Preparatory Physics Form 1 & 2

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‘9
PREPARATORY
\
SECONDARY PHYSICS
STUDENT’S NOTE BOOK 1 & 2
WAMALWA KELAS FERDINAND
FORM ONE NOTE

New Syllabus
BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 1

Table of Contents
FORM ONE ................................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 1; INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS........................................................................................ 8
Meaning Of Physics................................................................................................................... 8
Branches of physics/key areas in physics .................................................................................... 8
Relationship between physics and other subjects/disciplines ...................................................... 8
Career opportunities in physics.................................................................................................. 9
Basic Laboratory Rules and precautions ..................................................................................... 9
First aid measures................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 2: MEASUREMENT I...................................................................................................... 10
Length.................................................................................................................................... 11
Measurement of length ....................................................................................................... 11
Measurement of thickness/diameter of a wire ...................................................................... 12
Estimating length ................................................................................................................ 13
Area....................................................................................................................................... 13
Area of regularly shaped objects .......................................................................................... 13
Area of irregular-shaped surfaces......................................................................................... 14
Volume .................................................................................................................................. 14
Volume of regularly shaped solids ........................................................................................ 15
Volume of liquids ................................................................................................................ 15
Determining volume of irregularly-shaped objects ................................................................ 16
Mass ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Density................................................................................................................................... 18
Determining relative density of a liquid using a density bottle................................................ 19
Density of mixtures ............................................................................................................. 20
Time ...................................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3 : FORCE..................................................................................................................... 21
Effects of force on a body ........................................................................................................ 21
Types of forces ....................................................................................................................... 21
Gravitational force .............................................................................................................. 21
Tension............................................................................................................................... 21
Upthrust force..................................................................................................................... 22
Cohesive and adhesive force ................................................................................................ 23
Frictional force .................................................................................................................... 24

Magnetic force .................................................................................................................... 24
Electrostatic force ............................................................................................................... 24
Centripetal force ................................................................................................................. 25
Action and reaction force..................................................................................................... 25
Surface tension ................................................................................................................... 25
Mass and weight..................................................................................................................... 28
Scalar and vector quantities .................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 4 ; PRESSURE ............................................................................................................... 30
Pressure in solids (maximum and minimum pressure) ............................................................... 30
Pressure in liquids................................................................................................................... 31
Liquid levels............................................................................................................................ 32
Fluid pressure formula ............................................................................................................ 34
Transmission of pressure in liquids........................................................................................... 34
Atmospheric pressure ............................................................................................................. 36
Measurement of pressure ....................................................................................................... 38
Application of pressure in gases and liquids.............................................................................. 42
CHAPTER 5 : PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER........................................................................... 45
Evidences to show that matter is made up of tiny particles ....................................................... 45
Brownian motion.................................................................................................................... 46
Arrangements of particles in the states of matter ..................................................................... 47
Diffusion ................................................................................................................................ 48
Factors affecting rate of diffusion of a gas. ............................................................................... 50
Diffusion through porous materials;......................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 6 ; THERMAL EXPANSION ............................................................................................. 51
Expansion and contraction in solids ......................................................................................... 51
Linear Expansivity ................................................................................................................... 53
The Bimetallic strip ................................................................................................................. 54
Application of Expansion and contraction................................................................................. 54
Expansion and Contraction of liquids ....................................................................................... 56
The anomalous expansion of water.......................................................................................... 57
Effects of anomalous Expansion of water ................................................................................. 58
Molecular Explanation of Expansion......................................................................................... 58
Types of Thermometers .......................................................................................................... 59
Temperature Scale .................................................................................................................. 60

CHAPTER 7: HEAT TRANSFER ....................................................................................................... 62
Heat and Temperature ............................................................................................................ 62
Modes of heat transfer ........................................................................................................... 63
Conduction............................................................................................................................. 63
Factors affecting thermal conductivity ..................................................................................... 64
LAGGING ................................................................................................................................ 66
Thermal Conductivity In Liquids ............................................................................................... 67
Thermal conductivity in gases .................................................................................................. 67
Applications of good and poor conductors ............................................................................... 68
Convection ............................................................................................................................. 68
Convection in liquids ............................................................................................................... 68
Convection In Gases................................................................................................................ 69
Application Of Convection In Fluids .......................................................................................... 70
Radiation................................................................................................................................ 72
Emission And Absorption Of Radiation ..................................................................................... 73
Applications Of Thermal Radiation ........................................................................................... 75
The greenhouse effect......................................................................................................... 75
Solar heater ........................................................................................................................ 75
Thermos Flask (Vacuum Flask).............................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER 8 ; RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES .......................... 76
Sources Of Light...................................................................................................................... 76
Rays And Beams Of Light......................................................................................................... 77
Opaque, Translucent And Transparent Objects ......................................................................... 78
Rectilinear Propagation Of Light .............................................................................................. 78
Application............................................................................................................................. 79
Eclipse.................................................................................................................................... 80
The Pinhole Camera ................................................................................................................ 81
Reflection Of Light (Plane Surfaces).......................................................................................... 84
Laws Of Reflection .................................................................................................................. 85
Rotation Of A Mirror Through An Angle.................................................................................... 85
Formation Of Images By Plane Mirrors ..................................................................................... 86
Applications Of Plane Mirrors .................................................................................................. 87
CHAPTER 9: ELECTROSTATIC 1 ..................................................................................................... 89
Origin Of Charge ..................................................................................................................... 89

Basic Law Of Charges .............................................................................................................. 89
Charging Materials.................................................................................................................. 89
The Electroscope .................................................................................................................... 91
Uses Of The Electroscope ........................................................................................................ 93
Application Of Electrostatic Charges......................................................................................... 95
Dangers Of Electrostatics......................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER 10 ; CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS .................................................................................. 96
A Simple Electric Circuit........................................................................................................... 96
Electromotive Force And Potential Difference .......................................................................... 98
Arrangement Of Cell ............................................................................................................... 99
Conductors And Insulators .....................................................................................................102
Sources Of Electricity .............................................................................................................102
The Leclanche’ Cell .............................................................................................................105
The Dry Cell........................................................................................................................105
Secondary Cells......................................................................................................................106
Lead-Acid Accumulator ..........................................................................................................106
Alkaline Accumulators............................................................................................................108
FORM TWO WORK.....................................................................................................................109
CHAPTER 1 ; MAGNETISM ..........................................................................................................109
Properties of Magnets............................................................................................................109
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials ....................................................................................109
Properties of Magnetic field lines............................................................................................109
Magnetic Field Pattern...........................................................................................................110
Effect of soft iron rod and ring................................................................................................111
The Domain Theory................................................................................................................113
Methods of magnetisation .....................................................................................................113
Demagnetisation ...................................................................................................................115
Storing magnets.....................................................................................................................116
Hard and soft magnetic materials ...........................................................................................116
Application of magnets ..........................................................................................................116
CHAPTER 2 ; MEASUREMENT II ...................................................................................................117
Measurement of length..........................................................................................................117
Significant figures ..................................................................................................................121
Standard Form.......................................................................................................................122

Prefixes. ................................................................................................................................122
Decimal Places.......................................................................................................................122
The oil drop Experiment.........................................................................................................122
CHAPTER 3 ; TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE .................................................................................124
Turning effects.......................................................................................................................124
The principle of moments.......................................................................................................124
Parallel Forces .......................................................................................................................126
Anti-parallel forces (Equal parallel forces in opposite direction)................................................127
Application of anti-parallel Forces...........................................................................................129
CHAPTER 4 ; EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY ..................................................................130
Centre of gravity (C.o.G) .........................................................................................................130
States of Equilibrium..............................................................................................................133
Stable equilibrium ..............................................................................................................133
Unstable equilibrium ..........................................................................................................133
Neutral equilibrium ............................................................................................................133
Factors affecting stability of objects ........................................................................................134
Application of stability ...........................................................................................................134
CHAPTER 5 ; REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES .........................................................................134
Types of curved surfaces/mirrors............................................................................................134
Definition of terms.................................................................................................................135
Laws of reflection and curved mirrors .....................................................................................136
Ray Diagrams.........................................................................................................................136
Image formation and characteristics .......................................................................................138
Differences between real and virtual images ...........................................................................139
Graphical construction of ray diagrams ...................................................................................139
Linear Magnification (m) ........................................................................................................139
Expt 1: To determine the centre of curvature of a concave mirror ............................................140
Expt 2: To determine the focal length f of a concave mirror. .....................................................141
Relationship between f and r..................................................................................................141
The Mirror Formula................................................................................................................142
Applications of curved mirrors ................................................................................................143
Defects of spherical mirrors....................................................................................................144
CHAPTER 6 ;MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.......................................................144
Magnetic Field-pattern of a straight current-carrying conductor...............................................145

Rules for predicting direction of magnetic field in a straight conductor carrying current ............146
Magnetic field pattern of a circular current- carrying loop........................................................146
Magnetic field pattern of a solenoid carrying Current ..............................................................147
Rules of polarity of an electromagnet......................................................................................147
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet ..................................................................147
Force on current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field (motor effect) .....................................148
Application of electromagnets ................................................................................................150
CHAPTER 7: HOOKE’S LAW .........................................................................................................154
Factors affecting the spring constant ......................................................................................157
Compressing a spring .............................................................................................................157
Arrangement of springs ..........................................................................................................157
CHAPTER 8; WAVES ...................................................................................................................159
Types of waves ......................................................................................................................159
Characteristics of waves .........................................................................................................160
Phase and phase difference ....................................................................................................161
CHAPTER 9 ; SOUND ..................................................................................................................163
Sources of sound ...................................................................................................................163
Propagation of sound energy..................................................................................................164
Factors affecting velocity of sound in air..................................................................................165
Transmission of sound in solids, liquids and gases....................................................................166
Property of sound waves ........................................................................................................166
Application of reflection of sound ...........................................................................................167
CHAPTER 10 ; FLUID FLOW .........................................................................................................168
Types of flow .........................................................................................................................168
Shapes designed for streamline flow. ......................................................................................170
Deriving The Equation of Continuity ........................................................................................170
Bernoulli’s principle ...............................................................................................................172
Examples to illustrate Bernoulli’s effect...................................................................................173
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle ........................................................................................175
Hazards Of Bernoulli’s Effect...................................................................................................176

FORM ONE
CHAPTER 1; INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Meaning Of Physics
 Physics is the study of matter and its relation to energy.
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight.
 The study of physics allows one to understand and enjoy other subjects.
 As a subject, the study of physics involves measurement of quantities and collection of data.
 Through experimentation and observation, hypotheses are drawn, test and laws and principles
established.
Branches of physics/key areas in physics

1) Mechanics
 Involve the study of motions of bodies under the influence of forces. The types of
motion includes: linear, circular and oscillatory motions.
2) Electricity and Magnetism
 Deals with the relationship between the electric currents and the magnetic fields and
their applications e.g working with motors, magnetic relay, loud speaker etc
3) Thermodynamics
 Is the study of the transformation of heat from and to other forms of energy.
4) Geometrical optics
 Studies the behavior of light and its uses in optical instruments like telescopes,
microscopes, periscopes etc
5) Waves
 Propagation of energy and properties of waves such as reflection and refraction of
light are discussed.
6) Atomic/nuclear physics
 We study the atom and the energy changes in the nucleus during nuclear fission and
fusion.
Relationship between physics and other subjects/disciplines

1) Religion
 Systems in the universe reveal great orderliness which can be traced back to the
creator. Physics comes up with findings that are in total agreement with this
orderliness e.g rotation of the earth causing the sun to rise from east and set in the
west.
 Aquatic animals survive in cold water due to anomalous expansion of water.
2) History
 Carbon dating an application of radioactivity helps historian in establishing age of
fossils and hence study past patterns of life.
3) Geography
 Instruments used to measure weather e.g Thermometer, Wind vane and hygrometers
use the principles of physics in operation.
 Heat transfer by convection explains formation of convectional rainfall.

4) Home science
 Physics knowledge is applied in the design and manufacture of kitchen equipment
e.g pressure cookers, refrigerators, energy saving jikos etc.
5) Biology
 Knowledge of the lenses has helped in the making of the microscopes used to study
the cell.
 Also knowledge of levers helps explain locomotion in biology.
6) Chemistry
 Physics helps in explaining forces within atoms hence atomic structure which
determines reactivity of the atom in chemistry.
7) Mathematics
 Many concepts in physics are expressed mathematically e.g
Density =
8) Technology
 In medicine X-rays are used in diagnosis and treatment of diseases e.g cancer.
 Information technology has reduced the world to a global village through use of
satellites which relay information over very long distances in a very short time.
 In defense industry- wars can now be fought using bombs.
Career opportunities in physics

 Physics has a wide range of career opportunities and the following is a list of courses
offered at University and at college levels that require sound knowledge of physics.
1. Medicine
2. Nursing
3. Engineering e.g Civil engineering, Structural engineering, Electrical
engineering, Mechanical engineering, electronics, Chemical, Computer etc.
4. Computer science
5. Survey
6. Pharmacy
7. Dental Surgery
8. Education science
9. Laboratory technology
Basic Laboratory Rules and precautions

 A Laboratory is a room designed and equipped for conducting of experiments and practical
work in the course of studying science subjects.
 It contains basically gas piping, electrical energy supply network, water piping system,
various chemicals and apparatus.
 Basic rules and precautions includes;
i. Proper dressing must be observed.
ii. Location of electricity switches, firefighting equipment, first aid kit, gas supply and
water supply systems must be noted.
iii. Windows and doors must be kept open while working in the laboratory.
iv. Any instruction given must be followed carefully. Never attempt anything while in
doubt.
v. There should be no eating and drinking in the laboratory.
vi. Ensure all electrical switches, gas and water taps are all turned off when not in use.

vii. When handling electrical apparatus, hands must be dry. Do not splash water where
electrical sockets are located.
viii. Hands must be washed before leaving the lab especially after handling chemicals.
ix. Laboratory equipment should not be taken out of the laboratory.
x. All apparatus must be cleaned and returned to the correct location for storage after
use.
xi. Keep floors and working tables clean.
xii. Any wastes after an experiment must be disposed of appropriately.
xiii. Never plug in foreign objects into electrical sockets.
First aid measures

1) Cuts
 Results from poor handling of glass apparatus or cutting tools like razors and scalpels.
 In case of a cut, assistance should be sought to stop bleeding and for immediate dressing up of
the wound.
2) Burns
 Results from naked flames or concentrated acids and bases.
 In case of a burn, quickly run cold water over the affected part as you seek help for further
treatment.
3) Poisoning
 Results from inhaling poisonous fumes or actual swallowing of poisonous chemicals.
 Assistance should be sought immediately.
4) Eye damage
 In case an irritating chemicals lands in the eye, it should be washed off immediately with a lot
of cold water.
5) Electric shock
 Results from touching exposed wires or using faulty electrical appliances.
 In case of an electric shock, put off the main switch before treating for the shock.
CHAPTER 2: MEASUREMENT I
 Measurement is the process of using instruments to accurately find physical quantities.
 It is also defined as a process of comparing a quantity to a well-defined and agreed –upon
referent (unit).
 Due to undesirable unit of measurement, scientist agreed on one international system of units
to be used called the International System Of Units (SI Units).
 This system has seven basic physical quantities and units as shown.
Basic physical quantity SI Units Symbol of Units
Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamics temperature Kelvin K

Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance Mole Mol
 Basic Physical Quantity -This are quantities that cannot be obtained by any other quantity
e.g. mass, time, length.
 Derived Quantity-This are quantities obtained by multiplication or division of basic
physical quantities e.g. Area, Volume, Density.
Length
 Is a measure of distance between two points e.g Breadth, width, height, radius, depth and
diameter.
 SI unit is metre (m) but other units include mm, cm, dm, Dm, Hm and Km.
Measurement of length
 Can be determined by estimation or accurately using an instrument e.g a metre rule or a
tape measure.
 The factors that determine the choice of an instrument for measurement Include;
i. The level of accuracy desired.
ii. The size of the object to be measured.
Metre rule
 Graduated in cm and mm with the smallest unit of measurement of 0.1cm.

