ~ f. u r t("P

2. It is even more important to look abeam or aft at night than during WCMD f~ V \I!EllR

s ~£TR IC T()',IS uenR 0 , 0 7 0

the day, since it is impossible to estimate speed during hours of
0£5~0 47 . 955 10 62 3 17 ! 55 3 98
dnrkness by looking ahead of the ship.
J$CAHT ruu.. s• 6 76 11 70 2 9 7 333 3 7 5
3. On a clear night objects appear closer, yet when vistbility deterio-
rates they appear further away. Fig. 12-13. Post a visibility diagrP.m on the bridge.
3~6 VESSEL OPERATIONS
it by necessity, as did the senior officers who stood watches b~ fore radar
was so widely accepted.
Depth per-:eption is a result ofbinocular vision and unconscious evalu-
ation of relative position. When this ability is lost at night, the mariner
substitutes other techniques:
1. Relative size is an indication of distance. For example, the height of
a buoy, and thus its distance off can be estimated at night since the
light marks the top, while the reflection of that light on the water
E.hows the base of the buoy.
2. Relative motion is quite helpful since at more than 2 miles' distance
a buoy will appear uearly stationary, at 1 mile its change in bearing
hecomes more noti.::eable, and when the buoy is close at hand its
rr:ovement nearly equals the &peed of the ship.
3. Brilliance is helpful, but can be de.::eiving since it is affected by so
many factors, such as atmospheric conditions, the aspect of the
light, and motion ofthe light in the case of a buoy. ·
4. Techniques such as computing the arc of visibility and bobbing a
light are applicable at greater distances than the shiphandler is
generally concerned with, but can be used on occasion.
To expand on the importance of rate of changes in relative bearing, con-
sider a ship turning inside a buoy. The apparent motion of the buoy is sig-
nificantly greater as its distance from the ship decreases, and thus the
change in motion can be used with reasonable accuracy to estimate the
change in. distance from the buoy as the ship turns. Again-pr:zctice esti-
mating distance in these conditions before looking at the radar and the
skill of handling a ship at night comes quickly.
RECORD KEEPING
The keeping of logs and records of maneuvers 1s inherent in proper
shiphandling, although the two tasks often conflict when the record
keeping bl:comes redundant or unnecessanly complicated. Proper orga-
nization and the use ofautologgingrelieve the mate of some of the admin-
istrllt.ive chores, so more attention can be given to the navigation of the
ship. GivE: priority to navigation rather than getting so involved in record
keeping t.ha~ problems are not recognized and acted upon. It is more im-
portant to avoid a casualty than to record the exact time of impact.
HECOHD ){l!:l..:l'll\G
Good work habits d~veiop with experience. Remember vour first.
undocking as a cadet er green third mute'! There seemed to be myriad of
tasks to accomplish and detail&to be noted And loggecl . With limP, the~
re::;pont.ibilities become secoud na ture until. while accomplishing cv" ry-
thing required, you had t.imc for coffee and perhaps swapping sea stories
with the pilol. When _record keepin{; is properly organized, it can be don e
concurrently with other tasks and consumes lit, le time. 'l' his sort of orga-
nization is essemial while mancuvering in pilot waters.
Every ship sho~ld be fitted with an automatic bell logger. The ma te's
time is better spent checking the tachometer and rudder angle indicator t.o
sec that helm and engine orders are properly executed than in continu-
ously recording the bells.
Eliminate all the separate books and limit all record keeping to one
scratch log/workbook and the chart when in pilot waters. Important data
is transferred to thP. deck log at a later convenient time and the mate does
not have to shuffie bell books , r.avigation books, logbooks, sounding books,
and whatever other record books might be required by company policy.
Keep the book neat, but don't waste time with elaborate entries that divert
attention from the shiphandling and navigational duties at hand-after
all, the book is called a "scratch log."
Refer to any of the classic navigation or sean1anship texts for more de-
tailed information about what should be included in the deck log when in
pilot wa!.P.rs, but be certain to include
1. Times and locations of course and speed changes, and times of
changes to diesel fue! or maneuvering speeds.
2. Time of passing abeam of important. lights, landmarks, buoys ma rk-
:ng the end of a reach or other significant location, and the bearing
and distancP. of those aids.
3. Times of encountering significant changes in depth of water under
the keel.
4 . Important meteorological informatior. such as visibility. passing
showers. fog. wind force and direction.
5. Engine maneuvers (recorded by the automatic bell logger).
G. Time of passing conning rcspo.Jsibility be~ween master, pilot , nnd
the deck officers.
7. Significant rndio transmissions, such a5 those for making passing
arr..lngements with ships being met or overtaken.
 328 VESSEL OPERATIONS

Note a 11 the naviga tional infonnatwn first on the chart, and then put
esser.tia l information into the scratch log. Compare each position with the
DR and the inked passage courses and notify th e m a:Jter and pilot of any
set mdicated. Don't end your du ties with recording information while the REVIEW QUESTIONS A.t"'-rD
vessel is set tow A.rd a shoal that only you are aware of, a nd don't assume PRACTICE MANEUVERS
that the pilot is aware of the situation-tell the master or pil<'t about
it,-infonnA.tion is gatherec! so you ca n supply it to the officer conning, not
just so it C'an be recorded for historical interest.
Keep t he passage plan nearby for reference and have it preplotted in Page numbers in parentheses indicate where in the text the answers may
ink on the charts used. This greatly reduces r ecord keeping while maneu- be found.
vering, and serves as a check on the ship's actual progress as compared to
CHAPTER 1. ARRIVAL
the passage pla n. Graphic records are often more meaningful, and mini-
mize the need for many distracting tabular records. Avoid redundant R~uiew Questions
work by keeping the scratch paper off the ch art table. Enter bearings and 1. In day-to-day work, the most useful unit of measuremen t fo r estimat mg turn-
other information directly into the scratch log rather than putting them ing circles and other distances if- the sh ip's own length. (Page 101
· first on scratch paper, and reduce logging chores by nearly 50 percent. a. t rue
This helps you to record all necessary data without taking excE•ssive t ime b. false
away from priority tasks. The scratch log is just that, a rough notebook for 2. In sha lh w water, a ship's turni ng circle is (Pages 10 a nd 17-181
later reference, so a nything of interest can be r ecorded in it while avoiding a . larger
b. s maller
distractin3 and time-consuming double work.
c. the same
3. An average-size sh ip's turning circle is usually slightly when t he
ship turns to t he right than when shf! turns left. (Pages 10- 11)
a. larger
b smaller
c. the same
4 . A VLCC's turning circle to the right is U!oually _ _ _ he r turning circle to
the left. (Page 11)
a . larger than
b. s maller than
c. nearly the sa me as
5. When revolutions arc increased during a t.urn. the tactical cUumetc: bcc:H:1es
(or stays) \Page 11J
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same
6. For a given rudder a ngle and engi ne speed, the rate of tu rn _ _ _ a~ tne
depth of water decreases. (Pnges 10 a .1d 18J
a. increases
b. decreases
c. does not change

329
11
I
330 RF.VIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVF.RS RE\'lEW QUESTIONS AND 1'!1J\CTICE ~IANEt..:VEH.S 331
I
I

7 A ship cun be backed and filled in the smallest area when turned tc the left. 13. The concept of using the "most effective mancuver" is important ~ause
(Pages :1-13) (Page 17)
a. tru e I. the shi;> is lll!lneuvc.·ed using the minimum number of engint and rldder
b. fa lse order.;.
Il. se:veral tasks are accompli~hed simultaneously.
8. You arc aboard au average-size, loaded, house-aft tanker proceeding through Ill. it simplifies maneuvering because only one t.1sk is complet-ed ;~t" ume.
an open roadstead. The wind is blowin~t hard encugh to overcome the normal a. I 8lld II
t Nisting effect when your ship's engine goes astern. When you back your ~~ip b. I and III
you would expect her to (Page 1.4) c. III only
I. head into the wind while she has headway al"\d back into the wind when she d. none of the above
has sternway.
14. How would you expect the following sl:iphandling characteristics to change
II. head away from the wind while she has headway and back away from the
as your ship moves from deep t~ shallow water? (Pages 17-20)
wind when she has stcrnway.
A. tactical diameter.__ a. increase
a. I only
B. twi~ting effect when backed. _ _ b. decrease
b. II only
C. rate of turn. c. no significant change
c. both I and ll
D. speed loss during large course changes. _ _
d. neither 1 nor 11
E. speed loss when engine stopped. _ _
F. directional stability. _ _
9. Assuming there are no extraordinary wind, current, or bank effects, a ship
should be swinging moderately to before her engine is put astern. 15. How would you expect the following to affect directional stability? (Pages
(Pages 14-15) 18-20)
a . starboard A. increased length. _ _ a. more positive (or less negative)
b. port B. increased beam. b. less positive (or more nega tive)
C. increased drag. _ __ c. no significant change
10. A bow thruster is sometimes preferable to tugs because (Pages 15-16) D. decreased underkcel clearance.
I. it is located at the extreme end of the vessel. E. increased block coefficient. _ _
ll II. it is always available. F. more full sections forward.
•' Ill. it ;s equally effective at slow and fast speeds. G. increased ruddl'r angle. _ __
a. I and II H. ship tri=cd by the head. _ _
b. II and Ill I. ir.creased squat by the head. _ _
c. nll of the above
16. Ships with large block coefficients are more likely to trim by the head in shal-
d. none of the above
low water. (Page 19)
a. true
11. Using a bow thruster has its disadvantages: (Pages 15-16)
b. false
I. it usually provides less power than a tug.
II. it has no effect on headway to slow or hold a ship. 17. Which of the following statements is/a rc true for ships .,.,itb negotiue d1rec-
Ill. it can only be used at very lignt drafts. tion:1l s:.ability? (Pages 18-20)
a. I and II I. a larger rudcier angle is needed for a longer period of time to start a tu m.
b. Il nnd m ll. a :ar11er rudder angle i~ ncccic·i !0!" a Jong~:r ?Crioc! of timet~ steady up after
c. all of the above a turn
d. none of the above Ill. the ship's rate oftum increases when the rudder is p~t amidships during
a turn.
12. A bow thruster is usually quite effective at speeds vf up to 5 knots. (l'a.ges a . I only
15-16) b. I and IIJ
a. true c. all of the above
b. f&lse d. none of the above
 332 REVlEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVU:W QUES'I'IONS AND PRACTICC: MANgUVER5 333

18. The on I) effective way to slow a ship is to stop the engine and, if necessary, ~to I!. graphic communications such as CTANS aud interactive DGPS prcscnt.a-
astern. (P:1ges 24-?.6) tlons.
e. true Ill. ra dar and ARPA
11 b. fabe !Y. wh:.;tiu signa l..
a. I and IV above
19. A VLCC makes a hard-over turn. You would expect her to lose nearly __ per- u. I and III above
cent of her headway when her heading changes by 90 dr:grees. (Page 25) c. All of the above
a. 10
b. 20
c. 25
Practice Maneu1.·ers
d. 50
1. Make a hard-over turn in deep wate· a nd use the wa ke t.o measure the ship's
20. A s~ip is on your port bow in a crossing situntion and her bearing is steady. tactical diameter. A brightly painted oil drum can be used as a reference or
\! You reach the point where you doubt that collision can be avoided by her ac- the diameter can be measured by radar using the display of the: sea return
tionn alone. Usually, it would be better to (Pages 25-26) generated by the ship's wake. H'lw does the diameter of the turning circle
I
I I. back down compare with the ship's length?
I
I! II. make a round turn Make the same turn in shallow water (a depth less than 1.25 times draft)
H
1
c.. I only
b. 11 on ly
I and measure the turning ci.·cle. How does the dianeterofthe turning circle io
shallow water compare with that observed in deep water?

ji c. both I and II
d. neither I nJl' II l 2. Your ship is dead in the water. Put the rudder hard over and put the enbri ne
progressively fro.:n slow, to half, and then to full ahead so the ship executes a
j; 21. A combination pilot ladder/accommodation ladder is required when the dis-
·I complete circle with the revolutions increasing through the entire 360 de-

\~~
'I
tance from the water to the top of the ladder exceP.ds__feet. (Page 29)
a. 10 I grees. Use the wake as in maneuver 1 above, to measure the diameter of this
tun.!'-iow, leave the engine on full ahead and again measure the turning cir-

1,,\!
b. 20
c. 30 I cle diameter while making another complete 360-degree turn with the engine
speed unchanged (a steady state turn). How does the diameter of the acccicr-

11
,,
d. 50 I! ating turn compare with that of the steady state turn?

22. A modern containership has more sail area than a full rigged sailing ship. 3. Perform the ma:;ter's maneuuers described io chapter 1 while one of the ship's
(Page 34) mates collects data on your ship's characteristics using a data sheet similar t.o
a. true fig>1re 1-2 on page 9. Anslyze these data and compare the 1ate of turn, time to
~top, change of heading when stopping and backing, and other important
b. false
characteri3tics with the data collected aboard other ships you have maneu-
23. The shir,~'s call letters should be transmitted frequently when communicating vered. Study all the pertinent infonnation so yl)u have some feel for your ship
by VHF and, in any case, at inte::'Vals of(Pages 36-37) and can predict her behavior with reasonable accuracy.
I. before and after every transmission during a series of transmissions with
4. This exercise will give you a feel for, and appreciation of, using hard-over rud-
another Rhip. der to reduce speed. First, measure ycur ship's s pc:ed approaching an open an·
II. at ten minute intervals. chorsge or pilot station. This can be done with a Doppler log, or the ship's
Ill. before the first transmission and after the last transmission of a Vhr con·
ARPA (p 1otting a fixed point whiie the s hip· ~ !;peed is ma nual!y !npu: ~ J 'J
versation regardless oflengtb.
knots so the ~computed speed" of the fixed object is tnen your ship's speed), or
a. I only
by any other method you migh choose. A series olsimple fixes at frequent in-
b. II and Ill above tervals can be used to at least get a rough measurP. of speed and changes in
c. Ill only speed. Obviously, you can't accurately ciet.errni ue absolute speed with the lat-
24. Mariners have several means for .::ommunicating ship'11 actions and i.'lt.en· ter method , but changes in speed will be quite appa rent to the experienced
tions including (Pages 36-39) mariner and this exercise can still be very useful even if your ship is n't fit ted
I. v~rbal communications such as VHF radio with equipment to measure speed accurately.
334 !\!!:VIEW QU.t:STIO~S AND PRACTIGE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUI:STIONS AND l'HACTICE MANEUVERS 335

Put the rudder hard over and change the ship's heading by at least 45 de- a . all of the above
grees. Meae ure th<' £hip's !Speed agai n and calculate the reduction in speed. b. I and II only
Repeatedly shift the rudder from hard over to hard over whiln continuing to c. I ar.d Ill only
measu:-: or ..stimate speed through the water and changes in speed until the
ship's headway is si&'Tlificantl~· reduced. 4. Shiphandlers should reevaluatc any mane'.lver requiring the rep... atcd U!;C of
the engines or ~hrusters at half and full power. (Page 55J
5 . When searoom permits, make a practice of putting the rudder hard over to-
a. true
ward the lee side (toward the sid<' on which a pilot is boardbg) a short time b~­
b. false
fore the pilot begins boarding. Observe how this sweeps a smo:>th lee for the
pilot and makes boarding quicker and safer. 5. When steering u!:ing Azipods in the A. Sea mode, the pod is turned to por t to
turn the ship to starboard. (Page 61)
CHAPTER 2. SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL a . true
b. false
Review Questions
1. To br€'ak a sheer in narrow channels a pilot should (Page 4 7) 6. Although Azipods may be placed in vi rtually any position, there arc three po-
a. reduce engine revolutions sitions that have been found to be most effective in practical use. They are
b. increase engine revolutions (Pages 61-63)
c. turn away from tl1e bank and increase distance a. _ _ __ mode, which is used in open waters
d. increase rudder t<1ward the bank b. mode, which is useful in narrow channels
e. both a and c ·· c. _ _ _ _ mode, which is used as the ship approaches the berth
f. both b and d
7. When operating i 1 Harbor mode, the pods are placed at 45 degrees in opposi-
2. Your vessel ia steaming parallel to a shoal or b:mk. How does she behave? tion to each other. The vessel is turned to port by moving the control
A. her bow moves away from the bank or snoal. (Pap,es 47-48) ahead and pulling back on the cnntrol. (Page 62 )
a. true a. port, starboard
b. false b. starboard, port
D. her r.tem moves toward the bank or shoal. (Pages 4 7-48)
a. true 8. When in Docking mode and going port side to the berth, the pod is
b. false placed parallel to the centerline, and the pod is placed in the 3
C. her midbody moves laterally away from the bank. (Pages 47-48) o'clock position with the propeller . (Pages 62-61)
a. true a. port, starboard, inboard
b. false b. port, starboard, o-.ttboard
D. comretent shiphandlers don't just react to the ship's behavior and decide c. starboard, port, inboard
on a coun;e of action after a situation develops; they think ahead, anticipate d. starboard, port, outboard
situations,and plan alternative maneuvers. (Page 49)
a. true 9. When researching various methods for ~tandardizing Azipod commands,
b. fals£> some pilot groups found it worked well to use (Pages 63-64)
E. ships with variable-pitch propellers steer best if speed is reduced quickly. I. standard steering anct engine comman<is in the AL Sea mode.
(Page 52) II. standard steering and engine commands in the Ha rbor and Docking
modes.
a. tru.:
b. falsP IlL cloci< positions and percentap,e c! full power for all modes
IV. clock positions and percentage of full power for HarbClr and Docking
3 . Advantages of omnidirectional propulsion systems over conventional sys- modes
tems include (Page 53 ) a. I and ll above
I. greatet safety b. III above
II. increased maneuverability c. I and II above
Ill. reduced reliance on traditional shiiJhandling skills d. I and IV above
 336 REVIEW QU 8STION~ AND PRACTICE MMIEUVERS HEVa:W QLTES'I'IONS ANIJ l'l!.ACTICI!. M i\!,liWYl~ H S :J37

