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INTRODUCTION
Lecture 1
CONTENT
n Phonetics vs. Phonology

n How speech sounds are produced?
Phonetics vs. Phonology
1. Phonetics: is the linguistic science that studies speech
sounds.
The questions that phonetics answer are:
• What sounds occur in human languages?
• How these speech sounds are made?
• What physical properties do they have?
• In what way can speech sound similar to, or different

from, other speech sounds?
• There are three main areas of Phonetics
a. Articulatory phonetics: is the study of how speech sounds are
produced using the articulators - the parts of the body involved in
producing speech sounds.
b. Acoustic phonetics, which is also considered a branch of physics,

involves the study of the speech signals (the sound waves produced
when a speaker speaks). In other words, it deals with the
transmission of speech sounds through the air.
c. Auditory phonetics, which is also considered a branch of

physiology, is the study of how speech signal is sensed in the
auditory canal and interpreted by the relevant parts of the brain. In
other words, it deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the
listener.
2. Phonology is the study or description of the distinctive sound
units (phonemes) of a language and their relationship to one
another.
The subject of phonology includes the following areas:

a. Study of the phonemic system.
b. Phoneme sequences and syllable structure.
c. Suprasegmental phonology (stress, intonation).
Articulatory Phonetics
The speech organs / articulators
How are speech sounds produced?
• When we are making sounds, the air from the lungs
comes up through the wind-pipe and arrives first at
the larynx. Then it goes through the vocal cords into
the pharynx and up the pharynx to the uvula. At this
point, it may go in either way. It may go into the oral
cavity (if the soft palate is raised) and go out of the
mouth. Or it may go into the nasal tract (if the soft
palate is lowered) and get out through the nostrils.
English phonetic chart
1. How are oral sounds produced?
In the process of making sounds, at the uvula if the soft palate is
raised, blocking off the nasal tract, the airstream can only go into
the oral tract and go out of the mouth, then we have oral sounds.
E.g.: /g/, /s/
2. How are nasal sounds produced?

In the process of making sounds, if the air-stream is blocked
somewhere in the oral cavity but the soft palate is lowered so that
the air-stream can get into the nasal tract and get out through the
nostrils, then we have nasal sounds.
E.g.: /m/
3. How are consonant sounds produced?
When we are making sounds, if two articulators come together,
obstructing the air-stream and the air-stream cannot get out
freely, we have consonant sounds.
E.g.: /k/, /f/, /b/, /m/
4. How are vowel sounds produced?

When we are making sounds, if there is no obstruction to the flow
of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips and the air can get
out freely, then we have vowel sounds.
E.g.: /æ/, /ə/, /з:/
5. How are voiced sounds produced?
When we are producing sounds, the air-stream goes through the
vocal cords. If the vocal cords come together, obstructing the
air-stream, the air-stream cannot get out through them freely
and it makes them vibrate, then we have voiced sounds.
E.g.: /d/, /v/, /m/
6. How are voiceless sounds produced?

When we are making sounds, the air-stream goes through the
vocal cords. If the vocal cords come apart, they are open. The
air-stream can go out through them freely and it does not make
them vibrate, then we have voiceless sounds.
E.g.: /s/, /t/
Consonants
Lecture 2
CONTENT
• Definition
• Classification of consonants
• The place of articulation
• The manner of articulation

• Voicing
• Table of Consonants
• Describing and Identifying consonants
• Practice exercises
Consonants
1. Definition:
Consonants are the sounds in the production of which one
articulator moves towards another or two articulators come
together, obstructing the air-stream and the air-stream can’t
get out freely.
2. Classification:
In order to form consonants, the air-stream through the
vocal cords must be obstructed in some way.
Therefore, consonants can be classified according to the
place where the air-stream is obstructed (the place of
articulation) and the way in which the airstream is
obstructed (the manner of articulation).
According to place of articulation
• The place of articulation is the location of the
obstruction of the air-stream in the articulation of
consonants. It describes the point at which the
articulators actually touch or are at their closest. The
most important places of articulation for the
production of English consonants are listed in the
table below.
• Notes: The terms used to describe the sounds are
those which denote the place of articulation of the
sounds.
Places Articulators Examples
Bilabial Upper lip + lower lip
Labio- Lower lip + upper teeth
dental
Dental Teeth + tongue
Alveolar Alveolar ridge + tongue
Retroflex Back of alveolar ridge +
tongue
Palato - Join of hard palate & alveolar
alveolar ridge + tongue
Palatal Hard palate + tongue
Velar Soft palate + tongue
Glottal Vocal cords
Places Articulators Examples
Bilabial Upper lip + lower lip /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
Labio-dental Lower lip + upper teeth /f/, /v/
Dental Teeth + tongue /θ/, /ð/
Alveolar Alveolar ridge + tongue /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /
n/, /l/
Retroflex Back of alveolar ridge + /r/
tongue
Palato - Join of hard palate & alveolar /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/
alveolar ridge + tongue
Palatal Hard palate + tongue /j/
Velar Soft palate + tongue /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
Glottal Vocal cords /h/
1. Bilabials: are the sounds made with the two lips pressed
together or coming together.
E.g.: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
2. Labio-dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the
lower lip touching the upper front teeth.
E.g.: /f/, /v/
3. Dentals: are the sounds which are produced with the tip or
blade of the tongue touching the upper front teeth.
E.g.: /θ/, /ð/
4. Alveolars: are the sounds which are produced with the tip or
blade of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge.
E.g.: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/
5. Retroflex: is the sound which is produced with the tip of the
tongue curling back towards the back of the alveolar ridge.
E.g.: /r/
6. Palato - alveolars: are the sounds which are produced with
the tongue tip or blade coming close to the area between
the back of the alveolar ridge and the front of the hard
palate.
E.g.: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/
7. Palatal: is the sound which is produced with the front of the
tongue coming close to the hard palate.
E.g.: /j/
8. Velars: are the sounds which are produced with the back of
the tongue touching the soft palate.
E.g.: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
9. Glottals: are the sounds which are produced without the
active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth.
E.g.: /h/
According to manner of articulation
Manner of articulation is the way in which

the air-stream is obstructed or altered in the
production of speech sounds. It describes
the types of obstruction caused by the
narrowing or closure of the articulators.
Movement of Articulators Examples
Oral Complete closure

Stop
Complete closure in the mouth,
Nasal air escapes through nose
Fricative Narrowing, resulting in audible
friction
Affricate Closure, then slow separation
Lateral Closure in centre of mouth, air

escapes down sides
Approximant Slight narrowing, not enough to
cause friction
Movement of Articulators Examples
Oral Complete closure /p/, /b/, /t/, /

Stop d/, /k/, /g/
Nasal Complete closure in the mouth, air /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
escapes through nose
Fricative Narrowing, resulting in audible /f/, /v/, /θ/, /
friction ð/, /s/, /z/, /
ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/
Affricate Closure, then slow separation /tʃ/, /dʒ/
Lateral Closure in centre of mouth, air /l/

escapes down sides
Approximant Slight narrowing, not enough to /w/, /r/, /j/
cause friction
1. Stops: are the sounds in the production of which there is a complete
closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream can’t escape
through the mouth. There are two kinds of stops:
a. Oral stops (Plosives): are the sounds which are produced with the air-
stream being stopped in the oral cavity and the soft palate is raised
blocking off the nasal cavity. Then the two articulators come apart
quickly and the air escapes through the oral tract.
E.g.: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/
b. Nasal stops (Nasals): they are produced with the airstream being
stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that the air can
go out through the nose.
E.g.: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/
Notes: Although both oral stops and nasal stops can be classified as
“stops”, the term “stop” itself is almost used by phoneticians to indicate
an oral stop, and the term “nasal” to indicate a nasal stop.
2. Fricatives: are the sounds in the production of
which two articulators come close together but there
is still a small opening between them so the air-
stream is partially obstructed and an audible friction
noise (a hissing sound) is produced.
E.g.: /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/
• Notes: Fricatives are continuants consonants which