 When using a metre rule the following procedure are followed.
a) Place the metre rule in contact with the object.
b) Place one end of the object against zero mark on the scale.
c) Position your eye perpendicularly above the scale as shown

Reading metre rule
P 1 = 72.3cm
P 2 = 73.0cm
P 3 = 73.6cm
Tape measure
 They are of various types e.g tailors‟, carpenter‟s and surveyor‟s type used to measure length.
Measurement of curved length
 Curved length includes curved paths and circumference of objects like cylinders which can be
measure using a thread and then transferred to a metre rule.
EXPERIMENT: Measuring the circumference of a cylinder using a thread.
Apparatus ; A Cylinder, a thread and a metre rule.
Procedure
 Wrap a thin thread say 10 times around the cylinder

 Mark with ink the beginning and end of turns as shown
 The circumference of the cylinder will be given by;
Circumference =
 Other instruments used to measure length include a micrometer screw gauge and a vernier
calipers.
Measurement of thickness/diameter of a wire

 Make a number of turns, n, closely packed and measure the length L as shown.
The thickness of a wire, t, is given by

t = =
Estimating length
 It involves comparing the size of an object with a standard measure i.e the height of a tall tree
can be estimated by comparing it with that of a wooden rod whose length is known as
follows:
=
Example : In an experiment to estimate the length of a tree, the following reading were obtained.
Height of a rod = 180cm
Length of shadow of a rod = 116cm
Length of shadow of a tree = 840cm
Determine the height of the tree?
= H tree = 1303.4cm
Area
 Is the measure of a surface with SI unit in square metre (m2 )
Conversion of units
Unit Symbol Comparison with m2
1 kilometre square Km2 1000 000m2
1 metre square m2 1m2
1 centimetre square Cm2 0.0001m2
1 millimetre square Mm2 0.000 001m2
1 hectares Ha 10 000m2
Area of regularly shaped objects

 It is obtained by applying appropriate formulae.
Name Shape formular (area)
Square
A=LxL

Rectangle
A=LxW
Triangle
A= bxh
Circle
Area of irregular-shaped surfaces

 We trace their outline on the square paper of 1cm2 e.g.
Complete squares = ……………….cm2

½ incomplete squares = …………...cm2
Area = Complete squares + ½ incomplete squares.
Volume
 Is the amount of space occupied by matter.
 SI unit Is cubic metre (m3 ) but other units include mm3 , cm3 , ml, litres, dm3 .
Conversion of units
Unit Symbol Comparison with m3
1 kilometre cubed Km3 1000 000 000m3
1 metre cubed M3 1m3
1 centimetre cubed Cm3 0.000 001m3
1 litre L 0.001m3
1 millilitre ml 0.000 001m3

Measurement of volume
Volume of regularly shaped solids

Name Shape Volume
V = C area x height
cuboid = (ab) x c
= abc
V = C area x height
2
= ( )h
2
Cylinder = h
V = 3
sphere
V = C area x length
= bhl
Triangular prism
Volume of liquids
 Liquids have no defined shape but assume the shape of the containers.
 To obtain their volume, they are poured in regular containers with uniform cross-sections
and the volume calculated using appropriate formula as shown.
V = cross-section area x height

 Instruments for measuring volume includes: measuring cylinders, burettes, volumetric flask,
beakers and pipettes are used and are already marked (calibrated) in units of volume.
 A burette is designed to measure the volume of liquid removed from it where the readings are
upside down with zero at the top and 50cm3 at the bottom as shown
 NOTE: The scale of the Burette begins from zero at the top and increases
downwards to the maximum value e.g. a reading of 31.0ml on the burette means that volume
of the liquid is [50-31] ml.
 The instruments are made of glass or transparent plastics for easy visibility.
 When reading the volume using the measuring apparatus, the eye is positioned in level with
the bottom of the meniscus as shown.
Determining volume of irregularly-shaped objects
a) Using a measuring cylinder
Procedure
 Pour water into a measuring cylinder and record its volume as V 1.

 Lower an irregular solid e.g a stone slowly into the water until it is completely immersed.

 Record the new level of water as V 2
 The volume of solid V = V 2 V1
b) Using a sinker and a measuring cylinder
 Used for objects which are less dense than water to sink them
Procedure
 Take the initial reading V1 when only the sinker is immersed and V 2 for both the sinker and
the object completely immersed.
 The volume of the object V = V 2 – V1 .
c) Using Eureka can/ displacement can

 A Eureka or displacement can is a container with a spout from the side.
Apparatus; Eureka can, measuring cylinder, irregular object e.g. a stone, water
Procedure
i. Fill the Eureka can with water until it flows out of the spout.
ii. Place a measuring cylinder under the spout of the can.
iii. Tie the solid [irregular object] with a thread and submerge it gently inside the can.
iv. The result [water] collected to the measuring cylinder is the volume of the irregular object as
shown.

Mass
 Is the quantity of matter contained in a body with SI unit in kilogram while its symbol is m.
 Depends on its size and the number of particles it contains hence its constant everywhere.
Measurement of mass
 There are two common types of balances used to measure mass i.e the electrical and
mechanical type.
 An example of the electrical type is the top pan balance while mechanical type is the beam
balance and lever balance.
 In beam balance, the object is balanced against a known standard mass.
 The table below shows the relationship between the SI unit of mass (Kg) and other units.
Unit Symbol Comparison with Kg
1 tonne T 1000Kg
1 kilogram Kg 1Kg
1 gram G 0.001Kg
1 milligram Mg 0.000 001Kg
Density
 Is mass per unit volume, its symbol is rho ) and SI unit is Kg/m3
Density = ;
Measurement of density
 Density of solids are determined by the formula shown above i.e

 Deferent solids have deferent densities e.g copper is denser than aluminium.
 Relative density is the number of times a substance is denser than water.
If volume of a substance = volume of water, then

EXAMPLE
A Block of glass of mass 187.5g is 5cm long, 2.0cm and 7.5cm high. Calculate the density of the
glass block.
Solution
Density = =
3 3
=2.5g/cm or 2500kg/m
Determining relative density of a liquid using a density bottle

 A density bottle is a small glass fitted with glass stopper which has a hole through excess
liquid flows out.
Procedure
 Find the mass of the empty density bottle as m1
 Find the mass of bottle + liquid e.g spirit as m2

 Remove the liquid and fill the density bottle with water then find the mass of bottle + water as
M3
 Density of the liquid (spirit) is given by the formula;
Relative density = =
Precautions when using a density bottle
i. The bottle is held by the neck when wiping it dry to avoid expansion due to body wamth.
ii. The outside of the bottle must be wiped carefully.
iii. It must be ensured that there is no air bubbles when the bottle is filled with liquid.
Note.
 1g/cm3 = 1000Kg/m3
 If the density of mercury is 13 600kg/m3 , it means that 1m3 of mercury has a mass of
13600Kg.
Example;The mass of a density bottle is 20g when empty and 45g when full of water. When full of
mercury, its mass is 360g. Calculate the density of mercury.
SOLUTION

Mass of water = 45-20 =25g
Volume of water=25g/1g/cm3
=25cm3
Volume of bottle = 25cm3
Mass of mercury = 360-20 =340g
Volume of mercury= 25cm3
Density of mercury=340/25
=13.6g/cm3 or 13600kg/m3
Density of mixtures
 A mixture is a combination of two or more substances which do not react with one another.
 Density of the mixture lies between the densities of its individual substances depending on
proportions.
Example
100cm3 of fresh water of density 1000kg/m3 is mixed with 100cm3 of sea water of density 1030kg/m3 .
Calculate the density of the mixture.
Solution
Mass of fresh water= density x volume
=1g/cm3 x100cm3 =100g
Mass of sea water = 1.03 x 100 = 103g
Mass of the mixture= 100+103 = 203g
Volume of the mixture=100+100 =200cm3
Density of the mixture =203/200 = 1.015g/cm3
Time
 Is a measure of duration of an event.
 SI unit is second (s) while other units include minutes, hours, days, weeks years etc.
 Time is measured using either a stopwatch or stop clock depending on accuracy required.
 Modern stop watches are digital and preferred due to their easy to handle and read and also
are more accurate to measure small time interval.

CHAPTER 3 : FORCE
 Is a push or a pull on an object with SI unit in Newton (N).
 Has size (magnitude) and direction hence force is a vector quantity.
 It is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction in which it acts.
Effects of force on a body

1) Make a stationary object start moving or increase the speed of a moving object.
2) Slow down or stop a moving object.
3) Change the direction of a moving object.
4) Change the shape of an object.
Types of forces
Are classified into two main categories;
i. Forces that act on bodies which are not in contact (Non-contact forces)
1. Gravitational force
2. Electrostatic force
3. Magnetic force
4. Electric force
5. Molecular force
ii. Forces that act on bodies which are in contact (Contact forces)
1. Up thrust force
2. Friction force
3. Tension force
4. Centripetal force
5. Cohesive and adhesive force
6. Surface tension
7. Nuclear force
8. Action and reaction force
9. Impulsive force
Gravitational force
 Is the force of attraction between bodies of given masses.
 The force which pulls bodies towards the centre of the earth is called gravitational force of
the earth.
 The moon and every planet exerts its own gravitational pull on objects on it.
 The pull of gravity on a body is called weight.
 Weight of an object varies on different plants because planets have different gravitational
pull.
Tension
 Is the pull or compression of a string or a spring at both of its ends.
 Is the force created in a body as a result of two opposing forces applied at the ends of that
body.
 Stretching forces are applied in the use of bows and catapults. A compressed or stretched
object will tend to regain its original shape when the force is removed.

 Materials which can be compressed or stretched without breaking are called elastic materials
and may be used to make spring balances.
Upthrust force
 Is an upward force that acts on a body immersed in a fluid and make bodies appear lighter
while in fluid.
 A fluid is anything that can flow i.e liquids and gases.
Example;
An object weighs 80N in air and 60N when immersed in water. Calculate forceacting on the object.
Solution
Upthrust force = weight of object in air –weight of object in the liquid
=80-60 = 20N
Exercise;
1) An object weighs 100N in air and 26N when immersed in water. Calculate the
apparent loss weight of the object. Calculate also the mass of object in
water.(1Kg=10N).
2) 2kg blue band weighs 20N when placed in air .The apparent loss in water is 2N
.Calculate the mass of blue band in water.
Illustrating upthrust in liquids
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown to find the weight of the block in air and in water.
 The reading on the balance is larger in air than when the object is immersed in water.
 The apparent loss in weight of the object is due to upthrust force exerted by the liquid on the
object. i.e
Upthrust = weight in air –weight in liquid
 Upthrust varies from one liquid to another depending on its density.

Cohesive and adhesive force
 Cohesive is the force of attraction between molecules of the same kind e.g water molecules
and another water molecule.
 Adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of different kind e.g water and glass
molecules.
Demonstrating cohesive and adhesive force
a) Behavior of water on different surfaces
Procedure
 Using a dropper, place a few drops of water on a clean glass slide and a waxed one then
observe what happens.
Observation and explanation
 Water wets a clean glass slide due to greater adhesive forces than the cohesive forces as
shown.
 Water does not wet the waxed glasses (form spherical balls) due to greater cohesive force
than adhesive as shown.
 If mercury is used, small spherical balls are formed on the clean glass slide due to stronger
cohesive forces in mercury.
b) Using narrow tubes
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown.
 Due to greater adhesive force between water molecules and the glass in (a) above, the level of
water inside the tube is higher than that outside the tubes which curves upwards in the reading
level. Water thus rises up the tube so that more water is in contact with the glass (wets)
 Due to greater cohesive force than adhesive force in mercury, the liquid sinks down the tube
to enable its molecules kept together (does not wet the tube) and thus curves downwards from
the reading level i.e the level of mercury in the tubes is lower than outside.

Note;
 The narrow the tube, the stronger the forces hence the level of water in the narrow tube is
higher than in the wide tube and vice versa for mercury.
Frictional force
 Is the force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact
 It is caused by the interlocking of the surfaces and attractive force between the surface
molecules.
Advantage
 It helps in walking, writing, applying brakes in vehicles and lighting a match box.
Disadvantage
 It causes wear and tear, loss of energy and noise between moving parts of machines.
Ways of minimizing friction
i. Use of rollers.
ii. Greasing or oiling (lubrication)
iii. Smoothening surfaces.
iv. Use of ball bearings
v. Air cushioning (blowing air between two surfaces)
Note;
 The frictional force caused by a fluid is called viscosity (viscous drag)

 This force opposes the relative motion between solids and fluids or between a fluid and
another or between layers of liquids.
 Different liquids offer different viscosity due to their densities e.g glycerine has higher
viscosity than water.
Magnetic force
 Is the force of attraction or repulsion between the poles of a magnet.
 Like poles repel while unlike poles attract as shown.
 Materials that are attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials e.g Iron, Steel,
Aluminum etc while those that are not attracted are called non-magnetic material e.g copper,
glass, wood etc.
Electrostatic force
 Is the force of attraction or repulsion between electrically charged bodies.
 Attraction occurs between unlike charges while repulsion occurs between like charges.