10. When operating under computer control, the shiphandler is controlling 1o. A raLe-of-turn indicator usuaJly indicates turning rate in __ per s~c:ond or
(Page 65) __ per minute. (Pa!ie 83)
a. revolutions per minute of the pod and thruster and direction of th~ a. meters/feet
th::uster 3nd porls forces. b. teuths vf a degree/degrees
b. re;sultant powe r, speed, and vessel movement. c. degrees/de~:.rrees
11. ExperiencE'd mariners limit the u:;e of computer control wher, ma'lcuverin!>' d. feeUfeet
near docks and flxed objects. A good rule-of-thumb id to change from auto- 17. A ship changes draft when movinG' into shallow water. The change in mea n
matic to manual control when within of a hazard. (Page 66) draft is known as . The hull rotation nbcut the trans,·crse axis and
a. three ship lengths resulting change in draft forward or aft is known as . The in-
b. 100 feet crease in deep draft, forward or aft, i~ called . (Page 85)
c. one ship length a. squat, trim and sinkage
12. Standardized commands for maneuvering Azivod vessels are important be- b. sinkage, trim and squat
cr.use (Pages 67·-70) c. sinkage squat and trim
I. l!lck of standard commands makes it impossible; to follow recommended 18. The increasing pressure drop under a hull and t he corresponding increase
Bridge Resource Management practices. in squat caused by water flowi n~ under the hull at increased velocity as
Ir.lack ofsLandard commnnds makes it necessary to have a single person both ship's speed increases, follows a basic principle of physics known as Lhe
conning and controlling engine and thruster movements. - - - - -- - --Principle. (Page 85)
Ill. pilots and deck officers lose situational awareness when standard corn· 19. Ships a lways trim by the stern in shallow water. (Pages 90-91)
"" mands and conning practices are not used. a. true '
IV. tl>e pilot cannot fulfil! requiremer.ts under law to control the vessel or pro- b. false
vide suffici'!!nt controls to be held responsible for maneuvering in many situa-
Il l tion3 without. standardized commands. 20. The pilot or ship's pfficer can reduce sink age and squat by reducing the (Pages
1' a. I above 96-97)
1' I. block coefficient
.. b. I and II above
II. speed
r
I
c. all of above
III. blockage factor
13. The ta·: tical diameter and turning rate can be pr&cisely adjm:ted during a IV. the rate and period of acceleration
turn by visually aligning an external fixed object, such as a buoy or point of a. all of the above
land, with a reference point aboard ship. b. none of the above
A. the tactical diameter is __ when the object moves ahead relative to the c. li and IV only
shipboard reference point. (Pages 75-77) d. II only
a. increasing
b. ciecreasing 21. Squat for a given speed and hull condition in confined water is __ that in
B. the rate of turn is __ if the object moves ahead more rapidly. (Page 56) open water. (Pages 87-88)
a. increasing a. half
b. dec1·easing b. twice

14. It is best to overtake and paas close by another shi!) in a narrow channel at a 22. A useful formula for calculatir,g approximate sinkage in open W 3 tc!' is (Pages
87- 88)
very slow speed. while the overtaken ship should increase her speed before
being paGsed. {Page 80: Sqt!:>.t (fe:Jt) = bhck cc.effici.:r,t ~ (speed ioo knots ·1 .'3,1
a. true A. calculate squaL fo r a ship having a block coefficient of0.8 proceeding at 6
b. false knots in open water.
15. The clicking sound ma de by the gyrocompass should be eliminated as it dis· B. calculate squat for the same ship proccccling at the same s peed in a re·
tracts the pilot. (Page 81) stricted channel.
a. true C. calculate squat for the same ship proceedil"g at 12 knots in a restricted
b. false chann 2l.
338 RE'II EW QUES'l' IONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS n EV!EW QUESTIONS AN D PHA CT I C~: ~1,\N E:UV J.:H R 339

23. Undcrkeel dearance is inflnenc<.d by several factors including (Page 95) puts tais buoy or point in line with the edge of a wl, cclh ouse window , a n d tu rr.
I. vessel 3peed your ship around ~hi s referenr e point without chanbring th e rudd e: r angle.
II. ch a nnel dimens ion:; Closely w:1tch the object's relative motion as thP ship turn~. Did it mov~.: for
HI chaneeR in envn e revolutions .,,.:;,.i <~ r a i~ re; .. ~J ve to tne re 1erence pomt as the ship turned? How d1d the
IV. vessel interaction shi p's di:,lance from the r eference object chAnge !n each ca "e? Ho..., d1d t he
a. I, 11 and IV only change in your ship's rate of turn affect the 1ate ofre lat.ive motion of th e refer-
b. I and li only e:lce object?
c. II and III only
5. Make the same type of turn a round tl.e same or similar reference p<JlOt and
d. all of t ho abcve
adjust the amounl ofrudder being used to keep the buoy fixed in position r ela-
24. Underkeel clearance is r educed significantly when two ships pasJ in a n arrow tive to your shipboard reference point . Did the ship then maintain the same
cha nnel b ecause squat increases _ _ % to _ _% or even more dependin r appr'lltimate distance ofT the reference •)bject? You :1re now making controlled
QO ship s peed a nd distance of sepa ration. (Pages 95 and 98) turns.
a . 10%/25%
6. Carefully note the location cfbuoys r.nd points, re l:ltive ..o your shi p 's p1vot
b. 25%/25%
point, as a pilot begins each t urn in a narrQWchannel. Develop a fee l for the
c. 50% to 100%
time at which turns should be started. (Note: :-.tost inexperi eucc.-d slu p-
d. none of the a~ove
handlers begin a turn too soon.)
25. Underkeel-::learance is reduced significantly as a ship accelerates and squat
7. Closely watch the rudder-angle indicator us your ship meets and passe..; ot.her
increaseJ as much as %. (Pages 95 and 97)
ships in a narrow channel. Was more or less rudder used as the bows p assed ,
26. Wide-heam s hips iucreaso draft significant when they roll, so rolling may or when the ships were abeam, or when their sterns were passing? W as the
h av<> a greater impact on underkeel clearance than draft. (Page 95) rudder toward or away from the other ship?
a. true
8. Watch the rudder- mgle indicator each time your ship overtakes and p asses
b. false
other vessels in a n arrow chllllnel. Note a lso any changes in engine s peed
27. Changes in the shape of a channel have no affect on squat as long as the block- made by the pilot while the oth er shi ps a re being passed. Were the rudde r hOd
age fa ct.or does not change. (Pages 95 and 98) engine used in the ma nner described in shiphandling text.s?
a. true
9. Make a habit of listening to the clicking sound of your gyrocompas-5 " hHe
b. f'llse
turning. It will soon become second nat ure a nd you will immediately know
Practice Maneuuers when your rate ofturn is increasing or decreasing and to wh at dcgr('(? .
1. Closely observe the rudder angle indicator a s a ship passes near banks a nd 10. Have the fo rward an d after tugs read your draft as closely as pos~>ibl e "" hi le
points ofland . Compare the amount of rudder needed to hold a ship steady on your ship is moving at 6 to 10 knots and again when they have made t:p and
her course a s the bow passes each point ofland with that needed when the YOUI ship is proceeding at bare stcerageway. Note both sinkage (change in
s tern reaches the same point. mean draft) and squat. Does your ship squnt by the head or by the stern? I low
did this rompare with your computed sinkage using Da rrass's formula'?
2 . Compare the amount of rudder and duration of time it is applied when start-
in g a turn with the amount and time needed to check a ship's swing at the
completion of the turn. Do this when your ship is trimmed by the head, a mi CHAPTER 3. USE OF TUGS
when she i::; t;;mmed by t he stern. Is she directionally stable or unstable in
.:ac!'J case? P.euiew Questwns
3. Observe thn ch a nge in rate ofturn after th e rudder has been put amidships for 1. Prepare a !>ketch showing how a tug is typically made fast :1longside in a C .S.
each case deocribed in maneuver 2. Does the rate increase or decrease? Is your port , usi ng two linea. Label the br..cking line (head lil:e) and the cvmc ahead
sh ip directionally stable or unstable? line (spring line). (Page 104)
4. Select a buoy or point th at lies on the inside of a turn while making rou tine 2. Ma ke a s imilar s ketch showing the tug made up wi~h three lines,labehng the
maneuver~ at the pilot t>tation or in a "\ anch orage. Stand in a locati<'n thRt come ahead a nd backing lines as well as the additional stern line. (Page l 0.1 1
 340 REVIEW <.-luESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS HEVJEW QUESTI ONS AND PRACTICE !II.ANBU\'Ellli

3. A tug ~eing used for ship work can only be used to move a ship's bow or s tern 3. Ge.1crally, the less experience sh i ph andl e r~ ha I'<~. the _ _ they work. I Page
laterelly. (Page 106) 118)
a. true a. faster
b. falsn b slower
1 . You are docking a ship usiug two tugs. You have the quarter t<~g stand ofT un- 4. Quick water lpro;>eller wash when backmg) mo\'es ahead at :o bout the samt;
til jus~; before the ship enters the slip. Give two reasons for this. (Page 108) speed as the ship when the ship is making ubout __ knots. (Pages 119-:.W ·
5. Match the following signals with one or more tug responses. (Page 105) a. 1
A. increase to full power. __ a. one blast b. 2
B. tug is dismissed. Let go. __ b. two blasts c. 3
C. if working, atop.__ c. three blasts 5. Quick water begins to move forward, up the ship's side, when the ship is ma k-
D. ifpuRhing, increase power.__ d. series of short blasts ing a speed of approximately _ _ knots, and tile quickwater reaches the
E . co:-ne ahead dead slow.__ e. one long, two short blasts ship's midships section when the ship is moving at a speed of _ _ knots.
F. back the tug, normal power. __ f. one long blast (Pages 119-20)
G. if stopped, come ahead. __ a . 110
H. not a tug signal. __ b. 211
I. if ,;topped, come ahead. __ c. 3/2
J. if backing, increase power. __
6. A bow thruster used correctly will have the same effects on the ship as a tug
6. An experienced shiphandler always looks at objects ahead of the ship when
made fast on the ship's i>ow. (Page 106) estimating speed during a maneuver because it's difficult to detect movement
by looking abeam or abaft the beam. (Pages 12(}-2'.)
a. true
a. true
b. false
J; b. false
7. A tug's lines don't have to be heaved up tishtly, when she is lashed up along-
aid~ to work, if she has good leads for both spring and head lines. (Pages 7. Why is it better to approach the berth with less angle when doclting a s hip
111-12) with a right-hand propeller starboard side to the dock? (P;.ge 122)
a. true 8. Sketch two alternative methods for making tugs fast when backing into a s lip
b. false starboard s:de to the pier. (Pages 124-25:

CHAPTER 4. APPROACHING THE BERTH 9. Ships doclting at a wharf in strong current can expect to be set ofT the berth
just as they come alongside because of the _ _ and the _ _, especially
Review Questions when there is a bank or solid face below the wharf. (Pages 126-27)
a. hydraulic cushion/Bernoulli effect
1. It is important that the pilot keep moving about the wheelhouse so as to al-
b. 13ernoulli efTecVeddy current
ways have a good view of every part of the ship while docking or doing other
c. hydraulic cushion/eddy current
work. (Pages 115-16)
a. true 10. It is best to think of a ship as being docked stem first wher. she is docking wit h
b. false the current from astern. The docking is done as if the ship were moving _ _
relative to the _ _. (Pages 126-27)
2. 'i'here tore several techniques a shiphandler can use to hold a ship in position
in a channel or other confined arer:., including (Page 118) a. ahead/water
b. ahead/bottom
I. steam C!'l the enchor ai. sio\'.' er.go.ne speeds.
c. astern/water
II. anchor to a short scope of chain with the current from ahead.
d. astern/bottom
Ill. simply back and fill in the channel.
a. I only 11. When docking at a wharf with the current from astern, the _ _ is used to
b. n only move her laterally the last few feet to the berth. I Page 111 )
c. Ill only a. current
d. all of the above b. engin'!
 342 REVtEW QUESTION S AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PIV\CTICE MA NEUVEHS 343
.I:
I
12. Your ship is docking port side to a wharf parallel to the channel. There ts a 2. '\ 1-knolcurrenl exerts the sa me force on a gi\·~ n surface a rea as _ _ knot.;, ·'

l ::.~orong l:!bb cunent running as you come alongsido, and tugs are made fas~ at
tlte bow and stern. (Page 127)
I. the tu •!S should come full11head at ? 90 degree angle to the ..hip to pin thc
of wind. tPage 130)
a. 1
b. 10
ship tigh . ulongside and prevent movement while line~> are run. c. 20
I I. the tugs should work at an angle tuward the ship, into the current, to hold d. 30
the ship both :::longsiue and in position.
Ill. the tugs should come ahead parallel to the ship's side, against the current, 3. A ship moving at 2 knots moves approxi-nately _ _ in one mi11 ute. C P~ E:
to hold t.hc ship in position while lines arc run to keep the ship alongside. j_32)
a. I only a . 50 feet
b. II only b. 100 feet
c. Ill only c. 200 feet
c. either 1 or JII d. 200 yards

Practice Maneuuer~> 4. Lateral motion can be caused by (Pages 132-33)

1. Try to handle your ship without moving around the wheelhouse more than is I. wind and current
absolutely necessary. Notice how your feel for the ship's movements (and es- II. turning the ship
pc.cially lateral movement when turning, backing, working in currents, or us- Ill. extended use of tugs
ing tugs) is significantly improved when you aren't constantly moving around a. I and II
the wheelhouse. b. I and I1I
c. all of the above
2. Make use of every oppo~-tunity t.o practice handling your ship at minimum d. ships do not move laterally
speed. Stop the engine and keep her on course while approaching an anchor-
age or pilot station, using hard-over rudder as headway is lost. Be patient, 5. You are docking a ship with a right-hand propeller and she is about to come
wa'.ch the stem or jacks tail' closely to detect movement as soon as possible, alongside and be stopped, in position, at the berth. The ship should be set up
and learn how slowly your ship can be handled. When she no longer answers for backing to allow for, and use to advantage, the normal twisting effect as
to rudder alone, use short kicks on the engine to start and check swing, and the ship goes astern. This is most commonly done (Pages 133-34)
practice until you can handle your ship at less than 1 knot in all but the worst I. when docking starboard side to, by "kicking" the engine al1ead with hard
conditions with a minimum of engine maneuvers. Anyone can handle a sh;p port rudder before going astern.
at sea speed! II. when docking port side to, by "lticking" the engine ahead with hard star-
I' board rudder before going astern.
I• 3. Look over the side and check the position of the quickwater every time you
Ill. when docking port side to, by going astern to take off hea dway and bring
back tte engine to slow or stop your vessel. Use the location ofthe quickwater the ship alongside.
to estimate headway when approaching an anchorage, berth, or pilot station. e. both 1 and II
(Read pag~s 119-120 for approximate speeds vs. quicl:wat.er position.) b. both I and Ill
4. If your ship is fitted with a Doppler log, check y;mr speed through the water c. Ill only
when th~ quickwater is moving forward at the same speed as your ship, when d. none of the above
the qu;ckwater starts mo\; ng forward along the ship's hull, ar.d when the
quickwater reaches amidships. 6. It's 1n1ponant to always put the rudder amidships before the engine sta.n.:
turning as tRrn. (Page 134)
CHAPTER 5. DOCKING a . tru~
b. false
Reuiew Questions
1. A compc.te.'1t s hiphandler plans a job so that wind and current can be used as 7. Quickwatercan have a significant effect, forcing the ship away from the be rth
a ids to maneuvering rather than forces to be overcome. (Page 129) when docking starboard side to. ( Page~; 134-35)
a. true a . true
h. false b. false
 344 REV1EW QUESTION':> AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVJ ~;w QUESTIONS AND PRACTJCI:: MANEUVJ::HS 3·15