means that you can continue making them as long
as you have enough air in your lungs.
3. Affricates: are the sounds which are produced when a
stop is immediately followed by a fricative.
E.g.: /tʃ/, /dʒ/
4. Lateral: is the sound which is made when the air-stream is
obstructed at a point along the centre of the oral tract, with
incomplete closure between one or both sides of the
tongue and the roof of the mouth.
E.g.: /l/
5. Approximants: are the sounds in the production of which
two articulators come close together but without the vocal
tract being narrowed to such an extent that a friction noise
is produced.
E.g.: /w/, /r/, /j/
• Notes: Approximants are called frictionless continuants.
According to voicing
1. Voiced consonants: are produced when the
vocal cords are vibrating.
E.g.: /b/, /v/, /ð/, /ʒ/
2. Voiceless consonants: are produced when the

vocal cords are not vibrating.
E.g.: /p/, /f/, /θ/, /ʃ/
Place of Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Palato- Palatal velar Glottal
Articulation dental alveolar
Manner of
Articulation
Plossive p, b t, d k, g
Fricative f, v θ, ð s, z ʃ, ʒ h
Affricate tʃ, dʒ
Nasal m n ŋ
Lateral l
Approximant w r j
Describing English consonants
• The description includes the following information:
a. Voicing
b. Place of articulation
c. Manner of articulation
E.g.: /s/: voiceless alveolar fricative
/n/:
/f/:
/t/:
/θ/:
/j/:
/g/:
a. Voicing
E.g. /s/: voiceless alveolar fricative
/n/: voiced alveolar nasal
/f/:
/t/:
/θ/:
/j/:
/g/:
a. Voicing
/f/: voiceless labiodental fricative
/t/:
/θ/:
/j/:
/g/:
a. Voicing
/t/: voiceless alveolar stop
/θ/:
/j/:
/g/:
a. Voicing
/θ/: voiceless dental fricative
/j/:
/g/:
a. Voicing
/j/: voiced palatal approximant
/g/:
a. Voicing
/j/: voiced palatal approximant
/g/: voiced velar stop
Identifying English consonants
n A description is given and you have to identify
which sound is being described.
E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiceless palato-alveolar fricative:
• voiced bilabial stop:
• voiced labio-dental fricative:
• voiced alveolar lateral:
• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate:
• voiced dental fricative:

• A description is given and you have to identify

• voiceless palato-alveolar fricative: /ʃ/
• voiced bilabial stop:


• voiced bilabial stop: /b/


• voiced labio-dental fricative: /v/


• voiced alveolar lateral: /l/
• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate: /tʃ/


• voiced alveolar lateral: /l/
• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate: /tʃ/
• voiced dental fricative: /ð/

Extra activities
1. Find a way from Start to Finish. You may not
pass a square if the word contains the sound /z/.
You can move horizontally (↔) or vertically (↕) only.
START
▼
spots squares prize since six sports
streets wise sells sits exact escapes
rice rise sense science lose lost
oasis desert smokes songs crisps box
place face snacks seas voice boxes
plays phase nose smiles focus concert
▼
FINISH
Extra activities
2. Find 12 words beginning or ending with /f/ or /v/.
the words are written horizontally (→) or vertically
(↓). Note that the last letter is not always F or V.
Use all the letters.
D C L A U G H I
R O W S A V E F
I U I L F I V E
V G F I H A V E
E H E V G O L F
O F F E S A F E
Extra activities
3. If a word ends with a /ʤ/ or a /tʃ/, and the next word begins with
the same sound, you say the sound twice. If you say Dutch cheese
with only one /tʃ/, it sounds like Dutch ease. The speaker made this
mistake in these sentences. Write what they meant to say.
Example: Does she tea Chinese in the teach Chinese

school?
1. I don’t know which air to sit on. …………………………………
2. Everyone at the match ears when their …………………………………
team scores.
3. I never what chat shows on the TV. …………………………………
4. The actor on stay joked with the …………………………………
audience.
5. Foxes sometimes come to the farm …………………………………
and cat chickens. …………
6. Do you want to chain jackets before we …………………………………
…………
go out?
Extra activities
4. Find a way from Start to Finish. You may pass a square
only if the word in it has the sound /θ/. You can move
horizontally (↔) or vertically (↕) only.
START
▼
north northern either weather breathe those
south bath bathe thought breath youth
southern third their through though thumb
Thailand cloth path fifth with worth
month clothes these brother that teeth
throw thing author other they wealth
▼
Extra activities
5. Add the consonant sound to the word to make
another word.
Example /g/ + eight = gate
1./k/ + aim =………………..
2./k/ + ache = ………………..
3./l/ + eight = ………………..
4./r/ + owes = ……………….
5./w/ + eight = ………………..
6./s/ + eyes = …………………
7./h/ + eye = …………………..
8./b/ + air =…………………….
9./b/ + earn = …………………..

Practice Exercises
Exercise 1: Write the symbol that corresponds to each
of the following phonetic description, then give an
English word that contains this sound. Transcribe the
word phonemically.
1. voiceless dental fricative consonantː

2. voice velar plosive consonantː
3. voiced palatal approximant consonantː
4. voiceless palato-alveolar affricate consonantː
Practice Exercises
Exercise 2: For each group of sounds listed
below, state the phonetic features which they all
share.
1. /p, b, k, g/
2. / m, n, l, z/
3. /ʃ, r, ʒ, dʒ/
Exercise 3: Circle the sound that doesn’t belong with

the rest. Justify your answer.
1./f, v, tʃ, s, z/
2. /t, d, n, ŋ/
3. /ʃ, dʒ, b, v, w/
Vowels
Lecture 3
Contents
1. Definition
2. Classification
3. Describing vowels
4. Identifying vowels
5. Diphthongs
6. Triphthongs
7. Practice exercises
Definition
Vowels are the sounds in the production of which

none of the articulators come very close together so
the passage of air-stream is relatively unobstructed
and the air can get out freely.
Classification
classified Length of the sound

Vowels according to
Height of the tongue
Position of the
tongue
Degree of lip
rounding
Classification
classified The length of the

Vowels according to sound
Short vowels Long vowels

Classification
classified Height of the tongue

Vowels according to
High vowels Middle vowels Low vowels

Classification

Vowels according to
are those in the production of

which the tongue is high in the
mouth. It is raised above its
rest position.
Classification

Vowels according to
are those made with

the tongue neither
high nor low in the
mouth.
Classification

Vowels according to
are those made with

the tongue below its
rest position.
Classification
classified Position of the

Vowels according to tongue
Front vowels Central vowels Back vowels

Classification

are those in the

production of which
the front of the tongue
is the highest point.
Classification

are those in the

production of which
the back of the tongue
is the highest point.
Classification

are those made with neither

the front nor the back of
the tongue. The tongue is
neither high nor low in the
mouth.
Classification
classified Degree of lip

Vowels according to rounding
Rounded vowels Unrounded vowels Neutral vowels

Classification

are those made with

rounded lips. The corners
of the lips are brought
towards each other and
the lips are pushed
forwards.
Classification

are those made with the

lips spread. The corners
of the lips are moved
away from each other as
for a smile.
Classification

are those made with the

lips neither
rounded nor spread.
Describing and identifying vowels
1. Describing:
long/short, high/low,
front/back, rounded/
unrounded.
e.g. /e/: short mid front
unrounded vowel
/ɔ:/
2. Identifying
e.g. long mid central
unrounded vowel:
Diphthongs
A diphthong is a glide from one vowel to another,
and the whole glide acts like one of the long simple
vowels.
In terms of length, diphthongs are like long vowels.
The most important thing to remember about all the
diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and
stronger than the second part. As a result, the second
part is shorter and quieter.
E.g.: /ai/, /ei/
Classification
Diphthongs
Centering Closing
ending in /ə/ ending in /i/ ending in /ʊ/
/eə/ /iə/ /uə/ /ai/ /ei/ /ɔi/ /əʊ/ /aʊ/

