1

Introduction

• Site investigation or subsurface explorations are done for obtaining

the information at the site of proposed construction.
• It is generally required for every big engineering project.
• Information about the surface and sub-surface features is
essentials for the design of structures and for planning construction
techniques.
• Site investigation consist of determining the profile of the natural
soil deposits at site, taking the soil sample and determining the
engineering properties of the soils.
• It is also includes in-situ testing of the soil.

2
 Introduction (cont.)

• The information from site investigation is useful for these purposes:

❑ To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structures.

❑ To determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
❑ To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements.
❑ To establish the ground water level and to determine the properties of water.
❑ To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments.
❑ To select suitable construction techniques.
❑ To predict and to solve potential foundation problems.
❑ To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material.
❑ To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest remedial
measures.

3
 Flowchart for geotechnical engineering project
Geotechnical engineering problem

Preliminary site investigation

Desk study Site reconnaissance Collect local experience

Main site investigation

Drilling & sampling In situ testing

Laboratory testing

Geotechnical Engineering design

4
 Phases of site investigations

Desk study • Review of available information from aerial

photographs, maps and previous record

Reconnaissance • Visiting the site and its surroundings

Ground • Pits, borings, field tests and

observation, laboratory
Investigation testing and Geophysical
surveys .

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 Desk study

Information for Desk

Study:-

• Topographic Maps
• Geological Maps
• Site Histories & Land
use
• Aerial Photographs
• Detail of adjacent
structures &
Foundation
• Adjacent & Nearby
Ground Investigation

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 Desk study
Desk study includes review of the information:

a) Geological Maps and Memoir

• understanding depositional process
b) Topographic Map
• Examine the terrain, access and site conditions
c) Aerial Photograph
• Give an indication of geomorphology features, land use, problem
areas and layout arrangement especially for highways and hill-site
development.
d) Site Histories and details adjacent development
• The site histories like land use before the current development,
tunnels, underground services are important before planning the
field test.
• If the subsoil information of adjacent site is available, it will also help
the design engineer to optimize the SI required.
e) Requirements of the proposed structures or foundations
• In order to plan proper and cost effective SI, the design engineer
should have information regarding requirement and their tolerance7
of differential movements.
 Reconnaissance

• Confirm the findings

from Desk Study

• Identify additional
features & Information
not captured by Desk
Study

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 Reconnaissance

• Site reconnaissance is necessary for the acquisition of the following

(additional) information.

1) To confirm and obtain additional information of the site;

2) To examine adjacent and nearby development: to record if any, the
exposed cut slopes, appearance of cracks and settlements of adjacent
buildings, etc.,
3) To compare the surface features and topography with data obtainable
in the desk study, so that the presence of (any) cut and fill areas, as
well as exposed services markings can be checked;
4) To locate and study (any) outcrops and or previous slips so that the
corresponding inherent stability characteristics can be studied.

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Flow chart for SI
work

10
 Ground Investigation
The number of Building
borehole? • 1 borehole per 250 m2
• Depth : Typically twice of the foundation width

Major Bridge
• 1 Borehole at each pier

Highway
• Every 50 m for major runways
• Every 500 m for secondary highway

Power lines or pipe line

Every Location with problematic soil

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 Boring Depth

Number of Boring depth

stories (m)
1 3.5
2 6
3 10
4 16
5 24

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 Boring Depth
• Up to depth of soils where the pressure induced by structure
has little or no influence.

• In fill area – a depth with SPT N  50

• In cut area - a depth exceeding potential slip surface or

when hard material is encountered.

• For deep foundation in soft clay – a depth with SPT N > 50

for at least 7 times consecutively and at least one borehole
coring into rock.

• In limestone area, continuous coring into solid rock for 10 m

is required to detect cavities.
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Depth of Boreholes

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 Spacing of Boreholes

Type of Project Spacing (m)

Multistory building 10 – 30 m

One story industrial plants 20 – 60 m

Highways 250 – 500 m

Residential 250 – 500 m

Dams & Dikes 40 – 80 m

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 Spacing of Boreholes
• No hard and fast rule but generally 10 m to 30 m for structures.

• The spacing can be increased for alluvial subsoil with more

consistent layers

• At bridge generally one borehole at every pier or abutment.

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 Investigation and Boring Methods

• A wide variety of equipment is available for

performing boring and obtaining soil samples.

• The method used should be compatible with the

soil and groundwater conditions to assure the
quality of soil samples.