8. Ships mus t usually be forced into a berth and maneuvered using full r evolu- 4. You arc about to undock a ship bertl:ed port side to at a wharf. 5hi~.~ an:
tions ahead and astern, becaase s hip handling is not a subtle art. (Page 1361 l erthed close ahead and astern, so the ship must be mo,•ed l at~~rally to s tar·
a. true board, away from the herth, to clear th?!\e ships. Only one tug j~; avai lnbl,.. De·
b. fabe scnbe one way to accomplish this. (Pages 142-4-t)
A. the tug could be made fast _ _ .Yith at le~tst one backing line from the
9. Which of the following statements abo.1t ianding a ship alongside 1 berth tug's bow.
is/are true? (Pages 136-37) a. forward
I. a ship should be parallel t.o the pier when she lands alongside so all frames o. aft
along the parallel midbody can absorb equally the force oflancin~ . B. the tug _ _ ata 45-degree r.ngle toward the stern, while the :;hip's engine
Il. a ship nhvuld be at an angle to the pier when she lands alongside the wharf turns ahead and her rudder ir put hard to _ _.
or pier to minimizn the effects of quickwater as she stops. a. comes ahead/starbonrd
a. I Ollly b. backs/starboard
b. II only c. comes ahead/port
c. both I and II d. backs/port
d. neither I nor II
5. Your s hip is docked starboard side tu her berth. A tug is Inode fast on the port
bow and the last line has been let go. The ship hail a right-hand turning pro-
Practice Maneuuers
peller. There is no ship bcrthed astern. TI1e ship's engine is put astern. (Pages
144-46)
l. Measure the lime required for your bridge to move between bollards on the
pier. Estimate the distance betwe~::n bollards by comparing that distance with A. the stem will move_ _ the berth unless there is a strong current or wind
your ship's beam. What was your ship's speed of approach? countering the propeller's effect.
a. toward
2. Work to become more aware of lateral movement. Make a practice of stand- b. away from
'I
ing on the centerlin~ when approaching a berth and watching natural ranges B. the bow moves _ _ the berth as the ship's Sp<!cd increases.
(corners of buildings, stacks, flagpoles, rooflines, etc.) for changes that indi- a. toward
cate lateral movement. b. away from
C. the tug will _ _ to steady the ship as siiC moves astern out of the berth.
a. back
CHAPTER 6. UNDOCK.ING b. come ahead

Review Questions 6. Your ship is berlhed port side to her berth. One tug is available and is made up
on the starboard bow. There is no ship berthed astern, but you will need to
l. Undocking is, by its very nature, a simple maneuver that requires less plan- back approximately 300 feet to get clear of the shlp. Describe one way to do
ning than a docking. (Pages 139-40) this job. (Page 145)
A. the tug comes _ __ .
a . true
b. false L ahead
b. astern
2 . In a ballasted condition, it's usually better to have too much drag thar. not B. this moves the ship's ___ towercl the berth
enough, if such trim is necessary to get the propeller and rudder well 3Ub- a. bow
merged. (Pages 140-41) b. stern
a. true C. the tug continues ___ until the ship is at a Significant angle to the pier.
b. false a. pushing
b. pulling
3. It is best to approach a potential hazard such as a pier or a shoal stern ..'irst be- D. this is '1ecessary because tl::t: stem will mcve _ _ the pier when the en-
cause you can always put the engine ahead to reduce stemway. (Page 150) gine got:s astern and the ship backs from the berth.
a. true a . toward
b. false b. away from
 346 HEVIEW qUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS HEVJEW QUESTIONS t.NO PHACTICE MANE UVEHS 34 'i

7. A ship's bow can be moved or canted toward a pier before undocking by (Page a. true
145) b. falsu
I. pushing with a bow tug.
I!. letting go the forw11rd spring anJ then h~avin& on the headline. 2. Safe speed at departure is to a large Pxtcnt c!~tcrm.ined "Y (P:l;;c: !57 -5!J,
lii. comin~t ahead dead sl0w against the spring line with the rudder hard over I. the shiphandler's experience and confidcnc~ in his shiphandli ng
toward the dock. ability.
a. I unly 11. the depth of water, the speed of departing tmf!ic, and the weather
b. ! and II conditions.
c. I and Ill a. I only
d. all of the above b. 1I only
c. all of the above
8. Face_ _ when moving a ship stern first. (Page 152) d. none of the above
a. ahead
b. astern 3. By increasing ship speed and m~ving faster than other departing traffic, the
shiphandlcr significantly reduces the potential for collision. (Pages 15~-59)
9. Whlln turning in a tidal basin, it's usually best to (Pages 152-53) a. true
I. turn the ship with some headway to complete the maneuver in the least b. false
time and to minimize effects of currents.
11 4. Modem bridge equipment has made it possible for the ship's master to conn a
II. turn the ship in the up current side of the basin to avoid being set out of the
basin before completing the maneuver. ship to sea with little or no assistance from the other ship's otricers. (Pages
\j' I Ill. have as much way off the ship as possible before starting to turn in a ba- 159-60)
sin. a. true
I' I a I only b. false
lfll b. I and II 5. Passage planning that stresses a _l)ocket course card, formal pilot/master ex-
•'
! c. II and Ill changeofinformation, and charts with preplauned courses, turning bearings,
II
d. none of the a'!love distances, operating notes, and other navigation information noted in ink is
preferable to pages of written instructions. (Pages 161-62)
I 10. Ships fitted W1th variable-pitch propellers respond in a ___ manner than
I ships fitted with conventional propellers v.hen the engine goes astern. (Paces a. true
150-51) b. false
a more predictable
b. less predictable CHAPTER 8. ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
11. Variable-pitch ships should be fitted with __ propellers. (Page 151) Review Questions
a. right-hand
b. left-hand 1. A competent shiphandlercan anchor safely in any anchoragl! and never hns to
lay ofT for conditions to improve. (Page 165)
12. Always dismiss the forward tug as soon as possible to reduce tug charges. 1. true
(Page 155) b. false
a. true
b. false 2. Anchoring is one continuous evolution and considering it in parts makes it
unne;:essarily complicated. tPages 166-67)
CHAPTER7.DEPARTURE o.. true
b. fals e
Reuiew Questions
3. Allowance should be made one degree at a time for set and leeway when rna -
1. The pilot's duties include clarifying the ini.entions of other ships ana making neuvering at slow speeds in an anchorage. (P::.ge 168)
safe meetbg arrang-ements with those ships, and the master should not re- a. true
lease the pilot at departure until this is done. (Page 157) b. false
 348 REVIEW Q UESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANi.!:UVERS
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTI CE MANEI..Y Eits

4. A s hip moving a t 3 Y...nots mov<!s about _ __ feet ah ead in one minute. (Page c. when at/at all times
169)
d. before :-caching/at all times
a. 50
l-. 100 J.2. lJ-... uyo p:..tcc the anchor halfw.1y between slups anchored ai1ead and ·•-·te r n
c. ~00 so your ship will lie at an equa l distance from all s hi ps wh en ) vu t .rr.ch or
d. 300 fe tches up. (Page 180)
a. true
5. A :~ hip 600-feet-long, m oving a t 3 knots, would require about _ _ _ minutes
b. false
for hP.r en lire hull, Low to s tern , to pass a fixed point. (Page 169)
a . one 13. Ships a t anchor always a ppear _ _ your ship than th<:y arc actua !l: lyi ng.
b. two (Page 183)
c. tl>rc.e a. closer to
d . four b. fa rther from
6. A 1-knot c:urrcnt on the beam sets a 600-foot ship about _ __ feet in tha t 14. There is significant risk of damaging a ship's rudder and propeller wnh a
amount of t ime. (Page 169) stern anchor. Make sure the sh ip is · -- - before letting go a stem anchor
s . 100 and that stern way is _ _ _ w!:on hca ...i r.g the stern anchor. (Page l o ~ J
b. 200 a. moving a stornlincrcaserl
c. 300 b. stopped/minimized
d . 600 c. moving asternlminimizeci
d. stopped/increased
7. A ship can turn and maneuver to depart from a crowded anchorage by heav-
ing short and maneuvering on her anchor. (Page 171) 15. It's importa nt to use th e proper amount of cha in when handling a sh1p ,.., Lo
a. tr ue her anchor. Used correctly, the anchor will drag along wi t h conRiderable re-
b. false sistance, but it won't dig iu and !'>old. (Page 194)
8 . Ships lie at anchor on their final heading (Pages 173-74) a. true
b. false
I. lying to the strong force, wind or current, affecting the ship.
II. lying to the resultant of all forces acting on the ship. 16. It is unusual for anchors to he used in day-to-day s hiphandling because an-
Ill. lying into the current. chors are ineffective with today's larger ships. (Page 191)
a. I only a. true
b. I! only b. false
c. both II and Ill
'I
t rl. all of the above 17. An anchor is only used fo r shipha ndling in emergencies when maneu,·ering
e. none of the above today's larger ships. (Page 191)
a. true
9. List three r easons why it is preferable to have the ship on her final heading

'II.
b. false
before letting go. (Page 17 4)
18. A 1·hiv sheers immedi at.~ly and violently to the stde on w!1 ich :~n a n~ho :- i5
10 The difference between th e apparent moti on of clo:~er ships or 'lbjE'cts and far· iropped. (Page 191)
ther objects or the shoreline can be used to accnrately d&tect lateral motion 2.. trJe
and motion ahead and ast<!rn. CPages 176-77) :,. t.tisc
a. true
b. false 19. The offshore anchor is recommended w:1cn docki ng a s h1p because (Pages
'I 192-93)
11. Go astern to estimate ship's speed through the water _ _ _ th~ final an- I. there is more chance of t he en chor digging in and holding.
choring location, when anchoring ___. (Pag~ 179) I I. there is less chance of damaging the hull and chai n.
a. whe n at/at night III. the offshore a nchor may be used later to heave off t he berth a nd undock
b. before reaching/ at night with minimum da mage to hull and chain.
 350 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACT!C~ MANElNERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MA.'J!WVEHS 35 1

a. I only a nd that there is no immediate or violen t change in the ship's heading

b. 11 only when t he anchor is used.
c. both Il and Ill c. Come dead sl?w or slow ahead and use the ship's rudder to mainta1o
d. a ll oft he a hove the snip's h eading across the wind. Sleek .Ju t more chain if nece:;~ary
e. none of the above so the s hip remains dead in the water at low RPM and note how tne:
ship's heading ana posit'on can bo ma in ta ined, even when lying ncros :
20. Static friction (when the wildcat is not turning) between the asbestos bruke the 1\Wd.
band and the windlass's brake drum is approximately _ _ _ times as great
d. Increase revolutions until the ship begbs moving ahead again and u:;e:
as dynami: friction (when the wildcat is turning). (Page 194)
the rudder to maintain the sf::lected heading across thP wi nd. Inc rease:
a. twJ
and reduce revolutions to increase anJ decrease the ship's h eadway.
b. t h ree Observe the ship's behavior under ccntrol oft he anchor, including thE:
c. five
change of h eadway when engine RPM is changed; the time r eqUired
d. ten for the ship to lose all headway when the engine i~ stopped; and speed
21. When docking with the cnchor, using the correct amount of anchor chain through the water at a given RPM with the anchor on the bottom, as
(Page 195) compared to the speed at the same RPM ~;tnout the anchor.
I. the bow is steadied. e. Reduce to dead slow ahead, and when the ship is dead in the water , use
11. the ship loses headway when the engine is stopped. the rudder to change heading to port and starboard. Note the effect of
Ill. the snip responds to her rudder without ga1ning headway at low RPMs. rudder on rate of turn and how quickly the ship steadies up with the
IV. the s h ip can be moved ahead by further inc.reasing r evolutions. rudder amidships. Also pay attention to the forward shift of the pivot
a. I only point toward the bow; the reduced diameter of the ship's turning cir-
b. li and lii only cle; and leeway, or, more ac:urately, the lack ofleeway as the ship is
c. all of the above held on a particular heading.
d. none of the above f. Increase and decrease RPM and again alter the ship's heading, this
time .,.,ojth headway. Note that it's possible to make very controlled ma-
22. A ship can be turn·~d in a considerably smaller ar ea using an anchor. (Page neuvers by coming ahead on a fixed heading to move the bow toward a
198) desired point, and by reducing RPMs until headway is lost and then
a. true usingtberudderto move the stern to one side or the other, as m igh t be
b. false done to come alongside a berth.
23. In an emergency, let go at least one anchor vdth enough chain t o be certain the All this should help you develop an underst.anding of, and a feel fo r ,
anchor will dig in and hold, and not drag, as the ship moves ah ead. (Page 194) shiphanclling under the control of an anchor. Think how useful maneuver le
a . true would bt> whle holding a ship awaiting tuus or improved weather conditions.
b. false Ship behavior demonstrated in ld would be useful in very narrow channels or
in reducing speed without backing (or when you've lost the engine) while the
Practice Maneuuers practice in le becomes important when you have to maneuver in a na r row
channel or into a narrow berth without a tug (by choice or circumstances ), or
1. Select a pilot station or anchorage with a fairly uniform iland or mud bottom need the anchor to break a sudden sheer whl.le proceeding up the channel
\ and a d~pth 10 to 20 feet greater thar. your ship's draft. ArrivP an hour or more from sea. Ma."leuver lfpuL~ it all together ana shcws now a sbp can make con-
before tr.e ship's pilot time and practice using the anchor . tr'>lled maneuvers or come alongside a berth or another vessel under perfect
a. :-ft:ad across the wind and stop the engine. '1'ry to steer using the rudder control, l.lsing an a nchor even when conditions :.:e lc~ s :r.an iueal.
\ alone as the ship lost:s headway. Note :he ~;nd's effects on the ship
b. Come ahead, if necessary, and increase th~ ship's speed to approxi- 2. Hold your ship in position u.sing the anchor and a short scope of chain while
mately 2 knots. Stop the engine and let go thP. windward anchor anJ waiting fo1 the pilot to board. This maneuver is most udvantageuus with a
one shot of chain well in the water. Slack more chain , as necessary, u n- light ship in barl weather and you should try it at eve ry opportunity to gnin ex-
til the drag of the anchor begins reducing the ship's headw'ly (a lengt.h perience in all conditions of wind, tide, and ship's dra ft.
of chain equal to approximat.ely twice the depth of water). Note how a. Reduce speed to bare stee1 ageway and put down one or two shots of
. the ship is steadied by the anchor as cc,mpared to maneuver la above chain (depending on the depth of water). Swam on the anchor, adjustin g
 352 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVER$
REVJgw QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVE HS 353
t he rudder angle and engine revolutions to head t he ship into ~ he pre- 5. Duri ng shi p-to-ship lightering operations, there is IC'ss chanc·~ of damage if
vailing wind and sea. the Yokohama fenders arc rigged on the VLCC rather than t he offiakcr. (Page
b. AdjuA-.:. RPM a nd slack a bit more ch ain , if n ecessary, a nd continue 21 7)
c0ming ah':'ad .1gainst the anchor . Hold the ship :.tationary rel~ti v e to a . tru e
the b0ttom on the same heading into th e prevailing wind and sc:l. b. false
c. Put the r udder ha rd over os the pilot boat approaches a nrl increase en-
gine RPM to change heading across the wind and sea/swell and make a 6. It i:; :mportant that mooring wires used by ships engaged in shlp-to-sh.:p
Ieo for the pilot. Depending on circumstances , you could bagin heaving lightering have sjothetic tails or pendants. tPa gll 219)
I I
the anchor after the pilot boards or &team on the anchor to bdng t he I. even though they make the wires more difficult to han dl e.
I
I s hip around to the initial course towa rd the ch:1nnel while awaiting
the pilot's arnval on the bridge.
11. because they make it possible for shjps to brc.:~k a part m re quickly in an
emergency. •
1'1 This is certainly a let safer and easier than backing and fillmg for h alf an II!. because they absorb some of the sur[;e that might other wise part t he
hour in a crowded a nchorage while awaiting the pilot launch) Wlres.
a. I only
CHAPTER 9. SPECIAL MANEUVERS b. II ~nd Ill
'I Review Questions c. Ill only
./ I
1. Curnmts at the entrance to locks can be caused by (Pages 205-6) d. Synthetic tails should not be used for tbis purpose .
I. s pilling of water from the chamber. 7. When approaching the offt.aker, the VLCC proceeds a t __ possible speed.

