River Engineering Course Material

River Engineering Course Material For Exit Exam AMU/AWTI
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. River characteristics
1.1.1. Introduction
Rivers are the natural canals which carry a huge quantity of water drained by the catchments as
runoff. They take off From Mountains, flow through plains and finally join the sea or an ocean.
Rivers are important arrangements of the hydrological cycle. In addition to water, rivers carry a
large amount of silt or sediment which is washed down from the catchments area and also
eroded form the bed and banks of river. The silt plays an important role in the behavior of
rivers in alluvial soils. Floods in rivers cause tremendous devastation and miseries to human
beings. In the primitive times there was no control on river. With the development of science
and technology, the behavior of rivers is now better understood, and various river training
methods are used.
Types of rivers
Rivers can be classified according to different criteria:
A. Classification based on variation of discharge
1. Perennial River: Perennial Rivers have adequate discharge throughout the year.
2. Non-perennial rivers: their flow is quite high during and after rainy seasons and
reduces significantly during dry seasons.
3. Flashy rivers: in these rives, there is a sudden increase in discharge. The river
stage rises and falls in a very short period.
4. Virgin rivers: these are those rivers which get completely dried up before joining
another river and sea.
B. Classification based on the location of reach:
1. Mountainous rivers: they flow in hilly and mountainous regions. These rivers
are further divided into rocky rivers and Boulder Rivers.
2. Rivers in flood plains: after the boulder stages, a river enters the flood plains
having alluvial soil. The bed and banks of river are made up of sand and silt.
3. Delta Rivers: when a river enters a deltaic plain, it splits into a number of small
branches due to very flat slopes. There is shoal formation and braiding of the
channels in the delta rivers.
Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

4. Tidal rivers: just before joining a sea or ocean, the river becomes a tidal river. In
a tidal river, there are periodic changes in water level due to tides.
C. Classification based on plan-from:
1. Straight rivers: these rivers are straight in plain and have cross-sectional shape
of a trough. The maximum velocity of flow usually occurs in the middle of the
section. Fig 1-a. Straight River
2. Meandering Rivers: follow a winding course. They consist of a series of bends
of alternate curvature in the plain. The successive curves are connected by small
straight reach of the river called crossovers or crossings. Fig 1-b. Meandering
rivers
3. Braided rivers: flow in two or more channels around alluvial islands developed
due to deposition of silt.
Fig 1-Braided Rivers
Stages of rivers
As the river flows from its origin in a mountain to a sea, it passes through various stages. A
river generally has the following 4 stages:
1. Rocky stage: it is also called the hilly or mountainous stage or the incised stage.
 The flow channel is formed on the rock by degradation and cutting.
2. Boulder stage: the bed and banks are usually composed of large boulders, gravels and
shingles.

 The bed slop is quite steep
 The river first flows through wide shallow and interlaced channels and then
develop a straight course.
 Most of the diversion head works are constructed in this stage.
3. Alluvial stage: the river in this stage flows in a zig- zag manner known as meandering.
 The cross section of the river is made up of alluvial sand and silt.
 The materials get eroded form the concave side (the outer side) of the bend and get
deposited on the convex side (inner side) of the bend.
 The bed slope is flat and consequently the velocity is small.
 The behavior of the river in this stage depends up on the silt charge and the flood
discharge.
 River training works are required in the alluvial stage.
4. Deltaic stage: is the last stage of the river just before it discharge into the sea.
The river is unable to carry its sediment load. As a result, It drops its sediments and gets
divided into channels on either side of the deposited sediment and form the delta.
Fig 1: Stages of rivers

Types of alluvial rivers
Rivers in flood plains (alluvial stage) is future sub divide into the following classification:-

If the river is collecting sediment and is building up its bed it is called an aggrading (accreting)
type. If the bed is getting scoured year to year, it is called a degrading type.
If there is no silting or scouring, it is called a stable river. It is not necessary that a river reach
should be of one type the entire alluvial length; rather it is generally of more than one type of
reach, in its length. In other words, the same river reach may behave as aggrading, degrading,
or stable type. However under what circumstances the river my change its type will be
prominent after the following discussion:
a. Aggrading or accreting type: is a silting river.
 It builds up its slope.
 The silting is mainly due to various reasons, such as: heavy sediment load, construction of
an obstruction across a river, sudden intrusion of sediment from a tributary, etc.
b. Degrading type; if the river bed is constantly getting scoured, to reduce and dissipate
available excess land slope as shown in the figure below, then it is known as degrading.
 It is found either above a cutoff or below a dam or weir
c. Stable type: a river that does not change its alignment, slope and its regime significant is
called Stable River.
Behaviors of rivers in alluvial stages
The behaviors of alluvial rivers depend to a large extent on the sediment carried by it. The
sediment carried by the river poses numerous problems, such as:
 increasing of flood levels

 sitting of reservoirs
 silting of irrigation and navigation channels
 splitting of a river into a number of interacted channels
 meandering of rivers
Especially the meandering causes the river to leave its original course and adopt a new course.
An alluvial river usually has the following three stages:
Flow in a straight reach: the river cross section is in the shape of a trough, with high velocity
flow in the middle of the section. Since the velocity is higher in the middle, the water surface

level will be lower in the middle and higher at the edges. Due to the existence of this
transverse gradient from sides towards the center, transverse rotary currents get developed.
However, straight reaches are very few in alluvial channels.
Fig 2 flow in a straight reach

Bends: every alluvial river tends to develop bends, which are characterized by scouring on the
concave side and silting on the convex side. The silting and scouring in bends may continue
due to the action of centrifugal force.
When the flow moves around a bend, a centrifugal force is exerted upon the water, which
results in the formation of transverse slope of water surface from the convex edge to the
concave edge, creating grater pressure near the convex edge. To keep its level, water tends to
move from the convex side towards the concave side. However, the top most water surface
movement is prevented by the centrifugal force. Moreover, towards the bottom, the velocities
are much less than towards the top; and enough centrifugal force is not available to counteract
the tendency of water at the top to move inwards. Hence, the water dives in, from the top at the
concave end, and moves at the bottom towards the convex end. These rotary currents cause the
erosion of concave edge and deposition on the convex edge forming shoal on this edge. When
once the bend forms, it tends to make the curvature large and larger.

Fig 3 Bends
Development of Meanders: Once a bend in the river has been developed, either due to its own
characteristics or due to the impressed external forces, the process continues furthest
downstream.
The successive bends of the reverse order are formed. It ultimately leads to the development of
a complete S-curve called a meander.
Fig 4 Meandering River
The primary function of a river channel is the conveyance of water and sediment. It should be
appreciated that this primary function cannot be stopped. Nor can the long-term average be
changed by measures carried out in the riverbed. Thus alterations in space and time can only be
made within the context of ultimate equilibrium.
The most conspicuous aspect of a river channel, apart from its size, is the amount of water it
carries. This is best shown in a hydrograph. A hydrograph is a time series of water level data or
discharge data. Changes in discharge cause changes in water level in the river channel. At very

high discharges a river channel overflows its banks on to the adjacent land. This periodically
flooded land is called the flood plain. Whilst in the upper reaches the flood plains are usually
narrow or even non-existent, in the lower reaches of a river the flood plains could be tens of
kilometers wide.
Catchment Area
Total area from which surface runoff flows to a given point of concentration is called a
catchment area, drainage basin, drainage area, or a watershed. Hence, a catchment area is
always connected to a certain point of concentration, the lowest point of the respective basin.
Therefore, whenever specifying a watershed area of a given stream, it should always be clearly
stated upstream of which point on the stream course it is related to (Ref. Fig. 1.1). By summing
the partial watershed areas of all the tributaries, and by adding the areas draining directly into
the stream, total area of the watershed above the concentration point is obtained.
Figure : Watershed boundaries

The imaginary line delimiting various watersheds is known as water dividing line or water-
divide. Its configuration depends on the topography only, and it runs along the highest points of
the surrounding area. Precipitation falling outside the area enclosed by this line will form a
runoff flowing to another stream, over another catchment area.
The farther downstream along the stream the point of concentration, the more tributaries will
join the stream and the larger the respective watershed. Sudden increase of area indicates the
inflow of a large tributary, the point at which the whole partial watershed of the tributary joins

the watershed of the main watercourse. Gradual increases are derived mainly from overland
flow areas or small gullies.
Watershed Forms
Form of a watershed varies greatly, however, and is tied to many factors including climatic
regime, underlying geology, morphology, soils, and vegetation.
Drainage Patterns: One distinctive aspect of a watershed when observed in planform (map
view) is its drainage pattern. Drainage patterns are primarily controlled by the overall
topography and underlying geologic structure of the watershed.
Stream Ordering: A method of classifying, or ordering, the hierarchy of natural channels

within a watershed was developed by Horton (1945). Several modifications of the original
stream ordering scheme have been proposed, but the modified system of Strahler (1957) is
probably the most popular today.
Figure: Watershed drainage patterns. Patterns are determined by topography and geologic
structure.
Strahler’s stream ordering system is portrayed. The uppermost channels in a drainage network
(i.e., headwater channels with no upstream tributaries) are designated as first-order streams
down to their first confluence. A second-order stream is formed below the confluence of two
first-order channels. Third-order streams are created when two second-order channels join, and
so on. Note in the figure that the intersection of a channel with another channel of lower order
does not raise the order of the stream below the intersection (e.g., a fourth-order stream

intersecting with a second-order stream is still a fourth-order stream below the
intersection).Within a given drainage basin, stream order correlates well with other basin
parameters, such as drainage area or channel length. Consequently, knowing what order a
stream is can provide clues concerning other characteristics such as which longitudinal zone it
resides in and relative channel size and dept
Channel and Ground Water Relationships: Interactions between ground water and the
channel vary throughout the watershed. In general, the connection is strongest in streams with
gravel riverbeds in well-developed alluvial floodplains.
Figure 1.4 presents two types of water movement:
 Influent or “losing” reaches lose stream water to the aquifer.
 Effluent or “gaining” reaches receive discharges from the aquifer.
Figure: Cross sections of (a) influent and (b) effluent stream reaches.
Practitioners categorize streams based on the balance and timing of the storm flow and base
flow components. There are three main categories:
 Ephemeral streams flow only during or immediately after periods of precipitation. They
generally flow less than 30 days per year.
 Intermittent streams flow only during certain times of the year. Seasonal flow in an
intermittent stream usually lasts longer than 30 days per year.
 Perennial streams flow continuously during both wet and dry times. Base flow is
dependably generated from the movement of ground water into the channel.
Discharge Regime:
Stream flow is one of the variables that determine the size and shape of the channel. There are
three types of characteristic discharges:

 Channel-forming (or dominant) discharge: If the streamflow were held constant at the
channel-forming discharge, it would result in channel morphology close to the existing
channel. However, there is no method for directly calculating channel-forming discharge.
An estimate of channel-forming discharge for a particular stream reach can, with some
qualifications, be related to depth, width, and shape of channel. Although channel-forming
discharges are strictly applicable only to channels in equilibrium, the concept can be used
to select appropriate channel geometry for restoring a disturbed reach.
 Effective discharge: The effective discharge is the calculated measure of channel-forming
discharge. Computation of effective discharge requires long-term water and sediment
measurements, either for the stream in question or for one very similar. Since this type of
data is not often available for stream restoration sites, modeled or computed data are
sometimes substituted. Effective discharge can be computed for either stable or evolving
channels.
 Bank full discharge: This discharge occurs when water just begins to leave the channel
and spread onto the floodplain. Bank full discharge is equivalent to channel-forming
(conceptual) and effective (calculated) discharge.
River stage
 Zone 1, or headwaters (or upper course), often has the steepest gradient. Sediment erodes
from slopes of the watershed and moves downstream. Typically erosive stream
characteristics.
 Zone 2, the transfer zone (or Middle course), receives some of the eroded material. It is
usually characterized by wide floodplains and meandering channel patterns. Longitudinal
slope of the stream gradually eases; tributaries join the main stream, and therefore often
sudden changes of flow regime. Although stretches of erosion and deposition frequently
exchange, both in space and time, this transitional reach of the stream is on the whole
generally the most stable and balanced part. Stream characteristics obtained from the
middle course are frequently used as basis for design of stream training projects.
 Zone 3, the depositional zone (or Lower course): Longitudinal slope flattens; discharge
increases in Zone 3, the primary depositional zone (ref Fig. 1.5 a and 1.5b). gradual
deposition of sediment eroded upstream, hence relatively short-period shifting and
changing of the main stream channel.

Figure River stage

Channel and floodplain characteristics change as rivers travel from headwaters to mouth.
Though the figure displays headwaters as mountain streams, these general patterns and changes
are also often applicable to watersheds with relatively small topographic relief from the
headwaters to mouth. It is important to note that erosion, transfer, and deposition occur in all
zones, but the zone concept focuses on the most dominant process.
1.2. River morphology and regime

River Morphology
River morphology Ŕ refers to the shapes of river channels and how they change over time.
The morphology of a river channel is a function of a number of processes and environmental
conditions, including: the composition and erodibility of the bed and banks (e.g., sand, clay,
bedrock); Type of vegetation cover and the rate of growth; the availability of sediment; the size
and composition of the sediment moving through the channel; the rate of sediment transport
through the channel and the rate of deposition on the flood plain, banks, and bed; etc.
As water moves its way downstream, energy is expended on the transportation and
rearrangement of materials in the river channel and on the flood plain. As a result meanders
can migrate, banks may erode, new channels may form and old ones cut off creating
backwaters.

Bend in the river has been developed either due to its own characteristics or due to the
impressed external forces, the process continues further downstream. Shoals are built up on the
convex side due to secondary currents. The formation of these shoals on the convex side causes
further shifting of the concave side because of erosion. The successive bends of reverse order
are formed and it ultimately leads to the development of complete S curve called meander.
When a large number of such consecutive curves of reverse order connected by short straight
reaches (called crossings) have been developed, the river is called a meander river. However
the mechanism of meander formation is not yet fully understood. Some of the theories are
discussed below.
Mechanism of meander development: The development of meander is a highly complex

phenomenon. Various investigators studied the problem in the past and gave their own
theories. Some of these theories are explained below.
Inglis Theory: According to Inglis the development of meander is explained as follows. When
there is heavy load of bed material in movement during floods, excess turbulent energy is
developed, due to unevenness of bed and in such condition symmetrical axial flow is not
maintained and flow tends to concentrate towards one of the banks. The bank towards which
the flow concentrates resists the component of velocity causing the flow towards itself and
converts part of its kinetic energy into pressure energy, which results in increasing the water
level near this as shown in figure.

This pressure head causes a cross currents of bottom water towards other bank as shown in fig,
which leads to the deposition of bed material towards that bank. To replace the bottom water
surface water from the center and inner bank develops a curved diving flow towards the outer
bank accompanied by a forced vortex condition. This leads to the under cutting of the bank
near its toe and falling down of this material into river.
The slipping of material occurs more frequently when the river stage is falling because the soil
in the bank is saturated. The material eroded from the outer bank moves towards the inner bank
and gets deposited there. Thus there is continuous embayment on the outer side and shoal
formation on the inner side till equilibrium is attained. The equilibrium conditions reflect the
total effect of the varying discharges and sediment loads of the river during the year. If the total
effects remain substantially constant the river maintains reasonably stable condition on the
long term basis but there may be temporary deposition at low stages and erosion at high stages.
In general the equilibrium conditions attained by rivers are only temporary, but they may
appear to be stable if there is no material change in the conditions from year to year. However
if these discharge and sediment conditions change substantially from year to year, the pattern
of meandering will change. The discharge at which the river is temporarily in equilibrium is
called the dominant discharge (Qd). In most of rivers dominant discharge corresponds to bank
full stage, varies between 1/2 to 1/3 of max discharge.
Friedkins Theory: According to Friedkins, meandering occurs because of local bank erosion
and consequent overloading and deposition by the river of the heavier sediments which move
along the bed. In other words, a bank is locally scoured which results in the excess silt charge.
This excess silt charge is deposited on the same bank a little further downstream because it
cannot be carried by river.
Meandering occurs because of this deposition. However, Inglis does not agree with Friedkin.
Inglis considers Friedkins theory to be a possible cause of secondary meandering, but not the
primary meandering. Inglis used model tests to demonstrate this fact.
Joglekars Theory: According to Joglekars and his associates the primary cause of meandering
is excess of sediments in river during floods. This sediment load being in excess of the load
carrying capacity of the river is deposited on the bed. Consequently, the river tends to built-up

a steeper slope which causes a reduction in depth of water. There is a corresponding increase in
the width of the river channel. If the banks do not resist erosion. Even when there is a slight
deviation from uniform axial flow more flow occurs towards one bank than the other.
Additional flow is immediately attracted towards that bank. It leads to the shoal formation at
the other bank, and accentuates the curvature of flow and finally a meander is formed.
Meander parameters and their relationships
Meanders can be classified as regular or irregular. If there is a series of bends approximately
the same curvature and frequency the meander is said to be regular. On the other hand if the
meanders are irregular and deformed in shape and vary in amplitude and frequency they are
said to be irregular. Meanders may be classified as simple or compound. If the bend has a
single radius of curvature, it is called simple. On the other hand, a compound meander is made
of segment of different radii and varying angles.
Geometry of meander: The geometry of a meander is usually described by the meander
length and meander width. A meander when fully developed has definite pattern. The various
parameter are used to define the characteristics of meanders are explained below.
Meander length (ML): The meander length is defined as the tangential distance between the
two consecutive corresponding points of a meander. It is also called the axial length.
Meander width (MB): It is the distance between the outer edges of the one clockwise loop and
the adjacent anticlockwise loop of the meander.
Meander Width: The meander ratio is the ratio of the meander width to meander length.
Crossings: The short straight reaches of a river connecting two consecutive clockwise and
anticlockwise loops are called crossings or crossovers.