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 Method of soil boring (Auger)
Hand Auger
o The simplest method for soil
boring
o maximum depth is 5 m
o The sample obtained is highly
disturbed.

Motorised Auger
It can go deeper and faster
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Method of soil boring (Auger)

Continuous-
flight Auger
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 Method of soil boring (wash boring)

• Casing is driven into the

ground
• The soil inside the casing is
remove by chopping bit
• Use a very high velocity of
water to rise the soil particle at
the top of the casing. 20
 Method of Soil Sampling
Disturbed sample
The natural conditions or
properties of a sample are
disturbed, such as:
1. structure,
2. texture,
3. density,
4. natural water contents or
5. the stress conditions are
disturbed.
Undisturbed sample
The natural conditions or
properties of a sample are
remain undisturbed, such as:
1. structure,
2. texture,
3. density,
4. natural water contents or
5. the stress conditions are
disturbed.
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 Method of Soil Sampling
Disturbed sample

Split spoon sampler Core cutter

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 Method of Soil Sampling
Undisturbed sample

Thin wall Box sampler Piston sampler

Tube sampler

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Sampler

Split spoon sampler

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 Sampler

Thin wall tube sampler @

Shelby tube sampler

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Sampler

Piston Sampler

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 Piston Sampler
• Piston sampler is used for very soft to soft cohesive soil which is
easily disturbed.
• Usually this layer has SPT N <2 or hammer weight
• For cohesive soil from soft to firm (SPT <10), the thin wall
sampler can be used.
• The piston and thin wall sampler are commonly 75 mm or 100
mm diameter by 1 m long.

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Sampler

Mazier Sampler

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 Common Sampling method
Sampler Disturbed/ Appropriate Soil Types Method of % use in
undisturbed Penetration practice
Split spoon Disturbed Sands, silts, clays Hammer driven 85
sampler
Thin wall tube Undisturbed Clays, fine-grained soils, Mechanically 6
sampler clayey soils Pushed
Continuous Undisturbed Sands, silts, clays Hydraulic push 4
Push with plastic lining
Piston sampler Undisturbed Silts and clays Mechanically 1
Pushed
Continuous Disturbed Cohesive soils Drilling with <1
auger hollow stem auger
Denison Undisturbed Stiff to hard clay, silt, Rotation and <1
sand and partially hydraulic pressure
weather rock
Block sampler Undisturbed Cohesive soils, Hand tools <1
impregnated granular
soil 29
Type of sampler
generally used in
Malaysia

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 Soil Samples

Disturbed sample Undisturbed sample

➢ Particle size distribution ➢ Consolidation test

analysis ➢ Permeability test
➢ Atterberg limits test ➢ Shear Strength test
➢ Specific Gravity ▪ Direct shear test
➢ Organic content ▪ Unconfined compression test
➢ Chemical test (UCT)
▪ Consolidated undrained test
(CiU)
▪ Consolidated drained test
(CiD)

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 Sample disturbance

Due to:

1. Change in stress condition Can be minimized by using

2. Mechanical disturbance of samplers with a low area
the soil structure ratio (AR).
3. Changes in water content
and porosity Do2 − Di2
AR (%) = 2
(100 )
4. Chemical changes Di
5. Mixing and segregation of
soil constituents
Ratios less than 10% are
assume undisturbed

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Quality of
samples

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 Method of Rock Sampling

• Rock cores are necessary if the soundness of the rock is

to be established.
• A core barrel with coring bit (diamond, tungsten,
carbide) is attach to a drilling rod.
• The coring is advanced by rotary drilling.
• small cores tend to break up inside the drill barrel.
• Larger cores also have a tendency to break up (rotate
inside the barrel and degrade), especially if the rock is
soft or fissured.

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Method of Rock Sampling

35
 Method of Rock Sampling

The depth of rock recovery should be recorded to calculate:

length of core recovered
❑ Recovery ratio = theoretical length of rock cored

❑ Rock quality designation (RQD)

=  length of recovered pieces  101.6 mm

theoretical length of rock cored

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 RQD

length of core recovered

theoretical length of rock cored

 length of recovered pieces  101.6 mm

theoretical length of rock cored

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 RQD
RQD
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock
cores that have length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill
length.

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 Example of core recovery and RQD

• Core run of 150 cm

• Total core recovery
= 125 cm
• Core recovery ratio
= 125/150 = 83%
• On modified basis,
95 cm are counted
RQD = 95/150=63 %

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Sample storage, handling, Transportation

40
Sampling

41
 Common Laboratory Test for
Site Investigation

1. Soil Classification Tests: BS 1377: Part 2: 1990

• Moisture content,
• Liquid limit,
• Plastic limit,
• Plasticity index,
• linear shrinkage,
• particle size distribution.