I II. difference between the density of the water in the chambe~: and the water (Page 219)
outside the chamber. a. maximum
a . I only b. least
b. II only
11 c. both I and II 8. D~ring t his part of the operation, t he VLCC should head _the p reva il ing
Wlnd and swell. (Page 219)
,I d. neither I nor II
a . into
2 . The best heading for approaching a single-point mooring is indicated by t he b. across
heading of anchon~d ships and the reciprocal of the direction in which the
floating hoses trail from the buoy. (Page 212) 9. At t he same time, the offiaker_·_ the VLCC's quarter and comes alongside .
(Page 219 )
.' 1. true
a. stays close to
b. false
b. keeps clea r of
3. The wind has little effect on VLCCs, so these ships approach single-point
moorings directly into 1.he current. (Page 212) 10. Anchors caa be us~d to steer a ship baclting to a berth or mooring, l>K.a use th e
a. true ship's stern will move to port if the starboard an.:hor is held, an d to ~arboard
if the port anchor is held. (Page 227)
b. false
a. true
4. The safest, most expedient approach to a single-point mooring is made by b. false
(Page s 213-14)
I. heading directly at the mooring, keeping the buoy dl'ad ahead as ship's en- 11. Whf' n uwkir.e;- .1 Mediterranean moor, lht: ship should back with her enpnes
gine gees astern and stopping near the pick.up buoy. U'1til m position, close up to the berth, before running any lines. \Pue :.!30 •
a. true -
!I. makmg a significant co•Jrse change. preferably to port, to come to the final
approa ch heading, a nd then keeping the buoy fine on the port bow as t he ship b. fa lse
approaches the SPM. 1 ~. Depar ting a multi ple-buoy mooring or Mediterranea n moo r, it's u ~ u..:JJy best
a. I on ly to (Pages 228 and 230-31) ·
.
·• b . 11 only
c. either I or 11
I. h~:avc the wea~hc r anchor short.
i Il. steam on the weather anchor as requ1red while hea ving horn~ the Ice
d . ne it he r I nor II
II a nchor.
 HEVIE".V QUESTICJNS AND PRACTICE MANEUVER6 JU:VIEW QUESTIOI'JS AND PRACTI CE ~L~N EtJVETtS 355
354

III. steam away from the mooring as soon as the lee anchor breaks free, heuv- 22. Hydro1ynamic effects arc diffe rent !"or VLCCs. (Page 2471
?. . t::-ue
i:1g un anJ dragging both ancltors until well clear of the buoys or berth.
b. fal c;e
a. I only
b. r; an:! UT nn ly 23. VLCCs are less easily damaged when coming al{'ngsidc a berth. C P~E: 24 i 1
c. all of the above a. trua
<i. nonn of the above b. false
13. Williamson Turns are less effective with a VLCC because she maintains hl!r 24 . VLCC s should be closer to a berth than smaller sh1ps before moorin g lin es a re
speed long\lr and the vessel's path of travel is less predictable. (Page 213) sent ashore. (Page 247)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
14. When making a Williamson Turn, a ship should always be ste~died up 60 ~e­ 25. Longer ships are more difficult to bring fla t alongside be<:ause per:pe<:u ve
grees from her initial heading be for~ starting a hard-o,·er turn m the opposite makes the farther end appear much closer to the berth than the clt.Js.cr t•nd
direction. (Pnges 231-32) (the "railroad track" effect). (Pages 24 7-48)
n. true a. true
b. falsi! b. ialse
15. Twin-rcrew ships fitted with single rudders are gener ally more responsive at
slow speeds through the water when the engines are stopped. (Page 235) Practice Maneuuers
a. true The Williamson Turn is used for man-overboard emergencies and for routine vc;;sel
b. false maneuvers, both to bring a ship back to a desired point with a minimum cf mancu-
16. Twin->.crew ships can be moved laterally toward a berth by pushing the bow vering and to help mates and masters appre<:iate a ship's handling characteristics
'1 with a tug or bow thruster and backing the _ _ _ engine while coming at full speed at sea. Turning circles, the time and amo=t of rudder needed w make
ahead on the other engine. (Pages 235-36) and check turns, and the amount of speed a ship ioses making large course changes
a. inshore can all be demonstrated during a Williamson Turn.
b. offshore 1. Paint an oil drum or other object bright orange so it can be easily ~nan d
17. VLCCs genetally steer well at very slow speeds. (Page 244) used as a reference during the Williamson Turn. Puncture both ends of a
a. true 5-gallon paint pail and attach it to the drum \\"lth small diameter line. The
b. false pail serves as a drogue to minimize wind drift during the exercise. Also, pre-
pare a data sheet, like the one described in chapter 1 for the master's ma.neu-
18. VLCCs usually go astern to avoid close quarters situations. (Page 244) vers, to colle<:t data during the maneuvers. The information will be u...«eful
a. true when studying the ship's performance and comparing ha ndling characteris-
b. false tics under different conditions ofloading.
19. "Safe speed" is the same for all sizes of ships. (Page 244) 2. Muster the crew prior to starting the Wi!liam...e:e:o 1\.trn, and e~plain the ma -
a. true neuver and its purpose as both a man-overboard dnll and a shiphandling ex-
b. false ercise. The details of the man-overboard procedure- dre ou~.side the ~ pe vf
20. Shallow wnt.er effects ure felt et greater depth-to-dra~ ratios by loaded this bnok, so only the shiphandliug aspects of the maneuver will be dL-.....-u.s:;ed
VLCCs than by smaller s:1ips. (Page 246) her e.
a. true 3. Throw the drum or reference object over the side, note the ship"s base rou rse ,
b. false put the rudder hard over, and st.llrt the turu as cescribed on pago 232. ~1 Nl ­
21. The term "wnstrained by craft" should take into consider ation both shallow sure the time required for the s hip to bcgic turning after the rudder is put
water effects and danger of groundir.g. (Page 246) hard over and compar~ the advance a nd tactie<t l diumeter ,,;t h th~ sh1 p's
len{,rtJ,, as the sh1p ~urns, using the drum as a re fe r~ nce . This information "ill
a. true
be helpful both for mar.euvering in d ose quarters situations!' t sea and in a ny
b. false
 3G6 REVI.bW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MA.'~~UV£R 8
I!!Wil~W QUI~S'l'IONH AND PHACTiC£ ~!AN EUVJ::!~ 357

future em~rgcncy situation that might arise. The time to turn, the tactical di·
CHAPTER 10. TRAlNL'\G
amcter, and the advance will rrobably be significantly less than you expected.
Reui<'w Questions
4. Continue the mnneuver, shifting the helm from hard over to hard o\·er ·Nhen
the hf'ading ha~ changed 55 degrees from t.he base course (po;nt A• in figure
M

9-15). Note the heading •vhen the ship steadies up and begins swinging in the 1. O~b~a:d trai~ing and experience is important bccau:;e (Pages 2:>3-54
1
opposite dire<. lion. Caiculate thn number of degrees that the ship S\\ings be- I. tt ts. m~~osstble to teach some m::rine skills in a clnssn,om.
fore she checks up and you'll know the arc of swing required to steady up from II. pnortttes needed to apply theory to real-world s1tuations can onh· 0
a hard-over turn. learned on board the s hip. · '"
!I I. masters and. senior officers can transfer the lct~ons uaincd from ex~X:n­
5. Keep the rurlder hard over as the ship turns through ll circle toward thn recip- ence through shtpboard traiuiug.
rocal of her initial heading. Apply the arc required to che.:k her swing, as cal- IV. ~t's possible to learn most skills, such as shiprandling simpl· by wau:hln ,
culated in rr.aneuver 2 above, and when the ship's heading is that number of sen tor officers and pilots at work. ' - g
degrees from the desired final heading (the reciprocal ofthl) initial heading),
reverse the rudder hard over again. The ship should check up on, or near, the
final heading a!! tht. ship returns to her starting point alongside the reference
II a. I only
b. both I and Ill
c both II and lil
oil drum. t d. IV only
Example: Object overboard on the starboard side, rudder hard right to 1! 2. Deck officers can't become effective watch officers and shiphavdl'rs unnl
turn the ship to star board.
(Pages 255-56) "
Original course
Initial change of heading
Heading to shift helm ("A")
Ship steadies up
Arc to check swing (difference)
030 degrees
---±.M..
085
__Q9_5_
10
I! I. they have twenty years' experience at 'lea.
II. they have "hands-on" drills and feel comfortable using equ.ipment.
Ill. they learn not to touch equipment unless absolutely necessary.
a. I only
b. 11 only

Final (reciprocal) heading 210

t c. Ill only
d. I and Ill

·l'
Arc to check swing ____lQ_
Heading to shift helm ("B") 220 degrees 3. Simulators arc innovative training aids because they make it possible t o
(Pages 261--62)
The ship will have •::ompleted the Williamson Turn in a predictable manner with I. learn to prioritizc t.Fsks and perform several tasks concurrently.
the leaBt possible helm movements (three) and thus the minimum cof variables. II. watch experts work.
Note the total time to complete the maneuver, the speed ~hroush the water at the Ill. transfer classroom theory to real-time sitl·ations.
end of the maneuver, and the distance and bearing from the starting point. If de- IV: learn mLst shipboa rd work without spending a great deal of time aboard
sired, back down and stop the ship as close to the startiug point as possible. ship.
a. I only
6. Perform the maneuver again using an initial change of heading at point "A" of b. II only
35 degrees. Did your ship return closer to or farther from her sta;-ting point c. II and IV
using this smaller initial course chang~? The required initial change ofhead- d. I and III
ing is, to a large extent, determined by the ship's directionai f;tability. and the
more positi ve the directional stability, the farther the ~.<hip Jhould be f llowed 4. Si~ul~tor ·.ype is norc it~port.ant than instructor r.xpcrit!nce when judging
to swing before shifting the helm at ~A." pc.enual Jenefits of a ~ramtng facility. (Pages 27-r-75)
Practi:e this maneuver at light and loaded d1·afts, in various conditions of a . true
trim, and let a ll the ship'il officers perform Williamson Turns so everyone b. false
learns the r>rocedure. A great deal can be learned about shlphanjling param·
5. Pr~fe.ssiona~ i.n~tructors are prcfl!rable to profPssional mariners at simulator
eters and the effeds of various loading and trim conciitions by comparing the trammg facthtws. (Pages 274-75)
turning rate, most etfective change of heading at point "A," tactical diameter, a. t rue
advance, etc. b. fa lse

I
 358 HEVl EW QUESTIONS AND t'RACTICE MANE UVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVEHS 359

6. The following mariner 's s kills could be improved with simulator training: C lL~ER 11. MASTEH/PILOT RELATIONS HIP
(Pages 277- 78)
A. shiphr.nd ling. Reuiew Questions
n. trut> l. it 1sn't pa rucularly 1mport.unt that pilots possess traditiOnal s eagoing :;kills,
b. fa lse because t.heir main task is advi sing shipmasters of courses and s peeds fro m
D. rules oi the road a;>;;lication n and maneuvering with other s hips . point to point. tPage 289)
a. true a. true
b. false b. fa lse
C. bridffe orga nization.
a . true 2. A pilot whose services are required by law is a·- - pilot. (Pages 290-9 1)
h. fa l&e a . compulsory
D. watch keeping practices . b. volunt.ary
a. true 3. A pilot taken a t the master's option is a _ _ pilo t. (Page 289)
b. false a. compulsory
E . restricted visibility navigatir>n. b. volu nta ry
a. truE'
b. fals'.l 4. A compulsory pilot is aboard in a purely 'ldvisory capacity and as s uch has no
F. eme rgency p rocedures. responsibility or liability for his a ctions. (Page 29 1)
a. true a. true
b. fa lse b. fa lse
G. ship-to-ship communication procedures.
5. There a re no significant di ffe re nces between t he responsibilities of the com-
a. tr<~e pulsory a nd the v?luntary pilot. (P age 289)
b. false a. true
b. false
7. The .:omputer-based simulator is an advancemen t that is replacing the
ship-model type simulator at most training facilities. (Pages 271-72) 6. Should the shipmaster immediately relieve t he pilot in the following situa·
a. t r ue tions? (Pages 292-93)
b. false A. the pilot is intoxicated.
I a. yes
8. The most importan t component of the simulator course is the (P age 274) b. no

I a. simula tor
b. instructor
c. the curriculum
D. the pilot demonstrates gro:;s incompetence.
a. yes
b. no

I
I
d . all of the above

9. P erforrr.ance-based testing on simula tors should overload the student with

C. the mas ter knows a more expedient way to complete the maneuver at hand.
a. yes
b. no

I
scena rios that are more difficult than real-world situations. (Page 276) D. the vessel is standing into dange r t:1at is not obvious to the pi lot.
a. true a. ;,·es
b. false b. ne
E. t11e pl!Cit.'s actiCins are ir error due to c i rcu:r.3t.ar. c .:~ or the hmitativns oft he

l 10. Ti me s houid be divided be twee n the

ing a pproxima tely (Page 282)
a. )~ ~ X
bri efi:~g, simulator session, a nd debrief- S•lip being handled .
a. yes

I b. .X. .Yj. X
b. no
F. the master recommends a cha nge that the pilot rejects.
c. .X. .X. X
d. the debriefing is only necessary if students make many errors.
.
~
a . yes
b. no
 360 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND rRACTICE MANEUVERS HEVIEW QUESTIONS AND I'RACTICr: MANEUVI~HS 361

G. A master must wait until the ship is "in ~:xtremis·· bef<lrc relieving a ~om­ CHAPTER 12. VESSEL OPERATIONS
p~.ilsory pilot .
a. true
Ret•iew Questions
11 b. false
1. Formal plans are only Tleeded i!'the master and mates have not recently made
:I
'I
7. It is essential that the master be a competent s hiphandler bf'cause, under cer- a passuge in a particular area. (Page 302)
tain circ\lmsi.Dnces, he has a responsibility to relieve a pilot in a timely and ef- a. true
I fective manner. (Page 293) b. false
a . true
b. false 2. Passages can be overplanned. A.n inflexible passage plan, without alterna-
ti'les based on professional planning and judgnlCnt, is as dangerous as no
plan at aiL (Pages 303-4)
8. The traditional overlapping of responsibility between the master and pilot a. true
prevents many accidt-nta. (Page 294) b. false
a. true
b. false 3. Review the types ofinformatio::l that should be included in proper inland wa-
ters passage plans. (Pages 304-5)
9. Irreconcilable differences between master and pilot occur often in the course
4. Passage plans and routes should ncvl3r be put on charts in ink because that
of moving ships in pilot waters. (Page 294)
would make the chart less useful for future voyages. (Page 305)
a. true a. true
b. : alse b. false

10. Penalties and liabilities for accidents that could occur should be foremost on 5. Competent masters don't prepare and carry pocket course cards because they
the mariner's mind when deciding on a course of action. (Page 301) memorize charts and passage plans from sea t.o the dock. (Pages 305-G)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false