Sinuosity: It is the ratio of the talweg or channel length to the valley length. The channel
length is the length of the river along the line of the maximum depth.
Tortuosity: It is the ratio of the length of the channel measured along the curve to the meander
length.
Tortuosity = curved length of river/ meandering length
Joglekar defined tortuosity as
Tortuosity= (Talweg length Ŕ valley length)/valley length
Relation between various parameters:
Inglis analyzed a large data on the rivers collected by Jefferson and gave the tentative
relationship between different parameters.
Rivers in flood plains: The Rivers which submerge large area on either side during floods.
Incised rivers: The Rivers which flow in cross sections cut below the natural ground surface
on either side which is not liable to submergence.
Relation Rivers in flood Incised Rivers
plain
Relations depending on Q
1) Meander length ML= 53.61 Q1/2 ML= 46.01 Q1/2
2) Meander width
3) River Width MB= 153.42 Q1/2 MB= 102.16 Q1/2
Inter relations W=8.84 Q1/2 W=8.84 Q1/2
1)Relation between meander length and river width
2) Relation between meander width and river width ML= 6.06W ML=11.45W
3) Relation between meander width and meander MB= 17.40W MB= 27.3W
length
MB = 2.86ML MB = 2.20ML
Note: Q= 1.5 to 2 times Qd where Qd= dominant discharge which determines the meandering
pattern
1.2.1. General features of meandering
The general features of meandering can be summarized as follows.
 A meandering when fully developed has a definite pattern of curvature, length, width and
depth for a constant discharge and for a homogeneous transported material.

 When there is a change in the discharge or change in the material transported by the river,
the pattern of meander also changes.
 Generally the size of bends, the meander length, meander width and degree of sinuosity
increases with an increase in discharge and vice versa.
 The tortuosity of a river varies considerably throughout its course.
 The total length of a meandering river along the channel remains more or less constant. if
the length is shortened by the development of a cutoff , there is a rapid erosion. An increase
in the meander length occurs downstream of cutoff and the regains its original length.
 The meanders progress very slowly down stream with the passage of time. The rate of
progress is very slow, because of the resistance of material at the banks. However the rivers
with steeper slopes meander to a lesser extent.
In general, every phase of meandering depends upon the combined effect of the following four
factors
 Discharge and hydraulic parameters of river
 Sediment load and its characteristics
 Relative erodibility of bed and banks of river
 Slope of river.
Cutoff in meandering river
Cutoff is a process by which an alluvial river flowing along curves (loops) abandons a
particular loop and establishes its main flow along a comparatively straight and shorter
channel. This occurs in a nature when an alluvial river is excessively meandering type. The
formation of cutoff is a natural phenomenon which counter balances the tendency of ever
increasing length of the river course due to the development of meander. A cutoff reduces the
length of the river. When the meander develops, there is always a lateral movement of the
meanders due to their gradual lengthening. However, there are increased frictional losses and
the bank resistance opposes this lateral movement. When the resistance at the bend and bank
becomes very large, the lateral movement is altogether stopped and the flow cuts across the
neck of the loop and forms a cutoff.
A cutoff is usually occurs when the meander of the river reaches an extreme condition and
develops into a horse Ŕ shoe bend. The formation of a cutoff can also be explained by another

hypothesis. A meandering river usually has a shallow side channel along its chord by the side
of its main curvilinear channel. The side channel might be due to remains of its old course or it
might have been created by flood water spilling over the main river bank. During high floods,
excessive deepening of the river occurs. More over the growth of sand deposits called bars,
occurs in the river bed at the point of inflection of the course. Both these factors are
responsible for the direction of more and more flow towards the side channel from the main
channel. Thus the flow in the main channel gradually decreases.
More over there is an increase in silting of the main channel and it further increases in silting
of the main channel and it further increases the flow in the side channel. This process continues
and finally the entire flood water starts flowing in the side channel and the curved path gets
silted up. Thus a cutoff is developed along the side channel. When a cutoff starts developing
banks of the main channel starts caving in and new channels are formed and old channels gets
silted up. This process continues till a temporary stability is established during low floods. As
soon as new flood comes the period of adjustment and agitation starts grain.
1.3. River hydraulics

Introduction
Although the hydraulic behavior of alluvial channels is known to be in many respects different
from the behavior of rigid-boundary channels, there is to this day no theoretical set of
equations applying specifically to the flow in movable-bed channels. In general, the accepted
procedure is to use the kinematic and dynamic equations as developed for rigid-boundary
channels, and to introduce empirical coefficients or relationships supposed to suitably modify
them in order to better fit movable-bed conditions. This is certainly not a satisfactory solution
but it is the only feasible one with the present state of the art.
It can hardly be sufficiently stressed that the limitations and constraints of theoretical
considerations, when applied to alluvial streams, should always be borne in mind by practicing
engineers, if a correct understanding of actual physical processes is to be reached. It has
already been pointed out in the opening sentences of the present chapter that substantial
differences exist between the rigid-boundary and movable-bed hydraulics, and at this point it
may be of interest to mention some of them.

As soon as the flow has started, an alluvial channel begins to continuously adapt and change its
deformable boundaries. Indeed, its characteristic roughness is determined not only by some
mean grain size protruding into the water, but usually by bed forms as well, or often even more
by the latter factor than by the former. In the latter case of form roughness, the ratio between
the roughness height (the effective height of the roughness elements, a measure of linear
dimension designating their effect upon the flow) and depth of flow is generally several orders
of magnitude larger than for fixed-bed channels.
Moving sediment elements and their continuous shifting of position are likely to induce
additional shear stresses; progressive movement of bed forms, on the other hand, may cause
disturbances in flow pattern due to changing water depth. Moreover, suspended sediment
carried by the water, especially when in higher concentrations, often has also an influence upon
the turbulence level of the flow.
Although the quantitative analysis and the extent of the mentioned and other influences due to
the movable-bed conditions of alluvial channels largely elude our present knowledge, they
should be carefully kept in mind whenever applying flow concepts developed for rigid-
boundary conditions to flows in deformable conduits.
Types of flow and Water Movement in Rivers

Descriptions of various types of flow are given in the following. Laminar versus turbulent:
Laminar flow occurs at relatively low fluid velocity. The flow is visualized as layers, which
slide smoothly over each other without macroscopic mixing of fluid particles. The shear stress
du du
in laminar flow is given by Newtonřs law of viscosity as  v   
dz dz
Where μ is dynamic viscosity, ρ is density of water and ν is kinematic viscosity (ν = 10-6 m2/s
at 200C). Most flows in nature are turbulent. Turbulence is generated by instability in the flow,
which trigger vortices. However, a thin layer exists near the boundary where the fluid motion is
still laminar.
A typical phenomenon of turbulent flow is the fluctuation of velocity
U  u  u ; W  w  w

Where U and W are instantaneous velocity, in x and z directions, respectively
u and w are time-averaged velocity, in x and z directions, respectively
u  and w  are instantaneous velocity fluctuation, in x and z directions, respectively
Turbulent flow is often given as the mean flow, described by u and w.

In turbulent flow the water particles move in very irregular paths, causing an exchange of
momentum from one portion of fluid to another, and hence, the turbulent shear stress
(Reynolds stress). The turbulent shear stress, given by time-averaging of the Navier- Stokes
equation, is
Note that u w  is always negative. In turbulent flow both viscosity and turbulence contribute to
shear stress. The total shear stress is       t  

du
dz

  u w  
Steady versus unsteady: A flow is steady when the flow properties (e.g. density, velocity,
pressure etc.) at any point are constant with respect to time. However, these properties may
vary from point to point and that express as follow
In the case of turbulent flow, steady flow means that the statistical parameters (mean and
standard deviation) of the flow do not change with respect to time. If the flow is not steady, it
is unsteady.
Uniform versus non-uniform: A flow is uniform when the flow velocity does not change
along the flow direction.
Boundary layer flow: Prandtl developed the concept of the boundary layer. It provides an
important link between ideal-fluid flow and real-fluid flow. Here is the original description.
For fluids having small viscosity, the effect of internal friction in the flow is appreciable only
in a thin layer surrounding the flow boundaries. However, we will demonstrate that the
boundary layer fills the whole flow in open channels. The boundary layer thickness (δ) is
defined as the distance from the boundary surface to the point where u = 0.995 U. The
boundary layer development can be expressed as

Figure: Development of the boundary layer.

Prandtl’s Mixing Length Theory
Prandtl introduced the mixing length concept in order to calculate the turbulent shear stress. He
assumed that a fluid parcel travels over a length l before its momentum is transferred.
Figure: Prandtlřs mixing length theory.
Above shows the time-averaged velocity profile. The fluid parcel located in layer 1 and having
the velocity u1, moves to layer 2 due to eddy motion. There is no momentum transfer during
movement, i.e. the velocity of the fluid parcel is still u1 when it just arrives at layer 2, and
decreases to u2 sometime later by the momentum exchange with other fluid in layer 2. This
action will speed up the fluid in layer 2, which can be seen as a turbulent shear stress τt acting
on layer 2 trying to accelerate layer 2.
The horizontal instantaneous velocity fluctuation of the fluid parcel in layer 2 is

Assuming the vertical instantaneous velocity fluctuation having the same magnitude
where negative sign is due to the downward movement of the fluid parcel; the turbulent shear
stress now becomes
If we define kinematic eddy viscosity as
The turbulent shear stress can be expressed in a way similar to viscous shear stress as follows
Fluid Shear Stress and Friction Velocity

Fluid shear stress: The forces on a fluid element with unit width. Because the flow is uniform
(no acceleration), the force equilibrium in x-direction reads as
For small slope we have sinβ ≈ tan β = S. Therefore
The bottom shear stress is
Bottom shear stress: In the case of arbitrary cross section, the shear stress acting on the
boundary changes along the wetted perimeter. Then the bottom shear stress means actually the
average of the shear stress along the wetted perimeter.
Figure 2.3. Fluid force and bottom shear stress.
 b P x   g A x sin 

Where P=wetted perimeter and A= area of the cross section. By applying the hydraulic radius
(R = A/P) we get . In the case of wide and shallow channel, R is
approximately equal to h
Friction velocity: The bottom shear stress is often represented by friction velocity, defined by
b
The term friction velocity comes from the fact that has the same unit as velocity and it

has something to do with friction force.
Viscous shear stress versus turbulent shear stress: shear stress in flow increases linearly
with water depth. As the shear stress is consisted of viscosity and turbulence, we have
On the bottom surface, there is no turbulence (u = w = 0, u´ = w´ = 0), the turbulent shear stress
Therefore, in a very thin layer above the bottom, viscous shear stress is dominant, and hence
the flow is laminar. This thin layer is called viscous sublayer. Above the viscous sublayer, i.e.
in the major part of flow, the turbulent shear stress dominates.
Measurements show the shear stress in the viscous sublayer is constant and equal to the bottom
shear stress, not increasing linearly with depth.
Classification of flow layer (Scientific classification))
1. Viscous sublayer: a thin layer just above the bottom. In this layer there is almost no
turbulence. Measurement shows that the viscous shear stress in this layer is constant. The
flow is laminar. Above this layer the flow is turbulent.
2. Transition layer: also called buffer layer. Viscosity and turbulence are equally important.
3. Turbulent logarithmic layer: viscous shear stress can be neglected in this layer. Based on
measurement, it is assumed that the turbulent shear stress is constant and equal to bottom
shear stress. It is in this layer where Prandtl introduced the mixing length concept and
derived the logarithmic velocity profile.

4. Turbulent outer layer: velocities are almost constant because of the presence of large
eddies which produce strong mixing of the flow.
Figure: Classification of flow region
Engineering classification of flow layer

u* ks
1. Hydraulically smooth flow:  5; bed roughness is much smaller than the thickness

of viscous sublayer. Therefore, the bed roughness will not affect the velocity distribution.
u* ks
2. Hydraulically rough flow:  70 ; bed roughness is so large that it produces eddies

close to the bottom. A viscous sublayer does not exist and the flow velocity is not
dependent on viscosity.
u* ks
3. Hydraulically transitional flow: 5   70 ; the velocity distribution is affected by bed

roughness and viscosity.

Figure 2.5. Hydraulically smooth and rough flows
1.3.1. Velocity Distribution for Rigid-Boundary Channels

In the following, only velocity-distribution concepts for turbulent uniform flow will be briefly
reviewed. Experimental evidence from which the constants used in the velocity-distribution
equations have been obtained relates mainly to data on the flow in pipes. However, it is
generally accepted that in spite of this fact, universal velocity-distribution equations thus
arrived at may also be applied to turbulent flow in open channels.
In analogy with the kinematic theory of gases, Prandtl assumed that a particle of fluid in
turbulent flow is displaced at distance l, called mixing length, before its momentum is changed
by the new environment. Hence, turbulent velocity fluctuation in both x- and z- directions is
proportional to l.du/dz. From the above mixing-length theory, a useful expression can be
derived for the turbulent shear stress. If furthermore it is assumed that near the boundary the
mixing length, l, is proportional to the distance from the boundary, z l = kz
Where k denotes a dimensionless constant to be deduced from experiments; and if the shear
velocity, u* is introduced, Prandtlřs differential equation for the turbulent shear stress can be
u*
integrated. The integration yields u ln z  C
k
In which u denotes average point velocity at a distance z from the boundary (the averaging is
related to turbulent fluctuations in time). C is a constant of integration, which must be
determined from the boundary conditions, requiring that close to the boundary the turbulent
and the laminar velocity distributions must join each other. On the other hand, since within the
laminar sublayer turbulent-flow conditions are no longer valid, the constant of integration may
be adjusted to give a zero velocity at some distance zo within the sublayer (see Fig. 2.6). The
distance zo is presumed chosen in such a way as to ensure a smooth blending to the profiles
somewhere in the transition zone.

Hence, when z = zo, u = 0, and the constant of integration is obtained C = -(u*/k (ln z0)).
u*
Therefore, be written in the form u  (ln z  ln z 0 )
k
Order of magnitude of the laminar sublayer is about υ/u*, υ denoting kinematic viscosity.
Accordingly, z0 = mυ/u*, in which m is a dimensionless constant. can now be written in the
u 1 z u*
dimensionless form  (ln  ln m)
u* k 
Finally, denoting A = l/k and B = -1/k(ln m), the resulting logarithmic equation is
u zu
 A ln *  B
u* 
Above equation known as the Prandtl – von Karman universal velocity distribution law, valid
for all types of conduits.
Laboratory studies have shown that velocity distribution is to a great extent influenced by the
roughness of the boundary. Consequently, distinct expressions are obtained for different ranges
of roughness conditions.
z
Z0
Figure 2.6. Turbulent velocity distribution.
For hydraulically smooth boundaries, Niduradseřs experiments indicate the constants in Eq.
(2.19) to be A = 2.5 and B = 5.5.
u vu zu zu
 2.5 ln *  5.5  5.75 log *  5.5  5.75 log 9 *
u* v v v

In order to derive a suitable expression for hydraulically rough boundaries, we have to
introduce the roughness height, Ks, having the dimension of length.
Figure: Definition of the Ŗroughness heightŗ Ks.
u z z
Finally  5.75 log  8.5  5.75 log 30
u* Ks Ks
This is the velocity-distribution equation for flow over rough boundaries.

For the transition zone between the smooth and completely rough rigid boundaries (~
5  K s u* / v  ~70), velocity-distribution equation is found also to be of the general form
u z
 5.75 log  B'
u* Ks
Here B' has not a constant value, but is according to Nikuradse a function of the dimensionless
parameter K s u* / v . Subsequent investigations have shown, however, that the transition curve
obtained by Nikuradse for uniform-grain distribution does not hold for non-uniform roughness
conditions generally encountered in engineering practice. Indeed, transition curve giving B'
values for non-uniform roughness seems to be much more gradual.
A more simplified approach regarding velocity distribution for flow over rigid boundaries was
later proposed by H.A. Einstein. It is supposedly valid for all three boundary conditions
(hydraulically smooth, rough or in transition region), and is given by
u z
 5.75 log ( 30.2 x)
u* KS

Roughness height Ks denotes here d65, i.e. grain diameter determined so that 65% are equal to
it or smaller, and x is a correction factor, which depends on the ratio K s /  , where  stands
for the thickness of the laminar sub layer.
Figure: Correction factor x in the logarithmic velocity- distribution
Einstein, following previous Keuleganřs deductions, has proposed expressions for the average
velocity in turbulent flow,
Smooth boundary:
V  Ru * 
 5.75 log 3.67
u*  v 
Rough boundary and transition
V  R 
 5.75 log 12.27 x (2.26)
u*  Ks 
Where R denotes the hydraulic radius.
1.3.2. Thickness of the Laminar Sublayer

Theoretical classification of boundary roughness is largely dependent on the relation between
roughness protrusions and the thickness of the laminar sub-layer.