Examples
 A plastic pen or ruler rubbed on a dry hair or fur picks up small pieces of paper lying on a
table when it‟s brought near them. (Charges are created on the pen and attract the pieces
of paper). The same pen or ruler attracts a stream of water from a tap. The rubbing creates
static charges
 When a glass window is wiped with a dry cloth on a dry day, dust particles are attracted on it.
Centripetal force
 Is the force that maintains a body to move in a circular path/orbit and is directed toward the
centre of the path. Examples include;
a. A stone whirled in a circle tied on a string.
b. Rotation of the earth and other planets.
c. Merry-go-round.
d. A car round a bend.
e. Separation of ghee from milk.
Action and reaction force

 Are equal and opposite forces which acts on a body
Examples
i. When a block is placed on a table, its weight (action) acts on a table pressing it downwards
but the reaction (opposite force) of the table acts on the block upwards as shown.
ii. A horse-pipe projecting water at a greater force causes the pipe to rotate in opposite direction
with equal force as shown.
iii. A bullet fired from a gun.
Surface tension
 Is the force which causes the surface of the liquid to behave like a stretched elastic skin.
 It is caused by the cohesive forces in liquid molecules.
Expts; To illustrate Surface tension.

1) A needle floating on wate r
Procedure
 Put a few drops of soap solution near the needle and note what happens.
 Depress the tip of the needle into the water and note what happens.
 The needle floats on the surface of water and remains floating so long as water surface is not
broken.
 When few drops of soap solution is put at end B, the needle quickly moves backwards toward
A since the surface tension at B has been reduced hence hence greater forces acting from end
A pulls the needle in opposite direction.
 When the set up is left for some time, the soap solution spreads all over the liquid reducing
the force hence needle finally sinks in water.
 The needle also sinks when you depress its tip into water since this pierces the surface skin
(breaks)
2) Behavior of soap bubbles
Procedure
 Dip the funnel in a soap solution and take it out and blow a soap bubble to the wide end as
shown.
 The soap behaves as if its surface is tightly stretched. When the funnel is hold with the bubble
downwards and the top open, the bubble flattens to a shorter film and rises up the funnel as
shown.

 This is because the stretched elastic skin tries to make its surface as small as possible hence
rises up.
3) Behavior of soap films using a thread and a wire
Procedure
 Make a loop of copper wire and dip the wire loop inside the soap solution and remove it when
it is filled with a film of soap as shown.
 In (b) above, the thread lies in any position in the film because the thread is being pulled on
both sides by equal forces of surface tension.
 When the upper side of the film is broken by touching, surface tension acts only on the lower
side of the thread.
 As the water tries to make its surface as small as possible, it pulls the thread downwards to
form a perfect curve.
4) A glass tumbler can be filled with water above the brim due to surface tension as
shown.
5) When a brush is in water, the bristles spread out but when taken out, they cling
together as shown.

Surface tension of different liquids
a) Surface tension of soap is less than that of water
 A match stick rubbed at one end with soap and placed on the surface of water starts moving
immediately in opposite direction since soap lowers surface tension as shown.
 The movement gradually weakens and stops when the whole surface of water is covered with
soap solution.
 Camphor has the same effect as that of soap.
b) Oil spreads on water
 A few drops of oil forms a circular patch when they fall on a clean water surface.
 Surface tension of oil is weaker than that of water thus oil is pulled outwards into a thin film.
Factors affecting surface tension
1) Impurities
 They reduce surface tension by weakening the cohesive forces between liquid molecules e.g
detergents.
2) Temperature
 Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of liquid molecules increasing the their
speed. The inter-molecular distance increases and the force of cohesion is reduced lowering
the surface tension.
Consequences/applications of surface tension
i. Water insects can rest on the surface of water and even skate across it at high speed without
breaking the surface.
ii. Mosquito larvae floats on the water surface.
Notes;
 Oiling water using kerosene lowers surface tension making the larvae sink thus oiling is used
in controlling the breeding of mosquitos .
Mass and weight

 Weight is the pull of gravity on an object and and is directed towards the centre of the earth.
 Due to the shape and rotation of the earth, weight varies from place to place.
 The earth is not a perfect square (flat at the poles) hence the distance from the centre of the
poles is shorter than to the equator making a body to weigh more at the poles due to greater
gravitational pull.
Relationship between mass and weight
 On the earth surface;

Weight = mass x gravity

W = mg
Where g is 9.8N/Kg or approximately 10N/Kg
Example
1. Find the weight of an object whose mass is 50 kg.
W=mg
50 x10 =500 N
2. Find the mass of an object whose weight is 900N
W =mg = 900/10=10/10M
M=90kg
3. An astronaut weighs 900N on earth .On the moon, he weighs 150 N
.Calculate the moon‟s gravitational strength. (g=10N/Kg)
M=w/g =900/10 =90kg
On moon, w=mg g=w/m
=150/90 =1.67N/Kg
Difference between mass and weight
Mass Weight
Is a quantity of matter in a body Is the pull of gravity on a body
Measured in Kilograms Measured in Newton
Same everywhere Changes from place to place
Measured using a beam balance Measured using a spring balance
Has magnitude only Has both magnitude and direction
Scalar and vector quantities

 A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude (size) only but no direction e.g mass,
Area, Volume, Length, Time etc.
 A vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction e.g Force, Velocity,
Displacement etc. It is represented on a diagram by a straight line with an arrow.
 The sum of two or more vectors is a resultant vector. When forces are acting in opposite
direction, the resultant vector is their difference e.g
Adding forces Resultant force

zero resultant force
THE END
CHAPTER 4 ; PRESSURE
 Pressure is the force acting normally or perpendicularly per unit area i.e

 The SI units of pressure is N/m2 or pascal (pa) but other units include mmHg, cmHg and
atmosphere (atm).
 The effect of force thus depends on the area on which it is applied and therefore a force
acting on a surface produces a penetrating effect which is larger when the force acts on a
small area.
Example
A force of 100N is applied to an area 100mm2 . What is the pressure exerted on the area in
Nm-2 .
Solution
Area; 100mm2 = 0.0000001m2 and Force = 100N
Pressure =F/A =100/0.0000001 = 1.0 x 10 9 Nm-2
Pressure in solids (maximum and minimum pressure)

 Consider a cuboid of dimension 50cm by 40cm by 20cm of mass 20Kg as shown
 The force the body exerts on a surface is equal to its weight i.e
Force = weight = mass x gravitational field strength (g) = 20 x 10 = 200N

= 20 x 10 = 200N
 Since pressure is high when the surface area applied is small and low when the surface area
applied is large then;
Maximum pressure =
= = 2500pa
Minimum pressure =
= = 100pa
Example
A block of wood measures 2cm by 3cm by 4cm and has a mass of 6 kg. Calculate;
a) Maximum pressure b) Minimum pressure.
a. A min =6cm2 =0.006m2 and F =60N
P max =60/0.006 =100,000Nm-2
b. A max =12cm2 =0.0012m2 and f = 60 N
P min = 60/0.0012 =50,000Nm-2
Revision question
a) A brick 20cm by 10cm by 5cm has a mass of 500g. Find maximum and
minimum pressure. (take g = 10N/kg)
b) How much force must be applied on a blade of length 4cm and thickness
0.1mm to exert pressure of 5,000,000 Pa.
c) A block of wood measures 3m by 6m by 2m and mass 3kg. Calculate

i. Maximum pressure
ii. Minimum pressure
Pressure in liquids
 Pressure in liquids depends on the following
i. Depth of the liquid
ii. Density of the liquid
 Pressure in liquids increases with depth and density.
EXPERIMENT: To show variation of pressure in liquids
Apparatus: A tall tin, nail and water
Procedure

i. Using the nail, make 3 holes A,B,C of the same diameter on a vertical line of one side of the
tin
ii. Fill the tin with water as shown below.
iii. Observe water jets from the holes A,B,C.
Observation
 The lower hole, A, throws water farthest, followed by B and lastly by c
Explanation
 The pressure of water at A is greatest than pressure at B and pressure at B is greater than
pressure at C. Hence , pressure increases with depth.
Note;
 Since pressure in liquids increases with depth, walls of dams is wider at the bottom than at the
top to withstand high pressure preventing the wall from collapsing as shown.
 It is also curved to increase the area of contact and reduce the pressure exerted on it.
Question
Explain why a diver at the bottom of the dam experiences greatest pressure
Solution; At the bottom of the dam depth is greatest and therefore the diver experiences greatest
pressure due to the weight above him.
Liquid levels
 When a liquid is poured into a set of connected tubes with different shapes, it flows to attain
the same levels as shown.

 The same happens for liquids in a U-tube as shown.
 This shows that the liquid flows to find its own level.
Investigating variation of liquid pressure with depth and density
Procedure
 Lower the funnel to different depths from the surface and notice the difference in levels h of
water in U-tube.
 Replace water in G with a denser liquid and observe what happens.
 Repeat the procedure with other funnels whose mouth points in different directions as shown.
Observation
 When the funnel is lowered into the cylinder, the level of water in the U-tube rises up the
right limb.
 The deeper the funnel goes, the greater the height h due to increased depth (pressure) exerted
on the funnel.
 When water in the cylinder is replaced with a denser liquid and the funnel lowered to the
same depths, the heights h obtained is higher than using water.

 At the same depths in a given liquid, the heights obtained is the same regardless of the
direction which the funnel faces.
Conclusion
 Pressure in liquids increases with depths below its surface.
 Pressure in liquids at a particular depths is the same in all direction.
 Pressure in a liquid increases with the density of the liquid.
Fluid pressure formula

 Consider a liquid in a container with uniform cross-section area A as shown.
Volume of the liquid = cross-section area x height

= Ah
Mass of the liquid = volume of the liquid x density ( )
= Ah
Weight of the liquid = mass of the liquid x gravitational field strength (g)
= Ah g
From definition of pressure, P = ; but Force (F) = weight of the liquid = Ah g, hence
Pressure, P =
=
=h g
Note;
 Pressure in liquid does not depend on the cross-section area of the container.
 The above formula also applies to gases where h is the height of the gas column.
EXAMPLE
a) A diver is 10m below the surface of water in a dam. If the density of water is
1000kg/m3 . Determine the pressure due to the water on the diver. (take g=10N/Kg)
Solution; Pressure = heg = (10 x 1000 x 10) = 100,000 N/m2
b) The density of mercury is 13600Kg/m3 . Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76cm
below mercury level.
Solution; Pressure =heg =0.76 x 13600 x 10 = 103,360 N/m2
c) Calculate the pressure due to water experienced by a diver working 15m below the
surface. (take g = 10N/kg and density of sea water = 1.03 g/cm3 )
Transmission of pressure in liquids

 Liquids are largely incompressible i.e their volume cannot be reduced by applying pressure
thus pressure applied at a point in a liquid is transmitted equally in all direction.
 This leads us to the principle of transmission of pressure in liquids (Pascal’s principle)
which states that pressure exerted at one part in an enclosed liquid is equally transmitted
to all other parts.

 Gases may also transmit pressure in the similar way when they are confined and
incompressible.
 Pascal‟s principle is applied in Hydraulic machines where a small force applied at one point
produces a much larger force at some other point of the liquid as illustrated in the
Hydraulic lift and Brake system.
Hydraulic lift
 The pressure exerted by force, F1 on piston S is transmitted throughout the liquid to piston L
which is to lift the load upwards.
Let pressure exerted by small piston S be P 1 and by larger pistol L be P 2 then;
P1 = and P2 =
Since, P1 = P2, then;
or
 The formula applies only if the pistons are at the same level.
 Hydraulic lifts are used for lifting cars in garages while hydraulic presses are used to
compress certain materials such as cotton bales into required shapes and sizes.
Example
a) Determine f2 in the figure below. Density of the liquid =800kg/m3 and g=10N/kg
P =P
A B
(60 x 10)/0.008 = (F2 /0.00025)+ (0.15 x 800 x 10)
0.00025(7500 -1200) = F2
F2 =18.45N
Hydraulic brake system

 Force applied on the brake pedal pushes the piston in the master cylinder producing pressure
which is equally transmitted to the pistons in the slave cylinder.
 This causes the pistons of the slave cylinder to open the brake shoe and hence the brake lining
presses the drum which resists the rotation of the wheel.
 When the force on the foot pedal is withdrawn, the return spring pulls back the brake shoe
which then pushes the slave cylinder piston back.
 The advantage of this system is that the pressure exerted in master cylinder is transmitted
equally to all the four wheel cylinders hence the braking force obtained is uniform.
Properties of the brake fluid.
a) Should be incompressible to ensure pressure exerted at one point is transmitted equally to all
other parts in the liquid.
b) Should have low freezing point and high boiling point.
c) Should not corrode the parts of the brake system.
Atmospheric pressure
 It refers to the pressure due to the weight of air on the surface of the earth.
 This pressure is not only exerted on the surface of the earth but over all the objects within the
atmosphere.
Demonstrating atmospheric pressure
a) Using a glass tumbler and a card
Procedure
i. Completely fill a glass tumbler with water and place a card board cover over its mouth.
ii. Slowly turn the glass tumbler in all directions as shown and observe what happens.

Observation and conclusion
 The card cover is prevented from falling by the air pressure thus air pressure acts in all
direction.
b) Using a tin container with a tight-fitting cork
Procedure
 Remove the cork from the container, pour in little water and boil.
 Replace the cork and allow the container to cool.
Observation and conclusion
 During cooling, the container crushes in.

 Steam from boiling water drives out most of the air inside the container as shown.
 When the cork is replaced, steam pressure inside the container balances the atmospheric
pressure outside.
 On cooling, the steam condenses creating a partial vacuum inside the container. Since
pressure inside the container is less than atmospheric pressure outside, the container crushes
in as shown.