Triphthongs
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another

and then to a third, all produced rapidly without
interruption.
There are five triphthongs in English. They are
composed of the five closing diphthongs with /ə/
added at the end.
Practice exercises
Exercise 1: Give a complete description of the vowel
sound represented by the symbol and then supply an
English word containing the sound.
1. /i:/ 6. /æ/
2. /e/ 7. /ʊ/
3. /ɜː/ 8. /ɑː/
4. /ɔɪ/ 9. /ɪə/
5. /aʊ/ 10. /əʊ/
Practice Exercises
Exercise 2: Give the phonetic symbol representing the
vowel sound described and then supply an English word
containing the sound.
1. long high back rounded vowel
2. short low front unrounded vowel
3. short low central unrounded vowel
4. long low back unrounded vowel
5. short mid central unrounded vowel
6. short low back rounded vowel
7. short high front unrounded vowel
Practice Exercises
Exercise 3: Choose the different kind of vowels

and justify your choice.
1. { /i:/, /e/, /ɜː/}

2. {/ɜː/, /i:/, /æ/, /aʊ/}
3. {/ʊ/, /ɑː/, ɔː/}
4. {/ʌ/, /ɜː/, /æ/}
Practice Exercises
Exercise 4: Find out the word in which the bolded part is
pronounced unlike that of the others.
1. A. eliminate B. equal C. elaborate D. ejection

2. A. carriage B. dosage C. massage D. voyage
3. A. suit B. bruise C. suite D. fruit
4. A. calculate B. populate C. contemplate D. fortunate
5.A. mature B. back C. dad D. matter
6. A. moan B. hold C. house D. phone
7. A. pay B. bay C. day D. quay
8. A. experience B. helium C. weird D. anniversary
9. A. dear B. gear C. bear D. spear
10. A. believable B. online C. continue D. coincidence
Practice Exercises
Exercise 5: Decide whether the underlined parts in these
two words are the same (S) or different (D) by ticking in the
boxes.
No Word 1 Word 2 The same (S) Diﬀerent (D)
1 Awful Porcupine
2 Limo Chauffeur
3 Litre Punishment
4 Cruddy Probably
5 Clone Road
6 Hairstyle Rapid
7 Oxford Formula
8 Hoaxer Coincidence
9 Reincarnation Army
10 Coﬃn Cousin
PHONEMES
LECTURE 4
Contents
n Definition
n Allophones
n Minimal pairs
n Symbols and phonemic, phonetic transcription
n Practice exercises
Definition: Phonemes
n A phoneme is the smallest segment of sound

which can distinguish two words.
n Take the words ‘pit’ and ‘bit’. These differ only in
their initial sound. ‘pit’ begins with /p/ and ‘bit’
begins with /b/. This is the smallest amount by
which these two words could differ and still
remain distinct forms. Any smaller subdivision
would be impossible because English doesn’t
subdivide /p/ or /b/. Therefore, /p/ and /b/ are
considered two phonemes.
Phonemes
n There are 44 phonemes in English. They can be divided

into two types: consonants (24) and vowels (20).
n Each phoneme is meaningless in isolation. It becomes
meaningful only when it is combined with other
phonemes.
n Phonemes form a set of abstract units that can be used
for writing down a language systematically and
unambiguously.
n Reasons: A letter can be represented by different
sounds.
n A phoneme can be represented by different letters or
combinations of letters.
Phoneme & Phonemic Awareness
Phoneme:
The smallest part of spoken language that
makes a difference in the meaning of words
Phonemic Awareness:
The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate
the individual sounds – phonemes – in
spoken words
Why is Phonemic Awareness
important?
§ Phonemic awareness instruction helps
learners learn to read.
§ Phonemic awareness instruction helps
learners learn to spell.
§ Phonemic symbols are shown in slashes:
/e/
Allophones
n Allophones are the variants of phonemes that

occur in speech.
n Reasons: the way a phoneme is pronounced
is conditioned by the sounds around it or by
its position in the word.
For example: Let us – Let them.
n Sound “t” pronounced differently as two
variants of one sound [t]. It’s called
“allophone”.
Minimal Pairs
n Pair of words such as ‘pit’ and ‘bit’, ‘pit’ and

‘pet’, ‘back’ and ‘bag’ which differ by only one
phoneme in identical environment are known
as minimal pairs.
n One way to identify the phonemes of any
language is to look for minimal pairs.
Minimal pairs
cat rat kæt ræt
tight tide tait taid
core score kɔ:(r) skɔ:(r)
nose knows nouz nouz
service surface s3:vis s3:fis
show sew ʃou sou
make maid meik meid
ghost toast goust toust
Symbols and phonemic, phonetic
transcription
n The symbols are for one of two purposes:
either they are symbols for phonemes
(phonemic symbols) or they are phonetic
symbols (which is what the symbols were
first introduced as).
n A transcription is a conventional system to
represent speech (pronunciation).
transcription
n Depending on how detailed your transcription is,
you will only transcribe the distinctive sounds of
a language (phonemes) and therefore you will
transcribe at the phonemic or phonological
level. This is a phonemic transcription.
n If you want to do a more detailed transcription,
recording important but non-distinctive features
of sounds (allophones and free variants), you
will transcribe at the phonetic or allophone level.
This is a phonetic transcription.
Symbols and phonemic,
phonetic transcription
The phrases ‘There’s something in my eyes!”

transcribed at both levels:
nPhonological level (phonemes) ----->
/ ðəz ‘sʌmθiŋ in mai ‘aiz/

nPhonetic level (allophones) ----->
[ðə‘s:ʌmθiŋim:ai‘a:iz]
transcription
n You will have noticed some differences
between the two levels of transcription; for
instance:
phonemic phonetic
transcription transcription
“eyes” /aiz/ [a:iz]
“there’s / ðəz ‘sʌmθiŋ/ [ðə‘s:ʌmθiŋ]

something”
Phonemic transcription
n The number of phonemic symbols must be

exactly the same as the number of
phonemes we decide exist in the language.
n In a phonemic transcription, then only the
phonemic symbols may be used, this has the
advantage that it is comparatively quick and
easy to learn to use it.
n The phonemic system described here for the
BBC accent contains forty-four phonemes.
Practice exercises
Exercise 1: Minimal pairs - Find a minimal pair for each of the
following pairs of phonemes. Transcribe the words
phonemically.
1. /æ/ and /ʌ/
2. /əʊ/ and /ɔː/
3. /e/ and / æ/
4. /ɑː/ and /ɒ/
5. /eə/ and /ɪə/
6. /ɜː/ and /ɔː/
7. /iː/ and /ɪ/
8. /ɜː/ and /ʌ/
9. /p/ and /b/
10. /l/ and /r/
Practice exercises
11. /b/ and /v/
12. /s/ and / ʃ/
13. /d/ and/ t/
14. /z/ and /s/
15. /l/ and/t/
16. /f/ and /s/
17. /r/ and/t/
18. /w/ and /r/
19. /ʃ/ and /dʒ/
20. /v/ and/ w/
21. /s/ and/ θ/
22. /n/ and/l/
23. /tʃ/ and/ ʃ/
24. /tʃ/ and /dʒ/
Practice exercises
Exercise 2: Match the phonemic transcriptions with the words.
1. /ʃʌt/ a. Later
2. /hɑːt/ b. Joke
3. /θɪŋk/ c. Heart
4. /wɜːk/ d. There
5. /leɪtə/ e. Doubt
6. /bɔːt/ f. Work
7. /puːl/ g. Shut
8. /dɑʊt/ h. Think
9. /dʒəʊk/ i. Pool
10. /ðeə/ j. bought
Practice exercises
Exercise 3: Complete the transcriptions with one of the
following diphthongs.
/eɪ/ /ɑɪ/ /ɔɪ/ /əʊ/ /ɑʊ/ /ɪə/ /eə/ /ʊə/
1. make /m _ _ k/
2. sure /ʃ _ _/
3. bear /b _ _/
4. island /_ _lənd/
5. employ /ɪmpl _ _/
6. hear /h _ _/
7. town /t _ _ n/
8. home /h _ _ m/
9. sight /s _ _ t/
10. know /n _ _ /
Practice exercises
Exercise 4: Write out the correct spelling of these place
names.
1. /kæntəbrɪ/ 2. /grenɪtʃ/ 3. /lestə/
4. /edɪnbrə/ 5. /wɒrɪk/
Exercise 5: The teacher will read out sentences. Tick the word that you
hear.
1 ill hill 6 old hold
2 eye high 7 heir hair
3 art heart 8 all hall
4 air hair 9 eight hate
5 ear hear 10 edge hedge

Practice exercises
Exercise 6: Underline the word that the transcription
represents.
1 bɔːn burn born

2 θɪŋ thing thin
3 fɪːlɪŋz fillings feelings
4 vɑɪn vine wine
5 meɪdʒə major mayor
6 ræm rum ram
7 wɜːd word worried
8 fəget forget forged
9 ɑɪs eyes ice
10 huːz whose house
Activities
Tongue Twisters Quickly say the following sentences
and transcribe phonemically.
1. She sells sea shells on the sea shore.