As already mentioned, large volume of experimental study has shown that the three roughness
regimes can best be distinguished in relation to a dimensionless parameter K s u* / v, also called
Reynolds number related to grain size. Summarizing,
K su*
Smooth boundary   3.6 ~5
v
K su*
Rough boundary  ~ 70
v
K su*
Transition  3.6 ~5   ~70
v
In order to obtain the thickness of the laminar sublayer, it is assumed that at the boundary
between the laminar and turbulent layer, the shear stress of the laminar flow,   (du / dz), is
equal to that of the turbulent flow. Hence
du
   u*
2
(1)
dz
Let us next denote the velocity at the boundary between the two layers as uo; then du/dz may
be approximately written as u o /  , where  is the thickness to the sublayer. If the velocity-
distribution curve within the thin laminar sublayer is represented by a straight line, then it is
possible to write
u z
 (2)
uo 
Experiments have shown that the thickness  is related to a constant value of the
dimensionless parameter u o  / v  const., and the numerical value of the constant has been
found to be about 135. Since within the sub-layer   (du / dz)   (u o / ), it follows that
u o   ( / ); substituting this into the former expression for the constant parameter, it can be
deduced that   2 /  v 2  135, whence (u *  / v) = (135)½ =11.6. Finally, from this:

  11.6 (3)
u*

In order to compare the thickness of the sublayer with the height of a roughness element, let us
write Eq. (4) in a different form,
Ks 1 K s u*
 4
 11.6 v
Effect on Velocity-Distribution of the Movable Boundary in Alluvial Channels
All the theoretical velocity-distribution equations discussed in the preceding paragraphs

presuppose clear water and rigid boundaries. These conditions can but very exceptionally be
met with in sediment-laden alluvial watercourses. Not only are sediment particles carried along
in suspension, thus changing probably some of the basic parameters of the turbulent flow; the
situation is further complicated by the fact that movable and ever changing bed forms are also
likely to have influence upon the velocity distribution structure of the stream.
A logical analysis of the dynamic equilibrium conditions in the turbulent flow leads to the
conclusion that the energy spent on the entrainment of sediment particles by the water should
somehow damp the turbulent momentum-transfer mechanism, and hence the random velocity
fluctuations, as compared to the clear water.
Following this reasoning, one is likely to conclude that sediment particles should lag behind
the water particles, and that their turbulent mixing length should be shorter on the average. It
implies as well that the von Karman universal constant for turbulent flow k, so far assumed to
be 0.4 would be reduced.
Laboratory experiments reported by the ASCE Task Committee show a reduction of the
constant k as large as about 50% for a suspended sediment concentration of 15,800 ppm, see
Fig. 2.9. The diagram clearly shows that for the same depth, slope and bed surface, velocity for
sediment-laden stream is greater than for the clear water. Taking into account Eq. (2.16), this
implies that the constant k must be smaller.
However, these and more recent experiments have not been conclusive, since they also have
shown that this reduction of flow resistance can be more than offset by the increase in
resistance caused by bed formations. This fact may well explain many field observations which

tend to indicate that sediment-laden water brings about more resistance to flow, and not less as
suggested by carefully executed experiments.
While experiments by Vanoni et al., suggest that for clear water the value of the constant k
always tends to be close to 0.4, whatever the bed formation, some later experiments, cited by
the Task Committee, seem to indicate that the bed formations may reduce k-values even for
clear water flows. Some field observations have also hinted that the sediment-transfer
coefficient may in some cases be greater than the momentum-transfer coefficient for water
particles
Figure: Comparison of the velocity profiles for clear water and suspended sediment, after
ASCE Task Committee; d = 9 cm, ds = 0.1 mm. S = 0.0025.
Einstein et al. have tried several times to experimentally determine the variation of the von
Karman coefficient k in dependence of characteristic sediment parameters, and subsequently to
derive an equation for the velocity distribution in alluvial streams. These equations have been
unduly complicated for engineering applications. Adopting the view that there should exist an
average value of k for both the velocity and the suspended-load distributions down to a point
close to the bed, Einstein and Abdel-Aal finally proposed an experimental correlation curve
between the coefficient k and sediment parameters. Here w35 denotes the settling velocity for
ds35 Ŕsize of sediment (35% by mass smaller than the given size); ds65 Ŕ grain size for which
65% by mass of all grains are smaller; q _ specific discharge (discharge per unit of width); J Ŕ
hydraulic gradient.

Figure: Coefficient k as function of dimensionless sediment parameter ( w 35 d 65 ) /(q ½ J½ υ½).

They further put forward a set of relatively simple equations for the vertical velocity
distribution and for the average velocity. It was claimed that good agreement had been found
between experimental values from both laboratory and field measurements, and values
predicted by the equations.
Equation proposed for the vertical velocity distribution
u 2.3  z 
 log  30.2 .x 
u* k  ks 
Average velocity is expressed in a similar manner,
V 2.3  d 
 log  30.2 .x  (1.34)
u* k  ks 
Where d denotes the depth of water.

2. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Introduction
Whenever water flows in a channel (natural or artificial) it tries to scour its surface. Silt or
gravel or even larger boulders are detached from the channel bed or banks. These detached
particles swept downstream by the moving water. This phenomenon is known as sediment
transport. Due to the erosion takes place in the channel of sediment along with water and this
sediment consists of particle of various sizes ranging from fine silt to coarse sand, which is
carried either in suspension or along the bed. A portion of this sediment is also received by the
channels, which draw water directly from rivers. Channels are broadly classified in to two
types namely rigid boundary channels (lined), and mobile boundary channels (unlined alluvial
soils).
The rigid boundary channels are those which have their boundaries (bed and banks) made up of
non-erodible material and hence these channels have fixed boundary configuration In case of
rigid boundary channels the quantity of soil (silt ) transported by it remains more or less same
as that of entering channels at its off taking section. In rigid boundary channels (lined)
relatively higher velocities of flow may be permitted, so that soil is not allowed to get
deposited and therefore the problem of silt transport does not exist. The resistance offered to
the water flowing in rigid boundary channel depends on the nature of boundary surface and it
can be determined up to the fair degree of accuracy.
In case of mobile boundary channels (like natural rivers and unlined canals) the boundaries of
which are made up of loose soil which can be easily eroded and transported by the flowing
water. In case of unlined alluvial channel (mobile boundary) the quantity of silt transported
may vary from section to section due to scouring action of bed and sides of channel as well as
due to silting at any section. The bed and sides of unlined alluvial channels may be scoured if
the velocity of flow is too high and silting may takes place if the velocity is low. The boundary
configuration of these channels tends to change and due to varying boundary configuration the
resistance to flowing water depends not only on the nature of boundary surface but also on the
condition of bed and banks of the channel and the study of flow of water in mobile boundary
channels dealt with fluvial hydraulics. The bed and sides of unlined alluvial channels may be
scoured if the velocity is too high and silting may takes place if the velocity is low.

Both the silting and scouring results in modifying the cross section of channel. The variation in
quantity of sediment transported by a channel may result in modifying the cross section of
channel.
If the bed and sides of channel are scoured the cross section is increased and besides the other
damages because of scour, its full supply depth decreases, which would results in reducing its
command. On the other hand if silting takes place in the channel its capacity reduces and it will
irrigate less area. Therefore the design is done for the mobile channels in such a way that
neither bed nor sides are scoured nor silt deposited and stable channel section is obtained. The
velocity of flow, which will keep the silt in suspension and not allowed to settle and will not
scour the bed and sides of channel is known as non-silting and non-scouring velocity.
For unlined alluvial channels the main problem associated with flow of water is that of
sediment is transported along with water. The problem of sediment transport is of major
importance in the design of unlined irrigation channels or drainage canals, in the design of
which efforts are made to develop such a channel section which would be non-scouring non-
silting type and it would be a stable channel. Therefore, to design a stable channel the
knowledge of fundamental mechanism of sediment transportation is of prime importance.
Further another important aspect of the problem of sediment transport is to determine the
condition of bed surface of an alluvial stream or channel, which might be developed as
sediment characteristics and fluid flow characteristics, are changed. As the condition of bed
considerably affects the resistance to flow of water in an unlined channels the determination,
conditions of bed relatively helps in estimation of resistance to flow of water.
The cross section and bed slope of true regime channels are controlled by the following three
independent variables
 discharge carried by channel

 nature of sediment entering channel i.e. grain size distribution, shape of grains and specific
gravity
 Quantity of sediment entering channel

The silt theories, which were, developed accounts for only two variables (discharge and nature
of sediment), but do not consider the quantity of sediment entering channel, which is very
important factor and affects the channel design.
Need for Understanding of Sediment Transport in Rivers

The phenomenon of sediment transport is of great economic importance. The design and
execution of flood control scheme is chiefly governed by the peak flood levels, which in turn
depend upon the scour and deposition of sediment and thereby changing flood levels. The
scouring and silting on the riverbanks may create sharp and irregular curves, which increase
the flow resistance of channel and thereby raising the flood levels for the same discharge.
Silting of channels and reservoir is another important aspect of sediment transport. The storage
capacity of the reservoir is affected by its silting thereby reducing its use and life. Natural
rivers used for navigation are frequently silted up reducing the clear depth required for
navigation. Sediment deposited in these rivers and harbors may often require costly dredging.
Many poorly designed artificial channels get silted up and become less useful or inoperable.
The artificial channels should therefore be properly designed and should not be a failure to
carry the sediment load admitted at the canal head works. Sediment transport thus poses
numerous problems and is subject of great importance.
Understanding of sediment transport processes is essential for integrated river management and
river engineering. A river is not only conveying water, but has many other functions. One of
these functions is the transport of erosion products (boulders, gravel, sand silt and clays) from
its catchment in the downstream direction. If the transport capacity of the river is affected, e.g.
by diversion of water from the river or by storing water in a reservoir, deposition of sediments
may occur. If not properly taken care of, harmful sedimentation and/or erosion may occur due
to water management measures, which then again to be remedied. Hence, good water
management (and more generally good river management, which includes also the
management of, e.g. flood plain of the river) includes sediment management. For this,
sufficient understanding of the sediment transport processes in the river is a must.
There are, however, other reasons why good understanding of sediment transport process is
indispensable. The most important ones are listed hereafter:

(a) Morphological boundary conditions for design of hydraulic structures and river
training works.
For the design of such structures boundary conditions have to be specified. These comprise not
only the discharge, maximum and minimum water levels and current velocities, but also the
lowest bed levels that may occur in a river and the future changes in the morphological
characteristics of the river (changes in the Ŗformŗ of the river; morphology is the science of the
form of the river) near the structure. These levels and possible changes are effectuated by
gradients in the sediment transport rates. Changes are not only due to natural processes like the
variation of the discharge in time or ongoing bank erosion, but there will also be an interaction
between the future structure and the nearby flow pattern and sediment transport. Also the latter
should be accounted for properly. This requires understanding of the interaction between flow,
sediment and structure.
(b) Sedimentation in Reservoirs: Many reservoirs are suffering from excessive

sedimentation. Often this is due to the fact that either the upstream sediment supply was never
considered or that the seriousness of this process was underestimated, e.g. because not
sufficient data were available. Also changes in sediment yield, e.g. due to changed land use in
the upstream catchment, can cause detrimental sedimentation. To remedy the negative effects
(loss in storage capacity), changes in the operation of the reservoir are often required,
sometimes with drastic consequences, e.g. the reduction of the power production.
(c) Sediment problems at Intakes
Many main canals of irrigation projects suffer from excessive sedimentation, which is entering
via the headworks. Often this is due to the fact that the sediment transport in the river was not
properly assessed and appears to be much larger than anticipated. Another reason is that
morphological changes have taken place after construction of the intake structure, which
jeopardized the measures taken to exclude sediment when withdrawing water. Remedial
measures are rehabilitation of the intake structure or regular cleaning of the canals, which both
are very expensive.
(d) Environmental Impact Assessment

There is an increasing awareness of possible environmental impact of water management
schemes and river training works. To assess the potential impacts of such schemes not only

their hydraulic impacts should be assessed but also possible morphological changes
(degradation or aggradation, changes in flood plain sedimentation, etc) should be identified.
This assessment can only be done when sufficient understanding is available on sediment
transport processes.
Many more examples can be given which all stress the importance of understanding sediment
loads and sediment transport processes in rivers before embarking on major water management
schemes or river training. These lecture notes attempt to provide the student with a basic
understanding of sediment transport in rivers. Necessarily it can only give an introduction to
sediment transport processes.
Origin and properties of sediment
Origin of sediment
The entrainment, transportation and deposition of sediment deposition of sediment depends
upon the properties of sediments as well flow. The science of sediment transport deals with the
interrelationship between flowing water and sediment particles. An understanding of the
physical properties of water and sediment particles is essential to our study of sediment
transport. In this section, the most commonly used terminologies are introduced; fundamental
properties of water and sediment particles are also given. The various properties of sediments
are classified as a) Individual properties b) Bulk properties.
The most important properties of individual particles of the sediment transport are size, shape
and specific weigh. The most important Bulk properties of sediments are grain size
distribution, specific weight or bulk unit weight and porosity.
Some commonly used terms for describing the properties of water and sediment are:
1. Density: the mass per unit volume [kg/m³]. The density of water is denoted by ρ while
that of sediment is denoted by ρs.
2. Specific weight: the weight per unit volume [kN/m³]. It is denoted by γ for water γs for
sediment. The relationship between density and specific weight is
 s  s g For sediment, and   g for water
3. Specific gravity: The specific gravity, s, is the ratio of the specific weight of a solid or a
liquid (a given material) to that of water at 4°C. The specific gravity of most common
sediments is 2.65.

4. Nominal diameter: is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the particle.
5. Sieve diameter: is the diameter of a sphere equal to the length of the side of a square sieve
opening through which the particle can just pass. As an approximation, the sieve diameter
is equal to the nominal diameter.
6. Fall diameter: is the diameter of a sphere that has a specific gravity of 2.65 and has the
same terminal fall velocity as the particle when each is allowed to settle alone in quiescent,
distilled water. The standard fall diameter is the fall diameter determined at a water
temperature of 24°C.
7. Fall velocity: is the average terminal settling velocity of a particle falling alone in
quiescent distilled water of infinite extent. When the fall velocity is measured at 24°C, it is
called the standard fall velocity.
8. Angle of repose: is the angle of slope formed by a given material under the conditions of
incipient sliding.
9. Porosity: is a measure of the volume of voids per unit volume of sediment, i.e. p =vv/vt,
where p= porosity, vv = volume of voids, vt = total volume of sediment, including that due
to voids.
10. Viscosity: is the degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied force. Dynamic
viscosity is the constant of proportionality relating the shear stress and velocity gradient,
i.e.    du dy , where η is shear stress, μ is dynamic viscosity and du/dy is the velocity
gradient. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio between dynamic viscosity and fluid density, i.e.
ν = μ /ρ, ν is kinematic viscosity.
Properties of Sediment
The various properties of sediments are classified as a) Individual properties b) Bulk
properties. The most important properties of individual particles of the sediment transport are
size, shape and specific weigh. The most important Bulk properties of sediments are grain size
distribution, specific weight or bulk unit weight and porosity. Sediments are broadly classified
as cohesive and non-cohesive (or cohesionless). With cohesive sediments, the resistance to
erosion depends on the strength of the cohesive bond binding the particles. Cohesion may far
outweigh the influence of the physical characteristics of the individual particles. On the other
hand, the cohesionless sediments generally consist of larger discrete particles than the cohesive

soils. Cohesionless sediment particles react to fluid forces and their movement is affected by
the physical properties of the particles such as size, shape, and density. Sediment properties of
individual particles that are important in the study of sediment transport are particle size,
shape, density, specific weight, and fall velocity.
Size
Size is the basic and most readily measurable property of sediment. Size has been found to
sufficiently describe the physical property of a sediment particle for many practical purposes.
The size of a particle can be determined by caliper, sieve or by sedimentation methods. The
size of an individual particle is not of primary importance in river mechanics or sedimentation
studies,
But the size distribution of the sediment that forms the bed and banks of the stream or reservoir
are of great importance.
Shape
Shape refers to the geometric form or configuration of a particle regardless of its size or
composition. Corey investigated several shape factors, and concluded that from the viewpoint
of simplicity and effective correlation, the following ratio was most significant expression of
shape.
c
Sp  (2.1)
ab
In this equation, a, b, and c are the lengths of the longest, the intermediate, and the shortest
mutually perpendicular axes through the particle, respectively, and Sp is the shape factor (also
called Coreyřs shape factor). The shape factor is 1.0 for sphere. Naturally worn quartz particles
have an average shape factor of 0.7.
Density
The density of a sediment particle refers to its mineral composition. Usually, specific gravity,
which is defined as the ratio of specific weight or density of sediment to specific weight or
density of water, is used as an indicator of density. Waterborne sediment particles are primarily
composed of quartz with specific gravity of 2.65.
Specific weight

Specific weight is an important factor extensively used in hydraulics and sediment transport.
The specific weight of deposited sediment depends on the extent of consolidation of the
sediment. It increases with time after initial deposition. It also depends on the composition of
the sediment mixture.
Fall velocity, ω
The fall velocity, or the terminal fall velocity, that a particle attains in a quiescent column of
water, is directly related to relative flow conditions between the sediment particle and the water
during conditions of sediment entrainment, transportation, and deposition. The fall velocity
reflects the integrated result of size, shape, surface roughness, specific gravity, and viscosity of
fluid. The fall velocity of a particle can be calculated from a balance between the particle
buoyant weight and the resisting force resulting from fluid drag. The general drag equation is
2
FD  C D A (2.2)
2
Where FD = drag force; CD = drag coefficient; ρ = density of water; A = the projected area of
particle in the direction of fall, and ω = the fall velocity.
The buoyant or submerged weight of a spherical sediment particle is
 r 3  s  g
4
Ws  (2.3)
3
Where r is the particle radius.
The fall velocity can be solved from equations (2.2) and (2.3) once the drag coefficient has
been determined. The drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number and shape factor.
Theoretical consideration of drag coefficient: For a very slow and steady moving sphere in
an infinite liquid at a very small Reynolds number, the drag force can be expressed as
FD  6   r  (2.4)
The drag coefficient is then found to be (this is the viscous or Stokes range where Re is less
than 0.1)
24
CD  (2.5)
Re
Where Re = Reynolds number.

Equation (2.5) is acceptable for Reynolds numbers less than 1.0.
From equation (2.2) and (2.5), Stokeřs equation can be obtained, i.e.,
FD  3  d    (2.6)
The terminal fall velocity for a sediment particle is
1 s  d2
 g (2.7)
18  
Where d is the sediment diameter.
Equation (2.7) is applicable for the estimation of fall velocity of a sediment particle in water if
the particle diameter is equal to or less than 0.1 mm. The value of kinematic viscosity in
equation (2.7) is a function of water temperature, and can be computed from

  1.79 2 x10 6 1.0  0.0337T  0.000221T 2  (2.8)
Where T is water temperature in °C.
Oseen included some inertia terms in his solution of the Navier-Stokes equation. The solution
thus obtained is C D 
24
Re

1  163 R e  (2.9)
Goldstein provided a more complete solution of the Oseen approximation, and the drag
24  19 71 
coefficient becomes C D  1  16
3
Re  R e2  R 3e  ... (2.10)
Re  1280 20480 
Equation (2.10) is valid for Reynolds number up to 2.0.