6. All bridges should be standardized with identical layouts and equipment.

11. Bridge &source Me.nagement is defligned to reduce errors and omissions (Page 307)
through a syutem of l!hecks, the delegation of duties, and joint decision-mak- a. true
; . ing by a group of vessel personnel referred to as the bridge team. (Page 295) b. false
11. true
b. false 7. There should be a clear view forward from large, w1obstructed centerlinc win-
dows. (Pare 307)
12. The bridge team shares the workload. obtains and ccmmurucate<J relevant in- a. true
formation early, and monitors the vessel's progress by crosschecking the deci- b. false
sions ax:d actions of all members of the team within the cont~xt of the
master/pilot relationship. (Page 296)
8. Th£: quartermaster's station shouid ue HS close to the forwa rd wheelhouse
windc·Ns as poss;ble. (Pages 303-9'
a. true a. true '
b. false
h. false

13. BRM has changed traditional pilot responsibility for overall vessel control 9. Instrumen:s should be clustered by use and placed where the user· (mate,
and protection of the public interest. and the local environment by integrating master, pilot, qua rtermaster) can use them witilout being diverted from othe r
the pilot into the joint decision-making bridge team. (Pages 296-97) work. (Page 307)
a. true a. true
b. fblse b. false
 362 HEVIEW QIJ ESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIO!'IS AND PRACTICE MAN!WVEHS :1G3

10. A conning station sho11ld be organized with equipment mounted on a bulk- 17. There are several distinct advantages to having active traffic managr:menl us-
head, console, or to k!"!ep windows clear. (Pages 30~-10) ing two-way DGPS-based systems versus information from a shore-based pas-
a. true sive I raffic management system. These advantages include (Pages ~20-22)
L. false a. infvrmalio11 iti rt!al ltmc.
b. information is unfiltcrec! and uninterrupted.
11. Instruments and equipment should be kept off bridge wings. (Page 310)
c. informatio:: is not line of sight.
a. trul!
d. al! of the ai.Jove.
b. false
12. Which of the following statements are true regat ding the effect of bridge loca- 18. There are significant differencee between shiphandling in daylight and at
tion on shiph:mdling? (Pages 322-24) night. Which of the following arc true? (Pages 324-25)
I. points of reference appear closer as bridge height is increased. I. loss of depth perception at night makes it more difficult to estimate dis-
I I. your ship appears to be moving more slowly as height of eye increasP.s. tance.
III. turning :-ate is more difficult to detect when looking ahead from a bridge II. speed cannot be determined at night by looking ahead.
located close t0 the bow. Ill. speed cannot be determined at night by looking abea m or a· a ft lhe beam.
IV. visibility is ir:tproved when the bridge is higher and closer to ~he bow. IV. lights and aids appear farther away on clc>nr nights.
a. I and II only a. I and II only
b. lii and IV only
b. I and IV only
c. all cf the above c. all of the above
d. noM of the above d. none of the above

13. Any lap top system using DGPS and off-the-shelf software and charts can be 19. Which of the following is/are true regardtng record keeping? (Pages 326-27)
used to nnvigate in ice, fog, rain, and other conditions that would have closed I. logs and records are important aspects of proper vessel operation.
ports in the past. (Pages 312 and 316) II. logs and record keeping often confl:ct with shiphandli,tg, and redundant
a true paperwork must be eliminated.
b. false a. I only
b. 11 only
I 14. DGPS lap top pilot navigation systems have the same line of sight limitations c. both I and I1
'I as radar 110 traffic cannot be seen beyond obstructions or beyond the radar ho- d. neither I nor II
rizon. (Page 319 and 322)
a. true
b. false
15. DGPS pilot systems are limited by (Page 315)
I. line of sight target detection
II. chart accuracy
Ill. communication with other vessels
IV. ability to present accurate information on "other nhip" course. speed and
location
a. I above
b. Il above
c. all of the above
d. none cf the above
16. Modern laptop-based DGPS navigation systems are extremely accurate &nd
reliable, allowing pilots to navigate safely in any condition regardless of the
accuracy or reliability of the ship's Pavigation equipment. (Pages 314-15)
a. tru9
b. false
11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Petroleum Institute. Guidelines for Developing Bridge Manage·
ment Teams, 1991.
Armstrong, Malcolm C. Pilot Ladder Safety. Woollahra, N.S.W., Austra-
lia: Internat~onal Ma ritime Press, 1979.
11 Barrass, C. B. "Ship Squnt and Its Calculation." Safety at S ea magazine,
I February 1978.
I
Brady, Edward M. Tugs, Towboats, and Towing. Cent reville, Md.: Cornell
Maritime Press,1967.
Cahill, R. A. "The Avoidance of Close Quarters in Clear Weather." Journal
of the Royal Institute of Navigation, 1982.
'I Cameron, !an. The Impossible Dream, the Building of the Panama Canal.
New York: William Morrow & Company, Inc., 1972.
Crenshaw, R. S., Jr. Naual Shiphandling. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Insti-
tute Press, 1975.
Daggett, Larry and Christopher Hewlett, et al. Dynamic Squat and Under
Keel Clearance ofShips in Confined Channels. Vicksburg, Miss., 2003.
Daggett, Larry and Christopher Hewlett. Study of Ship Squat in the Pa n-
ama Canal. Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. for the Panama
. Canal Commission, Vicksburg, Miss., 1998.
Department of Transportation. Investigation of Effects of Ship's Speed
and Directional Stability on Vessel Control in Restricted Waters. Mari-
time Administration, Washington, D. C., 1982.
EMRI, Steering Control S ystems and Azipod Operations. Herlev, Den-
m a rk, 1998.
Gray, W. 0. ESSO OSAKA Maneuvering Trials-Shallow Water Maneu-
vering ofVLCC's. Tarpon Springs. Fla .: American Petrole'J.m Imtitute.
1978.
Hayler, William B., ed. Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook, 5th ed.
Centre,rille, Md. : Cornell Ma ritime Press, 1989.
Hope, Brian H. El Paso Consolidated Maneuuering Trials. Cove Point,
Md.: El P aso Marine Company, 1978.
3134
lliULTOGRAPIIY 365
International \Iaritime Organization (IMCJ). Standards for Training and
Watchlzeeping. London, 1978.
Ives, Captain Paul.fi.zipod Operations C0urs'!. f!T~I ST.c\?. Cent<:r, !::>ani;.
Beac.1, Fla .. 2002.
La Dage, J ohn H. Modem ::,hips. Cambridge, Md.: Corncll Maritime
Press, 1965.
MacElrevcy, Daniel H. El Paso Arzew Maneuucring Trials. Cove Point,
Md.: El f>aso Marine Compl\ny, 1978.
- - - . Master's Guide to Shiplwndling. Cove Point, Md.: El Paso Ma rine
Company, 1978.
MarineSafety International. Ship Performance Data for VLCC's. New
York, 1978.
Maritime Institute of Tech nology and Grncluat.c Studies and ! mcrican
President Lines. Bridge Team Man agement Course, 1992.
Marton, G. S. Tanller Operations, 3d cd. Ccntreville, Md.: Cornell Mari-
time Press, 1992.
McCullough, David. The Path Betwem the Seas. New York: Simon &
Schuster , 1977.
Mcurn, Rober t J. Watchstanding Guiri.e for the Merchar't Officer. Cent re-
ville, Md. : Com ell Maritime PrP.ss, 1990.
National Research Council Marine Board . Minding the Helrr.: Marine
Navigation and Piloting. Washington, D.C. : Na tional Academy of Sci-
ences, 1994.
- -- .Proceedings: Symposi.Lm on Piloting and VTS Systems. Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1980 .
- - -. Ship Bridge Simulator Training. WashingU:>n, D.C.: National
Academy of Scicuces, 1995.
Oil Companies International Marine Forum . "Proceedings of the Safe
Naviga 1:ion Symposium." Washington, D. C., 1978.
---.Ship t:J Ship Transfer Guide (Petroleum). London: Wi therby & Co.,
1978.
- - -. Standards for Equipment Employed in Mooring of Ships at Single
Point Moarings. London: Witherby & Co., 1978.
P an ama Canal Commi!Osion. Panama Canal Pilot's Handbooll. Tialboa,
P ar:ama, 1980.
Parks, Alcx L. and Edward V. Cattell, Jr. Law of1'ug, Tow, and Pilotage,
3d ed. Centreville, Md.: Cornel! Maritime Press, 199.j.
Professional Mariner. Piloting and VTS, Vessel Traching System by Dela-
ware Pilots. ~ larch 1996.
 366 UIDLIOGRAPHY
Quick, George A.' Pilotage." P1oceedings-Maritime Transportation Re-
search Board. Washington, D.C.: NationalAcademyofSciences, 1980.
Reid, George H. Shiphandlinc: with Tugs. Centreville, M d.: Corm:ll Mari-
time Presn, 1986. INDEX
H.esolution of the American Pilot£~' Association. Role uf the Pilot and the
Master-Pilot lnformatio:tExchange. American Pilots' Association, 1997.
RTM STAR Center. Alaska State Marine Pilot 'i'raining anc' Evaluation
Manual. Dania Beach, Fla., !WOO. Accelerating turn, 11, 178
Ship Performance Data for VLCCs [Training Manual]. La Guardia, N.Y.: Acceleration, underkecl clearance,
87,95,97-98
MarineSafety International, 1981.
Access: bridge windows, 308, 310; im-
Swift, A. H. Bridge Team Management, A Practical Guide, The Nautical
portance of, 310
Institute, 1993.
Accuracy, simulator m'odel, 235
) United Kingdom Board ofTrade. "Navigation Safety/Guide to Planning & Acquiescence, of master to pilot, 294
,.
I Conduct of Passages, ·' MN854.
Vantine, Wilbur H. "Good Bridge Design from a Master Mariner's Point of
Advance,44, 74, 75, 76,178-79
Advising pilot, master's duties,
'
I,
d View." Ship Operation Automation, ed. by Pitkin, Roche, and Wil- 40-43 39-40, 300
I liams. New York: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1976. "A" frame, 249
W erner, Norman A. "A View from the Bridge." The Panama Canal Review, Aids to navigation: uses, 75-77, 172;
,j
spring, 1976. simulat ing, 269 '
Alaskan Pilots, evaluation and li-
censing, 286
American flag, pilot requirements,
291
Anchor chain, 162; amount of, 176
Anchoring: mentioned, 16; in steps,
166; planning, 166-77; in deep
water, 170-71; final heading,
173-75; wind/current abeam, 168,
175-76, 177; wind/current astern,
175-76, 177; basic, 176; approach
to, 176-77; determining speed,
179; mooring and anchoring,
185-89; with stern anchor,
187-90; alongside banlc:, 201-3;
lightering, 221- 22; model -based
simulators, 263, 271
Anchors: standing hy, 7; preparing,
23· pilCJt information for, 40; to
hold ship, 118, 197; to steer, 198,
227; at wharf, 126; in wind, 132,
367
lGS--89; undocking, 139; to turn,
148; to turn sho:-t, 154, 170, 171,
176, 198; walking out, 171; easing
chain, 176; placing, 179-81; dig-
ging in, 182-83; swinging room,
18:<-85; laying out 181-82;
amount of c~:ain, 194-96: brake,
1'/6, 194; for shiphandling, 191,
194; steadying bow, 198; select-
ing, 172, 192-93; stopping ship,
194; holding ship, 118, 197; re-
stricted visibility, 197; steadyit•ll
efTect, 198-99; strong wind, 1G9;
fetching up, 19·1, 198; meeting
ships, 198; stopping sheer, 199; in
a bend, 199; narrow channel, 198;
in canals, 208; approaching moor-
ing, 224-25; 5-point moorings,
224-28; backing, 202-3, 226-27;
Mediterranean moor, 228-31;
simulating, 263-64, 269;
shiphandling simulated, 263,
269-71
Anchor underfoot, backing, 202-3
Angle, to berth, 239
An;IIe of approach: port side to ,
122-23, 133; ;;tarboard side to,
122-23, 133; discussed, 122-24;
affected by wind, 130-32;
twin-screw ;;hip, 239
Answer back system, 311
Approach : speed, 118-2 1; port side
to, 122-23; starboard side to,
122-23; bow in slip, 123 ; stern in
,j
368
I
j
INDEX
Approach (continued)
I slip, 124-25; lightering, 221-22;
5-point moorings, 225; at sea re-
plenishment, 249-50
Approaching berth, discussed, 122
Approaching wharf: current ahead,
126; current. astern, 127
Areas of immersed sections curve, 73
ARPA: training, simulator, 267; for
pilots, 279; mentioned, 39, 81, 92,
258, 284
Arrival: prepamtion fl'r, 7, 22-23;
timing, 118
Arriving early, importance, 118
Assistant mooring master, qualifica-
tions, 215
Astern: movement with anchor,
202-3; simulated maneuvers, 277
Audible gyro, importance, 81
Auto-logging, 326-27
Automatic Identificatiou System, 38
Azipod, 8, 23!); commands, 63-64;
discussed, 52-70; bridge resource
management, 67-69. See also Di-
rectional propulsion systems
Backing aud filling: described, 11-13;
tests, 11-13; to make lee, 28; to
anchor, 170, 171, 179
Backing: discussed, 13-15; setting up
for backing, 14, 1 ~3; from slip,
144-48; hazards, 150; to anchor,
180-81, 182; strong wind, 35-36
Backing engine, effects simulated,
268, 277
Backing "into the wind," 15, 35-36,
168, 169
Backing line, 103
Dack.ing tug, effects, 106
Ballast condit:on, 140
Dallasting: forward , 140; lightering,
222
Bank cushion, 21, 47; simulGted. 26S;
as feature, 270; training, '277
Bank effects: backing, 14;
twin-screw, 238; sheering, 47-4~;
simulatmg, 270; as feature , 270;
training, 277
Bank suction: vs. bank cushion, 21- 22;
discussed, 21-22, 47-48; passing
and meeting, 48; 11imulated. 270; as
feature, 270; training, 277
Barrass, PhD, C. B., 87, 88, 89,94
Base course, at sea replenishment,
249
Basin, turning in, 151-53
Beam limit, meeting in channeis, 78
Bell book, 40, 327
Bell logger, 326-27
Bend, turn in using anchor, 199
Bernoulli effect: 47, 85; dibcussed
85-86
Berthing, twin-screw, 236-38; land-
ing twin-screw, 238; exposed pro-
peller, 238; excess angle, 238
Bight, use undocking, 141
Blockage factor: defined, 85; effects,
85-87, 94; formula, 86; handling
characteristics, 90
Block coefficient: directional stabil-
ity, 20, 71; squat, 88, 94-95; ef-
fect on steering, 71, 90; trim,
90-91; discussed 85-87
Bottom contours: affecting backing,
15;discussed,20-21,47-48
Bow, in mud turning, 154
Bow stresses, VLCC, 245
Bow thruster: advantages, 15; dis-
cuseed, 15, 144; compared to tug,
15; table for, 15; vs. ship's speed,
16; in anchoring, 165; Mediterra-
nean moo.·, 230; twin-screw ships,
235-36; moving ships laterally,
235-36
li
I
I
INDEX
.
I now tug: stern in approach, 124, 125;
undocking, 143, 145;substituting
anchor, 1!>1, 195-97
Brake, anchor, t 76, 194
Brake band, 194
Break up, :ightering, 224
Breast lines, 127, 138; lightcdny, 222
Bridge: mcnning, 160; team, 16,
295-300; work, 159-60; simu·
lated, 270; as feature, 270, 272;
importance, 272; organization,
278; procedures, 278; supporting
master/pilot, 295, 297; aft visibil-
ity, 323
Bridge consult!, 308-9
Bridge control, single person, 67-68
Bridge design: VMax, 242; discussed,
306-11; visibility, 307-8, 311; af-
fecting bridge work, 306; consul-
tation for, 311
Bridge equipment, 81, 160, 306-11
Bridge fonvard, 323
Bridge height, 322-24
Bridge markers, 135
Bridge procedures, 261, 275, 282-84;
for pilots, 279-81
Bridge Hesource Management: and
Azipods, 67-69, 295-300; for
shiphandlers, 295-300;
shipmaster, 298-300; watch con-
ditions, 298-300. Common terms:
shared mental model, 300; error
chain, 29fl; perceived world, 296.
Error rec.:ognition, bridge le::. m:
duties, 298-99; members, 298;
Learn size, 298-99; purpose, 296,
297; training for pilots, 295; af-
fect on master/pilot relationship,
296-97; team vs. cotnmittee, 295,
296; !Jilot aboard, 300
Bridge team: and Azipods, 68; vs.
committees, 296; piloting, 68,
360
296-300; watch condition~ .
298-300
Bridge wings, 308, 310
Briefing, stmulator in~truc~iOI•, 261,
275,282-84
Bulbous bow, 23, 174, 193
Buoys: use of in shiphandhng, 75-77;
turning on, 75-77; strong cur·
rents, 77
"By the head": affecting steering,
71-73; vs. directional stability,
19, 71-73
Camels, 123, 131
Canals, crew duties, 2v 7
CAOH.l', simulator facility, 2 31, 279
Centcrline markers, 323
Cham: handling, 176; laying out,
18 1-82; clearing turns, 186-87
Chain stoppers at Sl'M, 214-16
ChRnging fuel to maneuver, 162
Channel: hvlding position in, 118; us-
ing buoys, 75-77; configuration
affecting squat, 85-86, 92, 94-95;
configuration, afi'ecting underkcel
clearance, 95; width, meeting
ships, 77, 98-99
Charts: disc·1ssed, 162; as passage
plan, 162, 305
Checking swing, 18, 73
Chief mate training, 160, 254
Chocks, for use at SPM, 216
Clear view, nt work area, 307-8. 310
Clear water, backing towards, 150
Clearance, underkeel: discussed,
92-100; Sllmmanzed test fino-
ings, 95; safe speed for, 95-~6; ef.
fects of s~abili ty on, 95, !:16-97;
and acceleration, 95, 97; when
meeting and passing, 95, 98-99;
wheu ove rtaki ng, 95, 100
"Clicking" gyro, use of, 8 1
I. 370
Close quarters, 159; speed in situa-
tion, 158; with VLCC, Z44; simu-
lated, 267
Coastwise pilot;~ge requirements,
291
COLREGS, affecting VLCCs, 246
Combined beam ;n narrow channels,
78
Come ahead line, 103
Coming ahead from slip, 148
Commands: Azipod, 63-64; sta ndard-
ized, 54, 57,63-64
I Commu nications: discussed, 23,
36-39, 105, 215,219, 251;stee~
!I' ing gear fla t, 23; with tug, 105; at
SPM, 216; lightering, 219; with
helicopter, 251; simulator train-
ing, 277, 278
Communications Tracking and Navi-
gation System, 38, 39, 312
Compulsory pilot: discussed, 288-91;
relationship to master, 291-93
Computer-based simulators: types
discus~:;ed, 266-67; model develop-
ment, 268-70; advantages,
261-62, 271; disadvantages, 271;
features, 267; compared, 271;
preferences pilot vs. deck officer,
271; validation, 273- 74; instruc-
tor, 2 74-75; deck officer curricu-
lum, 275-78; depth p~r.ception,
279; f'nhancing pilot training,
282, 287; testing with 285- 87
Computer control: for Azipods, 66;
discussed, 66-67
Concurrent tasks, 26 1, 267; testi:1g,
285
Conn,39,45, 157,254
Connir.g station: l:tyout, 310; locat-
ing, 308-11
Console contt'ols, Azipods: pilot-mas-
ter relationship, 69-70; bridge re-
INogx
source management, 67-68; and
standard bridge commands, 70,
308-11
Consoles: placement. 307-11; clear
of windows, 307, 308-9, 3 10,
311 .
Containerships, 33-34, 82, 244, 322
Controlling emotions, 115-17
Cost, paying for pilot training, 271,
278,282
Council of American Master Mari-
n ers, 311
Course card, 7, 161-62, 172, 305-6
Course changes, 159, 254
Course material for si~nlators,
275-82
Courses inked, 161-62,304
Cross-sectional area, 70, 86, 87, 89,
90
Cross swell: making a leA in, 27;
lightering, 219
Current: actual vs. predicted, 49;
turning in, 77; mentioned, 117,
129~10, 142-43,144,154,
168-69; from astern, 126-27, 177,
201; as tool, 129-31, 168-69; com-
pared to wind strength, 130,
168-69; undockiog, 142-43, 144;
final heading, 174; affecting ma-
neuvering, 168-69; when moored,
137; planning for, 168-69, 171;
simulating, 269; as criteria, 270;
instruction, 277
Current table&, 117
Curriculum: simulators, 260; deck of-
ficers, 27Ei-78; scenarios, 276,
277; pilots, 278-82
Curve of immersed sections, 73
Cushion effects, 21, 47, 78, 134, 221;
twin-screw, 237, 238
Daggett, PhD, Larry L.: work of, 84
INDEX
"Danger are:1- durin& :1t sea replen-
ishment, 2-t9-50. Sec also
Ship-to-ship lightcnng
Darkness aiiecung ptioung, J..:4-25
Data: shccl, 9: ;nodel tests, 45, card,
13<)
Day vs. night, 324-25
Deaton, Captain W;lliam , 217
Debriefing: simulator instruction,
261, 272, 273, 282-84; impor-
tance, 261, 283
Deck log, 326-28
Dcmonstrali nfl: proficiency, 257, 259,
262; pilots, 257, 259, 262, 181
Depart ing: from between ships, 143,
149; from port, 156-62; from
moorings, 228; Mediterranean
moor, 230-31; at sea replenish-
ment, 251
Depth oi water: effects, 8-9, 17-18,
20,22, 170, 178;vs.spccd, 158;
affecting maneu\·ering, 17-18,
20-22, 85-100; and a nchoring,
170- 71
Depth perception, 279
DGPS: to measure squat 81;
underkeel clearance tests, 94-95
DGPS-based navigation systems:
312-15; accuracy, 315; capabili-
ties, 317; fo r shiphandling,
318-20; for traffic management,
320-22. See also T.aptop naviga-
tion systems
Diameter of turning basin, 153-51
Diesel enbrine, handlmg twin-screw,
234
Diesel oil for maneuvering, 40, 162
Dit!sel propulsion: backing, 26; mn-
neuvering, 40, 49; affecting steer-
ing 49; dead slow ahead, 143,
14C; mentioned, 143, 145
Digital fathometer, 81, 310
Dingier, Capt<lin Carl R., 224
Direction of rotation: propeller, 51,
120, 122, 150: vanable-pttch vro-
peller, 51, 150-51; dtrectwnal
control, stern anchor, 188
Directional propulsion sy~tems:
types, 52; ad,ant.ages, 53; con-
cerns, 53-54; design, 55-56; con-
t rols, 56-58, engine modes,
59-60; At Sea mode, 59; Hr..rbor
(Maneuvering mod~). 60; At-Sea
pod configuration, 61; Harbor pod
confibruration, 62; Docking pod
configuration, 62-63; standard-
ized commands, 63-64, 70; com-
pt.t.cr control, 64; me ship lenjjth
rule, 66; and BRM, 67~9; and
master/pilot relationship, 69-70
Directional stability: defined, 18;
shallow water effects, 18; men-
tioned , 19, 20, 140, 239~10; trim
effects, 70-72; instlbility used to
advant..uge, 72- 73; instability dis-
cussed, 73, 83, 232; for VLCCs,
72, 239-41, 246; for VMax ships,
239-41; twm-screw, 235; simu-
lated, 268
D:sagreement, master and pilot, 294
DisplacemP-nt, 86; affecting
shiphandhng, 244
Distance esti mated at night, 324-25
Distance line, 250
Docking: shaping up fo r, 14, 122;
bow-in, 123; current from astern,
126-27; st<:mming tide, 126; pil-
ing cluster~ used p':lrt side to,
122, 123, 131, 133- 34; piling
clusters used starboa rd side to,
122, 123, 133, 134; stern in,
124-26; wtth unchor, 193,
195--97; tY.in-screw ship, 235-39;
wind and current, 129- 32;
 372
Docking (co ntinued)
landing twin-screw, 2:1/'- 39;
twin-screw cushion, 238; !lngle to
berth, 122- 23, 127, 239; simu -
lated , 268, 259
Docking plans, 117- 1€
"Don't touch syndrome,w 255, 278
Doppler speed log, 81, 82, 119, 120,
258,310,317
Draft: discussed, 19; affecting dircc-
tior.a l s tability, 19-20; vs. depth,
85
Drag: discussed, 20, 70-72, 140; af-
fecting directional stability, 20,
70-72
Drills for man overboard, 231-34
Dynamic friction, anchor brake, 194
I' Dynamic instruction, simulation, 261
Eddy currents: discussed, 49, 126,
127, 137, 20?.; in bend, 49; going
alongside, 13'/
Effective maneuver defined, 17
Electronic cl:.arts, onboard pilot
training, 258
E mergencies: ciiscussed, 23, 194,
199-200; breaking up lightering,
224; evacuation by helicopter,
251-52; simulated, 269-70, 277,
279
E ngine: overuse, 65; startinrr
twin-screw, 238
E n gine aste rn to stop, 13-14, 24
E ngineer for steering gear, 23
Engine failure: discussed, 150,
199-200; use of stern .:m chu, 200
Engine opposing tug forces , 142-i3,
144, 149
Engine rasponRe, simulated, 268
Engine revolutions: uses, 44, 52, 132,
134; vs. ship's :>peed, 132; steer-
ing effects, 44, 52
INDEX
Engines used, tug on ha wser , 110-11
Enrollment, pilot Nquirements, 291.
S ee also Compulsory pilot
Equipment: grouping, 308-9; simula-
tor evaluating, 272, 273, 285-86;
simulated failures, 278
Equivalency, 286-87; simula tion v.;.
sea time, 286
Error chain: and Azipods, 69; BRM
for pilots, 296
E rrors in judgment, 301
E ryuzlu and Hauser: squat formula,
90; mentioned, 88, 90
Esso Osaka t ests, 22, 243
E valuation, simulator, 270; by siou-
lator, 272, 284-85; pilot perfor-
mance, 281-82, 286; evaluator
qualifications, 286-87
Excessive speed, 118
External effects, simulation, 267-70.
S ee also Simulator
Facing aft, 112, 152
Fair tide, 49-50
Fathometcr, 81, 258, 310. See also
Digital fathometer
Feedback: and bridge resource man-
agement, 68; regarding Azipod
control, 68
Fidelity, simulator model, 270
Final heading: discussed, 172-73; wind
and currents, 174; advantages,
174; bulbous bow, 174; determin-
ing, 175; altematives, 175; recip-
rocal, 175; anchoringoff, 17~76
Finesse doclUng, 13u
Fire a nd emergency drills, 256. S ee
also Drills for man overbol\rd
Flare affecting tug's maneuvers, 104
Flashing light , 36
Flow over rudrler , 117,80, 199
Flow, rudder effect, 235, 238
INDEX
Forum, 276, 279
Forwmd sections, directional stabil-
Ity, 18-ZO. See ulso Directional
stal>•lity
Forw.trd tu& d1smissa! , 155
F'rcci.Joard vs. wind, 3 1-32, 34-36,
129-30
Freshets, 49
Full sections: affecting directional
stability, 19- 20
Full task simulator, 267
Future of simulation, 284-85
Gaillard Cut , 48, 109, 211
Gear for 5-point moori ngs, 225
Going alongside, 136-37
Going astern, maintaining control,
133- 34
Grenoble, 263; model-based simula-
tor, 263
Gross negligence, 292, 301
"Gunsigh t efTect,w323
Gyrocompass, 81, 309, 310;
shiphandling tool, 81
Hand signals, 115, 116
"Hands-on" drills, 255, 256, 257; sim-
ula ted, 260-61,276, 286-87
Harmonic vibr ations, 158
Hawser: uses, ll1; for tugs, 110-11
Head currents, 49; docking, 126;
undocking, 142-44
Heading for helicopter operations, 251
Healway for R~ering, 51
H eaving o.:f be1th , 145, 193
Heavy oil vs. mant!uvering, 40. 162
Height of eye effects, 322-24
Helicopter mancuvering plot , 251;
operations, 251- 52
He lm orders, 115, 116
Helm stati·m: discussed, 309; equip-
me n' , 3 0~ ; location, 308
373
Helmsman: traini ng, 73; Ul>mg rate
of turn ind1c::tor, 83; duties. 309,
311
Hew le tt, PE, J . Cn n :n opncr: work 01 ,
84
IIigh power ships: rc~:~p o ns n , :.!36-:.!7,
239; walking ship, 236-37
Holrling: alongside pier, 15, 137- 3tl;
in cha nnel, 100, 118; with t ugs,
118; v.':ith anchor, 118, 188,
197-198
Horizontal bridge team, 295. See also
Dr:dge
Huuska and Tuck: squat form ula, 89,
mentioned, 88, 89
Hydra ulic cusluon: discu"sed, 126,
137; lightering, 221
Hydrodynamic effects: model-based
simulaton;, 26·1; computer simu-
lators, 267-70; pilot train ing,
2d0
Hyurodynamicist , simulators, 267
Ice on pilot ladder, 29
Identification by VHF, 37-38. See
also VHF
Imminent danger: relieving pilot ,
292-293; ifl extr emis, 293
Inboard anchor, 192-93
Inboard propeller, 237, 238; wal king
shi p, 234-36, 237; checking lat-
eral motion, 238
Information in pilot waters, 40-43,
302, 305
Inked courses fo r charts, 161-62, 305
Instructor: sima!a tor, 261, 27-t--75:
as component of Simulation, :t74;
importance, 261, 274 ; team con-
cept, 274; qualifications, 274;
t raining, 274; accreditation, 274;
involvement, 275; in debriefinG',
283
374 INDEX INDEX 375