42
 Common Laboratory Test for
Site Investigation

2. Chemical & Electro-chemical Tests: BS 1377 Part 3: 1990

• Organic matter content,
• Mass loss on ignition,
• Sulphate content of soil and ground water,
• Carbonate content,
• Chloride content,
• Total dissolved solids,
• pH value,

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 Common Laboratory Test for
Site Investigation
3. Compaction-related (tests from bulk samples) Tests: BS 1377: Part 4
• Dry density - moisture relationship (2.5 kg/4.5 kg hammer)
- Soil with some coarse gravels
- vibrating method
• Moisture condition value (MCV)
• CBR tests

4. Compressibility, Permeability and Durability Tests: BS 1377: Part 5

• 1-D consolidation test
• Swelling and collapse tests
• Permeability by constant head
• Dispersibility
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 Common Laboratory Test for
Site Investigation

5. Consolidation & Permeability Tests in Hydraulic Cells & with pore

pressure measurements: BS 1377: Part 6
• Consolidation Properties using hydraulic cell
• Permeability in hydraulic consolidation cell
• Isotropic consolidated properties using triaxial cell
• Permeability in a triaxial cell

45
 Common Laboratory Test for
Site Investigation
6. Shear Strength Tests (Total Stress) BS 1377: Part 7
• Lab vane shear
• Direct shear box (small)
• Direct shear box (large)
• Residual strength
• Undrained shear strength (UU)
• Undrained shear strength (multi loading)

7. Shear Strength Tests (Effective Stress) BS 1377: Part 8

• CIU with pore pressure measurement
• CD with pore pressure measurement

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47
Laboratory tests
related to
Geotechnical
Problems

48
Laboratory tests
related to
Geotechnical
Problems

49
In-situ test

50
 In-situ test

➢ As a complement to laboratory testing.

➢ The most commonly used is SPT, CPT, VST, PMT & DMT
➢ In Malaysia the JKR probe is sometime use for field tests

51
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
➢ Uses a thick wall sample tube (split spoon sampler)
➢ The sampler is driven into the soil by the hammer (63.5
kg) falling through a distance of 760 mm.
➢The number of blows required for a spoon penetration
of three 150mm intervals are recorded.
➢The sum of the number of blows required for the last
two intervals is termed “standard penetration
resistance” or “N-value”.
➢ If the number of blows for the penetration (150mm) is
more than 50, the 50 blows is recorded.

52
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

53
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
o The system generate friction and other energy losses
hence decrease the amount of energy deliver to the
split spoon sampler.
o The energy actually delivered around 60% of the
maximum energy.
o So, the blow count N is often referred to as N60.

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 Factors affecting Standard Penetration
number (N)

NH B S R
N60 =
60
o N60 = Corrected SPT number
N = measured SPT number
H = hammer efficiency (%)
B = Borehole diameter correction
S = Sampler correction
R = rod length correction

55
Factors affecting Standard Penetration
number (N)
NH B S R
N60 =
60

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 Correlation of N60 in cohesive soil

3
1 2

4
Over consolidation ratio 5 Undrained shear strength
0.689
 N60  C u = Pa  0.29N060.72
OCR = 0.193 
 o 
`0 = effective vertical stress in Pa = atmospheric pressure  100
MN/m2 kN/m2 57
58
 Correction for N60 in Granular soil

2
(N1 )60 = CNN60 CN = Normally
 o  consolidated fine
1 +   sand
 Pa 
 
0.5
3
CN = Normally
   o  consolidated coarse
 1  2 +   sand
CN =
  o    Pa 
  P  
 a   1.7
CN =
Liao & Whitman (1986)  o  Overconsolidated
0.7 +   sand
 Pa 
59
Skempton (1986)
Example of corrected Data

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Correlation of N with relative density

SPT N- Vale Relative density

0-4 Very loose
4 – 10 Loose
10 – 30 Medium
30 – 50 Dense
Over 50 Very Dense

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 Correlation of N with consistency and
unconfined compressive strength (qu)

Unconfined Compressive Strength, qu (kN/m2)

Consistency Very Soft Medium Stiff Very Stiff Hard
soft
SPT N-value <2 2-4 4-8 8 - 15 15 - 30 >30
qu <25 25 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 200 200 - 400 >400

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 Cone penetration Test
• to determine the soil profile and estimate the engineering properties.
• Have a 60 cone with a base area of 10 cm2

• pushed into the ground at a steady rate of about 20 mm/s and the
resistance to penetration (called the point resistance) was measured.