Rubey’s formula: Rubey introduced a formula for the computation of fall velocity of gravel,
sand, and silt particles. For quartz particles with diameter greater than 1 mm, the fall velocity
1
      2
can be computed by   Fd g s  (2.11)

   
where the parameter F= 0.79 for particles greater than 1 mm settling in water with temperature
between 10°C and 25°C, and d is the particle diameter.
1 1
2 36  2  2
 36  2  2
For smaller grain sizes F    3   3 

 3 g d (  s  )  1   g d  s    1 
(2.12)
For particle sizes greater than 2 mm, the fall velocity in 16°C water can be approximated by

  3.32 d
1
2
 in m / s, d in m  (2.13)
Bulk Properties of Sediment

The size distribution, specific weight, and porosity of bed material are the three important bulk
properties in the study of sediment transport.
1. Particle Size Distribution: While the properties and behavior of individual sediment
particles are of fundamental concern, the greatest interest is in groups of sediment particles.
Various sediment particles moving at any time may have different sizes, shapes, specific
gravities, and fall velocities. The characteristic properties of the sediment are determined by
taking a number of samples and making a statistical analysis of the samples to determine the
mean, distribution, and standard deviation of the sample.
The most commonly used method to determine size frequency is mechanical or sieve analysis.
In general, the results are presented as cumulative Ŕ size frequency curves. The fraction or
percentage by weight of sediment that is smaller or larger than a given size is plotted against
particle size.
Usually, sediments are referred to as gravel, sand, silt or clay. These terms refer to the size of
the sediment particle. Table 3.1 presents the grain size scale of the American Geophysical
Union. This scale is based on powers of 2, which yields a linear logarithmic scale via the phi-
parameter defined as Φ = - log2d (with d in mm).
Table 3.1 Grain size scale of American Geophysical Union

Various methods are available to determine the particle size. Cobbles can be measured directly
with ruler. Gravel, sand and silt are analyzed by wet or dry sieving methods yielding sieve
diameters. Clay materials are analyzed hydraulically by using settling methods yielding the
particle fall velocity from which the standard fall diameter is computed.
A natural sample of sediment particles contains particles of a range of sizes. The size
distribution of such a sample is the distribution of sediment material by percentages of weight,
usually presented as a cumulative frequency distribution (see Figure 2.1).
(a) (b)
Figure: Particle size distribution curves
The frequency distribution is characterized by:
 Median particle size – d50 which is the size at 50% by weight is finer,
 Mean particle size - d m   p i d i  100 , with pi = percentage by weight of each grain
size fraction, di.

 Geometric mean size – dg = (d15.9 d84.1)1/2 is the geometric mean of the two sizes
corresponding to 84.1% and 15.9% finer, respectively.
 Geometric standard deviation – ζg = (d84.1/d15.9)1/2.

d d 
 Gradation coefficient – G   84.1  50 
 d 50 d 15.9 
2. Specific Weight: The specific weight of deposited sediment depends on the extent of
consolidation of the sediment. It increases with time after initial deposition. It also
depends on the composition of the sediment mixture. The consolidation of sediment is
of interest to hydraulic engineers. For example, the life of reservoirs varies as function
of deposition and consolidation. Consolidation concepts can be used to convert
sediment load, determined in units of weight, to volume of deposits in rivers, irrigation
channels, etc.
3. Porosity: Porosity is important in the determination of the volume of sediment deposit.
It is also important in the conversion from sediment volume to sediment discharge. The
following equation can be used for the computation of sediment discharge by volume
including that due to voids, once the porosity and sediment discharge by weight have
Vs
been determined, i.e., Vt 
1 p
(2.14)
Where Vt= total volume of sediment, including that due to voids, and Vs = volume of sediment
excluding that due to voids.
Incipient Motion
Particle movement will occur when the instantaneous fluid force on a particle is just larger than
the instantaneous resisting force related to the submerged particle weight and the friction
coefficient. Cohesive forces are important when the bed consist of appreciable amounts of clay
and silt particles.
The driving forces are strongly related to the local near-bed velocities. In turbulent flow
conditions the velocities are fluctuating in space and time, which make together with the
randomness of both particle size, shape and position that initiation of motion is not merely a
deterministic phenomenon but a stochastic process as well.
Incipient motion is important in the study of sediment transport, channel degradation, and
stable channel design. Due to the stochastic nature of sediment movement along an alluvial
bed, it is difficult to define precisely at what flow condition a sediment particle will begin to
move.

Let us consider the steady flow over the bed composed of cohesionless grains. The forces
acting on the grain is shown in Fig.3.2.
Figure: Forces acting on a grain resting on the bed.

The driving force is the flow drag force on the grain,
Where the friction velocity u* is the flow velocity close to the bed. α is a coefficient, used to
modify u* so that αu* forms the characteristic flow velocity past the grain. The stabilizing force
can be modeled as the friction force acting on the grain.
If u*, c, critical friction velocity, denotes the situation where the grain is about to move, then the
drag force is equal to the friction force, i.e.
Which can be re-arranged into
Shields parameter is then defined as
u *2
* 
s  1g d (3.15)
We say that sediment starts to move if

u *  u *,c critical friction velocity u *,c
 b   b,c critical bottom shear stress  b,c   u b,c

u *,2 c
 *   *,c critical Shields parameter  *,c 
s  1g d
Fig.3.3 shows Shields experimental results, which relate η*,c to the grain Reynolds number
defined as
(3.16)
The figure has 3 distinct zones corresponding to 3 flow situations
u *d n
1) Hydraulically smooth flow for R e   2 . dn is much smaller than the thickness

of viscous sublayer. Grains are embedded in the viscous sublayer and hence, η*,c is
independent of the grain diameter. By experiments it is found η*,c = 0.1/Re.
2) Hydraulically rough flow for Re ≥ 500. The viscous sublayer does not exist and
hence, η*,c is independent of the fluid viscosity. η*,c has a constant value of 0.06.
3) Hydraulically transitional flow for 2 ≤ Re ≤ 500. Grain size is the same order as the
thickness of the viscous sublayer. There is a minimum value of η*,c of 0.032
corresponding to Re = 10.
Note that the flow classification is similar to that of the Nikurase pipe flow where the bed
roughness ks is applied instead of dn.
Figure: The Shields diagram giving η*,c as a function of Re (uniform and cohesionless grain).
Bed forms and Bed Roughness

The channel bed may be distorted into various shapes moving water, depending upon the
velocity of the water. At low velocities the bed does not move at all, but it goes on assuming
different shapes as the velocity increases. When the velocity is gradually increased then first of
all a stage is reached, when the sediment load comes just at the point of motion. This stage is
known as Threshold of motion. When the bed is of fine sand (lesser than 2mm dia) then on
further increase of velocity it develops ripples of the saw tooth type as shown in fig. 3.4 to 3.6
.These can be seen in sand on any beach .Bed forms are relief features initiated by the fluid
oscillations generated downstream of small local obstacles over a bottom consisting of
movable (alluvial) sediment materials. Once sediment starts to move, various bed forms occur.
Classification of Bed forms
Bed forms in Sand-bed Rivers
Many types of bed forms can be observed in nature. When the bed form crest is perpendicular
(transverse) to the main flow direction, the bed forms are called transverse bed forms, such as
ripples, dunes and anti-dunes (see Fig. 3.4). Ripples have a length scale smaller than the water
depth, whereas dunes have a length scale much larger than the water depth. Figure 3.4 shows
the various bed forms observed in rivers.
Ripples and dunes travel downstream by erosion at the upstream face (stoss side) and
deposition at the downstream face (lee side). Antidunes travel upstream by lee side erosion and
stoss side deposition (see Figure 3.5).
Bedforms with their crest parallel to the flow are called longitudinal bed forms such as ribbons
and ridges. In laboratory flumes the sequence of bed forms with increasing flow intensity is
Plane (flat) bed: is a plane bed surface without elevations or depressions larger than the
largest grain of the bed material.
Ripples: Ripples are formed at relatively weak flow intensity and are linked with fine
materials, with d50 less than 0.7 mm. The size of ripples is mainly controlled by grain size. By
observations the typical height and length of ripples are

At low flow intensity the ripples have a fairly regular form with an upstream slope 6° and
downstream slope 32°. Ripple profiles are approximately triangular, with long gentle upstream
slopes and short, steep downstream slopes.
Dunes: The shape of dunes is very similar to that of ripples, but it is much larger. The size of
dunes is mainly controlled by flow depth. Dunes are linked with coarse grains, with d50 bigger
than 0.6 mm. With the increase of flow intensity, dunes grow up, and the water depth at the
crest of dunes becomes smaller. It means a fairly high velocity at the crest, dunes will be
washed-out and the high stage flat (plane) bed is formed.
Transition: This bed configuration is generated by flow conditions intermediate between those
producing dunes and plane bed. In many cases, part of the bed is covered with dunes while a
plane bed covers the remainder.
Antidunes: These are also called standing waves. When Froude number exceeds unity
antidunes occur. The wave height on the water surface is the same order as the antidune height.
The surface wave is unstable and can grow and break in an upstream direction, which moves
the antidunes upstream.
Bars: These are bed forms having lengths of the same order as the channel width, or greater,
and heights comparable to the mean depth of the generating flow. These are point bars,
alternate bars, middle bars, and tributary bars.
Chutes and Pools: These occur at relatively large slopes with high velocities and sediment
concentrations.
Bed forms in Gravel-bed Rivers
The bed materials of gravel-bed rivers usually have a broad range of grain sizes from sand
particles to large boulders. As a result, selective transport processes and armouring of the bed
surface may occur locally. The most common regime is the lower transport regime; the
transition regime (with plane bed) is a rare event. Very regular bed-features such as mega-
ripples and dunes have been observed in laboratory flumes and small-scale channels. Various
types of three-dimensional bar forms (referred to as alternate bars, crescent bars, transverse
bars, deltaic bars) have been observed in depositional regions of rivers.

Figure: Bedform types in rivers

Figure: Bedform migration in lower and upper regimes
Figure: Three-dimensional large-scale bar forms

Modes of sediment movement:
Depending on size shape and composition of sediment particles are transported in one or more
of the following modes
a) Sliding or rolling along bed: If the particle is relatively round it will roll while if it is
cubical it will overturn or slide
b) Saltation or skipping or moving along in small jumps: The height of each jump being of
the order of 1 or 2 grain diameters and the length of jump being 3 to 5 times grain
diameters. Saltation depends on the contact of the particle with bed, since it is the
reaction from bed that will cause the impulse necessary for jumps of particles.

c) Movement in suspension without contact with bed: In this state of movement the grain
moves freely through the liquid and is not dependent on the support from bed. This
concerns the movement of the finer particles, which are supported and kept in the state
of suspension by the turbulent, eddies against gravity.
2.3. Bed Load, Suspended Load, Wash Load and Total Load Transport
2.3.1 General
When the values of the bed shear velocity just exceed the critical value for initiation of motion,
the bed material particles will be rolling and/or sliding in continuous contact with the bed. For
increasing values of the bed shear velocity the particles will be moving along the bed by more
or less regular jumps, which are called saltation. When the value of the bed shear velocity
begins to exceed fall velocity of the particles, the sediment particles can be lifted to a level at
which the upward turbulent forces will be of comparable or higher order than the submerged
weight of the particles and as a result the particles may go into suspension.
Usually, the transport of particles by rolling, sliding and saltating is called bed load transport,
while the suspended particles are transported as suspended load transport. The suspended load
may also include the fine silt particles brought into suspension from the catchment area rather
than from the streambed material (bed material load) and is called the wash load. A grain size
of 63 μm (dividing line between silt and sand) is frequently used to separate between bed
material and wash load. Bed load and suspended load may occur simultaneously, but the
transition zone between both modes of transport is not well defined. The following
classification and definitions are used for the total sediment transported in rivers.

2.3.2 Bed Load Transport
Usually, the transport of particles by rolling, sliding and saltating is called the bed load
transport. Saltation refers to the transport of sediment particles in a series of irregular jumps
and bounces along the bed (see Figure 3.7).
Bed load transport occurs when the bed shear stress, η0 exceeds a critical value (η0)c. In
dimensionless terms, the condition for bed-load motion is:
 *   * c  Bed load transport
Where η* is the Shields parameter (i.e.  *   0 s  1gd  and (η*)c is the critical Shields
parameter for initiation of bed load transport.
The sediment transport rate may be measured by weight (units: N/s), by mass (units: kg/s) or
by volume (units: m3/s). In practice the sediment transport rate is often expressed per unit
width and is measured either by mass or by volume.
Bed load, as one part of the bed material load, is often quantitatively small and hence does not
represent a severe problem of sedimentation. On the other hand, as the main factor of the bed
formation process, it is always of major importance. Roughness of alluvial channels is to a
great extent determined by the movement of the bed load.

Figure : Bed load motion. (a) Sketch of saltation motion. (b) Definition sketch of the bed-load
layer.
Bed Load Formulae
Various formulas are developed in the past for estimation of bed load discharge. Estimates of
bed load transport using different formula for the same set of given data are also found to give
widely different results. Here, only few of the most common formulae and approaches are
presented.
1. Discharge Approach (bed load expressed in terms of discharge)
This approach, relating the quantity of transported sediment to water discharge, had been one
of the main approaches adopted before the notion of shear stress gained prominence in later
years. Main formulae of this kind are those proposed by Schoklitsch, Meyer-Peter and Casey,
etc.
Schoklitsch Formula (1934 & 1943)

The stream is supposed to be wide, hence the sediment discharge relates to unit width of the
bed. The main empirical relation reads as
3
S
q  q c 
2
q b  7000 1
(3.28a)
d 2
Where qb= bed load (kg/s/m), d = grain size (mm), S = energy slope, q = specific water
discharge (m³/s/m), qc= critical discharge (m³/s/m).
The critical water discharge, i.e. the discharge that causes incipient motion, for sediments with
specific gravity 2.65 is given by
d
q c  1.94 x 10 5 4
(3.28b)
S 3
The 1943 Schoklitsch formula is
q b  2500 S
3
2
q  q c  (3.29a)
For sediments with specific gravity 2.65, the critical discharge in eq (3.29a) is given by
3
0.6 d 2
qc  7
(3.29b)
S 6
Equations (3.28) and (3.29) have been developed for uniform grain distributions. It is,
however, generally applied to non-uniform distributions also, taking d50 (median size) as the
characteristic diameter for the mixture. Schoklitsch also suggested a more accurate method,
which is as follows:
Sediment mixture is arbitrarily subdivided into several size sub-ranges having mean diameters
da, db, dc, etc; and the partial quantity of each sub-range is then determined and expressed as
percentage of the total quantity. Subsequently, partial bed loads qba, qbb, qbc, etc. are computed
for each mean diameter for the given discharge, q, and given slope, S, using equations (3.28
and 3.29). The total bed load for the sediment mixture is then obtained,
qb = a qba +b qbb + c qbc + …
where a, b, c, … indicate the percentage quantities that each partial sub-range is of the
total.
This formula is applicable to grain sizes in the range of 0.3 – 7.0 mm.
2. Shear Stress Approach
This approach is much more favored today, because of the importance accorded to the shear
stress in all aspects of the sediment movement in alluvial channels. Formulae of this type are
those of Straub-Du Boys, Shield, Kalinske, Meyer-Peter and Mueller, etc.
The best known of these, and probably the most widely used, is the Meyer-Peter and Mueller
formula; it also gives the best agreement with measured data.

Meyer-Peter and Mueller Formula
The original Meyer-Peter formula was the discharge type. The new type of formula was arrived
at in collaboration with R. Mueller. The formula is given as follows:
2 3
  2
3
Q n  2
0.25  1   q b3  B  G   h S  0.047 s   d
1
3
(2.30)
 s  Q  nB 
where qb = dry weight of transported sediment (N/s/m width of channel)

Q = total water discharge (m³/s)
QB = part of the discharge apportioned to the bed (m³/s)
nG = Manningřs grain roughness coef.
nB = Manningřs bed roughness coef.
h = depth of flow (m), S = energy slope,
d = dm = representative grain size of the bed material (m)
The correction factor QB/Q has been introduced into the formula mainly in order to account for
laboratory flumes and small channels, where the sidewall effect may be of importance.
In most cases of natural streams, where hydraulic radius may be safely replaced by the depth of
flow, the above factor tends to unity, hence can altogether omitted.
The roughness coefficients nB, which comprises of bottom roughness due to the sediment and
to form resistance should be estimated. The grain roughness coef. nG is defined by
nG =d901/6/26.
Equation (3.30) is valid for fully developed turbulence.
The representative grain diameter, d, should best be determined by dividing the grain size
distribution curve into several fractions and then computing the grain size by
dm 
 d p (3.31)
100
Where d = average size of grains in a size fraction

p = percentage of a given fraction in respect to the total
Equation (3.30) gives fair agreement with measured quantities for coarse sediments, i.e. for
gravel or cobble-bed streams.
Shields Formula
The semi-empirical formula derived by Shields for a level bed is

q  S   c 
q b  10 (3.32)
 s  s   d
where d = d50 , and S = bed slope.

In this formula η and ηc can be calculated from
 c  0.056 s  gd 50 and
g RS
Equation (3.32) is dimensionally homogeneous, and can be used for any system of units. The
critical shear stress can also be obtained from Shields diagram.
3. Probabilistic Approach
One of the well-known methods based on probabilistic approach is that of Einstein (1942,
1950). This theory has two basic ideas,
1) The critical criterion for incipient motion was avoided, because it is difficult to define,
2) The bed load transport is related to the turbulent flow fluctuations rather than the average
values of forces exerted by the flow on sediment particles. Consequently, the beginning
and ceasing of sediment motion is expressed in terms of probability.
Here, the Einstein method is not presented; rather the Einstein-Brown method which is based
on the same theory.
The Einstein-Brown Method
Brown (1950) developed a bed load transport function based on Einsteinřs (1942) formula, i.e.,
1
  f   (3.33)

q bv
Where   1 (3.34)
  
 s K g  s  1 d 3 
2
    
1 

  s    d
(3.35)
1 1
  2
  2
 36  2   36  2 
K   23     (3.36)
  g d 3   s  1 
 g d 3  s  1   
         
The bed load discharge qbv in equation (3.34) is given as a volume per unit time. It can also be
written as

q bw
 (3.37)
K g  s    d 3
where qbv and qbw are bed load discharges by volume and weight, respectively. Equation (3.35)
is identical to the Shields parameter. The d50 value should be used for d in the Einstein-Brown
formula. The functional relationship given by eq. (3.33) is shown in Fig. (3.8). When 1/ψ is
greater than 0.09, the Einstein Ŕ Brown formula can be expressed as
3
1
  40   (3.38)

Figure 3.8 The functional relationship in Einstein Ŕ Brown formula

2.3.3 Suspended Load Transport
Suspended load refers to sediment that is supported by the upward components of turbulent
currents and stays in suspension for an appreciable length of time. In most natural rivers,
sediments are mainly transported as suspended load.
The suspended load transport can be defined mathematically as

h
q sv   u c dz
a
(3.39a)
h
q sw   s  u c dz (3.39b)
a
where qsv and qsw are suspended load transport rates in terms of volume and weight,
respectively; u and c are time averaged velocity and sediment concentration, by volume at a
distance z above the bed, respectively; a is thickness of the bed load transport; and h is the
water depth.
Before eq. (3.39) is integrated, u and c must be expressed mathematically as a function of z.