2. Thirty-three thrilling thespians thought throughout
Thursday.
3. I wish to wash my Irish wristwatch.
4. In Hertford, Hereford and Hampshire, hurricanes hardly
ever happen.
5. A skunk sat on a stump.
Stress
Lecture 5
Content
n Definition
n Types of stress
n Placement of stress within words
q Simple words
q Derived words
q Compound words
n Word class pairs
n Strong form and weak form
Definition
Stress is an extra force exerted on a particular

syllable or a particular word in spoken language.
The stressed syllable or word is said with greater
energy, and stands out in a word, phrase or
sentence.
q father /ˈfɑːðə/ information /ˌɪnfəˈmeɪʃn/
Types of stress
STRESS
Word Stress Sentence Stress

Types of stress
STRESS
is an extra force put on a particular

syllable of the word. It is usually fixed.
Eg.: invite entertain
Types of stress
STRESS
is an extra force put on a particular word

in a sentence. Sentence stress is not fixed.
It depends on the speaker’s feelings and
attitudes and the message that he wants to
get across to the listener.
Eg.: John bought a new car yesterday.
Types of stress
STRESS
Primary Stress Secondary Stress Unstressed

(tonic/nuclear) (non-tonic)
Types of stress
STRESS

is the strongest type of

stress. It is marked by a
small vertical line high up
just before the syllable it
relates to.
Eg.: collect /kəˈlekt/
Types of stress
STRESS

• weaker than primary stress, but stronger than

unstressed syllables.
•found in words of four or five syllables.
•represented in transcription with a low mark.
Eg. photographic economical
anthropology nationality
Types of stress
STRESS

can be regarded as being

the absence of any
recognizable amount of
prominence.
Placement of stress within words
• In order to decide on the stress placement, it is

necessary to make use of some or all of the following
information.
a. Whether the word is morphologically simple or
complex.
(whether the word is a simple, derived or compound
word).
b. The grammatical category to which the word belongs.
c. The number of syllables in the word.
d. The phonological structure of the word.
WORD STRESS
Two-syllable words Three-syllable words
Verbs Verbs
Adjectives Nouns
Nouns Adjectives
Adv. & prep.

Two-syllable words
Verbs 1. If the 2nd syllable of the

verb contains a long vowel
Adjectives
or a diphthong or it ends
Nouns with more than one
c o n s o n a n t , t h a t 2nd
Adv. & prep. syllable is stressed.
E.g.: provide protest
contain agree
Two-syllable words
Verbs 2. If the 2 nd syllable

contains a short vowel and
Adjectives
ends with one or no
Nouns consonant, the 1st syllable
is stressed.
Adv. & prep. E.g.: enter worry
travel open
Two-syllable words
Verbs 3. The final syllable is

Adjectives also unstressed if it
contains /əʊ/.
Nouns E.g.: follow borrow
Adv. & prep.
Two-syllable words
Verbs Two syllable adjectives

Adjectives are stressed according to
the same rules as verbs.
Nouns E.g.: correct major
polite
Adv. & prep. complete
Two-syllable words
Verbs If the 2nd syllable contains

a short vowel, the stress
Adjectives
will be on the 1st syllable.
Nouns Otherwise, it will be on
the 2nd syllable.
Adv. & prep. E.g.: money reason
estate balloon
Two-syllable words
Verbs Other two-syllable

Adjectives words such as adverbs
and prepositions seem to
Nouns behave like verbs and
adjectives.
Adv. & prep. E.g.: beyond never
seldom behind
Three-syllable words
1. If the last syllable contains a
Verbs short vowel and ends with no
more than one consonant, the
Nouns last syllable will be unstressed,
and stress will be placed on the
Adjectives 2nd syllable.
E.g.: encounter determine
Abandon remember
2. If the final syllable contains
Verbs a long vowel or a diphthong, or
ends with more than one
Nouns consonant, the final syllable
will be stressed.
Adjectives E.g.: entertain introduce
intervene recommend
Verbs a short vowel or /əʊ/, it is
unstressed. If the 2nd syllable
Nouns contains a long vowel or a
diphthong, or ends with more
Adjectives than one consonant, the 2nd
syllable will be stressed.
E.g.: potato disaster
cathedral advantage
2. If the final syllable
Verbs contains a short vowel and
the 2nd syllable contains a
Nouns
short vowel and ends with
Adjectives no more than one consonant,
both the final and middle
syllables are unstressed, and
the 1st syllable is stressed.
E.g.: quantity cinema
enemy alphabet
Verbs a long vowel or a diphthong or
it ends with more than one
Nouns consonant, the stress will
usually be placed on the 1st
Adjectives
syllable.
E . g . : p a r a d i s e e x e rc i s e
architect
Verbs
Nouns Three-syllable adjectives

seem to need the same rules
Adjectives
as Nouns to produce stress
pattern such as: possible,
important, enormous, similar
Placement of stress within three-syllable
words
ending in “er, ly”
For three-syllable words

ending with the
suffixes er or ly, the stress
is placed on the first
syllable.
E.g.:
ORderly, Silently, Lovingly,
Manager, GARdener, Easier
COMPLEX WORD STRESS
Derived words Compound words
Stress on the affix Primary stress on the 2nd

element
No change in stress Primary stress on the 1st

placement element
Stress is shifted to a
different syllable of the stem
Derived words
Stress on the affix The affix itself receives

primary stress.
circle semi-circle
No change in stress
placement
employ employee
person personality
Stress is shifted to a Portugal Portugese
Derived words
Stress on the affix The word is stressed as if the

affix were not there.
comfort comfortable
No change in stress
placement
marry marriage
refuse refusal
Stress is shifted to a
Derived words
Stress on the affix
No change in stress
The stress remains on the stem, not
placement
the affix, but is shifted to a different
Stress is shifted to a syllable.
different syllable of the stem ad’vantage advan’tageous
‘proverb pro’verbial
‘climate cli’matic
Placement of stress within derived words
E.g.:
Derived words: The
lable: ADDable, DURable,
stress is going to be LAUGHable
on the syllable right lial: differENTial, SOcial,
before these fiNANcial, CRItical
suffixes, “able, ial, lcian: muSIcian,
cian, ery, ian, ible, phySIcian, cliNIcian
ic, ics, ion, ia, ient, lery: BAkery, SCEnery
ious, ish, (o)sis”. lian: coMEdian, ciVILian,
This applies to techNIcian
words of all syllable lible: reSIstible, imPOSsible,
lengths. TERRible
Derived words: The E.g.:

stress is going to be lic: arCHAic, plaTOnic,
on the syllable right characteRIStic, iCONic,
before these GRAPHic
suffixes, “able, ial, lics: diaBEtics, paediAtrics,
cian, ery, ian, ible, TOpics
ic, ics, ion, ia, ient, lion: classifiCAtion, repoSItion,
ious, ish, (o)sis”. vegeTAtion, nuTRItion
This applies to lia: MEdia, bacTERia, vicTORia
words of all syllable
lengths.
Derived words: The

stress is going to be E.g.:
on the syllable right lient: inGREdient, PAtient,
before these ANcient
suffixes, “able, ial, lious: mySTERious, reLIgious,
cian, ery, ian, ible, VARious
ic, ics, ion, ia, ient, lish: SELfish, ENglish, Punish
ious, ish, (o)sis”. l(o)sis: hypNOsis, diagNOsis,
This applies to osMOsis
lengths.
Derived words: The