Instrumentation: discussf!d, 81-83;
seaman's eye 81; gyro, 8 1; DGPS ,
8 1; ra dar, 31; rate of \.urn indica-
tor, 81-82; limiting brid.se Vlsibit·
ity, 8! , fer VLCC~, 24€; in bridge
design, 30ti-11. S~:e also Bridge
equipment
International Maritime Organization
(IMO), 28, 40, 275. 286, 307
International Maritime Pilots' Asso-
ciation, 307
Inters hip action: meeting, 77-80,
98- 99; s imula ted, 264, 268-70,
277
Intership effects: model sinulators,
264, 268, 269; simulato~ training,
277
Irwin, Captain Marshall, 217
Ives, Captain Pnul, 52
Jackstaff as steering a:d, 323
Keel clearance, affecting steering,
17- 18
Kicking engine: to steer to wind, 35;
to steer at slow speed, 118; twin
screw, 234
Ladder, for pilot, 28-30, 33
Landing alongside: discussed,
133-3-f, 136-37; landing flat,
136-37
Laptop navigar.ion s ystems: dis-
cussed, 311- 22; common fe ptures,
312; design requirements, 312,
313. For na,rigation: charts accu-
racy for, 315- ·16; capabilities,
317; independent of ship's equip-
ment, 317--18; CTANS, 312- 14;
for pilots, ~11-15; real time, 317.
For shiphandling: making turns,
318-19, mfleting points, 319-20;
"Not line of sight," Z19; for traffic
management, 320-22. S ee also
DGPS-based navigation s.vstems
Large s htps, simulator pilot training,
81-82
Lash up: defined, 111-12; uses ,
112-14; to reduce tug use, 112- 13
Lateral motion: bank effect, 21, 47;
narrow channels, 47; mentioned,
21, 47, 82, 125, 130; discussed,
21, 47, 125, 131, 13:1.; causes, 132;
detecting, 82, 132-33; twin-screw
ships, 235-36; high-power ships,
237;checking,78, 130,134,238
Late turns discussed, 74
Leback, Captain Warren G., 181
Lee anchor, 192-93
Lee for pilot, 26-28
Leeway during approach, 12~, 123,
133
Left turn: discussed, 10-11; disad-
vantage when maneuvering, 11
Length affecting directional stability,
20
Length/beam ratio, 20, 239, 240; and
VMax ships, 240-42; directional
stability, 240; turning circle, 240;
handling characteristics, 240-42;
VMax vessels, 240-43
Letting go anchor for docking,
131-32, 192- 93, 195-97
Liability: in Panama Canal locks,
291; outside Panama Canal locks,
291-92, pilot, 293, 301
Lifting quarter of twin-screw ship,
?.38
Light ship depnrting moorings, 228
Lightering: discussed, 217-24; moor-
ing lines, 221-22
Limits: for speed, 90; for mooring at
SPM, 213-14; lightering, 219, 222
Lines, fouling twin-screws, 239, 243
L1ttle Creek, Virginia, model-based
simulator, 263
Local knowledge: importance, 117,
159,302-3;defined.289
I.ock wall suct io11, 211
Lockage : de nsity current, 205-6; ap-
proach, 207-8; d iscussed, 209-10;
tech niques, 209-10; piston effect ,
209; wall effects, 207- 11; filli ng,
210; departing, 210-11; flush out,
210
Lookout in pilotage waters, 292
LOOP t ermi nal, 211 1 212
Loss of engi ne: s toppi ng ship, 25, .26,
199- 20 1
Low length-to-beam r atio s hips: a nd
directional stability, 239, 240;
handling, 240-42; VMax ships,
240-43
Making fas t, 137- 38
Ma king lee, simulator training, for
pilot boarding 276, 278; for life-
boats, 277
Maneu vering: most effective, 17, 65;
pilot s tation, 26-28; information,
38 , 40-42; in channel, 74-77, 100:
Azipod, 54-55, 59-63; excessive
power, 55; computer-cont rolled,
64-67; fuel,1 62; simulated traffic,
277-78; night vs. daylight,
3 24-26
Maneu veri ng characteris tics: impor-
tance of, 43-44, 165, 255-56;
learni ng, 165: changes in, 13,
18-20. 170-71; wind effects.
31-36, 129- 32; depar ting anchor-
age, 171
Man eu vering plot for helicopter oper-
a tion, 25 1
Maneu verinu ship, r eplenishment at
sea, 247,249- 5 1
ManhlllH Lridge. 159-60. 29H-300;
:tnchor, 173
Man overboarrl. 231-3-\: dnll. 221
Manrc;lu!', 30
MJ.nual controls, u~e . 6ll
Master: trial maneuvers, 7-9; rcl..t-
tionship to pilot, dcfmed, 28H,
291; relationsh ip to pilot in prac-
lice,69-70, 292,294-95, 297; ex-
ercisi ng responsibility, 292;
disputing pi lot's actions, 292-93
Master's trials: simulator, 276-77
Mate's duties: on watch, 159-60,
326-28; anchoring, 172,
1 8 1~2
Maximum submerged area, 72-73
McM1llin, Captain E... rl R., 52, 228
Meas uring: performance b) simula-
tion, 261-62, 272- 73, 282- 81;
equipment, 272-73, 282--84; test-
ing, 285-286
Mediterra nean moor: discussed,
228-31; anchors, 2.29; mate's du-
ties, 230; departing, 230-3 1
Meeting ships in channel: discussed
57-58, 59; 77-80; underkeel
clearance, 98-100; planning wi th
pilot DGPS laptop, 319-20
Meeting, simulated in a channel,
264 , 26'>-69,270, 271,276-7'1
Mental model: bridge r el;ource man-
agement, 68; rega rding Azipod
control, 68
Messengers: a t SPM, 214; fo r tuu
lines, 155
~1i dships section a ffecting
shiphandl ing, 86, 87-88; and
squat, 87- 88
Model-based simulators: discussed,
262-66, 271-72; advantages,
263-6-1; hydrodynamic effects,
263-64; a nchor work, 264 ;
 376 INDEX
Model-based simulators (contir ued)
model accuracy, 266-70; l;mita-
tions, 271-72; disadvantages,
270, 271-72; compart:d to com-
puter simulation, 271-72; prEfer-
ences, pilot vs. deck officer, 271
Modes: Azipod, 59-Q3
Mooring: discussed, 185-87; running
moor, 185; flying moor,185; meth-
ods, 185-87, spread unchors, 186;
standing moor, 1813; clear hawse,
185-86; clearing chain, 187; five-
and seven-point, 224-28
Mooring bitts at SPM, 215-16
!\1ooring !ines: discussed, 117,
13&-37, 141; lig~tering, 219-22;
5-point mooring, 224-26;
'!. twin-screw ship. 239
Mooring master's duties, 212-17,
219-22; 5-point and 7-point moor-
ings, 224-28
Most efficient maneuvers, 65
Motion: detecting general, 28, 82-83,
118-21, 132-33. See also Lateral
motion
Moving: astern, 15; laterally, 132-33,
144-48. 150; with tug, 144-48;
ship sideways, twin-screw,
235-37
Mules in Panama, 207, 209-10
Narrow channel: backing in, 13-15,
133-34; discussed, 47-4E, 74-77;
meeting ships, 77-90; holding po-
sition, 118; using anchor, 197-99,
201-3; simulated maneuvers,
270, 276-77; holding simulated,
277; twin-screw, 238
Navigation: anchoring, 172; by eye,
172-73; leading marks, 172,
17&-78; simulation, 261-62; com-
pared by simulator type, 271
Navigation training fCir pilots,
257-60
Navigational aids, simulating,
268-69
Negative dir~ctiunal stability. See Di-
rectional stability
Neutral directional stability. See Di-
rectional stability
Night: estimating speed at, 28,
118-21; vision, 42; passage,
324-26
Notice to mariners, 302
Offshore anchor. See Anchors
Offshore lightering: discussed,
217-24;ofttaker,219-22;depanr
ing fron1, 224
"One ship length" rule, 66
Open stern, 19
Outboard propeller, walking ship,
225-37
Overtaking, 80; vs. underkcel clear-
ance, 100
Overuse of engines, 65
Panama Canal: squat tests, 92-100;
underkeel clearance, 95- 100; dis-
cussed, 204, 205-11; locomotives,
207, 209; locks entrance, 206-9,
208-10; locks departure, 210-11;
master/pilot relationship, 291-92
Part task simulators, discussed,
266-67
Passage planning: discussed, 17,
161--62; for anchoring, 165, 166,
167-Q9; for maneuvering, 169-71;
briefing officers, 172, 180; need
for, 302-3; excessive, 303; on
charts, 305; affecting record keep-
ing, 326-28
Peer revi!!w, 276, 279, 280-81, 282,
283
INDEX
Penalties: master's errors, 301; pen-
alties counterproductive, 301
Performance-based testing, 2e5-81l;
vs. written examinations, 286-07;
crite:-io, 286
Permanent crews, 128- 29
Perspecti,·e, docking and undocking,
247
Pilot-Mast~r relationship: simulator
training, 281; and Azipods,
69-70; bridge resource manage-
ment, 297; exchange of informa-
tion, 40-43
Pilot(s): maneuvering at pilot sta-
tion, 26-28; embarking, 28-31;
ladder, 29-30; hoist, 30;
on-board training, 257-60; fed-
eral licensing, 259; tailoring sim-
ulators, 267; simulated boarding,
276-77; curriculum, 278-82;
onboard vs. simulated training,
279; simulator enhanced train-
ing, 279; simulator as forum,
279; duties, 251-52; responsibil-
ity, 289-92; relief by master,
292-94
Pilot laptop systems: general,
311-15; for navigation, 315-18;
design requirements, 312, 313;
features, 314-15, 317; chart accu-
racy, 315-16; system accuracy,
315; real time, 317; communica-
tions, 317-18; vs. radar, 319; line
of sight, 319; f:>r shiphandhng,
318-20; traffic management
320 -22
Pilot responsibility: statutory, 69;
and pilot master relationship
69-70; regarding terrorism, 69;
and Azipods, 69-70; bridge re-
sot,rce management, 297
Pilot testing, 285
Piston efTect, 85-87, 90
Pivoting point: discussed, 72, 92, H 2,
14S, 152, 198- 19; turn in!! in a
channlll, 7•1-75; anchor niTec ti n ~.
191-92
Plan.ling ahead for wind, :J5-3G; Ol t'-
cussed, 49, 129-32, 107-8, 170;
Azipod systems, 6.3, 68; passa ge,
42, 161-62; docking, 123, 130-31;
undocking, 139; anchoring, 166,
167-Q8; stern anchor, 187-89;
Mediterranean moor, 229, 230;
with VLCC, 243-44
Pocket card for pilot walers, 172,
305-6
"Poor man's tug", 191, 224
Port studies, using simulators,
281-32
Positive directional stability. See
Directional stability
Preplanning. See Passage planning
Pr(' printed docking forn1s, 117
Pl"essure drop causing sinkage, 85
Priorities in shiphandling, 262, 276
Prioritizing. practice, 262; demon-
strating ability to, 276
Procedures, watchkecping, 261, 277
Professionalism: discussed, 46-47;
defined, 46; learned trait, 46;
t.oaching, 46-17, 253-57; on simu-
lator, 277
Proficiency, demonstrating, 262
Profile design, 51
Propeller: wash, estimat1ng speed,
28; dir.::ction of rotation, 56,
1J1, 236; ciesign, 51-52: separa·
tion efTects, 250; twin-screw,
234-40; variable-pitch, 51-52,
150-51; and lines, 227, 228,
230
Propulsion systems, 50-70
"Pulli ng water," 90
378 INDEX
Qualificatiom., 274-75; simulator in-
structor, 274
Quickwater: tn determine speed, 119,
120; discussed, 134-35; posit1on
of, 119-20; cushioning effer.t, 137;
lat..rnl motion, 134; planning for,
134; when undocking, 141-42,
144; when docking, 133, 134;
when anchoring, 180, 181, 182
Radar:39,80,81,119, 1e3;and
bridge design, 310; simulator in-
struction, 261, 267; pilo~~.
257-58,279
Radio use, 35-39, 105, 125, 249
Ranges used when turning, 154, 161,
176
Rate of turn: changes in, 10, 18; indi·
cator use, 61-Q4, 192, ~67; back-
ing and filling, 12-13
Rate-of-turn indicator: 83, 84, 222,
309, 310; using gyro for, 81; steer-
ing with, 222
Realism, importance for simulation,
270
Real-time simulation, 262
Recording fathometer use, 81
Record keeping: 295, 299, 326-28; vs.
shipbandling, 327; unnecessary,
327
Reducing h~adway: narrow channel,
118; discussed, 24-26; by r.hange
of he:ading, 17, 25; VLCC, 25; us-
ing tugs, 106-7, 109, 118, 126; us-
ing !Hichors, 185, 190, 195-97:
using Williamson t-urn;;, 2::1-32:
rudder, 12; maintaining control,
14; methods, 24; round turn ma-
neuver, 25-26
Relative bearings: turning, 75, 326;
changes in, 326
Relative motion, 119, 257, 324, 326
Relative wind for helicopter operation.
5ee Helicopter maneuveriug piot
Release from liability: discussed , 293;
signing, 293
Releasing pilot, 157
Relieving pilot: compul~ory, 294; vol-
untary, 289-90
Responsibility: compulsory pilot,
69-70; master/pilot, 288, 291-92
Restricted visibility, 82, 197,315
RO/RO ship mooring, 228-31
Rolling: 92; in narrow channels, 95;
rudder-induced, 97; lightering,
222
Rotation, twin-screw propellers, 236
Round turn: slowing ship, 25-26;
making lee, 26-28; discussed, 26;
vs. Williamson turn, 231; simula-
tor instruction, 277. See also SPM
RTM STAR Center: VMax ships, 242;
testing criteria, 285, 286
Rudder, effectiveneJs, 11, 47, 50-51,
198-99, 201, 234-35, turning, 74;
overuse, 134; failure, 188;
twin-screw vessels, 234-40; stop-
ping engine, 235; flow, 235; types
of, 50-52; VMax rudder configu-
ration, 241-42; split rudders, 242
Rudder angle indicator, 309, 310,
327. See also Bridge equipment
Rules of threes: simulation, 260-61;
simulation components, 261; in·
struction steps, 261; instructor as
component, 274-75; curriculum,
275-82; steps of training, 261-62;
briefing and debriefmg, 282-84
Rules of the Road, 80, 289, 292; si m·
ulation, 267,271,277,278,284,
285
"Safe speed," 95; VLCC, 244, 246
Sailarea,31-32, 169,198
Sm: training, 36
Sc:llc, importance for model simula-
tors, ~64
Scale model simulators: discussed,
2ti2-G4, 271-73; advantuges, 2G.i;
anchor work, 264; limitat.ions,
264; importancP. of scale, 264; ea·
pabilitics, 264; compared to corn·
put.er simulators 271-72;
disaavantagcs, 264, 271; prefer-
ence of pilots, 271; preference of
deck officers, 271-72
Scer.ados, simulator, 276, 277-78;
fo•· pilot training, 272, 278-82
Scratch log: use, 327, 327-28; ehmt·
nating scrap paper 327; reducing
paperwork, 328
Seamanship, 54, 59, 187, 3 10
Searoom: requirements, 168; allow-
ance, 168-69, 178; restricted 171;
at anchor, 179-81; determining at
anchor, 183-85; swinging room,
183-85; swinging clear, 184-85
"Sea sense,• 163, 175, 246, 253
Sequential, testing, 262; skill appli-
cation, 262
Set: approaching berlh, 91, 130-31;
at wharf, 126; vs. drift and Ice-
way, 130; unlocking, 142; in turn-
ing basin, 152-54;
computer-controlled systems, 65
Shallow channel, twin-screw, 238
Shallow water: discussed, 7; affecting
backing, 11; effects general,
17-18, 21; data, 4.4; VLCC, 2~.
246; effects simulated, 267: as
fer.tu re, 270
Shed doers afY"ectingwind, 147
Sheer, 191-92, 199
Sheedn~;, twin-screw, 238
Ship as training aid: for ship's offi-
cers, 254-57; for pilots, 257-60
379
Shipboard managenwnt, 128-29
Shipboard training, 2M-GO
Ship c!turacteristics. 43-45
Shiphandhng: us art, 3, 136; anchor
as tool. 191-94; sltit:s vs. tug use,
105-G: importance of traditional
skills, 102; simulator instruction,
261-62; simulation, 264-71, 277;
simulated anchor, 269; in~>truc·
tional curricul\!nt, 275-82; for
deck officers, 275-78; for pilots,
278-82; skills vs. pilot/master re·
lationship, 292-93; using instnt·
mentation, 80-83; laptop systcn1s
and DGPS, 318-20; simulators,
260
Ship length r ule: 66-Q7
Ship-to-ship lightering: discussed,
217-24; preparations, 217; equip·