Under steady equilibrium conditions, the downward movement of sediment due to the fall
velocity must be balanced by the net upward movement of sediment due to turbulent
fluctuations, i.e.,

dC
 C  s 0 (3.40)
dz
Where εs is the momentum diffusion coefficient for sediment, which is a function of z; ω is fall
velocity of sediment particles; and C is sediment concentration.
For turbulent flow, the turbulent shear stress can be expressed as

du
z  m  (3.41)
dz
where εm is kinematic eddy viscosity of fluid or momentum diffusion coefficient for fluid.
It is generally assumed that
s    m (3.42)
where β is a factor of proportionality.
For fine sediments in suspension, it can be assumed that β = 1 without causing significant
error. Eq.(3.40) can also be written as
dC  dz
 0 (3.43)
C s
and integration of eq.(3.43) yields
 z
dz 

C  C a exp  



 
a s 
(3.44)
Where C and Ca are sediment concentrations by weight at distance z and a above the bed,
respectively.
The shear stress at a distance z above the bed is

 z
 z   S h  z    1   (3.45)
 h
where η and ηz are shear stresses at channel bottom and a distance z above the bed,
respectively.
Assume the Prandtl Ŕ von Karman velocity distribution is valid, i.e.,

du U*
 (3.46)
dz k z
From equations (3.41), (3.45) and (3.46),
z
 m  k U * ( h  z) (3.47)
h
z
And  s   k U * (h  z) (3.48)
h
Equation (3.47) indicates that εm =0 at z = 0 and z =h. The maximum value of εm occurs at z =
½ h.

On substituting eq. (3.48) into eq. (3.43) and integration from a to z, assuming β = 1, yields
Z
C hz a 
  (3.49)
Ca  z h  a 

Where Z  known as the Rouse constant and equation (3.49) is is called the Rouse
k U*
equation. This equation gives the distribution of the suspended sediment concentration over the
vertical for various values of Z .
Figure: Suspended sediment distribution according to equation (3.49)
2.3.4 Total Load Transport
Based on the mode of transportation, total load is the sum of bed load and suspended load.
Based on the source of material being transported, total load can also be defined as the sum of
bed material load and wash load. Wash load consists of fine materials that are finer than those
found in the bed. The amount of wash load depends mainly on the supply from the watershed,
not on the hydraulics of the river. Consequently, it is difficult to predict the wash load based on

the hydraulic characteristics of a river. Most total load equations are, therefore, totals bed
material load equations.
2.3.4.1 General Approaches
There are two general approaches to the determination of total load:
1. Computation of bed load and suspended load separately and then adding them
together to obtain total load Ŕ indirect method, and
2. Determination of total load function directly without dividing it into bed load and
suspended load Ŕ direct method.
1. The particle diameter D* reflects the influence of gravity, density and viscosity.
In which
d50:- median particle diameter of bed material
s:- specific gravity
- kinematic viscosity coefficient
g:- acceleration of gravity
2
and the submerged particle weight. The fluid force is proportio (u*) 2 and the
-
In which:
b=overall time-averaged bed-shear stress due to currents and/or waves

U*=overall bed-shear velocity
h= flow depth (m)
I= energy gradient
3. bed-shear stress parameter T
The excess bed-shear stress parameter T, is defined as:

In which
b,cr=critical time-averaged bed-shear stress acording to Shields

4. Suspension parameter, Z
The Suspension parameter, Z reflects the ratio of the downward gravity forces and the upward
fluid forces acting on suspended particle in a current.
In which:
s=particle fall in clear fluid

u*=Overall bed shear velocity
The classification diagram for sand beds of Liu, Simon-Richards, Van den Berg-Van Gelder
and Van Rijn are presented
In which




For Ripples
For Dunes
Sand wave
The bed load transport rate
In which

2. Bagnold (1966)
3. Van Rijn

Van Rijn
Suspended load Transport

2.


CHAPTER THREE
Measurement of River Sediments
3.1. Introduction
Deliberate water management as an environment forming activity calls for the simultaneous
solution of diverse interdisciplinary problems. Water is the medium in one of the processes
jeopardizing soil fertility, namely erosion, by which an annual sediment mass, estimated
conservatively at 12 000 million tons, is transported to the oceans.
The sediment eroded from the soil is liable to form useless, or even undesirable, deposits
travel ling downstream with alternating processes of silting and scouring which tend to
disturb the natural balance.
In channels having a movable bed the development of the latter can be studied in
combination with sediment transport. Those thorough understanding of these phenomena is
essential for the sound dimensioning and operation of any engineering structure, such as
dams, barrages, or river diversions, these being related dynamically to the adjacent reaches.
All efforts in exploring the laws of sediment transport, keeping continuous records on
sediment discharge, or in predicting the consequences of engineering measures are bound to
fail unless we succeed in achieving a fair degree of accuracy in sediment measurements.
Whereas a few decades ago discrete sampling was the only method available, new devices and
approaches have been introduced recently, including telemetry and remote sensing.
Basic methods and instrument types are also included, partly because they form the basis of
recent developments and partly because many of them are still in use in several countries.
These traditional methods and devices are usually simple in construction and in operation, and
relatively inexpensive. However, they require a great deal of human labor, are usually time-
consuming and have only moderate accuracy.
Surveying the most advanced methods and instruments of sediment measurement, it must be
borne in mind that the simplest ones are still more prolific in everyday practice than the
former.
3.2 DIFFERENT CONCEPTS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF -RIVER SEDIMENTS

In contrast to the broad, geological sense of sediment, fluvial sediment is what is meant by this
term in the hydrological and technical Literature. The fluvial sediment is composed of
fragmentary, inorganic material (grains) originating the weathering of rocks and soils and
transported by, suspended in, or deposited from water; thus partly originating from the
catchment area and partly from the river channel.
From the point of view of origin, the total amount of sediment transported by the- river flow,
i.e. the total load, can be divided into two parts: wash load and bed material load. The wash
load consists of very fine (usually colloidal) solid particles brought from the catchment into
the river channel in near-permanent Suspension. Another characteristic of the wash load is
that its particles are finer than those found in appreciable quantities in the bed material of the
river.
In the measurement of river sediments, however, the hydrologist is concerned with the
transport of sediment. From this point of view, the total load comprises bed load and
suspended load, the latter including wash load. The bed load is that part of sediment which
moves in almost continuous contact with the river bed and is carried away by rolling, sliding
or hopping.
The suspended load consists of particles maintained in suspension by turbulence of the flow
for considerable periods of time without contact with the bed. It moves with virtually the
same velocity as that of the flowing water.
 The estimation of suspended load by sampling is relatively simple,
 But taking a representative sample of bed load is difficult.
 Both types of sampling are briefly reviewed, also estimation of the total sediment
movement,
 Estimating soil loss from measurements of sediment movement in streams and rivers
faces several problems.
 Taking the measurements is time consuming and expensive; the accuracy of the
measurements is likely to be poor.

3.3 Purpose of Sediment Sampling
 Several basic sediment properties, namely, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and total carbon
(TC) content.
 The concentrations of trace elements such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb).
 The sediment-associated total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) content.
3.4 Sources of Error in Sediment Measurement
 Common sources of error include instrumental, environmental, procedural, and human.

 All of these errors can be either random or systematic depending on how they affect the
results.
 Instrumental error happens when the instruments being used are inaccurate, such as a
balance that does not work.
 Status of skill about sediment measurement.
 Flow turbulence and poor site selection.
3.5 SUSPENDED SEDIMENT MEASUREMENTS
As mentioned above, all the different methods of suspended sediment measurements have
a goal: to determine, or at least estimate, the concentration of the suspended sediment.
This task can be accomplished either by:
(b) Measuring the concentration in situ by special gauges; or
(c) Estimating it by remote sensing.

(d) 3.5.1 Methods and devices for suspended sediment sampling
1. Instantaneous suspended sediment sampler
This type of sediment sample will be for ocean, lake and sea or the current type water body
2. Depth-integrating samplers
One can allow for variations in sediment concentration at different points in the stream by
using an integrating sampler that is one which gives a single sample combined from small sub-
samples taken from different points. A typical sampler is illustrated in Figure 39 and consists
of a glass bottle inserted in a fish-shaped frame mounted on a rod when gauging small streams
or suspended on a cable for larger streams.

For the bottle to fill smoothly and evenly when below the surface it is necessary to have one
nozzle or orifice for entry of water, and a second pipe through which the displaced air is
ejected. The entry nozzle is usually designed with a slightly expanding cross-section behind the
point of entry in order to reduce the risk of back pressure which could interfere with the flow
into the bottle. In operation, the sampler is moved from the surface down to the bed and back
up to the surface while sampling continuously.
A few trial runs will establish how long is required for the bottle to fill during this double
journey. It is undesirable for any type of bottle sampler to continue to accept more inflow after
the bottle is full as this can lead to an accumulation of sediment in the bottle. In some depth-
integrating samplers the bottle is lifted out of the flow when or just before it is filled; other
types of sampler may have some device to stop further sampling once the bottle is full.
3 Point-integrating samplers
The point-integrating sampler remains at a fixed point in the stream and samples continuously
during the time it takes for the bottle to fill. Opening and closing the valves of the sampler are
controlled from the surface electrically or by cables. Samples should be taken at a number of
depths at each of several vertical sections.
Another method of obtaining samples at various depths of flow is to use automatic samplers
which will take a sample at a predetermined depth of flow. Factory-made versions usually use
copper tubing accurately bent to shape, but a simple field version can be made using plastic
tubing which is tied to a rigid framework to hold it in place. The bottle starts to fill when the
depth of flow reaches point A and starts syphon flow into the bottle, and ceases when the depth
of flow rises to point B which is the outlet of the air exhaust pipe.
The range of sampling is controlled by adjusting the distance between points A and B. In its
simplest form the intake and exhaust pipes are bent into a simple U shape, but this means that
flow into the sampler is at right angles to the stream flow, and this may interfere with the
sediment concentration, so a more sophisticated version has the two pipes with a second bend
to point upstream into the flow
1.1.1.1 3.5.2 Selection of sampling site and verticals
The requirements for the selection of a site for measurement of suspended sediment load are
usually similar to those for measurement of discharges. For practical reasons, sediment
concentration is not usually measured at as many verticals as the discharge. The common

methods used in various countries to locate the transverse position of sampling verticals are as
follows:
 Single point: either surface sample or selected arbitrarily on the vertical, e.g. at 60% of
water depth Ŕ simple, but inaccurate method.
 Two point: near the surface and the bottom, or at 20% and 60 % of water depth (Straub
method) - fairly simple and rapid but generally not reliable and accurate.
 Three points: at surface, mid-depth and bottom - not necessarily reliable for all stream
conditions.
3.5.3. Computation of suspended sediment discharge


3.6 Bed-load measurements
 Bed-load movement is an important type of sediment transport in rivers.

 The bed load, composed mainly of coarser particles, has important effects on the fluvial
process, even though its quantity is not as large as that of the suspended load.
 Improvement of accuracy in the determination of total load;
 Verification of the mathematical models developed analytically and/or through flume
studies;
 Provision of necessary data for the design and management of water conservancy works.
3.6.1 Bed-load sampler

1. Drag bucket sampler
2. Scoop sampler

3. Vertical pipe or core
3.6.2 Computation of bed load discharge
The sediment collected in the sampler is dried and weighed. The dry mass, divided by the time
taken for the measurement and by the width of the sampler, gives the bed load discharge per
unit width of stream channel; g. plotting these values on the graph of the cross section in the
sampling verticals, a curve can be drawn showing the distribution of g in the stream width.

Bed-load discharge per unit width measured at each vertical may be computed from the following
formula (Ministry of Water Conservancy, 1975b)
Qsb=100Wb/ebt

Prepared by Birara G AMU/AWTI
Where
qb= denotes bed-load discharge per unit width after modification according to the efficiency of the
sampler;
Wb = the weight of sample collected in a period of time,
e = the efficiency of the sampler, usually expressed in per cent;
b= represents width of sampler inlet and t= time
The efficiency of the sampler is obtained mainly through calibration or, if this is not available, by
comparison with similar types of sampler.
3.7 Efficiency of the sampler
3.8 Rules of sediment samplers

3.9 Errors and number of sampling
Error of sediment sampling have directly relationship to the number of sampling that mean error will
be reduced by increasing number of sediment sample as show in the figure.

3.10 Estimation of particle size distribution of sampling sediment
To estimate or quantify amount sediment that transport to the river or sea will be based on sediment
particle size. Therefore, particle size will be analysis by using hydrometer test or sieve analysis
method as show in the figure.

4. SCOURING
4.2 Introduction
All material in a stream bed will erode. It is just a matter of time. However, some material such as
granite may take hundreds of years to erode. Whereas, sand bed streams will erode to the
maximum depth of scour in hours. Sandstone, shales, and other sedimentary bedrock materials, do
not erode in hours or days but will, over time, if subjected to the erosive forces of water, erode to
the extent that a bridge will be in danger unless the substructures are founded deep enough.
Cohesive bed and bank material such as clays, silty clays, silts and silty sands or coarser bed
material such as glacial tills, which are cemented by chemical action or compression, will erode if
subjected to the forces of flowing water.
The erosion of cohesive and other cemented material is slower than sand bed material but their
ultimate scour will be as deep if not deeper than the scour depth in a non- cohesive sand bed
stream. It might take the erosive action of several major floods but ultimately the scour hole will
be equal to or greater in depth than with a sand bed material.
Major floods tend to scour the material around the piers of a bridge during the rising limb of the
flood and refill these scour holes during the recession limb. In many the redeposited material in
the scour hole is more easily eroded by subsequent floods. Because of this, even bridges which
span so called bed rock streams may ultimately fail due to erosion of the material around the pier.
In most of these cases, this failure is the result of several major floods. During post-flood
inspection of pier foundations, it may at first indicate that the material around the foundations are
adequate, when in fact, the bridge is in jeopardy of failing during the next flood.
This does not mean that every bridge foundation must be buried below the calculated scour depth
determined for non-bed rock streams. But it does mean that so called "bed rock streams" must be
carefully evaluated.
4.2 Total Scour

Total Scour at a highway crossing is composed of three components. In general, the components
are additive. These components are long term aggradation and degradation, contraction scour and
scour. Each of these types of scour are introduced separately below.
4.2.1 Long Term Aggradation and Degradation

The change in river bed elevation (aggradation or degradation) over long lengths and time due to
changes in controls, such as dams, changes in sediment discharge and changes in river geo
morphology, such as changing from a meandering to a braided stream is defined as long term
scour. Long term aggradation and degradation may be natural or man induced.
4.2.2 Contraction or general scour
Scour that results from the acceleration of the flow due to either a natural or bridge contraction is
termed contraction scour. Contraction scour may also result from the orientation of the bridge on
the stream. For example, it's location with respect to a stream bend or it's location upstream from
the confluence with another stream. In this latter case, the elevation of the downstream water
surface will affect the backwater on the bridge, hence, the velocity and Contraction scour may
occur during the passage of a flood, scouring during the rising stage, and refilling on the falling
limb of the runoff.
4.2.3 Local scour
The scour that occurs at a pier or abutment as the result of the pier or abutment obstructing the
flow is called local scour. These obstructions accelerate the flow and create vortexes that remove
bed material around them. Generally, scour depths from local scour is much larger than the other
two, often by a factor of ten. But if there are major changes in stream conditions, such as a large
dam built upstream or downstream of the bridge or severe straightening of the stream, long term
bed elevation changes can be the largest contributor to total scour.
4.2.4 Lateral Shifting of the Stream
In addition to the above, lateral shifting of the stream may also erode the approach roadway to the
bridge and, by changing the angle of the flow in the waterway at the bridge crossing, increase
total scour.
4.2.5 Long Term Bed Elevation Changes

Long term bed elevation changes (aggradation or degradation) may be the natural trend of the
stream or may be the result of some modification to the stream or watershed condition.
83
The stream bed may be aggrading, degrading or not changing in the bridge crossing reach. When
the bed of the stream is neither aggrading or degrading it is considered to be in equilibrium with
the sediment discharge supplied to the bridge reach and the long term bed elevation does not
change. In this section we will only consider long term trends, not the cutting and filling of the
bed of the stream that might occur during a runoff event.
A stream may cut and fill during a runoff event and also have a long term trend of an increase or
decrease in bed elevation. The problem for the engineer is to determine what the long term bed
elevation changes will be during the life time of the structure. This requires assessing what the
current rate of change in the stream bed elevation is. Is the stream bed elevation in equilibrium? Is
the stream bed degrading? Is it aggrading? What is the future trend of the stream bed elevation?
During the life of a bridge, present trends may change. These long term changes are the result of
modifications of the state of the stream or watershed. Such changes may be the result of natural
processes or the result of man's activities. The engineer must also assess the present state of the
stream and watershed and determine future changes in the river system, and from this, determine
the long term stream bed elevation changes.
Factors that affect long term bed elevation changes are: dams and reservoirs upstream or
downstream of the bridge; changes in watershed land use (urbanization, deforestation, etc.);
channelization; cutoff of meander bends (natural or man-made); changes in the downstream base
level (control) of the bridge reach; gravel mining from the stream bed; diversion of water into or
out of the stream; natural lowering of the total system; movement of a bend; bridge location in
reference to stream plan-form and stream movement in relation to the crossing. Examples of long
term bed elevation changes are given in Chapter VII of "Highways in the River Environment"
(HIRE) (Richardson et. al 1975, 1988).
Analysis of long term stream bed elevation must be made using the principals of river dynamics
in the context of a fluvial system analysis. Such analysis of a fluvial system requires the
consideration of all influences upon the bridge crossing ie: runoff from the watershed to the
channel (hydrology); the sediment delivery to the channel (erosion); the sediment transport
capacity of the channel (hydrauli9•, and the response of the channel to these factors
(geomorpholog and river mechanics). Many of the largest impacts are from man's activities, either
84
in the past, the present or the future. Analysis requires a study of the past history of the river and
man's activities on it; a study of present water and land use and stream control activities; and
finally contacting all agencies involved with the river to determine future changes to the river
system.
A method to organize such an analysis is to use a three level fluvial system approach. This
method provides three levels of detail in an analysis, they are; (1) a qualitative determination
based on general geomorphic and river mechanics relationships; (2) engineering geomorphic
analysis using established qualitative and quantitative relationships to establish the probable
behavior of the stream system to various scenarios of future conditions; and, (3) quantifying the
changes in bed elevation using available physical process mathematical models such as (HEC-6),
straight line extrapolation of present trends, and, engineering judgement to assess the result of
the changes in the stream and watershed. Recent FHWA reports such as RStream Channel
Degradation and Avadation: Analysis ofImpacts to Highway Crossings" (Brown et al, 1981) and
"Highways in the River Environment" (Richardson et. al. 1975 and 1988) discuss methodologies
for analysis for stage 1 and 2 of the three level approach.
Factors that can cause contraction scour are:
1) a natural stream constriction;