stress is going to be lNote: Native English speakers
on the syllable right don't always agree on where to
before these place the stress on a word. For
suffixes, “able, ial, example, some people
cian, ery, ian, ible, pronounce television as
"TELevision" while others say
ic, ics, ion, ia, ient,
"teleVIsion."
ious, ish, (o)sis”.
This applies to
lengths.
E.g.:
lade: lemoNADE, cruSADE,
Derived words: arCADE
Words that use the
lee: aGREE, jamborEE,
suffix ade, guaranTEE
ee, ese, eer, que, ett leer: sightSEER, puppeTEER
e, or oon have the lese: SiamESE, JapanESE,
primary stress chEESE
actually placed on lette: cassETTE, CorvETTE,
the suffix. towelETTE
This applies to lque: unIQUE, physIQUE
words of all syllable loon: baLOON, afterNOON,
lengths. carTOON
Derived words:
With words ending E.g.:
ldeMOcracy, dependaBIlity,
in -cy, -ty, -phy, -
phoTOgraphy, geOLogy, Allergy,
gy, and -ise, -ate,
CLArity
stress on the third
lSUpervise, ORganise,
from end syllable. Exercise
This applies to lADvertise, REcognise
words of all syllable lcoMMUnicate, REgulate,
lengths. aPPREciate,
lCALculate, CONcentrate
Compound words If the first word/part of the
compound is in a broad sense
Primary stress on the 2nd
element
adjectival, the stress goes on
the 2 nd element with a
Primary stress on the 1st secondary stress on the 1st.
element Loud speaker full moon
fast food new moon
open hearted ill mannered
Compound words If, however, the 1st element is, in a
broad sense, a noun, the stress goes
Primary stress on the 2nd on the 1st element.
element car ferry tea cup
suitcase bottle feed
Primary stress on the 1st boatpeople farm house
element airplane bodyguard
Word class pairs
• In English, there are pairs of abstract abstract

two syllable words with conduct conduct
contrast contrast
identical spelling which differ
desert desert
from each other in stress escort escort
placement, apparently export export
according to word class. import import
The rule is as follows: The insult insult
stress will be placed on the object object
2nd syllable if the word is a perfect perfect
Verb, but on the 1st syllable of permit permit
present present
the Noun or Adjective.
produce produce
rebel rebel
record record
subject subject
Strong and weak forms
• There are certain well-known English words that can be
pronounced in two different ways which are called strong
form and weak form.
I like that
I hope that you are fine
• It is possible to use only strong forms in speaking, and
some foreigners do this. Usually, they can still be
understood by other speakers of English, so why is it
important to learn how weak forms are used?
a. Most native speakers of English find an ‘all-strong-form’
pronunciation unnatural and foreign sounding, something
that most learners would wish to avoid.
• More importantly, speakers who are not familiar with
the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty
understanding speakers who do use weak forms. Since
practically all native speakers of English use them,
learners of the language need to learn about these weak
forms to help them understand what they hear.
• Almost all the words which have both a strong and weak
form belong to a category that may be called
grammatical words such as auxiliary verbs, prepositions,
conjunctions... It is important to remember that there are
certain contexts in which only the strong form is
acceptable, and others where the weak form
pronunciation is the normal.
The strong form is used in the following cases:
a. When the word occurs at the end of a sentence.
What are you looking at?
I am looking at my pictures. Where are you from?
I am from Vietnam
b. When a weak form word is being contrasted with another
word.
The letter is from him, not to him.
He likes her, but does she like him?
n A similar case is what we might call a co-ordinated use of
prepositions.
I travel to and from London a lot.
c. When a weak form word is given stress for the purpose
of emphasis.
You must marry me
I have to go
You must choose us or them.
d. When a weak form word is being ‘cited’ or ‘quoted’ You
shouldn’t put ‘and’ and the end of a sentence.
Practice exercises
Pick out the word whose main stressed syllable is different
from the rest in the same line.
1. a. recently b. conduct c. attitude d. marriage
2. a. banquet b. schedule c. diameter d. blessing
3. a. birthday b. cowboy c. enjoy d. pleasure
4. a. disease b. humour c. cancer d. treatment
5. a. persuade b. reduce c. offer d. apply
6. a. farmer b. farewell c. factory d. fairy
7. a. cattle b. country c. canal d. cover
8. a. money b. machine c. many d. mother
9. a. borrow b. agree c. await d. prepare
10. a. paper b. tonight c. lecture d. story
Practice exercises
11. a. money b. army c. afraid d. people
12. a. enjoy b. daughter c. provide d. decide
13. a. begin b. pastime c. finish d. summer
14. a. reply b. appeal c. offer d. support
15. a. profit b. comfort c. city d. suggest
16. a. direct b. idea c. suppose d. figure
17. a. revise b. problem c. contain d. desire
18. a. standard b. happen c. handsome d. destroy
19. a. about b. around c. between d. under
20. a. knowledge b. enjoy c. science d. sudden
21. a. because b. method c. standard d. wooden
22. a. ashtray b. music c. severe d. temper
23. a. farewell b. thoughtful c. toward d. approach
24. a. bridegroom b. bamboo c. wedding d. survey
Practice exercises
25. a. healthy b. remain c. alone d. accept
26. a. explain b. obtain c. promise d. suspect
27. a. confide b. agree c. maintain d. enter
28. a. precede b. suppose c. decide d. finish
29. a. abroad b. noisy c. hundred d. quiet
30. a. passion b. aspect c. medium d. success
31. a. exist b. evolve c. enjoy d. enter
32. a. doctor b. modern c. corner d. Chinese
33. a. complain b. machine c. music d. instead
34. a. writer b. baker c. builder d. career
35. a. provide b. adopt c. happen d. inspire
36. a. result b. region c. river d. robot
37. a. constant b. basic c. irate d. obvious
38. a. become b. carry c. appoint d. invent
Practice exercises
39. a. engine b. battle c. career d. rabies
40. a. attract b. destroy c. level d. occur
41. a. contactual b. significant c. Asia d. demanding
42. a. appearance b. measurement
c. counterpart d. cultural
43. a. majority b. minority c. partnership d. enjoyable
44. a. marvelous b. argument c. apoplectic d. maximum
45. a. departure b. separate c. necessary d. wrongdoing
46. a. attention b. appropriate c. terrible d. non-verbal
47. according b. informality c. expensive d. acceptable
48. a. assistance b. consider c. politely d. compliment
49. a. mischievous b. family c. supportive d. suitable
Practice exercises
50. a. memory b. typical c. reward d. marketing
51. a. stimulate b. generate c. secure d. estimate
52. a. politic b. historic c. electric d. specific
53. a. reference b. accident c. coincide d. formulate
54. a. deposit b. dramatist c. register d. center
55. a. earthquake b. transaction c. applicant d. patriot
56. a. degree b. virtually c. assembly d. synthetic
57. a. happily b. community c. conception d. committee
58. a. envelop b. astronaut c. critical d. poverty
59. a. altitude b. recover c. comedy d. library
60. a. possible b. beautify c successful d. comfortable
Practice exercises
61. a. accountant b. discover c. messenger d. unlucky
62. a. marathon b. advertise c. industry d. conclusion
63. a. subsequent b. undergo c. government d. enterprise
64. a. chaotic b. proposal c. occupy d. production
65. a. piano b. policeman c. museum d. souvenir
66. a. guarantee b. recommend c. represent d. illustrate
67. a. agency b. memory c. encounter d. influence
68. a. well-being b. reality c. Internet d. demanding
69. a. encourage b. determine c. emphasize d. demanding
70. a. understand b. grandparents c. family d. wonderful
Practice exercises
71. a. essential b. furniture c. opposite d. fortunate
72. a. crocodile b. corridor c. enormous d. northerly
73. a. habitat b. pollution c. construction d. extinction
74. a. classify b. biologist c. benefit d. serious
75. a. endangered b. survival c. commercial d. industry
76. a. mosquito b. animal c. crocodile d. buffalo
77. a. unnoticed b. reunited c. incredible d. survival
78. a. imagine b. opinion c. incredible d. wilderness
79. a. recommend b. thoroughly c. travelling d. fascinate
80. a. character b. publisher c. wonderful d. understand
Aspects of connected
speech
Lecture 6
Content
n Rhythm
n Assimilation
n Elision
n Linking
Rhythm
n Rhythm is the relatively equal beat between

stressed syllables.
n English has stress-timed rhythm.
n Stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively
regular intervals whether they are separated by
unstressed syllables or not.
Walk down the path to the end of the canal.
1 2 3 4 5
Walk down the path to the end of the canal
1 2 3 4 5
Walk down the path to the end of the canal
/ˈwɔːlk ˈdaʊn ðə ˈpaːθ tə ði ˈend əv ðə kə’næl/