Maximum column of liquid that can be supported by atmospheric pressure
 When water is sucked up a straw, the air pressure inside the straw reduces.
 The higher atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of water hence pushes the liquid up
the straw as shown.
 At sea level, the atmospheric pressure supports approximately 76cm of mercury column or
10m of water column.
Measurement of pressure
1) U-tube Manometer
 A manometer is an instrument that can measure fluid pressure.
 It consists of a u-tube filled with water or any other suitable liquid or gas as shown
Pressure at Z = Atmospheric pressure due to column of water
Pressure at X = pressure at Z
Pg = Pg
Pressure at Z = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to column of water
P g = P a + heg.
Since the density of water and gravitational force is known we can
determine pressure of a gas if the atmospheric pressure is known.
EXAMPLE
Suppose h=20cm, Pa = 103,000N/m2 and density=1000kg/m3, determine
the total pressure (Pg)

Pg =103,000 + (0.2 x 1000 x 10)
=105,000N/m2
2) Mercury Barometer
 Is an instrument used to measure air pressure.
 At sea level, a column of mercury and water supported by atmospheric pressure is
approximately 76cm and 10m respectively.
 Mercury is preferred for atmospheric pressure measurement ( as a barometric liquid) since it
gives a much shorter and measurable column.
 The height h of the column is a measure of the atmospheric pressure.

At sea level, h = 76cmHg
Since density of mercury is 13 600Kg/m3
Pa = h
= 0.76 x 13 600 x 10
= 103, 360N/m2
 This is the standard atmospheric pressure and is sometimes referred to as one atmosphere.
Examples
i. A girl in a school situated in the coast (sea level) plans to make a
barometer using sea-water of density 1030 kg/m3 . If atmospheric pressure
is 103,000 N/m2 , what is the minimum length of the tube that she will
require?
Solution;
P=heg
but p is atmospheric pressure
103,000=h x 1030 x 10
H=10m
ii. A sea diver is 35m below the surface of sea water. If the density of the
sea water is 1.03g/cm3 and g=10N/kg. Determine the total pressure on him.
Solution;
PT =Pa + h g
=103,000 + (35 x 1030 x 10)
=463,500N/m2
iii. The air pressure at the base of a mountain is 75cm of mercury while at
the top is 60cm of mercury. Given that the average density is 1.25kg/m3
and density of mercury is 13,600kg/m3 . Calculate the height of the mountain.
Solution;

Pressure difference due to column of air = pressure difference due to
mercury column.
h g=h g
a a m m
ha = hm mg/eag
ha=(0.15 x 13600 x 10)/(1.25 x 10)
=1632m
Testing the vacuum in a barometer
 If the barometer has air at the top, then it is faulty and thus the value of pressure indicated is
less than the actual value since the trapped air also exerts pressure on the mercury column.
 To test the vacuum, the tube is tilted as shown.
 If there is air in the tube, mercury will not fill the tube completel. If the space is a vacuum,
mercury fills the tube completely.
 The space above the mercury in the tube when upright is called Toricellian vacuum and
contains a little mercury vapor.
3) Fortin Barometer
 A Fortin Barometer is a more accurate form of the simple mercury barometer used to measure
air pressure where high precision is required.
 The readings obtained from the barometer are in terms of the height of mercury column
written as mmHg or cmHg.
 The atmospheric pressure P a when the mercury column is 760mmHg long is given as;
Pa = h
= 0.76 x13 600 x 10
= 103,360N/m2
4) Aneroid Barometer
 Is a portable type of barometer consisting of a sealed, corrugated metal box as
shown below.

 It is calibrated in millibars where 1 bar is a pressure of 100 000N/m2 i.e
1millibar (mbar) = 100N/m2
 The pointer would indicate a particular value of atmospheric pressure of the surrounding so
that any changes in pressure would be noticeable by movement of the pointer to either side of
this atmospheric value on the scale.
 Altimeters are basically aneroid barometers and are used in aircrafts to measure heights.
5) Pressure Gauges
 They are portable and used mostly for measuring gas pressure, tyre pressure, pressure of
compressed air in compressors and steam pressure.
 They are basically made of coiled flexible metal tubes which uncoil when pressure inside
increases.
 The movement of the tube is made to drive a pointer across a scale through a system of
combined system of levers and gears.
Example
The pressure of a car tyre, measured with a pressure gauge is 40N/cm2. What is
the total pressure of the tyre in Nm-2 .
Solution;
P Total =pa +gauge pressure
=103,360 + (40 x 10,000)
=503,360Nm-2
EXERCISE
1. The barometric height at sea level is 76cm of mercury while that at a
point on a highland is 74cm of mercury. What is the altitude (height) of

the point? Take g =10N/kg, density of mercury =13600kg/m3 and density
of air =1.25kg/m3 .
2. A student in a place where the mercury barometer reads 75cm wanted to
make an alcohol barometer, if alcohol has a density of 800kg/m3 , what is
the minimum length of the tube that could be used?
Application of pressure in gases and liquids

The bicycle pump
 A bicycle pump is a simple form of compression pump as shown.
 The leather washer acts as both an inlet valve as well as a piston.

 When the handle is pulled outwards, air moves into the cylinder past the edges of the washer
while the outlet valve (tyre valve) closes.
 When the piston is pushed inwards, the washer presses tightly against the walls of the barrel
(inlet valve closes).
 The trapped air is pushed through the outlet valve and into the tyre.
Rubber sucker
 Before it is used, it is moistened to get a good seal then pressed firmly on a smooth surface
so that the air inside is pushed outside which reduces pressure inside.
 The higher atmospheric pressure acting on the surface from outside hold it firmly on the
smooth surface as shown.
 Rubber suckers are used by printing machines to lift papers, lifting glass panes and heavy
metal sheets,
The lift pump
 It is used to lift water from a low level to a high level e.g a well.

 Before using a lift pump, water is first poured into the top of the cylinder so that a good air
tight seal is made round the piston and valve 2.
 During down stroke, valve 1 closes as water opens valve 2 and flows through the piston into
the cylinder above.
 During up stroke, reduced pressure in the cylinder bellow the rising piston allows the
atmospheric pressure to push up from the well past valve 1.
 As the piston moves up, it lifts water until it flows out of the spout.
 A lift pump cannot be used to lift water to heights greater than 10m due to the following
reasons;
i. It depends on the atmospheric pressure that can only support water to a maximum
height of 10m.
ii. Low atmospheric pressure in places high above sea level.
iii. Leakage at the valves and pistons.
The force pump
 The pump is used to raise water to heights more than 10m.

 It consists of two valves, a solid piston, two compartments A and B and an outlet tube as
shown.

 The pump I operated by moving the solid piston up and down using a lever system.
Advantages of a force pump over a lift pump
a) It enables continuous flow of water.
b) It can raise water to heights greater than 10m since it does not depend on atmospheric
pressure but instead depends on the following;
i. Amount of force applied during the down stroke.
ii. Ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand pressure of the long
column of water in the chamber B.
The siphon
 When a tube is used to empty tanks or draw petrol from petrol tanks, it is referred to as a
siphon.
 Pressure at B is atmospheric since B is on the same horizontal level as the surface A.

 Pressure at C is equal to atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to column h of the liquid i.e
P c = P a + h , where P a is the atmospheric pressure and the density of water.
 The excess pressure h (pressure difference) causes the liquid to flow out of the tube
continuously as long as the upper end A is below the surface of the liquid.
 The siphon will only work if;

i. The end C of the tube is below the surface A of the liquid to be emptied.
ii. The tube is first filled with liquid without any bubbles in it.
iii. One end of the tube is inside the liquid to be emptied.
iv. The tube does not rise above the barometric heights of the liquid from the surface A
of the liquid to be emptied.
Question
Explain why a person is likely to nose bleed on a high mountain?
Solution; reduced atmospheric pressure on high mountains causes high blood pressure inside the
body to push the blood out through the nose
THE END
CHAPTER 5 : PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass
 It exists in three states: solids, liquid and gas.
Evidences to show that matter is made up of tiny particles

1) Cutting a piece of paper into small pieces or grinding a piece of chalk into dust
particles.
2) Diluting of solutions.
3) Dissolving a solid in a solvent.
4) Brownian motion.
5) Diffusion
EXPERIMENT; To Demonstrate Dilution
APPARATUS: Beaker and potassium permanganate crystals
Procedure
i. Pour water into the beaker to half full.

ii. Dissolve the potassium permanganate crystals until the solution is purple.
iii. Transfer half of the solution to another beaker and add water
iv. Continue the process with other beakers, comparing the colour to each other.
Observation
 The process of dilution can continue until the solution appears colourless. This suggests that
the particles of potassium permanganate are spread evenly on water.
 As water particles increase, the particles of potassium permanganate are spread further,
making the purple colourless and less until it appears colourless as shown.

Conclusion
 Potassium permanganate is made up of tiny particles.
Dissolving a solid in a solvent
Procedure
a) Put some salt into a flask and add water carefully until it is full as shown.
b) Close the flask with a cork and shake to dissolve the salt.
Observation
 The volume of the solution of salt is less.
Conclusion
 Particles of salt are able to occupy some spaces between the water particles. This suggests
that the particles of salt differ in size.
 The particles of the solution pack more closely in the available space, thus reducing the
volume. This further suggests that particles of salt are broken down to fit into spaces
between water particles.
Brownian motion
 Is the random movement of particles in liquids and gases.
Demonstrating Brownian motion in liquids
Procedure
a) Fill the beaker with water ⁄ full and sprinkle the pollen grains on its surface.
b) Cover the beaker with a transparent lid as shown.
c) Observe the grains with the help of a hand lens

Observation
 Pollen grains are seen to be in a constant random motion. This is because they are being hit
continuously by the invisible particles of water which which also move in a random manner.
 A lens is used to magnify the particles.
Demonstrating Brownian motion in gases ( the smoke cell experiment)
Procedure
a) Burn one end of the straw and let the smoke fill the smoke cell from the other end and remove
the straw.
b) Cover the cell to close the smoke and air inside.
c) Illuminate the cell with bright light from the side and use a converging lens to focus the light
to the smoke cell.
d) Adjust the microscope until you can see bright specks against the grey background as shown.
 Bright specks are seen in continuous random motion.

 Bright specks are particles of smoke which scatter the light shining on them and so appear as
bright points.
 They move randomly due to uneven bombardment by the invisible particles of air which are
in random motion.
 This leads us to the kinetic theory of matter which states that matter is made up of very small
particles which are in constant random motion.
Arrangements of particles in the states of matter

Solids
 Particles have defined size (volume) and shape.

 Particles are closely parked together due strong cohesive forces between them.
 Particles vibrate to and fro from a fixed point.
 Increasing temperature increases the vibratory motion and forces of attraction are broken
down due to increased energy of the particles.
 Particles hence move apart changing to liquid state (melting).
Liquids
 Particles have defined size but no defined shape.

 Particles are far apart compared to solids.
 Particles move about in a Brownian motion.
 Cohesive forces between particles are weaker compared to solids.
 Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules thus they move
faster increasing the inter-molecular distances as it changes to gaseous state
(evaporation).
 Liquids can flow and take up the shape of the container weak cohesive forces.
Gases
 Particles have neither defined size nor shape but takes the shape and volume of the
container
 Particles are further apart than liquids with increased random motion.
 Cohesive forces are extremely small due to large inter-molecular distances hence it is
easier to compress a gas than a liquid.
 On cooling, gas particles lose some of their energy and falls back to liquid state
(condensation).
Diffusion
 Is a process by which particles spread from regions of high concentration to those of low
concentration.
Investigating diffusion in liquids
Procedure
i. Pour water into the beaker half-full.
ii. Pour saturated copper sulphate solution down the funnel slowly as shown.
iii. Remove the funnel carefully without disturbing the liquids and observe what happens.
 Initially water floats on top because it is less dense but after some time, the boundary
disappears and the two liquids forms a homogeneous uniform pale blue mixture.

 Water particles move from water layer into copper sulphate layer because it has greater
concentration of water molecules than copper sulphate solution.
 When hot liquids are used, the movement of the particles is faster due to the increased energy.
Diffusion in Gases
Demonstrating diffusion in gases
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown below.
 Remove the card board and observe what happens.
 Bromine gas spreads into jar B at greater speed than it returns to jar A due to high
concentration of bromine particles.
 Likewise, air particles spreads into jar A at greater rate than it returns to B due to high
concentration of air particles in B.
 A homogeneous pale brown mixture is formed in a very short time in the two jars as shown.
 When jars are held vertically, rate of diffusion is slowed down due to the densities of gases.
Less dense gas diffuse more faster than dense one.
Reasons why gases diffuse faster compared to liquids
i. They are lighter/ less dense.

ii. Have weak cohesive forces between molecules.
iii. Have high kinetic energy of the particles.
Diffusion in solids.
 It exceedingly slow but occurs when two metals are placed in contact with each other.
 The vibrating atoms break away from one metal to another though the process is speeded up
by high temperatures.
To investigate the rate of diffusion of ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas.

Procedure.
 Soak two pieces of cotton wool in conc. Hydrochloric acid and the other in ammonia.
 Insert the wools simultaneously at the opposite ends of the horizontal glass tube and cork.
 A white deposit of ammonium chloride forms on the walls of the glass tube in the regions
nearer end B as shown.
 This suggests that ammonia gas diffused faster compared to hydrochloric acid gas due to its
low density hence different gases have different rates of diffusion depending on their
densities.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion of a gas.

i. Mass or density of the gas
ii. Temperature.
iii. Concentration gradient.
Diffusion through porous materials;

 A porous pot has fine holes through which the hydrogen gas diffuses into the pot and air
diffuses out as shown.
 Bubbles observed shows that pressure inside the pot is greater than outside. This shows that
hydrogen diffuses faster into the pot than air diffuses out of it.
 When gas supply is stopped, hydrogen gas diffuses out of the pot through the fine holes at
faster rate than air gets back into the pot.