2) long approaches over the flood plain to the bridge;
3) ice formation or jams;
4) berm forming along the banks by sediment deposits;
5) island or bar formations upstream or downstream of the bridge opening;
6) debris and the growth of vegetation in the channel or flood plain.
To determine the magnitude of contraction, scour from a variable backwater requires a study of
the stream system to; (1) determine if there will be variable backwater; and (2) determine the
magnitude of contraction scour for this condition. The WSPRO computer model is of particular
value in determining whether variable backwater affects and to magnitude of these influences on
the velocity and depth.
Contraction scour of the bridge opening may be concentrated in one area. If the bridge is located
on or close to a bend the scour will be concentrated on the outer part of the bend. In fact, there
85
may be deposition on the inner portion of the bend, further concentrating the flow, which
increases the scour at the outer part of the bend. Also at bends, the thalweg (the part of the stream
where the flow or velocity is largest) will shift toward the center of the stream as the flow
increases. This can increase scour and the non-uniform distribution of the scour in the bridge
opening.
Often the magnitude of contraction scour cannot be predicted and inspection is the solution for
contraction scour problems. Physical model studies can also be used to estimate contraction
scour.
4.3 Predicting Contraction Scour
There are several methods and equations for estimating the magnitude of contraction scour.
Unfortunately, the equations are based on laboratory studies with limited field data. In general,
however contraction scour can be caused by different bridge site conditions. The four main
conditions (cases) which contribute to contraction scour are diagramed in Fig. 1 and are as
follows:
Case 1. Overbank flow on a flood plain forced back to the main channel by the approaches to the
bridge. The bridge and/or the channel width is narrower than the normal stream width.
Case 2. The normal river channel width narrowed because of the bridge itself, or by the bridge
site being on a narrower reach of the river.
Case 3. A relief bridge in the overbank area with little or no bed material transport in the
overbank area. Case 4. A relief bridge over a secondary stream in the overbank area.
86
87
Fig. 1. The four main cases of contraction scour.
Case 1
When overbank flow on a flood plain is forced back to the main channel by the approaches to the
bridge, the bridge and/or the channel width is narrower than the normal stream width. For this
case, Laursen's (1M)) equation, (Eq. 1) can be used to predict the depth of scour, y, , in the
contracted section.
88
Table 1. Transport Coefficients for Laursen's Contraction Scour Equation
V*c/w A B Mode or Bed Material
E
Transport
<0.5 0.25 0.59 0.066 Primarily Contact Load
0.5-2 1.00 0.64 0.21 Mixed Contact and
Suspended Load
>2 2.25 0.69 0.37 Primarily Suspended Bed

Material
For most applications, the fall velocity can be determined using Fig. 2. In this figure the fall
velocity for various sand sizes, shape factors, and water temperatures is given. For most cases
naturally occurring sands have a shape factor of about 0.7. Therefore, the center group of curves
are recommended for the determination of the fall velocity.
It should be noted that the ratio of Manning's n can be significant if a channel has dunes in the
main channel and plane bed, washed out dunes or antidunes in the contracted channel.
Furthermore, the average width of the bridge opening V2 is normally taken as the top width of
the channel less the width of the piers.
89
Fig. 2. Fall velocity for sand grains at various temperatures
Currently, Laursen's equation is the best equation to use. However, a long contraction will
overestimate the depth of scour at the bridge, if the bridge is located at the upstream end of the
contraction or if the contraction is the result of the bridge abutments and piers.
Case 2
The stream channel narrows naturally or by the bridge abutments encroaching on the channel,
but there is no overbank flow. Flows are confined to the channel. If the contraction of the
channel is less than 10 percent, the contraction scour should be negligible. For this case,
contraction scour is estimated using Laursen's equation, Eq. 1, by setting Qt equal to Q c.
Case 3
This is the case of a relief bridge where there is no bed material transport on the upstream flood
plain. To estimate the contraction, scour for this case the use of Laursen's equation (Laursen,
1980) Eq. 2, given below is recommended.
Where; is the width upstream of the relief bridge. This width can be estimated by assuming
the location of stagnation between the main bridge openings and the relief bridge opening in
feet.
VI is the average velocity one bridge length (relief bridge) upstream of the opening (ft/sec).
is the median diameter of the bed material at the relief bridge in (feet).
As in previous cases the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the value of these variables upstream and in
of the bridge opening respectively.
Case 4
90
This is the case of a relief bridge with bed material transport upstream of the relief bridge
opening. For this case use the equation given for Case 1 with appropriate adjustments of the
variables. This is also applicable for bridges over secondary channels on the flood plain.
Local Scour
Formation of vortexes is the basic mechanism causing local scour at piers or abutments. The
formation of these vortexes results from the pileup of water on the upstream face and
subsequent acceleration of the flow around the nose of the pier or abutment. The action of the
vortex removes bed materials away from the base region. If the transport rate of sediment away
from the region is greater the transport rate into the region, a scour hole develops.
As the depth of scour is increased, the strength of the vortexes is reduced, thus reducing the
transport rate. As, equilibrium is reestablished scouring and the scour hole will not enlarge
further. A typical vortex around a pier is illustrated in Fig. 3. For piers there is also an additional
vertical vortex downstream of the pier, which is denoted as the wake vortex. Both vortexes
remove material from around the pier. In many cases the material which is removed by these
vortexes is redeposited immediately downstream of the pier. This is common for long piers.
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of scour at a cylindrical pier.
5.1 Factors Effecting Local Scour
91
The factors that affect local scour at a pier or abutment are as
follows:
1) width of the pier, (a)
2) projection length (a) of the abutment into the flow;
3) length of the pier, L;
4) depth of approach flow, Y 1;

5) velocity of the approach flow;
6) size of the bed material D50,
7) angle of the approach flow to the pier or abutment (angle of attack);
8) shape of the pier or abutment;
9) bed configuration;
10) ice formation or jams and debris.
The width of pier has a direct effect on the depth of scour. With an increase in pier width, the
velocity of flow in the bridge opening is increased to maintain continuity and consequently, there
is an increase in scour depth.
Projected length of an abutment into the stream affects the depth of scour. With an increase in
the projected length of an abutment into the flow there is an increase in scour. However, there is
a limit on the increase in scour depth with an increase in length. This limit is reached when the
ratio of projected length into the stream (a) to the depth of the approaching flow (y l) exceeds 25.
Also, the length of an abutment may not be as important as the ratio of the flow in the main
channel to the flow in the overbank.
Generally, the length of a pier has no appreciable effect on scour depth as long as the pier is
parallel with the flow. However, if the pier is at an angle to the flow, the length has a very large
affect. At the same angle of attack doubling the length of the pier can increase scour depth by 33
percent. Some equations take the length factor into account by using the ratio of pier length to
depth of flow or pier width and the angle of attack of the flow to the pier. Others uses the
projected area of the pier to the flow in their equations.
92
Flow depth has a direct effect on scour depth. For Pier scour an increase in flow depth can
increase scour depth by a factor of 2 or more. For abutments the increase ranges from 1.1 to 2.15
depending on the shape of the abutment.
The velocity of the approach flow increases scour depth, the larger the velocity the deeper the
scour depth will be. There is also a high probability that the scour depth will depend on whether
the flow is subcritical of supercritical. In fact, Jain and Fisher (1979) showed that scour depths
increase with an increase in Froude number. Unfortunately, however, most research and data are
for flows with Froude Numbers much less than one and therefore, the quantitative influence of
supercritical flow on local scour is limited.
Depth of local scour in sands does not depend on the grain size. For larger size bed material, the
ultimate or maximum scour is unaffected by the grain size. These materials will be moved by the
approaching flow or by the vortexes and turbulence created by the pier or abutment. However,
the time that it may take for these materials to be removed does depend on the size of the
material. The time that it may take to reach ultimate scour may be very large.
Very large particles in the bed material, (ie. cobbles or boulders) may armor the scour hole. But
in the case of the Schoharie Creek bridge collapse, large riprap was ultimately removed from
around the piers by a series of large flows (Richardson, et al, 1987). The size of the bed material
also determines whether the scour at a pier or abutment is clear-water of live-bed scour. This
topic is discussed later in this section.
Fine bed material (silts and clays) will have scour depths as deep or deeper than sand bed
streams. This is true even if bonded together by cohesion. The effect of cohesion is to determine
the time it takes to reach the maximum scour. With sand bed material the maximum depth of
scour is measured in hours. With cohesive bed materials it may take days, months or even years
to reach the maximum scour depth.
Angle of attack of the flow to the pier or abutment has a large effect on local scour as was
pointed out in the discussion of the effect of pier length above. The effect on piers will not be
repeated here. With abutments the depth of scour is reduced for embankments angled
downstream and is increased if the embankments are angled upstream. According to the work of
Ahmad, (Richardson et. al., 1975 and 1987) the maximum depth of scour at an embankment
93
inclined 45 degrees downstream is reduced by 20 percent. Whereas, the scour at an embankment
inclined 45 degrees upstream is increased about 10 percent.
The shape of piers and abutments have a significant effect on scour. With a pier, streamlining the
front end reduces the strength of the horseshoe vortex and reduces scour depth. Streamlining the
downstream end of piers reduces the strength of the wake vortices. However, increasing the
angle of attack will decrease or negate the decrease of scour depth which would be realized by
streamlining the piers. A square-nose pier will have maximum scour depths about 20 percent
larger than a sharp-nose pier, and 10 percent larger than a cylinder or round-nose pier.
Abutments with vertical walls on the stream side and upstream side, will have scour depths about
double that of spill slope abutments.
Bed configuration also affects the magnitude of local scour. In streams with sand bed material
the shape of the bed, (bed configuration), may be ripples, dunes, plane bed and antidunes. The
bed configuration depends on the size distribution of the sand bed material, flow conditions and
fluid viscosity. The bed configuration may change from dunes to plane bed or antidunes during
an increase in flow or velocity. It may change back with a decrease in flow. The bed
configuration may also change with a change in water temperature or change in concentration of
silts and clays suspended in the flow.
Ice and debris; by increasing the width of the piers, changing the shape of piers and abutments,
increasing the projected length of an abutment or causing the flow to plunge downward against
the bed, can increase both the local and contraction scour. The magnitude of the increase is still
largely undetermined. Debris however, can be accounted for in the equations by estimating the
extent that the debris will increase the width of the pier or length of the abutment. Debris and ice
effects on contraction scour also be accounted for by estimating the amount of flow blockage
(decrease in width of the bridge opening) in the equations for contraction scour. Field
measurements of scour at ice jams indicate the scour can be in the tens of feet.
4.4 Clear-water and Live-Bed Scour

Clear-water scour occurs when there is no movement of the bed material of the stream upstream
of the crossing, but the acceleration of the flow and vortices created by the piers or abutments
94
causes the material at their base to move. Live-bed scour occurs when the bed material upstream
of the crossing is also moving.
Bridges over coarse bed material streams often have clear-water scour at lower f10VÆ, live-bed
swur at the higher discharges and then clear-water scour for the falling stages. Clear-water scour
reaches its maximum over a longer period of time than live-bed scour, Fig. 4. This is clear-water
scour occurs mainly on coarse bed material streams. In fact, clear-water scour may not reach its
maximum until after several floods have been experienced. Also, maximum clear-water scour is
about 10 percent greater than the maximum live-bed scour.
Live-bed scour in sand bed streams with a dune bed configuration fluctuates about an equilibrium
scour depth, Fig. 4. This is caused by the fluctuating nature of the sediment transport of the bed
material in the approaching flow when the bed configuration of the stream is dunes. In this (dune
bed configuration in the channel upstream of the bridge) maximum depth of scour is about 30
percent larger than equilibrium depth of scour.
The maximum depth of is the same as the equilibrium depth of for live-bed scour with a plain
configuration. With antidunes occurring upstream and in the bridge crossing the maximum
depth of scour, based on the limited of Jain and Fisher (1979), is about 20 percent greater than
the equilibrium depth of scour.
Fig. 4. Scour Depth as a Function of Time.
95
4.5 Armoring
Armoring occurs on a stream bed or in a scour hole when the forces of the water during a
particular flood are unable to move the larger sizes of the bed material. This larger material
protects the underlying material from movement. Scour around an abutment or pier may initially
but as the scour hole deepens the coarser bed material moves down in the hole and protects the
bed so that the full scour potential is not reached.
When armoring occurs, the coarser bed material will tend to remain in place or quickly redeposit
so as to form a layer of riprap-like armor in the scour holes, thus limiting further scour for a
particular discharge. This armoring effect decrease scour hole depths which were predicted to
occur based on formulae developed for sand or other fine material channels. When larger flow
conditions occur the armor layer can be broken and the scour hole deepened until either a new
armor layer is developed or the maximum scour as given by the sand bed equations is reached.
4.5 Estimating Local Depths
Equations for estimating local scour are based on three methods of analysis. These methods
are;
1) Dimensional analysis of the basic variables causing local scour.
2) The use of transport relations in the approaching flow and in the scour
hole. 3) Regression analysis of the available data.
Equations for estimating local scour at abutments or piers developed by the three methods are
given in the next sections. In HEC 18 (FHWA, 1989) and in "Interim Procedures for Evaluating
Scour at Bridges" (FHWA, June 1988), only one method or equation is recommended. The
additional equations are given in this report for basis of comparison, to be used in additional
study of a particular bridge site and for use in research. It should be noted that these equations
were developed from laboratory experiments with limited field data.
To analyze scour, the engineer should evaluate his problem and select the equation or method
that in his judgement best suits the case at hand. IT MAYBE NECESSARY TO USE MORE
THAN ONE EQUATION OR METHOD AND THEN USE ENGINEERING JUDGEMENT IN
SELECTING THE LOCAL SCOUR DEPTH. For example, if the stream contains large
96
quantities of coarse bed material, then both the sand bed equation and the armoring equation
should be used. Then, based on knowledge of the stream, the bed material, the flows and type of
bridge crossing, select the value of the scour.
4.6 Maximum Depth or Scour
For live-bed scour with a dune bed configuration, the maximum depth of scour is about 30
percent greater than equilibrium scour depth given by the equations such as Liu, et. al.'s (1961)
equation for abutments and CSU's equation for piers. Therefore, the values of scour that are
calculated using these equations should be increased by 30 percent when the bed form upstream
of the bridge is dunes.
The reason for this is that the research used for determining scour depth for the live-bed scour
case was conducted with a dune bed and equilibrium scour was measured. When the bed
configuration is plane bed or antidunes with live bed scour the depth of scour should be
increased by ten (10) percent. For clear-water scour, the maximum depth of scour is about 10
percent greater than live-bed scour. However, there is no need to increase the scour depths
because the equations predict the maximum scour.
4.7 Local Scour at Abutments

4.7.1 General
Equations for predicting scour depths at abutments are almost entirely on either laboratory data
or inductive reasoning from sediment continuity equations. There are little field data to compare
abutment scour equations. For example, Froehlich's (1988), Laursen's (1980) and Liu et.al's
(1961) equations are based entirely on laboratory data.
4.8 Types of Equations

Equations for estimating abutment scour are derived by three methods.
The first type of abutment scour equations are derived from dimensional analysis of the
variables. These methods determine the scour depth by developing relationships among the
major dimensionless parameters. Common dimensionless parameters are; the ratio of scour
depth, y, to flow depth y l ', ratio of abutment length a to flow depth y I ; the Froude Number Fr;
97
and others. An example of this form of scour depth equation is Liu, et. al.'s (1961) equation
given in this text.
A second type of scour depth equation are derived from transport relations and the change in
transport due to acceleration of the flow caused by the abutment. Laursen's (1980) equation
which is presented in this paper is an example of this type local abutment scour equation.
A third type of abutment scour equations are developed from regression analysis of available
data. Froehlich's (1988) equation, which is presented in this paper is an example.
All of the equations for abutment scour do not account for the existence of slow flow, or
cohesive, tree lined and vegetated banks.
6.2 Calculating Abutment Scour for the Different Cases
Case 1 Abutments Project Into Channel, No Overbank

Fig. 9. DEFINITION SKETCH FOR CASE 1 ABUTMENT SCOUR.
Seven equations are for the applicable this case. They are Eqs. 3, through 9. These equations are
based on dimensional analysis, transport relations and regression analysis and are limited to cases
where a / y I < 25. Case 6, which is presented later, discusses the computation of abutment scour
if a / y I > 25.
* Liu. et. al.'s Equations
Live-bed Scour with a Spill through Abutment
98
According to the studies of Liu, et al., (1961) the equilibrium scour depth for local live-bed scour
in sand at a stable spill slope abutment for subcritical flow is determined by Eq. 3.
0.4
Fr10.33
Ys = equilibrium depth of scour (measured from the mean bed level to the bottom of the
scour hole).
Average upstream flow depth in the main channel
Abutment and embankment length (measured along the design flood water surface,
normal to the bankline of the channel, from where the water surface intersects the bank
to the outer edge of the abutment).
Upstream Froude number = V / (gy | 5

Live bed scour at a vertical wall abutment.
If the abutment terminates at a wall and the wall on the upstream side is also vertical, then
the scour hole in sand as calculated using Eq. 4 is nearly doubles the abutment scour for a spill
through abutment. This was shown by Liu, et al, (1961) and Grill (1972).
0.4
0.33
Eq. 4
•Laursen's Equations.
Live-bed Scour at Vertical Wall Abutment.
Laursen (1980) suggested two relationships for scour at vertical wall abutments. One for
live-bed scour and another for clear-water scour depending on the relative magnitude of the bed
shear stresses to the critical shear stress for the bed material of the stream. For live-bed scour (T
I > •t c), Eq.5 and Eq.6 are recommended.
1 .7
2=2.75!- -1
99
Simplified form:
0.48
Y
a -ž = 1 .5
Clear-water scour ( < •t e) at vertical wall abutment.