Rhythm unit (Foot)
n A unit with a stressed syllable as its centre and any

unstressed syllables which may come before and after it
is called a rhythm unit. The rules are as follows.
1. Any unstressed syllable at the beginning of a word
group must go together with the following stress group.
My apologies The teacher has arrived
2. If the unstressed syllable is part of the same word as
the stressed syllable, they belong to the same foot.
I’m going home today for Christmas.
3. If the unstressed syllable is closely connected
grammatically to other stressed word, although not a
part of that word, they belong to the same rhythm
unit.
Give it to John.
4. Whenever you are in doubt as to which rhythm unit
unstressed syllables belong to, put them after a
stressed syllable, rather than before it.
He was older than me.
Assimilation
1. Definition:
Assimilation is the process which takes place
when one sound adapts itself to become similar to a
neighbouring sound in one or more aspects. In other
words, assimilation is the influence of one phoneme
upon another neighbouring phoneme, so that they
become more alike.
good boy /gʊb bɔi/
cats /kæts/
beds /bedz/
Kinds of assimilation across word boundaries
Assimilation
Direction of change Way phoneme changes
Regressive assimilation: Assimilation of place:

Cf → Ci Cf → Ci
Progressive assimilation: Assimilation of manner:

Ci → Cf Cf → Ci
Assimilation of voice:
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes

1. Alveolar + bilabial à bilabial
Assimilation of place: a. / t / becomes [ p ] before
bilabials
Cf → Ci
Assimilation of manner:
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes

b. / d / becomes [ b ] before
bilabials
Assimilation of place:
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes

c. / n / becomes [ m ] before
Assimilation of place: bilabials.
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Assimilation of place: 2. Alveolar + velar à velar

Cf → Ci
a./t/ becomes [k] before /k/&/g/
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes

2. Alveolar + velar à velar
Cf → Ci
b. / d / becomes [ g ]
before /k/&/g/
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Assimilation of place: 2. Alveolar + velar à velar

Cf → Ci
c. /n/ becomes [ŋ] before /k/&/
Assimilation of manner: g/
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Assimilation of place: 3.Alveolar + dental à

Cf → Ci dentalized
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Assimilation of place: 4. Alveolar + palato-alveolar or

palatal à palato-alveolar
Cf → Ci
Assimilation of manner: a. /s/ becomes [ʃ] before /ʃ/ or /j/

Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Assimilation of place: 4. Alveolar + palato-alveolar or

palatal à palato-alveolar
Cf → Ci
Assimilation of manner: b./z/ becomes [ʒ] before /ʃ/ or / j /

Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes

4. Alveolar + palato-alveolar or
Assimilation of place: palatal à palato-alveolar
Cf → Ci
Assimilation of manner: c. Alveolar stops and a

Cf → Ci following / j / may merge to
form an affricate.
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Assimilation of place: 1. Plosive + fricative → fricative

Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Cf → Ci 2. Plosive + nasal → nasal
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci
Way phoneme changes
Cf → Ci
Cf → Ci Cf (Lenis) + Ci (Fortis) → Cf
becomes devoiced
Cf → Ci
Elision
1. Definition:
Elision is the disappearance of sounds in
speech. Under certain circumstances,
sounds disappear. A phoneme may be
realized as zero or have zero realization.
RULES FOR ELISION
a. Aspirated stops + weak vowel /ə/ → aspirated stops
b. Weak vowel /ə/ disappears before syllabic consonants /n, l, r/
c. Stop + (stop) + stop
d. Stop + (stop) + fricative
e. Fricative + (stop) + fricative
f. /-st / + stop, nasal, fricative → /-s/

g. / -ft / + stop, nasal, fricative → / -f /
h. /-nd/ + lenis stop, nasal → /-n/

i. /-md/ + lenis stop, nasal, → /-m/
j. Loss of final / v / in OF + consonant
RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR ELISION


RULES FOR LINKING
1. Linking final consonant to initial vowel
2. Liking identical consonants

3. Linking / r / and intrusive / r /
4. Intrusive /j/
5. Intrusive /w/
RULES FOR LINKING

4. Intrusive /j/
5. Intrusive /w/
RULES FOR LINKING

4. Intrusive /j/
5. Intrusive /w/
RULES FOR LINKING

4. Intrusive /j/
5. Intrusive /w/
RULES FOR LINKING

4. Intrusive /j/ when a word ending in /i: ; ɪ; aɪ;

eɪ;ɔɪ/ is followed by a word
5. Intrusive /w/ beginning with a vowel
RULES FOR LINKING

4. Intrusive /j/ when a word ending in /u: ; ʊ;

aʊ ; əʊ/ is followed by a word
5. Intrusive /w/ beginning with a vowel
Practice exercises
Exercise 1: Divide the following sentences up into feet,
using the mark as a boundary symbol. If a sentence
starts with an unstressed syllable, leave it out of
consideration – it doesn’t belong in a foot.
1. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
2. Over a quarter of a century has elapsed since his death.
3. Computers consume a considerable amount of money
and time.
4. Most of them have arrived on the bus.
5. Newspaper editors are invariable underworked.
Practice exercises
Exercise 2: What is the pronunciation of these words after
assimilation? Explain your choice.
1. Should win
A. [ʃubwin] B. [ʃudwin] C. [ʃutwin] D. [ʃupwin]
2. Bad gate
A. [bæggeit] B. [bædgeit] C. [bægeit] D. [bætgeit]
3. This shop
A. [ðisʃɔp] B. [ðisʃʃɔp] C. [ðiʃɔp] D. [itʃɔp]
4. Seen Bill
A. [si:bil] B. [si:nbil] C. [si:mbil] D. [si:ŋbil]
5. White bird
A. [waitbɜ:d] B. [waibɜ:d] C. [waikbɜ:d] D. [waipbɜ:d]
Practice exercises
Exercise 3: Find out the rules of assimilation in these
sentences.
1. He is a rather fat boy.
2. He is a very good boy.
3. There are ten men in the class.
4. Can you see that girl over there?
Practice exercises
Exercise 4: Imagine that the following phrases were
produced with assimilation. The assimilated consonants
have been left blank; it is your job to fill them in.
nplant pot [plɑ_ _ pɒt]
nmint condition [mɪ_ _ kəndɪʃn]
nlead balloon [lɪ:_ bəlu:n]
nflat pancake [flæ_ pænkeɪk]
nfood miles [fu:_ maɪlz]
nquiz show [kwɪ_ ʃəʊ]
ndress shop [dre_ ʃɒp]
Practice exercises
Exercise 5: Say and transcribe the following words in their full form,
and with elision.
Word/Combination In full With elision

pinch ………………… …………………
bandstand ………………… ……………….
camped ………………… ……………….
wistful ………………… ………………
softness ………………… ……………………
textbook ………………… …………………
French ………………… ………………..
plunge ………………… ……………….
tasteful ………………… ……………….
kindness ………………… ……………..
awaken ………………… ………………
Practice exercises
Exercise 6: Four of the following words can exhibit elision.