 This decreases the gas pressure in the pot compelling the atmospheric pressure acting on the
water surface in the beaker to push water up the tube as shown.
Revision question
1) Describe the difference between solids, liquids and gases in terms of;
i. Arrangement of particles/molecules.
ii. Distance separating molecules
iii. The movement of molecules
2) Explain why rotten eggs broken at one end soon spreads the room.
THE END
CHAPTER 6 ; THERMAL EXPANSION

 Thermal Expansion is the ability of a material to increase in size (expand) when heated.
 Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is also defined as the measure
of the kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance.
 Kinetic energy refers to the energy due to motion.
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K) but other unit is degrees Celsius ( 0 C)
 Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
Expansion and contraction in solids

 Metals and other solids expands (increase in size) when heated and contracts (decrease in
size) when cooled.
Demonstrating expansion and contraction of solids using a ball and a ring.
 Set the apparatus as shown below.
Note; The ball should just pass through the ring when both are at room temperature as shown.
 Heat the ball and try passing it through the ring.

 Leave it there for some time and observe what happens.

 When the ball is heated, it expands and it can not go through the ring.
 When left on the ring for sometime, its temperature decreases as it contracts. At the same
time, the ring expands as its temperature increases so that the ball goes through.
Why Solids Expands On Heating
 The molecules of a solid are closely packed together and are continuously vibrating in their
fixed positions.
 When a solid is heated the molecules gain more kinetic energy and therefore make larger
vibrations about their fixed positions.
 This increase in vibration meaning the molecules collide with each other with larger forces
and the molecules increases and so the solid expand.
Comparing expansion of different metals
 To compare expansion of different materials consider the set up below;

 One end of the metal bar is fixed while the other end is in contact with the pointer as shown.
 The metal rods must have the same length and diameter.
 Each rod is heated for the same time e.g 10minutes from room temperature and the pointer
deflects on the scale when the metal is heated due to expansion.
 Metals expand differently as shown by the deflection of the pointer. When allowed to cool,
the pointer goes back to the original scale reading.
The force due to expansion and contraction
 The force with which a solid expands when heated or contracts when cooled is usually
very large. This can be demonstrated using the arrangement shown below.

 When the steel bar is firmly bolted on the frame then heated strongly, the cast iron pin
breaks.
 The same is observed if the bar is bolted when hot and expanded then allowed to cool.
 This shows that very strong forces occur when metals expand and contract due to heating
and cooling.
 When expansion occurs in a material, there is increase in volume with no change in mass
hence decrease in density.
Linear Expansivity
 Is the measure of the tendency of a material to expand e.g Aluminium expands more than iron
thus has a higher expansivity.
Material Linear expansivity (K -1 ) x 10-6
Aluminium 26
Brass 19
Copper 16.8
Iron 12
Concrete 11
Steel 11
Glass 9
Platinum alloy 9
Silica 4.2
Pyrex 3.2
Invar 1
Application of linear expansivity
1) When hot water is poured into a glass tumbler made of ordinary glass, it is easy to break or
crack but not for a Pyrex one. Pyrex glass has low expansivity and will not suffer very large
forces of expansion.

2) Thick glass is likely to break than thin one because a glass is a pour conductor of heat hence
inner surface is heated faster than outer surface leading to non-uniform expansion.
3) In building construction, beams made from concrete are reinforced with steel since they
expand at the same rate preventing breaking (racking)
The Bimetallic strip

 Are two metals of different expansivity riveted together e.g Brass and Iron as shown.
 On heating, brass expands more than Iron thus becomes longer than Iron for the same
temperature range. The bimetallic strip hence curves with Brass on the outside of the curve.
 On cooling, Brass contracts more than Iron hence becomes shorter than Iron thus it ends up
being on the inner side of the curve.
Application of Expansion and contraction

1) Railway lines
 Expansion gaps are usually left when lying the railway lines to allow free expansion and
contraction as shown.
 The oval holes allow free expansion and contraction of rails.

 Alternatively, rails are welded under tension so that any expansion will only reduce tension in
the rails instead of causing it to bend.
2) Steam and hot water pipes
 Are usually looped as shown.

 The looped section allows for free expansion and contraction of the pipes preventing its
breakage.
3) Electric and telephone wires
 Are loosely fixed to allow free contraction during cold weather and free expansion when
warm as shown.
 When cold , they appear short and tight and when hot, the wires sag and appear longer and
slacken as shown.
4) Steel structures
 Steel structures such as bridges and roofs are fixed at one end while the other end rests on
rollers as shown.
 The end on the rollers provide the structure with room for expansion.
5) Rivets
 Thick metal plates and sheets are joined together by means of rivets. Rivets are fitted
when hot and hammered flat.
 On cooling, it contracts pulling the two plates firmly together as shown.
6) Concrete road/ floor

 Expansion gaps are left between the concrete slabs filled with tar which is easily compressed
by the expanding concrete as shown.
7) The Bimetallic strip

 It is used as a thermostat for maintaining a steady/ constant temperature in electric iron box,
fire alarm system, refrigerators and cookers by switching the current on and off.
 The figure shows a thermostat used for controlling the temperature of a room warmed up by
an electric heater connected at the terminals.
 When the room becomes warm, the Bimetallic strip bends curving away from the lower
contact. This breaks the contact and switches off the heater.
 On cooling, the Bimetallic strip bends closing up the gap between the contacts and the switch
is switched on again.
 The temperature at which thermostat switches the heater on and off is adjusted by the setting
knob.
 For high temperatures, the setting knob is adjusted to push the metal strip M such that the
contacts are tight together while for low temperature range, the adjusting knob is released so
that the position M is lowered.
Expansion and Contraction of liquids

Demonstrating expansion in water
Procedure
 Fill the flask with coloured water and arrange the apparatus as shown below.

 Mark the level of water in glass tube and heat the flask.
Observation
 The level of water in the glass tube falls at first and then starts rising.
Explanation
 On heating, the glass flask gets heated first and it expands lowering the level of water in the
glass tube. When heat reaches water , it expands and the level rises up again.
Note;
 Different liquids expand differently when heated at the same temperature.e.g methylated spirit
expands more than alcohol followed by water.
The anomalous expansion of water

 Normally, materials expand when heated and contract when cooled.
 Water however shows anomalous (unusual) behaviour in that it contracts when its
temperature is raised from 0o C to about 40 C and expands when cooled from about 4o C to 00 C.
 Water hence has minimum volume and maximum density at 40 C as illustrated in the graphs.
 At all other temperatures outside the 00 C to 40 C range, water expands on heating and
contracts on cooling just like any other substances.

Effects of anomalous Expansion of water
a) Freezing of lakes and ponds
 Water at 40 C being the most dense remains at the bottom of the lake while ice being less
dense than water floats on the layers of water at different temperatures as shown.
 Since ice is a bad conductor of heat, it insulates the water below against heat losses against
cold air above.
 Fish and other aquatic animals and plats can therefore survive by living in the liquid layers
below the ice.
b) Icebergs
 Is a big mass of submerged ice.
 Since ice is slightly less dense than water, it floats with only a small portion above the water
surface.
 The bigger portion that rests in water posses a great danger to ships and navigators.
c) Weathering of rocks
 When water in a crack in rocks freezes, it expands thus breaking the rock into pieces.
d) Bursting of water pipes
 Water pipes bursts when water flowing through freezes due to expansion.
Demonstrating expansion in gases
Procedure
i. Invert the flask with the glass tube dipped into water and warm the flask with your hands for
some time as shown.
ii. Remove your hands and let the flask cool while the tube is still inserted in water and observe
what happens.
 When hands are used to warm the flask, the level of water column inside the glass tube
drops and bubbles are seen at the end of the tube in water. This shows that air expands
when heated.
 On cooling, air inside the flask contracts and water rises up the glass tube.
Molecular Explanation of Expansion

Solids

 Particles are closely packed together by strong cohesive forces but vibrate at fixed points.
 When heated, vibration of particles increases resulting in increasing their distance from the
mean position hence increases in size (volume)
Liquids
 When heated, molecules in a liquid vibrate faster and over a larger space leading to greater
total volume of the liquid.
 Liquids have relatively high expansivity since the cohesion between their molecules are weak
and therefore easily overcome.
Gases
 Molecules do not vibrate but instead, their random motion is speeded up when heated.
This pushes molecules farther apart thus causing expansion.
 Gases have high expansivity since there is virtually no cohesion resisting their movement
apart.
Measuring Temperature
 An instrument used to measure temperature is called a thermometer.
Types of Thermometers
1) Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
 The liquid used must be;
i. Seen easily (visible)
ii. Expand and contract uniformly by a large amount over a small range of temperature I.e be a
good conductor of heat.
iii. Have a wide range of temperatures i.e have low melting point and high boiling point.
iv. Not stick to the inside of the tube (should not wet the inside of the tube)
 Mercury and alcohol are the most preferred to be used as thermometric liquids.
Comparisons on the properties of mercury and alcohol
Alcohol mercury
Low boiling point, 780 C High boiling point, 3570 C
Low melting point, -1150 C Relatively high melting point, -390 C
Poor thermal conductor good thermal conductor
Has slightly irregular expansion Expands regularly
Wets glass Does not wet glass
Transparent, has to be coloured to make it easily Opaque and silvery

visible
QUESTION
1) Explain why water is not used as a thermometric liquid?

2) Give a reason why alcohol is used in arctic regions.
 Has lower melting point and hence can measure temperatures less than -390 C
Temperature Scale
 A temperature scale is obtained by selecting two fixed points and the range between
this two points divided into equal number of division.
 On Celsius scale, lower fixed point is obtained by inserting the thermometer into pure
melting ice at 00 C since impurities in ice would lower its melting point.
 The upper fixed point is found by placing the thermometer above the boiling water
(in steam temperature) and taken as 1000 C. Temperature of boiling water itself is not
used because any impurity in water would raise its boiling point while steam on the
other hand is not affected by impurities.
Features Of A Common Laboratory Thermometer
Bulb
 It holds the liquid.

 It is thin walled to increase the sensitivity of the thermometer i.e effective heat
transmission between the liquid inside and the body whose temperature is to be taken.

Capillary bore
 Liquids expand and contract along the bore.

 It is narrow for high degree of accuracy.
Glass stem
 It is a thick glass surrounding the bore.

 It also serves as a magnifying glass for easy reading of the scale.
Celsius and Kelvin Scale
 Absolute zero (the lowest temperature in Kelvin scale) is the temperature at which the energy
of the particles in a material is Zero.
 To change o C to Kelvin, add 273 and to change temperature in Kelvin to degrees Celsius,
subtract 273 i.e T = + 273, where T is the temperature in the Kelvin scale and the
temperature on the Celsius scale.
 Temperature in the Kelvin scale cannot have a negative value because the absolute zero (0K)
is the lowest temperature attainable.
Example
Convert 25o C in Kelvin

T = (25 + 273)
= 298 K
2) Clinical Thermometer
 It is used for measuring human body temperature.
 Its temperature range is about 350 C-430 C, which makes it suitable since temperature of a
healthy person is about 370 C.
 When taking the temperature of a body, mercury expands forcing its way past the
constriction.
 When the thermometer is withdrawn from the body, it cools and contracts‟ breaking the
mercury thread at the constriction and mercury beyond the constriction is used to show the
body temperature.
 After the thermometer has been read, mercury is returned to the bulb by a simple flick
(shaking)
 The constriction is used to hold the mercury fro returning back to the bulb for reading to be
taken.
 Methylated spirit is used to sterilise the thermometer.
 Boiling water may cause the liquid to expand beyond the tube causing it to break hence its
temperature should not be measured using the clinical thermometer.
3) Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer.
 It is used to record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached in an area in a
specific period of time e.g a day.

 When it‟s hot, alcohol in a bulb Q expands and pushes mercury up the right limb of
the U-tube hence index A moves up.
 The lower end of the index A indicates max temperature reached.
 When temperature falls, alcohol in bulb P contracts and mercury is pulled back rising
up to the left side of the tube.
 Index B is pushed upwards and minimum temperature read from its lower end.
 To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used to return the steel indices to the mercury
surfaces.
 Other types of thermometers include; The Bimetallic thermometer, Gas thermometer,
electronic thermometer, Resistance Thermometer and the Thermocouple
Thermometer.
THE END
CHAPTER 7: HEAT TRANSFER

Heat and Temperature
 Heat is a form of energy which passes from a body at high temperature to a body at a lower
temperature.
 When a body receives heat energy its temperature increases whereas the temperature of a
body that gives away energy decreases.
 Thermal equilibrium- Condition when two bodies at the same temperature are in contact,
there is no net flow from one body to the other.
 The SI unit of heat is joules. Heat cannot be measured directly by an instrument but
temperature is measured by a thermometer.
Question;
Give three differences between heat and temperature.

Modes of heat transfer
 Heat can travel through a medium and also in a vacuum.
 There are three (3) modes of heat transfer namely;
i. Conduction – takes place in solids.
ii. Convection – takes place in fluids (liquids and gases).
iii. Radiation – takes place in gases (vacuum)
Conduction
 In stirring a hot tea the handle of a spoon becomes warm. The mechanism to this is explained
below,
 Heat energy entering the spoon from the hot end increases vibrations of the atoms at
this end. These atoms in turn collide with neighbouring atoms, increasing their
vibrations and hence passing the heat energy along.
 Metals have free electrons which travel throughout the body of the metal. Heat
energy injected at the hot end of the metal spoon increases the vibration of the
particles at the end. The free electrons in that region gain more kinetic energy and
because they are free to move, they spread heat energy to the other parts of the spoon.
Thermal conductivities of various conductors
 Different materials have different thermal conductivities. Metals are generally good
conductors of heat. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat (insulator).
 Solids that are good conductors of heat use both atom vibration and free electrons to conduct
heat.
 Solids that are poor conductors of heat like glass, wood, rubber make use atom vibration as a
mechanism to conduct heat because they have no free or mobile electrons.
 The table below shows some of the good and poor conductors in decreasing order of thermal
conductivity.
NOTE: During thermal condition, heat flows through the materials with the material shifting or
flowing. Conduction is therefore transfer of heat as a result of vibration of particles.
Conductivity of wood and iron rods
 Set the apparatus as shown

 The paper gets charred (blackened) on the region covering the wooden rod. This is because
the wood does not conduct heat from the paper. Wood is said to be a bad conductor of heat
while iron is a good conductor.
Factors affecting thermal conductivity

 Thermal conductivity in materials depends on the following factors;
a. Temperature difference( between the ends of the conductor.
b. The length of the conductor.
c. The cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor.
d. The nature of the material (K)
Temperature difference
To demonstrate how temperature difference ( affects thermal conductivity
 Set the apparatus as shown.
Observation
 The rod placed in the flame becomes too hot faster than the one placed in the boiling water.
Explanation
 The rate of heat flow (thermal conduction) increases with increase in temperature.
 Thermal conduction in metals is by two mechanisms i.e. vibration of atoms and by free
electrons.
 A high temperature difference between the ends of the conductors sets the atoms into
vibrations more vigorously and the vibrations are passed more quickly to the cooler end.
 The electrons on the other hand gain a lot of kinetic energy causing them to spread the heat
energy to cooler parts of the metal within a short time.
Length of the conductor
 Consider the set up below

Observation
 The end of metal B held in hand becomes too hot earlier than metal A. Thermal conductivity
increases with decrease in length.
Explanation
 Heat travels within a conductor along imaginary lines called lines of heat flow.
These lines diverge from the hot end as shown
 The graph of temperature (Ѳ) against length (l) is as shown.
 When the heat energy gets to the surface of the metal it is easily lost to the surroundings.
 The slope of the graph in the above figure is steeper at A (near the hot end) than at B further
away indicating that the shorter the length of the material, the higher the rate of heat flow.
The cross-sectional area of the conductor
 Consider the set up below,
Observation
 The end of metal A held in the hand becomes too hot earlier than metal B.