Eq. 7 is used for the clear water case of Laursen (1980).
£ = 2.75ŕ
shear stress on the bed upstream critical shear stress of the 1)50 of the bed
material and can be obtained from Fig. 10.
Very High Fine tion
Sediment Concentr
Stields So
Noncohosive
Curveil
Medium
100
2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.1 02 0406 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40608000
D, mm
Fig. 10. Critical shear stress as a function of bed material size and suspended fine
sediment.
101
•Scour at other abutment shapes using Laursen's Equations.
Scour values given by Laursen's equations are for vertical wall abutments. He suggests
the following multiplying factors for other abutment types for small encroachment lengths:
Abutment Type Multiplying Factor
45 degree Wing Wall 0.90
Spill-Through 0.80
Laursen's equations are based on sediment transport relations. THEY GIVE MAXIMUM
SCOUR AND INCLUDE CONTRACTION SCOUR. FOR THESE EQUATIONS, DO NOT
ADD CONTRACTION SCOUR TO OBTAIN TOTAL SCOUR AT THE ABUTMENT.
Laursen's equations require trial and error solution. Curves developed by Chang (1987) to
solve these equations are given in Fig. 11. Note that the equations have been truncated at a
value of equal to 4. It is recommended that the maximum value of 2 be taken as 4 laursen's
equations are open ended and field data for Case 6 did not exceed 4 times y 1 ,
0.5
aos
3.0
3.0
lao
t 1.0
12.0
For Eq. 5 For Eq. 7 For Eq. 11
Fig. 11. Nomograph for Abutment Scour.

•Froehlich's Equations.
Clear-water scour at an abutment.
Froehlich (1987), using dimensional analysis and multiple regression analysis of 164
clear-water scour measurements in laboratory flumes developed the following equation (Eq. 8):
0.63 0.43
1.19 Yl C 1 87
Eq.8
103
Live-bed scour at an abutment.
Froehlich (1989) also analyzed 170 live-bed scour measurements in laboratory flumes to
obtain the following equation (Eq. 9):
0.43
0.61
Eq. 9
Where:
coefficient for abutment shape

coefficient for angle of embankment to flow
O is the angle of the embankment to the flow in

degrees a length of abutment projected normal to flow
A is the flow area of the approach cross-section obstructed by the embankment.
Fr Froude number of approach flow upstream of abutment.
G geometric standard deviation of bed material
C = (D84/D16)05
DB4 , D50, D Are the grain sizes of the bed material. The subscript the
percent finer at which the grain size is determined.
depth of flow at
abutment scour depth
Description
104
Vertical Abutment 1.00
Vertical Abutment 0.82

With Wingwalls
Spill Through 0.55

Abutment
The constant term of unity (+1) in Froehlich's equation is a safety factor that makes the
equation predict a scour depth larger than any of the measured scour depths in the experiments.
This safety factor should be used for design purposes.
2 Projects Into The Channel, With Overbank Flow.
No bed material is transported in the overbank area and a/ y 1 < 25. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. Bridge Abutment in Main Channel and Overbank Flow.

For this case, with vertical wall abutments, Laursen's equations (Eq 5 or 7) should be used
to calculate the scour depth using an abutment length determined by Eq. 10. Eq. 11 can also be
used for this case with the appropriate selection of variables. For live bed scour ( > T e) use
equations 5 and 11. For clear water scour < •t c) use equations 7 or 11. If the abutment
105
are different than vertical, used Laursen's correction factors which were discussed for
Case 1.
It should be noted that equations given by Liu and Froehlich in Case 1 would normally
give the maximum (worst case) scour for Case 2 and could be used as a check. Only when the
overbank flow was very large and concentrated at the abutment would the scour be larger than
that computed by either Liu's or Froehlich's equation. As was mentioned earlier, sound
engineering judgment must be used in deciding the appropriate scour depth and foundation
design for the abutment.
2 IYI
Eq. 10
shear stress in the main channel.
Critical shear stress of the 1)50 of the bed material in the main channel obtained from Fig.
10,
Flow obstructed by abutment and bridge approach.
Average upstream flow depth in the main channel.
VI = Average velocity in the main channel.

It should be noted that for this equation, it is assumed that there is little or no bed material
transport by the overbank flow. If there were bed material transported in the overbank, the
abutment scour would be less. However, this is assumed to not be the case for Case 2
106
Case Abutment
3 Is Set Back From Main Channel More Than 2.75 y s
For this case, there is overbank flowwith no bed material transport (clear-water scour) as
illustrated by Fig. 13.
Fig. 13. Bridge Abutment Set back from Main Channel Bank and Relief Bridge.
With no bed material transport in overbank flow and < •t c, the scour at a vertical wall
bridge abutment set back more than 2.75 times the scour depth from the main channel bank
line, can be calculated using Eq. 7 from Laursen (1980) using:
Shear stress on the overbank area upstream of the abutment.

Critical shear stress of material in overbank area.
With relief bridges, this variable is taken as am in Fig. 13.
For other abutment shapes, use the correction factors defined by Laursen and described
for Case 1. Eq. 7 can also be used when •to > •cc with no bed material transport in the
overbank. This situation can occur when the overbank flow occurs over grass. For this
particular situation, set •t / -cc equal to unity.
If there is substantial bed material transport in the overbank flow, then equation 5 can be
used. Again engineering judgment must be used to determine whether the sediment transported
in the overbank will be sufficiently large enough to significantly decrease the scour at the
bridge abutment.
107
Case Abutment
The lateral extent of the scour hole is nearly always determinable from the depth of scour
and the natural angle of repose of the bed material. Laursen suggested that the width of the
scour hole is 2.75 times
Case 4 Abutment Scour At Relief Bridge
Scour depth at a vertical wall abutment for a relief bridge on the overbank flow area
having no bed material transport is calculated using Equation 7. This case is similar to Case 3.
For this case, y I is the average flow depth on the flood plain. Use a r for a in the equation. If >
•t c on the flood plane, but there is no sediment transport, use Eq. 7 with / T c equal to unity
To determine the stagnation point, it is recommended that stream lines be drawn, or to
observe field conditions. (See Fig. 13). The stagnation point delineates the location where the
water splits and moves either to the main bridge opening or to the relief bridge. For other
abutment shapes, use the correction factors described for Case 1 which were developed by
Laursen.
5 At Edge Of Channel
The case of vertical wall scour around an abutment set at the edge of the main channel as
sketched in Fig. 14 can be calculated using Eq. 11 (Laursen, 1980) when •t , < on the flood
plain. This equation can also be used if > -t c on the flood plane provided there is still no bed
material transport on the flood plane. For other shapes of abutments Laursen's correction factor
from Case 1 can be used.
Case Abutment
Fig. 14. Abutment set at Edge of Main Channel.
0
=
2.75ŕ q mc
Yo
Eq. 11
Q/ W The unit discharge in the main channel.
Discharge in the main Channel
Width of the Main Channel
Discharge in the overbank
Depth of flow in the overbank
Case 6 Scour At Abutments When a/ y > 25

Field data for scour at abutments for various size streams are scarce, but data collected at
rock dikes on the Mississippi indicate the equilibrium scour depth for large a/ y I values can be
estimated by Eq. 12 (Richardson, et. al., 1975, 1988). The shape of these dikes is similar to that
of a spill through abutment.
0 33
Case Abutment
Eq. 12
The data are scattered, primarily because equilibrium depths were not measured. Dunes as
large as 20 to 30 feet high move down the Mississippi at a frequency which is very large in
comparison to time required to create live-bed local scour. Nevertheless, it is believed that these
data represent the limit in scale of scour depths as compared to laboratory data and enables
useful extrapolation of laboratory studies to field installations.
Accordingly, it is recommended that Eqs. 3 through 11 be applied for abutments when O
< a/ y < 25, and, Eq. 12 be used when a/ y | >25.
7 Skewed To The Stream
With skewed crossings, the approach embankment that is angled downstream has the
depth of scour reduced due to streamlining. Conversely, the approach embankment which is
angled upstream will have a deeper scour hole. For skewed crossings, the calculated scour depth
should be adjusted in accordance with the curve of Fig. 15 which is patterned after Ahmad
(1953).
Case Abutment
1.4
O C 1.2
135 180
Angle of inclination, deg.
Fig. 15. Scour estimate adjustment for skewed abutments.

Case Abutment
6.3 Comparison of Abutment Scour Equations
Values of calculated scour depths using Laursen's equations for Case 1 through 5 are given in Fig. 16.
Or
10.0
mc• Yo
Fig. 16. Calculated Scour Depth for Laursen's Abutment Equations

(A is Eq. 7, B is Eq. 5 and C is Eq. 11)
Incal Scour at Piers
7.1 Introduction
Local scour at piers is a function of bed material size, flow characteristiœ, fluid properties and
the geometry of the pier. Pier scour has been studied extensively in the laboratory and there is also
some field data. As a result of the many studies there are many equations. In general, the equations are
for live-bed scour in cohesionless sand bed streams. All of these many equations produce similar
results. Several equations for the computation of pier scour are presented in this section. equations will
be as follows:
1. Colorado State University's (CSU) equation (Richardson et. al. 975, 1988),
2. Jain and Fisher's (1979) equation,
Case Abutment
3. Graded and/or armored streambed equations, and,
4. Froehlich's (1987, and 1988) equations.
As will be explained in the following paragraphs the CSU equation is recommended. The other
equations are given for comparison, research, and for special such as streams with a large quantity of
large size particles. It is believed that the CSI.J equation will, for most applications, give the ultimate
scour. Engineering judgment will be needed in the case of the other equations.
Sterling Jones (1983) compared many of the more common pier scour equations. His comparison
of these equations is given in Fig. 17 using a Froude number of 0.3 for purposes of comparing these
commonly used scour equations. It should be noted that some of these equations use velocity as a
variable (normally in the form of a Froude number). However, others, such as Laursen, do not include
velocity. It should be noted however that Laursen's (1960) equation was actually a special case of
equation with the Froude number set at 0.5 (Chang 1987). In Fig. 18, these equations are compared
with field data measurements. As can be seen from these two figures, the CSI-J equation encloses all
the observed data and estimates lower, more reasonable, values of scour than Jain, Laursen and Niell's
equations. It is important to note that the CSI-J equation includes the velocity of the flow just upstream
of the pier by including the Froude Number.
5 6
o
co
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
y/a (Flow Depth/Pier Width)
Fig. 17. Comparison Of Scour Formulas For Variable Ratios y/a (Jones 1983).
Case Abutment
Fig. 18. Comparison Of Scour Formulas With Field Scour Measurements (Jones, 1983).
The comparisons of different equations by Jones (1983) did not take into account the possibility
that larger bed material sizes could armor the scour hole. That is, that large bed material particles will,
at some depth of scour limit the scour depth. Raudkivi (Raudkivi and Sutherland, 1981, and Raudkivi
and Ettema, 1983, Raudkivi, 1986) studied pier scour in streams with large particles in the bed, Using
this research, the Washington State Department of Transportation (Copp and Johnson, 1987, and Copp,
Johnson, and McIntosh, 1988) developed an equation for streams with a large range of particle sizes
which would tend to armor the scour hole. However, the significance of armoring of the scour hole over
a long time period and over many floods is not known. Therefore, their equation is not recommended
for use at this time. For completeness, this equation is presented in this paper.
For the determination of pier scour, Colorado State University's equation is recommended for
both live-bed and clear water scour. With a dune bed configuration the equation predicts equilibrium
scour depth. Maximum scour will be approximately 30 percent greater in the presence of dunes. For
flow with plane bed configuration or antidunes, CSU's equation will give the maximum
The extent to which a pier footing or pile caps influence local scour at piers is not clearly
understood. Under some circumstances a footing may serve as a scour arrester, impeding the horseshoe
vortex and reducing the depth of scour hole. In other cases where the footing extends above the stream
bed into the flow, it may serve to increase the effective width of the pier, thereby increasing the local
pier scour.
Case Abutment
Field and model measurements of the scour at Pier 3 of the bridge over Schoharie Creek resulted
in a value of 14 and 15 feet of scour respectively (Richardson, et. al. 1987 and 1988b). For this pier, the
top of the footing was set at the top of the stream bed and was 19 ft. wide. The pier itself was 16 ft.
wide. Using CSU's pier equation, the computed scour at this pier was 16 ft. if the pier width was used
and 29 ft. if the footing width was used in the equation. Additional flume studies (Santoro 1989) of this
pier, using a 1:15 scale model, with the top of the footing at the top of the bed, and using an angle of
attack of O and 10 degrees, and using these pier scour equations, indicated that the usage of the pier
width produced the best estimates of the pier scour. It should be noted that the ŒIJ equation
consistently produced the best estimates of the pier scour for this particular case.
As an interim guide, based upon the above laboratory and field results, if the top of the pier
footing is slightly above or below the stream bed elevation (taking into account the effect of contraction
scour), use of the width of the pier shaft for the value of a in the pier scour equation is recommended. If
the pier footing projects well above the stream bed to the extent that it obstructs the flow, use
the width of the pier footing for the value of a . Interpolation between these two values, depending upon
the extent to which the footing may be expected to influence the local scour patterns is also
recommended.
7.2 Pier *our Equations

7.21 CSU's Equation
The Colorado State University's equation (Richardson et al, 1975 and 1988) is presented in Eq.
13.
0.65 0.43
1
Eq. 13
Where;
Scour depth
Flow depth just upstream of the pier
Correction for pier shape (See Table 3)
Correction for angle of attack of flow (See Table 4)
Pier width
Froude number = V l/ (gy ) 0

Average velocity just upstream of the pier
Case Abutment
Table 3. Correction Factor, K for Pier Type
Type of Pier
a Square Nose 1.1
b Round Nose 1.0
c Cylinder 1.0
d Sharp Nose 0.9
e Group of Cylinders 1.0

The shapes of piers described in the table for K I are illustrated in Fig. 19.
(a) SQUARE NOSE (b) ROUND NOSE (c) CYLINDER
(d) SHARP NOSE (e) GROUP OF CYLINDERS
Fig. 19. Common Shapes of Piers

Table 4. Correction Factor, K 2 for Angle of Attack of the Flow
Angle L/ a ŕ12
1.0 1.0 1.0
15 1.5 2.0 2.5

30 2.0 2.5 3.5
45 2.3 3.3 4.3
90 2.5 3.9 5.0
Note: Angle = Skew angle offlow to pier
L = Length of the pier
Cylindrical piers have been widely investigated in the laboratory. The exponents in Eq. 13 were
determined from laboratory data shown in Fig. 20. In this figure, the Froude number on the abscissa is
multiplied by (a/ y l) 3 spread the data.
Case Abutment
Fig. 20. Results of laboratory experiments for scour at circular piers.
7.2.1.1 Jain and Fisher's Equation

Jain and Fisher (1979) studied, in the laboratory, local pier scour at large Froude numbers. They
found that scour at a circularpier in sediment transport regime ( Fr > F r c) initially decreases slightly,
then increases as the Froude number increases. Furthermore, they found that the scour depth at high
Froude numbers is larger than the maximum clear-water scour. The contribution of bed-form scour to
the total scour depth in the upper flow regime becomes significant with higher flow velocities. Based on
this research, they developed Eq. 14 and Eq. 15:
For live-bed scour ( Fr ŕ F r c) > 0.2;
0.5
0.25
a a
Eq. 14
For maximum clear-water scour;
0.5
0 25
a a
Eq. 15
These equations are functions of the critical Froude number F r c. The procedure for computing F
rc is as follows:
1. Estimate the median diameter, 1)50 , for the bed material;
2. Determine from Fig. 10;
Case Abutment
3. Compute the shear velocity as;
2.1 U. fic/p) 05 ,
4. CK)mpute b = I I .6v/U.c, where; v is the kinematic viscosity and can be assumed to be equal to
1.08 X 10-5 ft2/s);
5. Compute k 3/6 using D50 for k s;
6. Select Einstien's X from Fig. 21, using the computed value of ks/ô;
7. Compute v c = 1 YlX/Dso)) and;
8. Compute Frc = V c/ (gy l ) 0

It is recommended that the scour depth for 0<( Fr - 0.2 can be assumed equal to the larger of the
two values of scour obtained from Eqs. 14 and 15. For shapes different than circular piers, and pier
alignment other than parallel with the flow direction, correct the results from Jain and Fishers equation
by multiplying by the correction coefficients given in Tables 3 and 4.
Fig. 21. Einstein's Factor X in the Logarithmic Velocity Equations (Einstein, 1950)
7.2.1.2 Graded and/or Armored Stream Bed Equations
There are only limited field data for determining the decrease in scour depth as the result of
coarse particles in the bed material of a stream. However there are good indications from laboratory and
a few field studies, that larger size particles in the bed material can armor the scour hole and decrease
scour depths. Although field data is limited, equations are given here for this case. Until additional field
data is available they should be used with care and use of sound engineering judgement. The equations
(adapted from equations developed by Washington State Department of Transportation (Copp and
Case Abutment
Johnson, 1987, and Copp, Johnson, and McIntosh, 1988) for streams with a large range of particle sizes
which would tend to armor the scour hole, are as follows: University of Aukland (UAK) Equations
For (a/ D50 > 18);
a
Eq. 16
For (a/D50< 18);
0.53 &-O.4SKlK2K3 a
a
Eq. 17
Where;
Pier width
Scour depth
Correction for pier shape (See Table 3)
Correction for angle of attack of flow (See Table 4))
Correction for gradation of sediments, determined from Fig. 22
Kg is used to determine Ka and is; Kg = (D84/D

Copp and Johnson (1987) recommend that values obtained from the above equations be
multiplied by a factor of safety k Is due to the limited amount of actual field data. They state the
following:
A purely heuristic approach is to select k fs equal to I / K 3 whenever Kv is less than

about 2.0. If K 3 is greater than 20, select k is = 1.5. This nullifies scour depth reductions
for material gradations when K 3 < 2.0 but allowsfor thefull depth ofscour when K 3 > 20.
Case Abutment
K,
0.5
04
Fig. 22. Particle Size Coefficient, , vs. Geometric Deviation, K (Ettema, 1980).
7.2.1.3 Froehlich's Equation