Circle those words.
softly softer customer lounge
firstly judged lateness
wasteful
Practice exercises
Exercise 7: Fill the table with missing pronunciation.
Word/Combination No Elision Elision
asked [ɑːskt] …………………
lecture [ˈlɛktʃə(r)] ……………….
desktop [ˈdɛsktɒp] ……………….
hard disk [ˌhɑːdˈdɪsk] ………………
kept quiet [ˌkɛptˈkwaɪət] ……………………
kept calling [ˌkɛptˈkɔːlɪŋ] …………………
kept talking [ˌkɛptˈtɔːkɪŋ] ………………..
at least twice [ət liːstˈtwaɪs] ……………….
straight towards [ˌstreɪtˈtəwɔːdz] ……………….
next to [ˈnɛkstˌtʊ] ……………..
want to [ˈwɒntˌtʊ] ………………
seemed not to notice [ˈsiːmdˌnɒttəˈnəʊtɪs] …………………….
for the first time [foːðəˌfɜːstˈtaɪm] …………………
Practice exercises
Exercise 8: With a partner, discuss and underline where you think
sounds may be linked. Then, read out loud the sentences.
1. Casual dress causes a lot of problems.
2. Most employees say it’s OK.
3. Fashion is a pain in the neck.
4. She wore stylish shoes.
5. He wore a dark coat.
6. That’s a very hot tie!
7. She’s a very fashionable lawyer.
8. It’s an old-fashioned umbrella.
9. I love her elegant tennis skirt!
10. They’re very comfortable loafers.
Practice exercises
Exercise 8: With a partner, discuss and underline where
you think sounds may be linked. Then, read out loud the
sentences.
11. What an offensive vest!
12. I really like it.
13. I like to stand out in a crowd.
14. It’s important to dress well.
15. I don’t like to attract attention.
16. They may cost a bit more.
17. The purses in the magazine are elegant.
Practice exercises
Exercise 9: Transcribe the following passage, which has
been designed to include as many assimilations as
possible.
That garden must surely need plenty of work. You have to keep
the grass short, paint fences, shovel sand, plant bulbs, weed
borders and water all those shoots. Don’t you get bored by all
that work, and find you want more hours to appreciate your
efforts? If it were up to me, I’d put down gloves and spade, find
myself a quiet corner and just relax.
INTONATION
LECTURE 7
CONTENT
n Definition of intonation
n Functions of intonation
n Sentence types
n General rules
Definition
Intonation is the melody of the sentence.
Intonation is created by changes in the
pitch of the voice (the voice goes higher
and lower; remains on the same level; rises
or falls), by sentence stress (strong stress
on important words; weak stress or no stress
on less important words), and by rhythm
(stressed syllables occur at more or less
equal intervals)
Functions
n to distinguish types of sentences (statements,
questions, commands, requests)
n to divide sentences into sense groups
n to allow speakers to express various
emotions
Sentence types
DECLARATIVE INTERROGATIVE
IMPERATIVE EXCLAMATORY
Sentence types
Intonation distinguishes types of sentences

according to intonation and tones in them.
n commands are pronounced with falling

intonation
n requests are pronounced with rising
intonation
E.g.: Sit \down. Sit \down, /please.
Sentence types
Intonation and tones can change types and

meanings of sentences.
For example:
You can drive a \car, \can't you?
(The speaker is almost sure that you can
drive a car.)
You can drive a \car, /can't you?
(The speaker is not sure that you can drive
a car.)
Intonation and tone changes
1.Rise + fall:
She bought /bread, /butter, and \cheese.
Would you like /tea or \coffee?
2. Fall + fall:
This is Alan \Brown, a \friend of mine.
I think I saw your cell phone in the \kitchen, on
the \windowsill.
Intonation and tone changes
3. Rise + rise:
If she /calls, will you /ask her?
/Lena, can you /help me?
4. Fall + rise:
It's a great \film, /isn't it?
We can have lunch \now, if you /like.
Falling tone
The falling tone expresses finality,

completeness, confidence
- at the end of statements (It's \nice).
- special questions (What \happened?)
- commands (\Call him.),
- exclamatory sentences (How \nice!),
- in the first part of tag questions (He \works,
\doesn't he?),
- in the last part of alternative questions (Do you /
study or \work?).
Rising tone
The rising tone may express interest, politeness,
surprise, doubt, incompleteness,
- at the end of general questions (Is she /here?)

- in requests (Could you /help me?)
- at the end of introductory phrases beginning the
sentence (As /usual, he was \late.)
- in the first part of alternative questions (Is it /short or
\long?)
- in the second part of tag questions (Nice \weather, /isn't
it?)
- in direct address (/Mike, where \are you?)
- in enumerations (I bought /milk, /cheese, and \fruit.).
Fall-rise
n expresses non-finality, signals continuation of

the utterance
n emphasizes the word on which it is used.
n may express polite warning, suggestion,

correction, contrast,
E.g.:
If you don't hurry \ /up, you'll be \late.
Despite her \ /warning, he opened the \door.
General rules
1. Statements: Falling intonation
1.1. Statements with one stress
n She \works.
n We \found it.
n It's im\portant.
n It's \John. It's \me.
n It may \change.
n You should \call her.
General rules
1.2. Statements with two stresses
n 'People \work.
n 'Mike is \sleeping.
n The 'weather has \changed.
n 'Mary is a \teacher.
n 'Bananas are \yellow.
n 'Cars are ex\pensive.
n I 'work in a \library.
n She 'said it \loudly.
General rules
1.3. Statements with three stresses

n 'Betty 'lives in \London.
n 'Victor 'works at a \bank.
n I 'haven't 'read this \book.
n The 'children are 'playing in the \park.
n My 'sister 'works as a \teacher.
n 'Moscow is the 'capital of \Russia.
n 'Ella is a 'good \student.
n He 'wants to 'buy a \car.
General rules
1.4. Statements with four stresses
n She 'wants to 'buy a 'new \car.
n He 'wrote the 'letters 'very \quickly.
n Their 'new 'house is near a 'large \park.
n 'Tom is 'leaving for 'Rome to\morrow.
n He is 'reading an 'interesting 'book

about \animals.
General rules
1.5. Statements with five stresses

n 'Alex 'wrote the 'letters 'very \quickly.
n I 'think the 'first 'question is 'very \easy.
n I 'don't 'want to 'watch this 'film a\gain.

General rules
2.1. Wh- questions: Falling intonation
n 'What is his \name?
n 'Where does he \live?
n 'Where are you \from?
n 'What do you \do?
n 'Where have you \been?

General rules
2.2. Friendly interest, politeness: Rising

intonation
n 'What is your /name?
n 'Where do you /live?
n 'What did she /say?
n 'Where have you /been?

General rules
2.3. Yes-No questions: Rising intonation

n Do you 'visit them /often?
n Have you 'seen my /keys?
n Do you 'have a /pen?
n Are these 'books /yours?
n Can you /drive?
n Am I /late?
n Are they /students?

General rules
2.4. Alternative questions: Rise-Fall intonation

n Do you 'want /coffee or \tea?
n Does he 'speak /English or \German?
n Would you 'like /coffee or \tea?
n Are you 'studying /English or \French?

General rules
2.5. Tag questions: Falling or rising intonation

n It's a 'beautiful \town, \isn't it?
n She \knows him, /doesn't she?
n You 'weren't \late, /were you?
n They 'haven't 'found it, \have they?

General rules
3. Requests: Rising intonation
n Could you 'give me a /pen, please?
n Could you 'open the /window, please?
n Would you 'mind /helping me?
n May I 'speak to /Ella, please?
n Were they /happy or \angry?
n Will you 'come 'back at /five or at \six?
n Does she 'read 'books in the /morning or at
\night?
n Did she 'go to /Italy or \France last year?
General rules
4. Commands: Falling intonation

n \Stop it! 'Sit \down.
n 'Close your \books.
n 'Turn 'left at the \bank.
n 'Give me your \hand.

General rules
5. Exclamatory sentences: Falling intonation

n 'How \nice of you!
n 'That's \wonderful!
n I'm 'so \happy!
n \Wonderful!
n 'Good \morning!
General rules
6. Direct address: Rising intonation
n 'Mrs. /Smith, 'this is 'Mary \Brown.
n /Ella, can you /help me?
n /Alex, 'read this \letter, please.
n /Max, 'this is my \friend, 'Tom \Brown.
n /Peter, 'this is Ma\rina, a \friend of 'mine.
n 'Good \evening, 'Linh.
n 'See you to\morrow, 'Nick.