 Thermal conductivity increases with increase in area of cross-section of the conducting
material.
Explanation
 The number of free electrons per unit length of the thicker length A is more than those in the
thin metal rod B.
The nature of the material K/Type of the material
 To demonstrate how the type of the material K affects thermal conductivity, consider the
diagram below,
Observation
 The end of copper rod held in the hand becomes too hot earlier than iron rod. This shows that
thermal conductivity depends on the nature of the material.
Explanation
 Different materials have different strength of force bonding the atoms within the material.
The number of free electrons also differs from one material to another material.
 Materials with many free electrons are better conductors of heat e.g. copper has
more free electrons than iron.
Rate of heat flow =
LAGGING
 This is the covering of good conductors of heat with insulators to reduce heat loss through
surface effects. For example, iron pipes carrying hot water from boilers are covered with thick
asbestos material.
 The figure below shows lines of heat flow in a lagged metal bar.
 A graph of temperature (ѳ) against the position along the lagged conductor is as shown below.

Thermal Conductivity In Liquids
 To demonstrate that water is a poor conductor, consider the set up below
 Water at the top of the boiling tube boils while ice remains unmelted. This shows that water is
a poor conductor.
NOTE:
i. The boiling tube is made of glass (poor conductor of heat) which limits possible conduction
of heat down the tube.
ii. The ice is wrapped in wire gauze to ensure it does not float.
iii. The fact that the wire gauze is a good conductor of heat and yet ice remained unmelted shows
that there is very little heat conduction in water, unable to melt the ice.
iv. Water is heated at the top to eliminate possibility of heat transfer to the ice by convection.
 Although liquids are generally poor conductors of heat, some liquids are better heat
conductors than others e.g. mercury is a better conductor of heat than water.
Why liquids are poor conductors of Heat
 Pure liquids have molecules further apart from each other. Although molecules move about
within the liquid, they are slow to pass heat to other regions compared to the free electrons in
metals due to large intermolecular distances between liquid molecules.
 There are also fewer and rare collisions between the molecules.
 Electrolytes e.g. salt solution, are better conductors of heat than pure liquids because of
increased compactness of the particles.
 Mercury is a metal existing as a liquid at room temperature. Bromine, the only non-metal
existing as a liquid at room temperature, is a poor conductor.
Thermal conductivity in gases

 Since thermal conductivity is by means of vibration of atoms and presence of free electrons,
gases are worse conductors of heat because of large inter- molecular distance.

 A match stick held within the unburnt gas region of a flame cannot ignited by the heat from
the hot part of the flame. This is because gas is a poor conductor of heat.
Applications of good and poor conductors

i. Cooking utensils, soldering irons and boilers are made of metals which conduct heat rapidly.
For cooking utensils, the handles are made of insulators such as wood or plastic. Metal pipes
carrying hot water from boilers are lagged with cloth soaked in a plaster of Paris to prevent
heat losses.
ii. Overheating of integrated circuits (ICs) and transistors in electronic devices can drastically
affect their performance. Such components are fixed to a heat sink (a metal plate with fins) to
conduct away undesired heat. The fins increase the surface area of heat sink and conduct
more heat away to the surrounding.
iii. Fire fighters put on suits made of asbestos material to keep them safe while putting out fire.
iv. Birds flap their wings after getting wet as a means of introducing air pockets in their feathers.
Air being a poor conductor reduces heat loss from their bodies.
v. In modern buildings where desired inside temperatures is to be stabilised, double walls are
constructed. Materials that are good insulators of heat and can trap air put between the walls.
Examples of such materials that are glass, wool (fibre glass) and foam plastic.
vi. Air on its own may not effectively give the desired insulation because it undergoes
convection. Double glazed windows used for the same purpose have air trapped between two
glass sheets.
vii. In experiment involving heating water or liquid, the beaker is placed on the wire gauze. The
gauze is heated and spreads the heat to a large area of the beaker. If the gauze is not used, heat
from the Bunsen burner may concentrate on a small area and may make the beaker crack.
Convection
 Convection is the process by which heat is transferred through fluids (liquids and gases).
 The heat transfer is by actual movement of the fluid called convection currents, which arise
out of the following;
a. Natural convection – It involves change in density of the fluid with temperature.
b. Forced convection – Mixing of hot and cold parts of the fluid through some external stirring
like a fan or pump.
Convection in liquids
To demonstrate convection in liquids the set up below is used

Observation
 A purple colourisation rises up from the potassium permanganate, forming a loop.
Observation
 The colourisation arising from the potassium permanganate flow in clockwise direction
 From the experiments, it is clear that when a liquid is heated, it rises while cold liquid
replaces it.
Explanation
When a liquid is heated, it expands and this lowers its density. The less dense liquid rises and its place
is taken by more dense colder liquid. This movement of liquid forms convection currents
Convection In Gases
 To demonstrate convection currents in gases, consider the set up below
Observation
 Smoke is sucked into the box through chimney A and exists through chimney B. When the
candle is put off, the smoke is not drawn into the box.
 This shows convection currents are set up when air or gas is heated.
Explanation
 The candle heats up the air above it, which expands and rises up because of lower density.
Cold heavier air particles is drawn into chimney A, carrying along the smoke which replaces
the air that is escaping through chimney B.

Molecular explanation of convection in fluids
 Molecules in fluids are further apart and have negligible cohesive force. Heating a fluid
increases the kinetic energy of the vibrating molecules and their random movement.
 As the fluid rises, these molecules pass energy to the molecules in the colder regions which
have less energy. Because the molecules are further away from the heating source, their
temperature is reduced.
 Pressure near the heating source decreases because of the depletion of molecules as they rise.
Colder molecules move into the low pressure zone to fill up the void being created.
Application Of Convection In Fluids

1. Domestic hot water system
 Initially, the two beakers A and B have cold water. Water in beaker A is coloured to
distinguish it from that in beaker B.
 When the water in beaker A is heated, it is observed to rise up through tube X and emerges on
top of cold water in beaker B. The cold water flows down from beaker B to beaker A.
 As long as heating continues, there will be movement of hot water into beaker B and cold
water will flow down into beaker A.
 The hot water rises up because of the effective lowering of density. The force of gravity helps
the cold water to flow down from the cold tank.

 The hot water tap and expansion pipe are connected to the upper region of the cylinder. The
expansion pipe is an outlet for excess water that could have resulted from overheating.
 Once the cold water flows down the cylinder, the main pipe allows more cold water to flow
into the tank.
 When filled to capacity, the ball cork floating on water closes a valve in the main pipe,
stopping further in flow of cold water.
 An overflow pipe lets out water from the cold tank when the valve is not sufficiently
functional. Lagging is done on the pipe that conveys hot water to minimise heat losses.
2. Ventilation
 This is the supply of fresh air into the room.

 Air expelled by the room occupants is warm and less dense. It rises up and escapes through
the ventilation holes. Cold fresh air flows into the room to replace the rising warm air. The
room gets continuous flow of fresh air.
NOTE: Some devices are fitted with air conditioning devices which cause forced convection of air,
giving out cold dry air and absorbing warm moist air.
3. Car Engine Cooling System
 Heat conduction and convection play a very crucial role of taking away heat from a car
engine that would reduce its efficiency.
 The engine is surrounded by a metal water jacket that is connected to the radiator. The metal
surface conducts heat away from the engine. This heats up the water, setting up convection
currents.
 The hot water is pumped into the radiator which has thin copper fins that conduct away heat
from water. Fast flowing air past the fins speeds up the cooling process.
4. Land And Sea Breezes
 This is a natural convection of air, and occurs at sea shores because of temperature difference
between the mass of water and the land.

 The mass of water takes longer time than land nearby land by the same temperature from the
sun. Water also takes a longer time to cool than the land after being raised at the same
temperature.
 During the day, the land heats up much faster than the sea. The air just above the land gets
heated up and rises because of reduced density. Cold air above the sea blows towards the land
to replace the void created by warm air rising. This is called sea breeze.
 In the evening, temperature of the sea water is higher than that of the land. The air above the
sea gets heated up and rises. Cold air from the land blows to the sea. This is called land
breeze.
Radiation
 Heat from the sun to the earth reaches us by radiation. Thermal radiation is heat transfer
through a vacuum.
 All bodies absorb and emit radiation. The higher the temperature of the object, the greater the
amount of radiation
 A body emitting thermal radiation can also emit visible light when it is hot enough.
 An electric bulb in a room produces both light and radiant heat. The radiant heat is absorbed
by the materials in the room, which in turn give out radiant heat of lower energy.
Nature Of Radiant Heat
 To demonstrate the radiant heat Consider light rays travelling from sun light to hand lens as
shown,
Observation

 When light rays are focussed onto the paper, it burns out.
Explanation
 Radiant heat, like light can be concentrated to a point using a lens. Thermal radiation is a
wave like light and can be reflected. Because of the nature of production, radiant heat is an
electromagnet wave which causes heating effect in objects that absorb it.
 Radiation can also be described as the flow of heat from one place to another by means of
electromagnetic waves.
Emission And Absorption Of Radiation

 To compare radiation from different surfaces (shiny and black surfaces), Consider the set up
below,
 Water in the two tins is heated to a certain temperature say 800 C.

 The temperatures of the two tins taken after sometime.
Observation
 After sometime, it is noted that the temperature recorded by TB is lower than that recorded by
TS.
Explanation
 The experiment shows that black surfaces are better emitters than shiny surfaces. A graph of
temperature against time for temperatures recorded by each Thermometer is shown as;
The graph shows water in a shiny tin lost heat less rapidly than the blackened tin (good emitter).

To compare absorption of radiant heat by different surfaces
Set up the apparatus as shown
Observation
 The cork fixed on the dull/black surface falls off after the wax, melts, while the cork
polished/shiny plate remains fixed for a longer time.
Consider also the set up below,
Observation
 The thermometer TB immersed in water in the blackened tin records higher reading than that
of thermometer TS, when the heater is placed mid-way between tin A and tin B.
 A graph of temperature (o C) against time (minutes) is as shown,
 The graph shows that temperature of water in the polished tin does not increase as fast as
temperature of water in blackened tin.

Explanation
 Black surfaces are good absorbers of radiant heat than polished surfaces.
NOTE: Good absorbers of radiant heat are also good emitters while poor absorbers of heat are
also poor emitters.
 Poor emitters of heat are also good reflectors.
Applications Of Thermal Radiation

 Kettles, cooking pan and iron boxes have polished surfaces to reduce heat lose through
radiation.
 Petrol tanks are painted silvery bright to reflect away as much heat as possible.
 Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted with bright colours to reflect away
heat, while those in cold areas have walls and roofs painted with dull colours.
 In solar concentrators, the electromagnetic waves in form of radiant heat are reflected to a
common point (focus) by a concave reflector. The temperature at this point can be sufficiently
high to boil water as shown
The greenhouse effect

 A green house has a glass roof through which radiant heat energy from the sun passes. This
heat is absorbed by objects in the house, which then emit radiation of lower energy that
cannot penetrate through glass.
 The cumulative effect is that temperature of the houses increases substantially.
 Greenhouses are used in providing appropriate conditions for plants in cold regions.
NOTE: Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants in the lower layers of the atmosphere show the
same properties of glass, raising the temperature on earth to dangerous levels.
Solar heater
 The solar heater uses solar energy to heat water. The solar heater consists of a coiled
blackened copper pipe on an insulating surface. Radiant heat from the sun passes through
glass and is absorbed by black copper pipes that contain water, which is heated up. (Klb
figure 7.33 a)
 Copper pipes are used because they are good conductors and they are painted black to
increase their absorbing power. Lower energy emitted after absorption of radiant energy does
not escape because it cannot penetrate the glass.
 The temperature of the air above the pipe thus increases boosting the heating of water. A good
insulating material is used at the base.

Thermos Flask (Vacuum Flask)
 A thermos flask is designed such that heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
between the contents of the flask and its surrounding is reduced to a minimum.
 The vacuum is a double walled glass vessel with a vacuum in the space between the walls to
minimise the transfer of heat by conduction and convection.
 The inside of glass walls, in the vacuum side, is silvered to reduce heat losses by radiation
(Poor emitter and absorber). The felt pads on the sides and at the bottom support the vessel
vertically.
 The heat loss by evaporation from the liquid surface is prevented by a well-fitting cork.
THE END
CHAPTER 8 ; RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION AT

PLANE SURFACES
 Light is a form of energy that enables us to see the surrounding objects.
 Light itself is not visible but its effect is felt by the eye.
 Light is also very essential as a source of energy for the process by which plants make their
own food (photosynthesis).
Sources Of Light
1) Luminous (incandescent) source – these are objects that produce their own light e.g. sun,
stars, burning candles, wood or charcoal, electric bulbs, television screens, glow worms e.t.c.