Live-bed Scour
Using linear regression analysis of 83 field measurements of pier scour Froehlich (1988)
developed the following equation:
0.62 0.46 0.08
0.20 a
a D 50
Eq. 18
Coefficient for pier type. Froehlich obtained K = 1.3 for a square-nosed pier, 1.0 for round
and round-nose piers, and 0.7 for sharp-nosed piers. This is in close agreement with
values given for CSU's equation.
Pier width projected normal to the approach flow.
a • - a cos a + L sin a =Pier width projected normal to the approach flow.

a is the angle of attack and;
L is the length of the pier.
The addition of 1.0 to Eq. 18 provides a factor of safety for design purposes. The regression
analysis without this factor of safety computes the expected value of the depths. However, fifty percent
Case Abutment
of the scour holes could be deeper and fifty percent shallower. When the factor of safety is included in
the computations, the computed value of pier scour is greater than all the measured values of scour.
Clear-water scour
Froehlich (1988) classified his data as to being either clear-water or live-bed scour data on the
basis of Neill's (1968) equation given below:
0.167
0.5 Y 1
D 50
Eq. 19
SS = 2.65 and was assumed for all measurements.
Critical mean velocity
If v c is larger than the mean velocity of the flow, then the would be clear water scour. In
actuality, all the clear water scour depths in the data that Froehlich used were less than the magnitude
computed using Eq. 19. Therefore, the live bed pier scour equation developed by Froehlich, can be used
for clear-water scour also.
3 5 METHODS FOR RIVER TRAINING
5.1 Purpose of River Training Work
Flash flood mitigation in the upstream part of a catchment is aimed at reducing the occurrence of
flash floods and focuses on reducing slope instability, reducing the amount and velocity of runoff,
and preventing erosion. In the downstream areas, the focus is on mitigating the effects and impact of
any flash flood that occurs. Some rivers are particularly prone to flash floods (Řflashy riversř) and it
is possible to plan mitigation interventions, even though the timing of individual flash floods cannot
be predicted. This chapter looks at some structural measures in the downstream areas.
The morphology of a river is a strong determinant of flow, and can thus serve to intensify or
mitigate flood waves and torrents. At the same time, when rivers flow in an alluvial plain they often
become meandered or braided, and at times of flood, this morphology leads to excessive bank
cutting which can destroy agricultural land and human settlements.
River trainingř refers to the structural measures which are taken to improve a river and its banks.
River training is an important component in the prevention and mitigation of flash floods and
general flood control, as well as in other activities such as ensuring safe passage of a flood under a
Case Abutment
bridge. For flash flood mitigation, the main aim is to control the water discharge regime in the
watercourse by limiting its dynamic energy, thereby controlling the morphological evolution of the
watercourse (Colombo et al. 2002).
River training measures also reduce sediment transportation and thus minimize bed and bank
erosion. Many river training structures are implemented in combination with bioengineering
techniques to lessen the negative effects on environment and landscape. There are a number of types
of river training structure.
The selection and design of the most appropriate structure depends largely on the site conditions.
River training structures can be classified into two main categories: transversal protection structures
and longitudinal protection structures.
5.2 Types of river training work

3.1 5.2.1 Spurs
A spur, spur dyke, or groyne is a structure made to project flow from a river bank into a stream or
river with the aim of deflecting the flow away from the side of the river on which the groyne is
built. Two to five structures are typically placed in series along straight or convex bank lines where
the flow lines are roughly parallel to the bank.
Spurs help train a river to flow along a desired course by preventing erosion of the bank and
encouraging flow along a channel with a more desirable width and alignment. They are used to
control natural meandering at a river bend, to channel wide rivers, and to convert poorly defined
streams into well-defined channels. The spurs create a zone of slack flow which encourages silting
up in the region of the spur to create a natural bank. They generally protect the riparian environment
and often improve the pool habitat and physical diversity.
Spurs can be made from many materials including stone, for example in the form of gabions or in
bamboo Řcagesř; tree trunks and branches; concrete; or any material that is not easily detached by
the river and is strong enough to withstand the flow and the impacts of debris.
Case Abutment
A. Different orientation of spurs

Case Abutment
B. General guidelines for spur design and construction
Spurs should not be used where the river is already narrow or where the alignment of the river
banks cannot be modified or reduced. It is also not advisable to use spurs where the opposite bank is
exposed to transverse flows, which create unacceptable erosion. In such cases continuous
longitudinal protection is required.
The effectiveness of a spur depends on its design and location, and the resources available. The
location of the upstream starting point and the downstream termination point also influence the
success of spur installation. The main characteristics to be considered are summarized in the
following.
Permeability
Spurs can be permeable or impermeable. Impermeable spurs are built of local soil, stones, gravel,
rocks, and gabions, while permeable spurs usually consist of one or several rows of timber, bamboo,
or similar. An impermeable spur blocks and deflects the river flow, while a permeable spur allows
water to pass through but reduces the water velocity.
Spur height
Spurs can be designed to be higher than the water level at all times (non-submerged), or submerged
during the time of floods, emerging only when the flood recedes. In general, submerged spurs are
designed to be permeable, whereas non-submerged spurs are impermeable.
The height of non-submerged spurs should not exceed the bank height because erosion at the end of
the spur in the overbank area could increase the probability of outflanking when the water level
(stream stage) is high. If stream stages can be greater than or equal to the bank height, the spurs
should
be equal to the bank height. If flood stages are always lower than the bank height, the spurs should
be designed so that overtopping will not occur at the bank. Submerged spurs should have a height
between 1/3 and 1/2 of the water depth.
3.1.1.1 Spur orientation relative to the river axis
Spurs can be attracting, deflecting, or repelling according to their inclination as shown in Figure 47.
An attracting spur points downstream and attracts the flow towards its head and thus to the bank,
maintaining a deep current close to the bank. A deflecting spur changes the direction of the flow
without repelling it and creates a wake zone behind. A repelling spur points upstream and diverts
the flow away from itself. The first spur in a bend should always be attracting to minimize the
impact of the flow.
Case Abutment
3.1.1.2 Spur shape
Spurs are basically bar shaped, but the end protruding into the water flow can be shaped differently.
An oval or elliptical spur, with the wider portion towards the bank, can change the hydraulic
efficiency and reduce the direct impact of the flood water on the spur body. Investigations have
shown that the shape of the spur can affect the bed stress distribution and the scour depth around a
spur. For example, the extension of the high shear stress zone is smaller in T-shaped spurs whereas
the maximum scour depth is less around L-shaped spurs.
3.1.1.3 Spur length
When choosing the length of a spur, it is important to consider the safety of the opposite bank. If a
spur is too long, it may guide the river current during a flash flood to the opposite bank which will
cause damage; if it is too short, it may cause erosion of the near bank. As a general rule, the length
of a spur should be no more than 1/5 the river width and no less than 2.5 times the scour depth.
Sometimes a spur is made long and strong with the aim of changing the river course by repelling it
towards the opposite bank, in which case the opposite bank should also be protected. Both the river
width and the width of the main flow channel to be deflected should be considered when designing
the length of a spur (Jha et al. 2000)
( )
R = the normal scour depth below high flood level (HFL),

q = discharge intensity in m3/s per meter width, and
f = Laceyřs silt factor, which depends upon the grain size of the river bed material (given for
different materials in Table 14).
The value of q can be obtained from

Case Abutment
Case Abutment
5.2.2 Levees or earth fill embankments
Levees, or marginal embankments, are dam-like earthen structures constructed along a river in order to
protect the surrounding countryside from flooding and/or to confine the course of a river to provide
higher and faster water flow. They are usually constructed for long stretches along a river in low lying
areas with an extended floodplain.
Levees are usually constructed by piling earth on a cleared level surface. The type of fill material used
for construction usually depends on the materials available in the local area. The levee must be designed
and constructed very carefully as failure can result in catastrophic impacts.
 Both sides of the levee should be properly constructed. The slope is fixed to ensure stability, and
ultimate depends on the material that the levee is made of and its height. The sides should be
strengthened with riprap to prevent erosion.
 The slopes of the upstream and downstream faces of the embankment should be flat enough to
provide sufficient width at the base to ensure that the maximum shear stress under flood conditions
will remain well below the corresponding maximum shear strength of the soil, in order to provide a
suitable factor of safety.
Case Abutment
5.2.2. Design criteria for levees
5.2.3 Guide banks and other approach embankments

Guide banks are structures built to guide a stream or river through a bridge opening or towards other
hydraulic structures such as weirs, especially when river flow level is markedly higher than usual. The
aim is to confine the river within a reasonable waterway and direct the flow in a manner that ensures its
safe and expeditious passage.
They also reduce or eliminate local scour at the embankment and adjacent piers (Julien 2002). In a wide
river lined by levees, a series of diversion structures may be used to guide and narrow the water course
and protect the levee or highway embankment, where a highway or other bridge crosses the river. These
consist of an afflux embankment or bund, an approach embankment, and the guide banks themselves.
Guide banks are constructed in a river in order to:
 Confine the flow to a single channel,
 Improve the distribution of discharge across the width of a river thus controlling the angle of
attack by a flash flood,
 Protect weirs, barrages, or other hydraulic structures constructed in the river such as intakes from
flash floods,
 Control the meander pattern of a river,
 Control overtopping of natural embankments in a flash flood and protect adjacent land from
flooding,
 Reduce erosion of banks by the water current,
 Prevent sliding of soil as a result of the draw down effect of the flood water level,
Case Abutment
 Facilitate smooth transportation of water, and
 Prevent piping of water through the banks.
Two guide banks are generally required when the waterway opening is in the middle of a wide
flood plain or is a braided stream where the direction of the main flow can shift from side to side. A
single guide bank may be sufficient at a location where the river is confined to one side of a valley
and it is possible to take advantage of a natural non-erodible bank such as a hard rock exposed
surface.
It is essential to check the load bearing capacity of the river bed sub-soil before choosing the
location of a guide bank. The minimum width between the guide banks should be sufficient to
provide the required waterway opening during the anticipated flash flood discharge and cross
section of guide bank show in the following figure.
5.2.3.Design of Guide Banks
Length
For shifting alluvial rivers, the length depends on the distance necessary to secure a straight run
for the river, and the distance necessary to prevent the formation of a bend in the river so as to
avoid the angle of attack of the anticipated flash flood.
Plan shape
Ideally, the guide bank should have a converging curved shape forming a bell mouth entry to the
waterway. The axis should be parallel to the principle direction of flood flow through the
opening. This shape is particularly suitable where the direction of flow can vary. In most cases,
the main sections of the two banks are constructed parallel to each other, but other forms are
possible, for example curved or converging.
Embankment section
The angle of the embankment slope is calculated according to the subsoil conditions, the angle of
repose of the embankment material, and the type of slope revetment provided. The slope should
usually have a vertical to horizontal ratio of between 2:1 and 3:1 (Singh 1980).
In general, the top of the embankment is made wide enough to accommodate vehicles for
construction and maintenance purposes. Guide banks should normally extend above the design
high water level with a freeboard allowance of 1Ŕ1.5 m depending upon the discharge condition
(Singh 1980). Lower guide banks that can be overtopped under high flood discharge condition
may be preferred in some cases. Under these conditions, the top of the bank and outside slope
must be protected against erosion.
Spacing between the guide banks (abutment to abutment)
The layout of the guide banks should be such as to guide the flood smoothly throughout the
guide bank length. Generally, the guide banks are constructed to form a symmetrical pair. They
should confine the river within a reasonable channel that can ensure safe and rapid passage of
water during a flash flood. The confined width of the river between the guide banks in an alluvial
river can be calculated using Lace řs formula (Singh 1980):
Stone Pitching
The inside slope of the embankment is subjected to erosion from the river flow, particularly
during floods and flash floods. The continuous movement of water saturates the embankment
material as a result of pore water pressure. Sudden increases and decreases in the water level can
change the water inflow and outflow in the embankment material and damage the embankment.
Hence, the inside slope should be protected by stone pitching.
The usual thickness of the pitching varies from 40Ŕ60 cm. The thickness can be determined from
the formula t = 0.06 Q1/3, where t is the thickness in meters and Q is the maximum river water
discharge in m3/s (Varshney et al. 1983).
Launching apron
Stone pitching protects the face of the bank. However, floods can induce scouring at the toe
which would undermine the pitching and cause its collapse. To prevent this, a stone cover or
launching apron is laid beyond the toe of the bank on the horizontal river bed.
As the scour undermines the apron starting at its farther end and working back towards the slope,
the apron falls to cover the face of the scour, with the stones forming a continuous carpet below
the permanent slope of the guide bank. The apron must have sufficient stone to ensure complete
protection of the whole of the scour face.
The length of the scoured face is equal to 5√D, where D is the anticipated scour depth below the
apron. The scouring effect is a function of the gradation of the silt available in the river bed and
the discharge of the flowing water. It can be calculated using the following formula.
79
Cross-section through guide bank (numbers indicate relative values for any given size) show in
the following figure.
5.2.4 Check dams

The dams used along river courses follow the same principles. They can be made of
gabions, concrete, logs, bamboo, and many other materials. These dams decrease the
morphological gradient of the torrent bed and reduce the water velocity during a flood event
by increasing the time of concentration of the hydrographic basins and reducing the flood
peak and solid transportation capacity of the river.
They also help to reduce erosion and debris flow. The main purpose of check dams on rivers
is to stabilize the riverbed over a long distance. Check dams generally require additional
protection structures in the bed or on the banks to hinder undermining. Check dams can be
used where temporary channels or permanent channels are not yet vegetated, channel lining
is infeasible and velocity checks are required. This practice may be used as a temporary or
emergency measure to limit erosion by reducing flow in small open channels. This practice
should be used with drainage areas of 2 acres or less. Check dams may be used:
 To reduce flow in small temporary channels that are presently undergoing degradation,
80
 Where permanent stabilization is impractical due to the temporary nature of the problem,
 To reduce flow in small eroding channels where construction delays or weather
conditions prevent timely installation of non-erosive liners.
Advantages
 Inexpensive and easy to install.
 Reduce velocity and may provide aeration of the water.
 Check dams prevent gully erosion from occurring before vegetation is established, and
also cause a high proportion of the sediment load in runoff to settle out.
 In some cases, if carefully located and designed, these check dams can remain as
permanent installations with very minor regrading, etc.
 They may be left as either spillways, in which case accumulated sediment would be
graded and seeded, or as check dams to capture sediment coming off that site.
Disadvantages/Problems
 Because of their temporary nature, many of these measures are unsightly, and they should
be removed or converted to permanent check dams before dwelling units are rented or
sold.
 Removal may be a significant cost depending on the type of check dam installed.
 Check dams are only suitable for a limited drainage area.
 May kill grass linings in channels if the water level remains high after rainstorms or if
there is significant sedimentation.
 Reduce the hydraulic capacity of the channel.
 May create turbulence which erodes the channel banks.
 Clogging by leaves in the fall may be a problem.
81
3.2
Design of Stone Sizing for check dam
Diameter of stone (inches) will be design based on river longitudinal slope and its discharge
per unit of width
For S < 0.1 or S less than 10%
D50
5.2.5 Sill
A sill (also called a bed sill or ground sill) is a transverse gradient control structure built across
the bed of a river or stream to reduce bed or head ward erosion. Sills are installed along river
stretches with a medium to low morphological gradient. The purpose is similar to that of a check
dam, but a sill is much lower. A sill is usually constructed together with other hydraulic
structures such as bridges to prevent them from being undermined and increase their durability.
82
Concrete or stone sills
Sills made of concrete or concreted stone are easy to construct and relatively common, even
though the construction cost is generally higher than for other types. This type of sill can be
used for a wide range of morphological conditions, and is particularly suitable for lower
reaches. They are often used in combination with structures such as bridges or walls.
Gabion sills
Sills made with gabions can be installed under many different hydrodynamic conditions. The
gabions can be filled with rock from along the river or stream bed. Gabion sills are considered
environmentally less harmful than concrete sills for the natural riverine environment and
ecology because of their greater width and limited height.
Wood and rock sills
Sills are often made of local wood and rock in the mountainous reaches of watercourses or at
sites with morphological constraints. Any kind of water resistant wood can be used, the most
suitable being chestnut, larch, and natural or treated resinous plants. This type of sill has a low
environmental impact because of its tendency towards naturalization, which favors the ecology
and environment of the watercourse.
83

River Engineering Course Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

River Engineering Course Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

River Engineering Course Material For Exit Exam AMU/AWTI

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Fig 1-Braided Rivers

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Fig 1: Stages of rivers

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

 increasing of flood levels

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Fig 2 flow in a straight reach

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Fig 4 Meandering River

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure : Watershed boundaries

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Stream Ordering: A method of classifying, or ordering, the hierarchy of natural channels

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure River stage

1.2. River morphology and regime

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Mechanism of meander development: The development of meander is a highly complex

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

1.3. River hydraulics

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Types of flow and Water Movement in Rivers

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Turbulent flow is often given as the mean flow, described by u and w.

shear stress. The total shear stress is       t  

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure: Development of the boundary layer.

Figure: Prandtlřs mixing length theory.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

If we define kinematic eddy viscosity as

Fluid Shear Stress and Friction Velocity

For small slope we have sinβ ≈ tan β = S. Therefore

The bottom shear stress is

Figure 2.3. Fluid force and bottom shear stress.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

has something to do with friction force.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure: Classification of flow region

Engineering classiﬁcation of flow layer

roughness and viscosity.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure 2.5. Hydraulically smooth and rough flows

1.3.1. Velocity Distribution for Rigid-Boundary Channels

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure 2.6. Turbulent velocity distribution.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure: Definition of the Ŗroughness heightŗ Ks.

This is the velocity-distribution equation for flow over rough boundaries.

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

Figure: Correction factor x in the logarithmic velocity- distribution

Rough boundary and transition

Where R denotes the hydraulic radius.

1.3.2. Thickness of the Laminar Sublayer

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.

deduced that   2 /  v 2  135, whence (u *  / v) = (135)½ =11.6. Finally, from this:

Prepared by: Birara G., Belete M.&Abel N.