mcnt, 219; fenders, 21.-18, 220;
mooring lines, 219, 221, 222
Ship trial data, 43-45
Shoaling: affecting shiphandling, 42,
81; and quickwater, 134-35, 142;
turning basin,153; twin-ships, 238
Shott.el tug, 110
Signals. Sec Hand signals; Whistle
signals
Simulator: practicing turns, 75; in·
novative traiaing aid, 261-62;
computer-generated, 257,
264-7\l; comparison of model
and COL."lputer, 271-72; toob of
instr l!ction, 272-13; iJriefing
and debriefing sessions, 282-41;
vahdatiun, 273-74; vs.
hands-on, 286- 87; advantages
of, 2GO, 261; compoacnts of In -
struction, 225, 226, 23d, 239,
240-43; general discussion of,
225-36, rule of lhreas, 260-61,
282; vs. classroom, 261-u2:
 380 ;NDEX
11
Simulator (co ntinued)
::IS a forum, 276, 279, 281, 282;
limitations, 261, 270;
mode1-based, :t 11-72; types dis-
cussed, 262; comJmter-based,
264-70; field of view, 266; disad-
vantages, 261, 270, 279; impor-
tance of realism, 270; playback
capability, 272, 281; instructor
qualifications, 274-75; validation,
273-74; instructor involvemer.~.
275; for deck officers, 275-78; fo1·
pilot t.raiuing, 278-82; for testing,
285-86; Alaskan pilot program,
286; future of, 284-85
Simultaneo\1.3 tasks, 267
Single point moorings: discussed,
211-17; riding up, 216, See also
SPM
Single rudder, twin-screw, 234
Singling up, 141
Sinkage: defined, 83; discussed,
83-85, 89; component of squat,
85; calculating, 88-89
Situational aw'ireness: bridge re-
source management, 68; and
Azipods, 62
Slewing to reduce headway, 25
"Smelling" bottom, 21
Solid-facE wharf, twin-screw ships,
238
Southampwn Institute, mode!-based
simulator, 263, 272
Spede ruddP.rs, 51
Speed: measuring slow rates of, 132;
affecting bow thruster, 16; reduc-
ing, 121; steerageway, 35-36;
narrow channels, 47-48; meet-
ing, 78-80; overtaking, 80; shal·
low water, 85-88, 158; vs.
blockage factor, 86, 88; t.ug on
hawser, 111; vs. ability, 118;
approaching berth, 118-19; de-
termining, 119-21, 132; over
ground, 1 1.9, 121; through water,
119-21; and squat, 86-87; wind
effects, 130, 168; at departure,
157-59; instrur.tor, 274; curricu-
lum for deck officer~!, 275-78;
curriculum for pilots, 278-82;
anchoring, 264; measuring slow
rates of, 132
SPM: current meters, 212-13; wind
effects, 212, 216; current effects,
212-13; external forces, 212; ap-
proach, 212; reducing speed, 213,
214, 217; chafing chain, 214; pick
up line, 214; chain stoppers, 214;
Smit brackets, 214, 216; mooring
equipment, 216
Spring line, 111, 123, 14.5, 147, 148,
274
Squat: discussed 18; basics, 83-87;
defined, 83, 85; calculating,
87-90;vs. sinkage,83,84;com-
mon useage, 85; cause, 85; illus-
trated, 87; open water, 87-88;
shallow water, 88; vs. speed,
86-87, 90, 95-96; by the head, 85,
90; by the stern, 85, 90; vs. cargo
capacity, 91; blockage factor, 85,
87,90
Stability: directional discussed,
18-20; impact on underkeel clear-
ance, 96-97; simulating direc-
tional, 268
Stability and trim booklet, 73
Standardized commands, 63-64
Starting engine: twin-screw, 238
Static friction of anchor brake, 194
Steaming: on anchor, 118; lightering,
222
Steam turbine: steering characteris-
tics, 51··
INDEX
Steering: ar.chors assist in, 198-99;
astern, 151-52; bow thruswr,
15-17; shallow water, 17, 158;
VLCCs, 22, 244; standmg by
gear, 22-23, 249; from steering
gear flat, 22, 23, 249; engine
stopped, 22, 26; stecrageway, 25,
80, 11 ~. 189,201, 213,214,217,
219; trimmed by the head, 71, 73;
lightcring, 219; at sea replenish-
ment, 249; simulated, 315; wind
effects on, 31- 36
Stemming current: at wharf, 126;
docking, 121; stern anchor, 191;
a.1chor, 1o5
Stern: bank effect, 47; tug, 108, 125,
154; motion to port, 133-34; to-
wards danger, 150; in approach-
ing pier, 124-26
Stern anchor : emergency use,
199-201; danger to rudder and
propeller, 189; heaving up, 189;
use, 188-91; open roadstead,
189-90
Stern tug: uses, 108; standing ofT,
108, 125; dismissing, 154-55
Sternway: steering with, 12, 200;
handling 15; digging in, 182-83;
wind effects, 35, 36, 168; with
stern anchor, 189, 190; with an-
chor, 176; simulated maneuvcrs,
277; reduce, 151, 152; laying out
the chain, 181-82
Stoppers at moorings, 215, 216
Stopping ship: shallow water, 13-~4;
distances, 244; lashed up tug,
112; maneuvering in channel,
100; traintaining heading, 14-15;
with anchor , 179, 182, 200; on
simulator, 277; reducing head-
way, 24-26; as safety measure,
159; moori ngs, 226-27
381
Suction: di~cusscd <!7-48, 219, 238;
meclin!! in channel, 48, 78
Surging at dock, 137-38
"Sweeping a Ice," 'Z?- 28
Swmg room at ..J.nchor, 183-85
Synthetic tailslpendant.s, 219
Tailonng. si mu la to r modcls, 267
Teachi:1g technique:;, simulation,
274-i5, 281; curriculum, 291-95
Team: crews, 4, 37, 42, 54, 57, 65,
109-10, 171;bridge,29G-300;
concept, 295; mul~icultural, 281
Terminology: standard for Azipod,
57; ior conning, 63-64; and ilHM,
67~9
Terrorism: pilot-master relationship,
69
Testing, "'ith simulation, 262, 272,
255-86; validated, 238; perfor-
mance based, 286; crik.ria, 286;
r.1ethodology, 286; pilot, 285; deck
officers, 286; simulator, 285-86
Thinking ahead: 49
Tide and current, 49- 50
Tonnage/horsepower ratio, 2·14
Torque, i.4 0, 144-46
Traditional skills: importance, 54 , 70:
vs. equivalency, 287
Traffic management: pilot navigation
equipment, 312, 316-17; simu-
lated mancuvers, 320-22; laptop
systcn.s and DGPS, 320-22; pas-
sive ,.s. acth·e, 320-21; filtered
information, 320
Training: onboard ior ship's officer,
254- 57; helmsman, 73; for
non-trad itional systerr:s, 70; unit
crew , 128-29; a nchors, 191,
200-1; Williamson tu:-n, 231-34;
dis.:ussed, 253-54; formal vs. in-
forma l, 253- 5·1; sources, 253-54;
382 INDEX
Training (co ntinued)
onboard for pilflts, 257-tiO; by
over navigation, 258; structured
en vir on nae!l L, 260, 261, 270, 279;
pilot training in structurccl envi-
ronment, 279, 287; pilot training
surcharge, 282; for VMax, 24 2
Transfe r, skill, 282, 285
'I'rial data: Cl)llecting, 9; manP.uvers,
11, 14, 17, 71, 74, 80,97,165,179
Trim: s h a llow w£ter, 18; affecting di-
rectional stability, 19, 71; tactical
diam et er affected, 70; general ef-
fects , 70-73; by t'le head, 71;
wind effects, 71; as compon ent of
squat,85;defined,83;effectof
block coefficient, 90-91; simu-
lated, 268
Triple-screw propu1sion, 239
Tugs. making up a, 103-5; docking or
undocking, 103; alongside, 103,
106; stern line, 103-4; on hawser,
104, 109, 110-11; patented drive,
104, 105; communicating with,
105, 111; use d.iscussed, 105-7;
bow, 107; stern (after tug), 108;
two bows, 108-9; astern, 109;
safety, 109-10; lashing up,
111-13; helm orders , 112; twin
s crew, 104; compared t:> bow
thruster, 15; lines, 105; at stem,
107; effects on ship, 106, 107,
108, 10&; minimi:z.e u s e, 105-S; in
curren t , !07, 126; stem to stem,
107; docking stern in, 124-26; at
wh arf, 127; pivoting sh1p, 144;
dismiss ing, 154-55; to anchor,
171; with twin-screw ships,
235-36; simulating, 268, 277
Turbine: steering, 51; sea speed , 162;
going astern, 51; engine, handling
twin-s cre w, 234
Turning co~1 ples, 211
Turning dia meter: righ t t urn, 9; left
tun1, 10-11; backing a nd filling,
11- 13; sh allow \\. dter , d, 1u, 17-18,
25, 246; discussed, 18, 51, 70-71,
74, 152, 192; in an chorage, 198-99;
VLCC, 72, 214, 231, 232, 234
Turning rate: at equilibrium, 12-13;
buoy as indicator, 75
Turning to sea, 151-54
Turning, twin-screw, 235-40
Twin-rudder, 235, 236
Twin-screw: tugs, 72, 73, 104; disad-
vantages, 234-35; Lurning,
235-40; ships discussed, 234-40;
compared to single-screw, 234;
diesel vs. turbine, 234; sin-
gle-rudder, 234; twisting, 235,
236; rudder flow, 235; inboard
turning vs. outboard turning, 236
Twisting effect: backing, 14; dis-
cussed, 94, 133, 146, 175; VLCC,
246; simulated, 268; backing from
a slip, 146; turn to starboard,
178; twin screw, 235, 236
ULCC: single-point moorings,
211-12; handling, 214, 244. See
alsoSPM
Undocking: tug lashed up, 112-13;
planning, 139-40; current astern,
142; turning to sea, 151-54; "one
ship length rule," 66; skills, 70,
140, 239, 327; berthed port side
to, 145-46; slack water 144; sim-
ulated, 268; dra ft and trim in bal-
last, 140-41; singling up, 141;
using quickwater, 141-42; from
wl-.arf, 142-44 ; backing from slip,
144-4 8; coming ah eud from slip,
148; coming off pa rallel to berth,
149
INDEX
Underkcel clearance: discussed,
92-100; measuring, 92-93; ana-
lyzin~. 92-95; c0mponents CJf, 95;
safe speed, 95-96; and stability,
96-97; uccclera t ion and, 97-98;
meeting and passing, 98-100;
Ctvertnking 100
Un it crews, 129
Unmooring: slcrn anchor, 190- 91
Umt.able, simulated directiona l,
268-69
U nstable ship. See Directional stabil-
ity
Valentine, Captain Rober t D., 306
Validation, simulator model, 273- 7 4
Vantine, Capta in Wilbur H ., 306
Variable pitch: discussed, 51-52, 112;
steering, 52; astern, 51; docking,
51; flow to rudder , 51-52; vs.
fixed propellers , 150-51; vs. tur-
bine, 51; left-hand t urning,
150-5 1
VHF: use cf, 27, 36-39; a t a rriva l, 25,
37; at departure, 159-60; in t raf-
fic, 36; call identification, 38; with
helicop ter, 251; avoiding bad situ-
ation s, 36, 138, 228; relaying ~­
ten tions, 39, 159; as backup, 215;
as conni ng station equipment,
310; practices, 36-37
Vibration in s hallow water, 17, 90, 158
Video: simulator tool, 272, 276, 28 1;
training material, ?.54; recor der ,
256; debr iefin g, 283-84
V i sibi l i ~y. simubting, 267; a rc vf,
267; bridge height , 322-24; di a·
gram . 289
Visibilit): V)t ax, 87-88; bridge de-
sign, 306-11
VLCCs: diameter of turn, 10, 246;
s hallow water, 22; reducing h ea d-
38:3
way, 25~ low speeds, 21-1; steer·
ing, 62: SPM, 215-17; sail area,
212, 216; shtp·to·;.hip lightenng,
217- 24. Williamson l.urr., 231 .. ;J.J;
handli r.g. 22, 1 9~-H4, 243~n;
stresse;. 2·15-Hl: helicopter op~.:r­
ations, 25 1-52; storing, 251,
bridge design, 307; calculated w-
tal squat, 87-88. See also ULCC
VMax: 240-43; carry capar.ity, 2•10 ,
description, 240--12; handling,
239; breakthrough design, 24 J:
ruddcr/skeg design, 240
Voith·Schneider, 52, 104 , 110
Voyage pianrung, simu lator training,
278
Walking: at ber th 142; moor, 185;
stern , 202; twin-screw ships,
235--36
"Walking the stern": twin-screw, 144
Watchkeepiog experience: simula-
tion, 261, 277; instruction, 261
Watchkeeping: training, 275-8; pilot
waters, 278-62
Waterway Stmulation T1!chnology,
Inc.: work of, 92-100; measure-
men ts speed vs. squat, 95; vs.
block coefficient, 94; measure-
ments of shi ps meeting, U8-99
Weather conditions: SPM, 217 ; li ght·
ering, 22 1-22; 5·point moorings
227-28: usmg anchor, 197-98
Wharf: importance of solid face, 238;
approaching-with current aS t ('rn,
126-27
Wheelhouse windows, 307-11, 322
Whi stle si{,rnals: con:munication, 105;
in simulator training, 256, 274;
:mportancc of, 38, 39, 159, 20b
Wilhamson turn: defined, 232; van·
abies, 231-32; sim u lator, 277
 384
Winches, 105, 1 tO, 141, 207, 209
250
Wind: moving ship aetern, 15, an-
chonng, 168-70; effects diE-
~:ussed, 31-36, 117,122, 129-32,
197-98, 200; "feeling," "129; "tak-
ing charge," 130; vs. c.1rrent,
130-31; as tool, 129-32; docking,
123, 130-31; undocking, 139;
leaving berth, 146-48; lightering,
221 , 224; indicato:-s, 310; simulat-
ing, 269; as feature, 270
Wmd effects: discussed, 14, 31-36;
affectin~ handling, 31-63, 165; at
1 subsequently spent four years as master ofLNG vessels wit!- El Paso Ma -
j rine Company and served as mooring master for VLCCs at the Lonisiana
I Captain MacElrevey resumed a career in Panama and spent more
TNDEX
reduced speeds, 35; using to
advantage, 129-3~. 168-70;a~
fecting final heading, 168; back-
ing from a slip, 146-48;
simulated, :l42
Windlass to stop ship, 171, 195
Wires at 5-point moorings, 225
Work habits: correr.t.ing, 247, 262,
282; importance of, 306, 327;
shiphandling, 284, 307
X-Y plotter, for simulator, 272
"Zero pitch" steering, 52
ABOUT THF. AUTHORS
Daniel H. MacElrevey was raised near the Delaware River where he de-
veloped an interest in the sea watching tha ships come a11J go from th e
port of Philadelphia. He graduated from the U.S. Merchant ~la rine Acad-
emy in 1933 and went to sea as a deck officer with 1\luore-r-.1cCorm ack
Lines aboard cargo and passenger ships trading to South and East Africa,
South America, and northern Europe. He also worked \vith the same com-
pany in marine operations and stevedoring in New York.
He aad his family moved to Panama in 1970 where he worked as a Pan-
ama Canal pilot for eight years. Living in Panama provided the opportu-
nity for him to pursue another strong interest-{)cean sailing-and later
he and his family lived aboard and cruised before he returned to sea. He
OITshore Oil Port.
than 24 years piloting ships in the Canal and the ports of Balboa und
Cristobal. He has also become very involved in the use of simulation for
shiphandling training and evaluation including ser vice as a member of
the Committee on Ship Bridge Simulation Training sponsored by the Na -
tional Academy of Science's Marine Board in 1993-95. He was chai rm nn
of the Panama Canal Pilot Association's technical committee whi~e work-
ing on studies of ship behavior and squat in narrow channels with Water-
way Simulation Technology, Inc. and devel0ping a real-time vessel traffic
and communications system fer pilots (CTANS) with the Department of
Transportation's Volpe Cenier. Captain MacElrevey retired from his posi-
tion as pilot and port captain at the Panama Ca."1al in Hl98.
MacElrcvey provides consulting, training, technical writing, and ship-
handling servict!s to the marine industry through Offshore Services Com-
pany, which he formed in 19HO. Curren~ wo1 k includes services as
consultant 11nd expert witness fur various maritime law firms a nd simula-
tor-based training for pilots and ship's officers including a contract at the
385
386 A ROUT THP. AUTHORS