2) Non-luminous source – these are objects which do not produce light of their own. They
are seen when light falling on them from luminous sources is reflected (bounces off their
surfaces) e.g. the moon, planets, plants, people, books, walls, clothes e.t.c.
Rays And Beams Of Light

 A source of light produces pulses of energy which spread out in all directions.
 The path along which light energy travels is referred to as a ray of light. Rays are represented
by lines with arrows on them to show the direction of travel.
 A stream of light energy is called a beam. It is also considered to be a bundle of rays of light.
Beams of light can be seen;
i. In the morning as the sunlight breaks through the clouds or leaves.
ii. When a spotlight is shown in a smoky room or a car driven along a dusty road at night with
its headlamps on.
i. When sunlight streams into a smoky dark room through a small opening
Types Of Beams Of Light
a) Diverging beam
b) Converging beam
c) Parallel beam
a) Diverging beam
 These are beams of light that appear to spread out (diverging) e.g. light from a spotlight.
b) Converging beam
 These are beams which appear to collect (converge) to apoint.
c) Parallel beam
Are those beams which appear to be perfectly parallel to each other e.g. beam of light from the
sun reaching the earth‟s surface.

Opaque, Translucent And Transparent Objects
Opaque – these are objects that do not allow light to pass through them at all e.g. brick walls, metals,
wood, stones e.t.c.
Translucent – these are objects that allow light to pass through but we cannot see through e.g. glass
panes used in toilets and bathroom window and greased paper.
Transparent – these are objects which allow light to pass through and we see clearly through them
e.g. car wind screen and ordinary window panes.
Rectilinear Propagation Of Light

 Light does not need a material medium to carry it. In a vacuum, the speed of light is 3.0 x
108 m/s.
 When light falls on an opaque object, it casts a shadow of the object with sharp edges on a
screen behind it. This suggests that light travels in a straight line.
To investigate how light travels
Apparatus: three cardboards, source of light.
procedure
 Arrange the apparatus such that holes are exactly in line as shown.
Observation
 When the holes in the three cardboards are in line, the eye can see the lamp. However when
the middle cardboard is displaced, the eye can no longer see the lamp.
Explanation
 When the holes in the cardboards are in a straight line, light travels through the holes and the
lamp is seen from the other side.
 When one of the cardboards is displaced, the beam of light is cut off and since light cannot
bend to follow the displaced hole, the lamp cannot be seen.
Conclusion
 Light travels in a straight line. This property is known as rectilinear propagation of light.
Shadows

 Shadows are formed when an opaque object is on the path of light. The type of shadow
formed depends on;
a) The size of source of light.
b) The size of opaque object.
c) The distance between the object and the source of light.
To study the formation of shadows by a point source of light
 Consider the set up below
Observation
 The centre of the shadow remains uniformly dark as before, but smaller in size.
 The shadow is edged with a border of partial shadow called penumbra.
Explanation
 The centre of the shadow still receives no light at all from the source. Light from some parts
of the extended source of light reaches the centre parts of the shadow on the screen, but light
from other parts is cut off by the opaque object, resulting in a partial shadow at the edges.
NOTE: Extended light source produce light that is much softer and without sharp edges.
Application
 It is used in frosted light bulbs and lamp shades to provide a more pleasant lighting with less
sharp edges.
To study the formation of shadows by extended (larger) source of light when object distance is
changed
 Consider the set ups below,

Observations
 When the ball is moved closer to the source, a ring of penumbra is formed. No umbra is seen.
 When the ball is far away from the source, there is umbra surrounded by penumbra.
Explanation
 The centre of the shadow receives light from the extended source. Since the object (ball) is
smaller than the source of light, its umbra does not reach the screen because of the distance.
 When the object is moved away from the source, the tip of the umbra reaches the screen.
Eclipse
 An eclipse is a phenomenon of shadow formation which occurs once in a while.
 It‟s the total or partial disappearance of the sun or moon as seen from the earth.
The Phases Of The Moon
 At any given moment, about half the surface of the moon is lit by the sun while another half is
in darkness.
 The lighted part is bright enough to be seen easily at night from the earth and can be seen at
day time. The darkened part is usually invisible.
 When we look at the moon, we normally notice only the shape of the lighted part as shown
below,
Solar Eclipse (Eclipse Of The Sun)
 When the moon, revolving around the earth, comes in between the sun and the earth, the
shadow of the moon is formed on the earth. This is called eclipse of the sun.

 Depending on the position of the moon, some parts of the earth lie in the region of umbra and
some in the region of penumbra.
 Total eclipse occurs in the regions of umbra and partial eclipse in the regions of penumbra.
Annular Eclipse
 When the moon is further away from the earth, its disc is slightly smaller than the sun‟s disc.
So when a solar eclipse occurs, the moon is not large enough to cover the sun totally.
 A bright ring of sunlight can be seen round the edge of the dark disc of the moon. This is
called Annular or ring eclipse.
Lunar Eclipse (Eclipse Of The Moon)
 The moon is a non luminous object and can only be seen when light from the sun is incident
on it. When the earth comes in between the sun and the moon, lunar eclipse occurs.
 Depending on the position of the moon, a total or partial eclipse of the moon will occur.
 Total lunar eclipse will occur if the moon is in the region of umbra and partial eclipse will
occur if any part of the moon is in the region of penumbra as shown,
 A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the earth‟s umbra.
The Pinhole Camera

 A pinhole camera consists of a box with pinhole on one side and a translucent screen on the
opposite side. Light rays from an object pass through the pinhole and form an image on the
screen as shown
 The image formed is real and is inverted. A pinhole camera has a large depth of focus i.e.
objects that are far and near form focussed images on the screen.

Characteristics Of Images Formed On The Pinhole
 Consider the sets below
 When the object is near the pinhole, the image is larger. When the object distance is
increased from the pinhole the image is smaller.
 When more holes are added close to the first pinhole, images of each point are seen
overlapping on the screen as shown,
 If the camera was made in such a way that it could be elongated by moving the screen farther
away from pinhole but keeping the distance between the object and pinhole fixed, it could be
seen that the image enlarges when length of the camera is increased and diminishes when the
length of the camera is reduced as shown below:
Length of camera decreased, image smaller
Length of camera increased, image bigger (larger)
Magnification
 Magnification is the change in size of an image to that of the object or it‟s theratio of the
height of the image and that of the object.

Example 1
The distance between the pin hole and screen of a pinhole camera is10cm. The height of the screen is
20cm.At what distance from the pinhole must a man 1.6m tall stand if a full length is required.
Example 2
An object of height 5m is placed 10m away from a pinhole camera. Calculate
a) The size of the image if it‟s magnification is 0.01m
Exercise
1. The length of pinhole camera is 25cm. An object 2m high is placed 10cm from the pinhole.
Calculate the height of the image produced and its magnification.

2. a) A pinhole camera of length 20cm is used to view the image of a tree of height 12m which is 40m
from the pinhole. Calculate the height of the image of the tree obtained on the screen.
b) If the pinhole is moved by 10m towards the tree, what will be the height of the tree on the screen?
Taking Photographs With A Pinhole Camera
 The pinhole camera can be used to take still photographs if it is modified as follows,
i. The box should be painted black to eliminate reflection of light.
ii. The translucent screen should be replaced by a light-tight lid with a photographic film fitted
on the inside. The film should be fitted in a dark room.
iii. The pinhole should be covered with a thin black card which acts as a shutter.
Reflection Of Light (Plane Surfaces)

 All objects, except self-luminous objects, become visible because they bounce light back to
our eyes. This bouncing off light is called reflection.
 There are two types of reflection namely regular and diffused reflections.
 When light is reflected by a plane smooth surface, the reflection is regular (specular) and
when reflection occurs at a rough surface it is called a diffused reflection.
Reflection By Plane Mirrors
 A plane mirror is a flat smooth reflecting surface which forms images by regular reflection. It
is often made by bounding a thin polished metal surface to the back of a flat sheet of glass or
silvering the back side of the flat sheet of glass.
 The silvered side is normally coated with some paint to protect the silver coating. If the clear
and the silvered surfaces are in parallel plane, the mirror is called a plane mirror.
 If the surfaces are curved, the mirror is called curved mirrors.
 The silvered side of the mirror is shown by shading behind the reflecting surface.
Definition Of Terms Used In Reflection
 Consider the set up below,
1) Incident ray – is the ray that travels from the source to the reflecting surface.
2) Angle of incident (i) – is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
3) Normal – is the line drawn perpendicularly at the point where the incident ray strikes the
reflecting surface.
4) Reflected ray – is the ray that bounces from the reflecting surface.
5) Angle of reflection (r) – is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws Of Reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on the same
plane.
2. The angle of incidence, i, equals the angle of reflection, r.
Experiments to show the laws of reflection (exp. 8.6)
Rotation Of A Mirror Through An Angle

 Consider the mirrors below,
 In figure (a), the angle of incidence is 300 . The angle of reflection is also 30o .
 Therefore the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray is 60o (30o +30o ).
 In figure (b), mirror XY is rotated by an angle x0 to the new position X‟ Y‟ .
 The normal also moves through an angle xo . Angle between the two normal is thus xo .
 For the same incident ray, the new angle of incident = 30o + xo = the new angle of reflection.
 The new angle between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection hence = 600 + 2x0
 The angle between the two reflected rays thus = 2xo .
 For the same incident ray, the angle of rotation of the reflected ray is twice the angle of
rotation of the mirror.
Example
1. A ray of light is incident along the normal in a plane mirror. The mirror is then rotated
through an angle of 200 . Calculate the angle between the first reflected ray and the second
reflected ray.
Solution
Angle of rotation of reflected rays= 2 x angle of rotation of the mirror
=2 x 200 =40o
2. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 25o on a mirror. The mirror is turned through 60 to a
new position. Through what angle is the reflected ray rotated.
Solution
Rotation change the angle of incidence from 25o to (25+6)=310 . Hence the angle of reflection is 31o
from the new normal. The total change in the angle of reflected ray is 12o
3. A suspended plane mirror makes an angle of 20o with a wall. Light from a window strikes the
mirror horizontally. Find;

a. Angle of incidence.
b. The angle between the horizontal and the reflected ray
Formation Of Images By Plane Mirrors

 Images formed is far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror i.e. image
distance is equal to object distance from the mirror
Characteristics of images formed by plane mirrors
 Image formed is the same size as the object

 Images formed are laterally inverted e.g. when you raise your right hand, the image raises its
left hand.
 Virtual images – formed by rays that appear to come from the image. Such images are not
formed on the screen as they are only imaginary.
Example
A girl stands 2m in front of a plane mirror.
a. Calculate the distance between the girl and her image
2+2 = 4m
b. If the mirror is moved 0.6m to the girl, what will be the distance between her and image.
Object distance =2-0.6 =1.4m
Total distance = 1.4 + 1.4 = 2.8m
Images Formed By Mirrors At An Angle
Example
1. Two plane mirrors are kept inclined to each other at 120o . Calculate the
2. At what angle would the two mirrors inclined to form 17 images.

Mirror parallel to each other
 When mirrors are parallel i.e. Ѳ= 0o , the number of images is given by
Example
 Two parallel plane mirrors are placed 30cm apart. An object placed between them 10cm from
one mirror. Determine the image distance of two nearest images formed by each mirror.
Solution
Image distance = object distance
Image distance on mirror 1= 10cm
Image distance on mirror 2 = 20cm
 Two plane mirrors inclined at an angle 60o to each other. A ray of light makes an angle of 40o
with mirror M1 and goes on to strike mirror M2 . Find the angle of reflection on the second
mirror M2 .
The angle of reflection = 10o
Applications Of Plane Mirrors

1. The kaleidoscope
 A kaleidoscope or mirror scope is a device used to produce a series of beautiful symmetrical

images. Two plane mirrors are placed at an angle of 60o inside a long tube.
 The bottom of the tube is a ground glass plate for admitting light. On this plate is small
scattered small pieces of brightly coloured glass, which act as objects.
 When one looks down the tube, five images of the object are seen which together with the
object form a symmetrical pattern in six sectors as shown below

 The instrument is used by designers to obtain ideas on systematic patterns.
2. The periscope
 This is an instrument used to view objects over obstacles. It is used in submarines and also to
watch over crowds. The images seen with the aid of the instrument are erect and virtual.
 A periscope uses two plane mirrors kept parallel to each other and the polished surfaces
facing each other. Each plane mirror makes an angle of 45o with the horizontal. Light from the
object is turned through 900 at each mirror and reaches the eye as shown
THE END

CHAPTER 9: ELECTROSTATIC 1
 This is the study of static charges.
 There are two types of charges i.e. negative charge and positive charge.
 When a plastic ruler is brought near to small pieces of paper, it cannot be able to attract the
small pieces of paper since the ruler is electrically neutral.
 When the ruler is rubbed against hair the static charges becomes active.
 In this case, the ruler and hair interchange charges whereby one becomes positively charged
and the other negatively charged.
 Because of this the ruler is able to attract the small pieces of paper.
 The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). Mill coulombs and micro-coulombs are also used.
 1000 mill coulombs = 1 coulomb
 1000000 micro-coulomb = 1 coulomb
Origin Of Charge
 Matter is made up of atoms. An atom has particles known as protons, electrons and neutrons.
 Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are neutral.
 Protons and neutrons are found at the centre of the nucleus of the atom while electrons are
found moving around the energy levels as shown,
 The nucleus has positive charge due to the charges on the protons. Electrons in the outermost
orbit are weakly held by the nucleus and can be transfer easily from one material to another
by rubbing.
 The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged and that which loses electrons
becomes positively charged. A negatively or positively charged atom is called an ion.
 Materials like polythene and plastic they acquire electrons when they are rubbed hence they
become negatively charged while materials like acetate, Perspex and glass have their
electrons removed from their surface when rubbed and they become positively charged.
 In general origin of charge is based on the atom of any given substance; each atom contains
protons, electrons and neutrons.
Basic Law Of Charges

 It states that unlike charges attract while like charges repel.
Charging Materials
 Materials can be charged by the following methods;
1. Induction
2. Contact
3. Separation

1. Induction
 This is the ability in which a body which is charged find to influence another adjacent to
acquire an opposite charge.
 A positively charged material when it is brought near to another uncharged material, it will
influence another body to acquire some charge as shown.
 The positive charges in B which has been repelled are removed by the process of earthing.
 Earthing is the process through which electrons are made to the ground or from the ground
through a conductor.
 In the above case when a conductor as shown is connected to B, electrons will flow from the
ground to neutralise the positive charges.
 After the positive charges have been neutralised, the conductor in B is removed fast while the
two bodies are maintained adjacent to one another.
 This is to enable the electrons in B to remain within that body but if you remove body A
while the conductor is connected with B, those electrons in B will escape to the ground.
 When body A and B are separated as far as possible the negative charges will distribute
uniformly.
Charging By Contact
 In this method two bodies are brought directly into contact, because of this some charges are
able to cross over between their surfaces.
 In this method, one of the bodies must be charged. That charge will influence the other body
to acquire some charge.
NOTE: When a body is charged by contact method, it acquires charges that are similar to the ones on
the charging rod.
 In the diagram above body A was charged positively and because of this charge when it is in
contact to body B it attracts negative charges and repel with positive charge.
 When the two are made to be in contact the negative charge in body B crosses to body A to
neutralise part of its positive charge.