General rules
7. Enumerating: Rising-Falling intonation

n She 'bought /bread, /cheese, /oranges, and
\apples.
n We 'need /paper, /pens, and \pencils.
n /Anton, /Nick, /Anna, and /Lena are my

\students.
General rules
8. Responses: Falling intonation
n \Yes.
n \No.
n 'No \problem.
n 'That's \true.
n I \think so.
n You are \welcome.
n \Yes, they \will.
n \Yes, you \can.

PRACTICE EXERCISES
Determine the intonation and stressed words of the following
sentences.
1. Elephants are strong animals.
2. The teacher told her students a story.
3. Maria wants to buy a new car.
4. What's the matter?
5. Have you seen my glasses?
6. Would you like some coffee?
7. Are you listening?
8. Could I speak to Michael, please?
9. Did you go to the cinema or to the theater yesterday?
10. He will help them, won't he?
PRACTICE EXERCISES
11. Peter gave you a present, didn't he?
12. Go back to the hospital.
13. Sit down, please.
14. What a beautiful day!
15. How strange!
16. Tom, could you help me, please?
17. Mary, this is my son Anton.
18. I bought bread, cheese, and tomatoes.
19. Thank you very much.
20. Yes, he has.
21. No, thank you
22. Penguins are birds.
PRACTICE EXERCISES
23. I lost my key.
24. She hasn't seen him.
25. My children are sleeping.
26. She will see him tomorrow.
27. Yes, certainly.
28. It's an interesting film.
29. I don't understand it.
30. Tony hasn't called me.
31. It's not difficult.
32. Can I borrow your dictionary, please?
33. Can you help me, please?
34. They visited France, Spain, Italy, and Greece.
PRACTICE EXERCISES
35. You are right.

36. It's a nice day, isn't it?
37. She speaks English, doesn't she?
38. Mr. Trent, your papers are ready.
39. Good morning, Jane.
40. Will they come?
PRESENTATION
TOPICS
226
TOPICS FOR GROUP PRESENTATIONS
1. Vowels and their classification

2. Consonants and their classification
3. Phonemes
4. Stress and types of stress
5. Aspect of connected speech
6. Intonation and its functions
227
COURSE REVISION
228
I. CONTENTS
I. Question 1
1. Pick out the word whose underlined part is
pronounced differently from that of these others.
For example:
A. Cut B. rush C. much D. surprise
2. Choose the word that has the stress pattern different

from that of the other words.
For example:
A. Different B. program C. company D. underline
229
I. CONTENTS
II. Question 2
1. Find the phoneme which corresponds to each
description below, then transcribe an example
phonemically.
For example:
Voiced dental fricative consonant: /ð/ this /ðɪs/
2. Description the following phonemes, then transcribe
an example phonemically.
For example:
/ ɪ / : close front unrounded vowel bit /bɪt/
230
I. CONTENTS
II. Question 2
3. Find a minimal pair for each of the following pairs of
sound. Transcribe the words phonemically.
For example:
/s/ and /ʃ/: sea /siː/ - she /ʃiː/
4. Choose the sound that is different from the other
sounds. Explain your choice.
For example:
/p/, /m/, /w/
231
I. CONTENTS
II. Question 2
5. In English, different letters may represent the same
sound. Give at least two possible and then give 02
English words that contain this sound. Transcribe
phonemically.
For example: /k/: c- country /ˈkʌn.tri/
k- kite /kaɪt/
6. Find out the assimilation in the following phrase by
underlined the assimilated sounds and transcribe these
word phonemically.
For example: ten men /ten men/ - [temmen] 232

II. SAMPLE TEST
Question 1. (4 points)
a. Pick out the word whose underlined part is
pronounced differently from that of the others
(1.5 points)
1. A. eight B. freight C. weight D. height
2. A. city B. country C. coin D. consonant
3. A. light B. life C. fine D. if
4. A. see B. sugar C. stage D. spend
5. A. stayed B. designed C. invited D. seemed
233
II. SAMPLE TEST
Question 1. (4 points)
b. Choose the word that has the stress pattern
different from that of the other words (2.5
points)
6. A necessary B. counterpart C. dynamic D. conical
7. A. develop B. entertain C. enjoyable D. approval
8. A. referee B. C. surprising D. Individual
unemployment
9. A. tradition B. national C. benefit D. reality
10. A. crocodile B. horrible C. congratulation D. technical
11. A. understand B. biological C. undergo D. family
12. A. Opinion B. habitat C. construction D. commercial
13. A. enterprise B. unnoticed C. industry D. memory
14. A. essential B. remarkable C. independence D. endangered
15. A. poverty B. council C. library D. committee
234
II. SAMPLE TEST
Question 2. (6 points): (0.25 points per correct
answer)
a. Find the phoneme which corresponds to
each description below, then transcribe an
example phonemically
1. Voiced dental fricative consonant:
2. Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate consonant:
3. Voiced palatal approximant consonant:
4. Short mid central unrounded vowel:
5. Short low back rounded vowel:
235
II. SAMPLE TEST
answer)
b. Describe the following phonemes, then
transcribe an example phonemically.
6. /e/
7. /a:/
8. /u:/
9. /æ/
10. /i:/
236
II. SAMPLE TEST
answer)
c. Find a minimal pair for each of the following
pairs of sounds. Transcribe the words
phonemically.
11. /p/ and /b/
12. /tʃ/ and /dʒ/
13. /f/ and /v/
14. /s/ and /z/
15. /ʃ/ and /ʒ/
237
II. SAMPLE TEST
answer)
d. Choose the sound that is different from the
other sounds. Explain your choice.
16. /p/, /m/, /w/
17. / æ /, / ɒ /, / ʌ /
18. /t/, /k/, /h/
19. /aɪ/, /eə/, /əʊ/
20. / dʒ /, /z/, /ʒ/
238
II. SAMPLE TEST
answer)
e. In English, different letters may represent the
same sound. Give at least two possible and
then give 02 English words that contain this
sound. Transcribe phonemically.
21. /k/:
22. / ə /:
23. /dʒ/ :
239
II. SAMPLE TEST
answer)
f. Find out the assimilation in the following
phrases by underlining the assimilated sounds
and transcribe these words phonetically.
24. Iron man
25. News paper
240

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INTRODUCTION

n Phonetics vs. Phonology

• What sounds occur in human languages?

• How these speech sounds are made?

• What physical properties do they have?

• In what way can speech sound similar to, or different

b. Acoustic phonetics, which is also considered a branch of physics,

c. Auditory phonetics, which is also considered a branch of

The subject of phonology includes the following areas:

2. How are nasal sounds produced?

4. How are vowel sounds produced?

6. How are voiceless sounds produced?

• The manner of articulation

Manner of articulation is the way in which

Oral Complete closure

Affricate Closure, then slow separation

Lateral Closure in centre of mouth, air

Oral Complete closure /p/, /b/, /t/, /

Lateral Closure in centre of mouth, air /l/

• Notes: Fricatives are continuants consonants which

2. Voiceless consonants: are produced when the

E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiced bilabial stop:

• voiced labio-dental fricative:

• voiced alveolar lateral:

• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate:

• voiced dental fricative:

E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiced bilabial stop:

• voiced labio-dental fricative:

• voiced alveolar lateral:

• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate:

• voiced dental fricative:

E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiced bilabial stop: /b/

• voiced labio-dental fricative:

• voiced alveolar lateral:

• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate:

• voiced dental fricative:

E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiced bilabial stop: /b/

• voiced labio-dental fricative: /v/

• voiced alveolar lateral:

• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate:

• voiced dental fricative:

E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiced bilabial stop: /b/

• voiced labio-dental fricative: /v/

• voiced alveolar lateral: /l/

• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate: /tʃ/

• voiced dental fricative:

E.g.:Voiced velar nasal: /ŋ/

• voiced bilabial stop: /b/

• voiced labio-dental fricative: /v/

• voiced alveolar lateral: /l/

• voiceless palato-alveolar affricate: /tʃ/

• voiced dental fricative: /ð/

Example: Does she tea Chinese in the teach Chinese