• The cone penetrometers in use at present measure:

1. (a) the cone resistance (qc) to penetration developed by the cone,
which is equal to the vertical force applied to the cone, divided by its
horizontally projected area, and
2. (b) the frictional resistance (fc), which is the resistance
measured by a sleeve located above the cone with the local soil
surrounding it.
• Two types of penetrometers are used to measure qc and fc:
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 Cone penetration Test (cont.)

• Two types of penetrometers are used to measure qc and fs : Mechanical

friction cone penetrometer and electric friction cone penetrometer.
Manual friction-cone penetrometer Electrical friction-cone penetrometer

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Parameters of CPT

Cone resistance, qc

Frictional resistance, fs

Pore water pressure, u

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 Correlations of CPT parameters
Relative density, Dr (%) for normally consolidated sand

 qc  Lancellotta (1983) & Jamiolski et al.

Dr (%) = −98 + 66 log 10  

 o (1985)

  qc  
Dr (%) = 68log 10   − 1 Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)
  Pa  o  

 q 
 c

 1   Pa 
Dr (%) =  1.8   0.5 
Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)
 305Q c OCR   o 
   
  Pa  
66
 Correlations of CPT parameters
Relative density, Dr (%) for normally consolidated sand

Example: Determine the relative density at

depth 9 m if the qc is 20000kN/m2

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Correlations of CPT parameters

Undrained shear strength, cu

q c − o
cu =
Nk Cone factor (15-20)

68
 Correlations of CPT parameters

 c = 0.243(q c )
0.96
Preconsolidation pressure, c 

 qc − o 
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR OCR = 0.37 
 o 

69
 Vane shear test

• To evaluate in situ undrained shear strength of soft to stiff

clays and silt at regular depth intervals of I m.

• The test consist of inserting a four blade vane into the clay
and rotating the device at a constant rate of 6/minute or
0.1/second with measurement of torque.

• The standard vane has a rectangular geometry with a

blade diameter, D = 65 mm, height, H = 130 mm and blade
thickness , e = 2 mm.

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Vane shear test

71
 Vane shear test
0.1o/sec

2 T(N.m )
c u (kN / m ) =
K

   D H 
2
D
K =  6  
1 + 
 10  2  3H 

72
 Vane shear test
Advantage of VST
• Assessment of undrained
strength
• Simple test and equipment
• Measure in-situ clay sensitivity
• Long history of use in practice
Disadvantage of VST
• Limited application to soft to
stiff clays
• Slow and time consuming
• Raw data needs empirical
correction
• Can be affected by sand lenses
and seams
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 JKR or Mackintosh Probe test

• Usually used in preliminary SI to suppmenet boreholes

• To identify subsoil variation between boreholes particulary in
areas of very soft soils.
• This method is also effective in identifying localized soft or
weak materials or slip plane.
• The major limitation is shallow depth (maximum 15 m).

74
 JKR or Mackintosh Probe test

• When using JKR or Mackintosh probe, some of precaution

measures to prevent errors in testing are:
1. Drop of hammer should be a free fall and consistent drop
height.
2. Components and apparatus properly washed and oiled.

75
JKR or Mackintosh Probe test

76
 Geophysical methods

• There are several geophysical test that can be used to obtain

soil profile and subsurface geometries.

• The method such as measurement the:

1. Mechanical waves (seismic refraction, crosshole, downhole
and spectral analysis of surface wave tests) – useful to
determine the elastic properties (small strain shear modulus)
2. Electromagnatic methods - help locate cavities, buried
object, utility lane.

• It do not alter the soil conditions and therefore classify as

nondestructive.

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 Geophysics test
Advantage of Geophysics
• Nondestructive / non-invasive
• Fast and economical testing
• Theoretical basics for
interpretation
• Applicable to soils and rocks
Disadvantage of Geophysics
• No samples or direct physical
penetration
• Models assumed for
interpretation
• Affected by cemented layers or
inclusions
• Results influenced by water,
clay & depth
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 Preparation of boring log

1. Name and address of the drilling company

2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual observation of
the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled
Shelby tube sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud losses,
and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the
actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and ROD

79
Preparation of
boring log

80
Preparation of
boring log

81
Preparation of
boring log

82
Preparation of boring log

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