RTM STAR Centcr in Dania, Florida, for training and pe rformance evalu-
ation of Alas ka ::;tale pilots.

Daniel E. MacElrevey celebrated his second birthday a board t he S.S.

Cristobal, while (:nroute to Panama. His early childhood was spen t living
near the locks of the Panama Ca!!al and it was there that he "developed his
fondness for ships and aoprcciation for the mariners who guide them. He
made his first transit of the Panama Canal with his father at age eight.
Following this trip he declared his intention to one day be a pilot.
Dan's family left Panama in 1977, living aboard their boat. for a year
before settling in Cape May, New Jersey. Dan developed his love of life on
the water during subsequent summers spent sailing on the waters of the
Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, ar.d racing small boats in New Jersey.
He graduated from the U. S. Merchant Marine Academy in 1990 and
went to sea with Mormac Marine Transport as a deck officer aboard t a nk-
ers engaged in the charter trade. During his time as deck officer with
Mormac, he traveled to many ports on both coasts of the United States, to
Canada, to South and Central America, the Caribbean, Europe, northern
Africa, parts of As~a, and the Mediterranean.
In 1994, Mr. MacElrevey began a three-year apprentice program with
t he Pilot's Association for the Bay and River Delaware. In addition to
making trips with experienced pilots, his training included simulator·
based classes at MlTAGS in Maryland and at the STAR Center in Florida,
and manned-model instruction at the Southampton Institute in England.
He is now a first-class pilot handling ships in the Delaware Bay and River,
guiding ships through the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, and docking
ships at berths in Salem, New Jersey.
Dan was first involved with Shiphandling for the Mariner as a teen-
ager, checking for spelling mistakes by reading sentences from the text
backwards, and he is tremendously honored to have worked with his fa·
ther on this fourth edition. Ships and equipment evolved during the past
twenty year::;, but the text remain::; current be~.:ause shiphandlers share
their specialized skills with their peers. Dan hopes these who read this !at·
est edition will continue that tradition.
Daniel E. 1\IacEJrevey lives in one of tl1e oldest pilot towns iu the
United States-Lewes, Delaware-with his 'Vife, Dana, and th~ir two
children, Austin and Madison. Their home is a short distance from the pi·
lot station at the entrance to the Delaware Bay. A love of the sea and the
practice of shiphandling have passed to the next generation.