 If this process continues with time the number of positive charges in A will reduce and the
number of the positive charges in B will increase.
 Finally when the two bodies are separated the positive charges in B will distribute uniformly.
Charging By Separation
 In this case two uncharged bodies are brought near to charged material. By the process of
induction the two bodies will acquire an opposite charge because of attraction and repulsion.
 The positive charge in A influence negative charges in X because of attraction while it

influences positive charges in Y because of repulsion.
NOTE: In order to sustain the two opposite charge in X and Y in the two bodies, they are first
separated while the position in body A is maintained. Finally when they are separated the two bodies
will distribute
uniformly as
shown.
The Electroscope
 This is an instrument which works on the principle of electrostatic charges. It is also used for
investigating the effects of electric charges.
 The gold-leaf electroscope consists of a thin gold or aluminium leaf of plate connected to a
metal rod that has a brass cap at the top as shown,

 The cap acquires the charges through induction or contact and spreads it through the rod to
the plate and leaf.
 The cap is circular to ensure uniform distribution of charges. Both the leaf and the plate show
the presence of charges by repelling each other, making the leaf to diverge. The absence of
charges is also shown when divergence decreases leaf.
 Metal casing is for protecting the leaf from the effects of draught. The casing has a glass
window through which observations are made.
 The rod is supported by passing it through a plug of good insulating material such as rubber.
The insulator stops charge given to the cap from spreading onto the case and leaking away.
The casing may be a terminal connected to the earth.
 When the electroscope is touched by a finger or connected to the earth by a wire, electrons
either flow to the earth, depending on the charge on the electroscope.
 The process of losing to or gaining charges from the earth through a conductor is called
earthing.
Charging An Electroscope By Contact Method
 In this method, a charged body is brought into contact with the cap of the electroscope as
shown in the figure below,
 Because the positive charge on the rod are in contact with the negative charge at the cap, the
two charges neutralise i.e. negative charges move to the rod and positive charge move to the
cap.
 It will be observed that at the leaf, the leaf diverges because of like charges at the point
(positive charges).

 The more positive charges at the leaf will make the leaf to diverge at a greater angle. If the
process is continued, the electroscope will charge to a maximum point in which the leaf
cannot diverge any further.
NOTE: The charged material coming into contact with the cap of the electroscope is an insulator.
Only charges on the rod‟s surface coming into contact with the cap are used in neutralising the
charges induced on the cap.
Charging Through Induction
 In this method a charged body is brought near to the cap of the electroscope and because of
attraction the cap is going to have opposite charge while at the leaf is going to have same
charge because of repulsion as shown,
 The negative charges at rod attract the positive charge at the cap and repel negative charge at
the leaf. The negative charges at the leaf repel one another thus making the leaf to diverge
through an angle.
 In order to eliminate the charges at the leaf, one is required to earth the cap by the use of a
finger or a wire while maintaining the position of the charging rod as shown in (b) above.
 Through earthing electrons are going to flow from the ground through the cap down the leaf
to neutralise the positive charge hence making the leaf to fall.
 These electrons when they are passing through the cap, they are not affected by the negative
charge at the cap. This is because the positive charge at the cap and the negative charge on the
rod are strongly attached because of attraction.
 While maintaining the position of the rod removes the finger or the earth wire first in order to
avoid the positive charge at the cap not to escape down to the ground.
 Finally remove the negative charged rod away from the cap. Because of like charges at the
cap they will repel one another in order to distribute uniformly on the cap and the leaf.
 The positive charges which move to the leaf diverge once more indicating electroscope has
been charged.
Assignment
Use a negatively charged rod to explain how to charge an electroscope using induction method.
Uses Of The Electroscope

1. To detect the presence of charge on a body
 The material to be tested is placed on or close to the cap of the electroscope. If it is not
charged, the leaf does not diverge.

2. To test the sign of charge on a charged body
 Charge an electroscope negatively by contact method. Slowly bring a negative rod to be

tested close to the cap of the electroscope. The leaf diverges more. It does so because the
negative charges on the rod repel more charges from the cap to the plate and the leaf. Similar
charges in the plate and the leaf are repelled more.
 When a strong positively charged rod is brought from high position towards a negatively
charged electroscope, the leaf divergence first decreases then increases as the rod approaches
the cap. The leaf divergence reduces slightly first because the positive on the rod attract
negative charges on the leaf and plate, making the electroscope neutral.
 On moving the rod, much lower, the leaf divergence increases again to higher position. This
is because the strong positively charged rod attracts more electrons from the plate and leaf,
making them more positive. Hence, they repel further.
NOTE: The same observations are made when a negatively charged rod is brought towards a
positively charged electroscope. On moving a neutral conductor close to a charged electroscope, leaf
divergence decreases. Charges on the electroscope induce opposite charges on the conductor.
 An increase in divergence of the leaf is therefore the only sure way of confirming the kind of
charge on a body.
3. To test the quantity of charge on a charged body
 Small bodies have few charges compared to big ones of the same kind.
4. To test for insulation properties of a material
 Materials like copper, iron, aluminium, zinc and graphite make the leaf divergence decrease.
Materials like plastic, glass, charcoal and wood do not affect the divergence of the leaf.
 For metals and graphite, the leaf decreases in divergence because they allow electrons to flow
between the electroscope and the earth. Such materials are called conductors.

 In conductors, electrons freely move from one atom to another. Such electrons are called free
electrons.
 For materials like plastic, glass, wood there is no change in leaf divergence because they do
not allow electrons to flow between the electroscope and the earth. In these materials,
electrons are not free to move and are strongly bound to their nuclei. These materials are
called insulators.
 There are other materials like silicon and germanium which conduct under special conditions.
This conductivity is between conductivity of insulators and conductors. Such materials are
called semi-conductors.
Charges In Air
 Air can also be charged. It is shown by heating air above a charged electroscope. It is
observed that the leaf divergence decreases.
 When fuel burns, chemical reactions yield ionised products. The ions move and collide with
air molecules making air to be ionised. Ionisation produces both negative and positive
charges.
 The ions carrying opposite charge to the electroscope are attracted to the cap of the
electroscope, resulting in the discharge of the electroscope.
Application Of Electrostatic Charges

1. Electrostatic precipitator
 It is used in industries to reduce pollutants. The figure below shows a common precipitator
used in chimneys.
 It consists of a cylindrical metal plate fixed along the walls of the chimney and a wire mesh
suspended through the middle. The plate is charged positively at a potential of about 5000V
while the wire mesh is negatively charged.
 A strong electric field is set up between the plates, which ionises the particles of the
pollutants. These are attracted to the plate.

2. Spray painting
 The can is filled with paint and nozzle charged. During spraying, the paint droplets acquire
similar charges and therefore spread out finely due to repulsion.
 As they approach the metallic body they induce opposite charges which in turn attract them to
the surface. Therefore little paint is used.
3. Finger printing and photocopying
Dangers Of Electrostatics
 When a liquid flows through a pipe its molecules become charged due to rubbing on the inner
surface of the pipe. If the liquid is inflammable it can cause sparks and explode.
 Similarly, explosive fuel carried in plastic cans can get charged due to rubbing which may
result in sparks and even explosion.
 It is therefore advisable to store fuels in metal cans so that any charges generated continually
leak.
Assignment
1. Explain why fuel tankers have a loose chain hanging under them to touch the ground as they
move?
2. Why do some motor tyres contain graphite?
THE END
CHAPTER 10 ; CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

 Electrical energy is commonly used in various applications e.g. in operating devices like
televisions, radios, telephones, computers and high speed trains. We also use electrical energy
in producing heat and light. The transfer of energy is due to the flow of electrons.
 The complete path along which the charges flow is called electric circuit.
A Simple Electric Circuit

Expt:To Set Up A Simple Electric Circuit
Apparatus- 1 dry cell, a torch bulb, a switch and connecting wires
Procedure
 Connect the apparatus as shown below,
 Close the switch and observe what happens.

Observation
The bulb lights
Explanation
 The bulb lights because charges are flowing through it in a given time.
 The rate of flow of charges (charge per unit time) is called an electric current.
 The SI unit of current is ampere (A).
From definition;
Where I is the current, Q is charge in coulombs and t is time in seconds.
Example
Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 300 coulombs of Charge flows through it in
2.5 minutes
 An electric circuit like the one shown above allows charges to move in a complete path when
the switch is closed. This circuit is said to be closed circuit.
 Copper wire readily allows electric charges (mainly electrons) to flow.
 The wires may be covered by an insulating material like rubber to prevent the user from
electric shock if the current is too high.
 The cell is the source of electrical energy in the circuit and maintains the flow of charges
round the circuit.
 When the gap is introduced, by opening the switch the charges stop flowing and the circuit is
then said to be open (broken circuit).
 For clarity and neatness, symbols are used in representing an electrical circuit as shown,
 The arrow heads indicates the direction of electric current.

Electrical Symbols Used In Drawing Circuits
Electromotive Force And Potential Difference

 The purpose of a cell/battery in a circuit is to provide energy to cause charges to flow. This is
measured in terms of potential difference (p.d) in volts.
 The force that pushes electrons around the circuit is voltage.
 Potential difference -is the voltage measured across a cell/battery when supplying current as
shown,
 It is measured in volts by an instrument called voltmeter.

 Electromotive force (e.m.f) is the voltage measured across a cell/battery when it is not
supplying current as shown,

 Electromotive force (e.m.f) is slightly greater than potential difference because some of the
energy is used in drilling current across the cell itself.
 The difference between electromotive force (e.m.f) and potential difference (p.d) is called lost
volts. The voltage is lost because of the opposition to the flow of charges within the cell
(internal resistance).
Arrangement Of Cell
 We have two types or forms of arrangement of cells;
 Series arrangement
 Parallel arrangement
Cells in series
 This is when cells are connected such that the positive terminal of one is joined to the
negative terminal of another one.
 Two or more cells connected in series make a battery. i.e. the figure shows two cells in series,
Advantage
 Higher voltages can be achieved (increases the e.m.f and current in the circuit) since the
effective (total) voltage is the sum of each voltage.
Example
5 cells of electromotive force (e.m.f) 1.2V are connected in series. What is the effective voltage?
VT = (5 x 1.2)V = 6V
Disadvantage
Current is supplied for only a short time. This is because the cells produce a higher resistance to the
flow of the current.
Cells in parallel
 This is when cells are placed side by side. The positive terminals is connected together and
the negative terminals also connected together as shown,
 The total voltage is equal to that of a single cell in a parallel connection.
Example
4 cells of e.m.f 1.5V each are connected in parallel. What is the effective e.m.f?

V = 1.5 V
T
Advantages
 The current is supplied for a long time since resistance is low.

 It produces more current compared to series connection.
Disadvantage
 Lower voltages are produced.
NOTE: The ammeter is always connected in series while the voltmeter is connected across the cells.
(Parallel).
To investigate the current flowing in a circuit when devices are arranged in
series and parallel
 Consider the two set ups below,
Observation
 When the switch is closed, the bulbs connected in series give out light of the same brightness
and when one is disconnected, the other bulbs goes off.
 In the parallel circuit, the three bulbs give out light of the same brightness, but brighter than
the ones connected in series. When some of the bulbs are disconnected, the rest continue with
the same brightness.
Explanation
 The same current flows through the devices connected in series. If one of the devices is
disconnected, it introduces an open circuit.
 Electrical devices connected in series offer greater opposition to flow of current.
 For devices connected in parallel, the current flowing in one does not affect the current flow
in other devices. If one of the devices causes an open circuit, current will still flow in other
devices.
 In domestic electrical wiring (lighting circuit), bulbs are connected in parallel as shown
below,
 The three bulbs can be switched on or off independently and if one bulb blows off, it does not
affect other bulbs.

Example
Study the figure below and answer the questions
Explain what happens, indicating the path of current when;

S S and S
a. 1 is closed while 2 3 are open
 B2 lights because it is in a closed circuit while B 1 and B3 does not light.
b. S2 is closed while S1 and S2 are open
 B1 and B2 will light because they are in closed circuit. The bulbs are less bright since they are
in series.
c. S1 and S2 are closed while S3 is open
 Bulb B2 lights brightly. B1 does not light since it is short-circuited. B3 is in an open circuit.
d. S1 and S3 are closed while S2 is open
 B1 does not light (open circuit).B2 and B3 are in closed parallel circuit. They
light with the same brightness.
e. S2 and S3 are closed while S1 is open
 The three bulbs light. B1 is brighter than B2 and B3. B2 and B3 share the current flowing
through B1 .

Conductors And Insulators
 Conductors – These are materials which can conduct electricity. They allow electric charges
to pass through them e.g. copper, silver and aluminium.
 Insulators – These are materials which do not allow electric charges to pass through them
e.g. plastic, rubber and dry wood. They cannot be used in connection of circuits.
 Conductors can either be good or poor. Examples of good conductors are copper, silver and
aluminium. An example of poor conductor is graphite.
 Generally metals are good conductors of electricity. They have large number of free electrons
moving randomly within them.
 When a cell is connected across the ends of a conductor, the free electrons move in a given
direction as shown,
 When electrons are made to drift in a given direction, current is said to be flowing through the
conductor. Current is taken to flow in the direction opposite to that of electron flow.
 Poor conductors (e.g. graphite) have fewer free electrons. Insulators have their electrons
tightly bound to their nuclei of their atoms. Because they cannot conduct electric current,
insulators are used as cover materials for good conductors.
 Semi-conductors – Their electrical properties fall between conductors and insulators e.g.
silicon and germanium.
 Electrolytes – These are liquids which are good conductors of electric charge e.g. dilute
sulphuric acid, sodium chloride solution and potassium hydroxide.
Sources Of Electricity
 The main sources of electricity presently are chemical cells, generators and solar cells.
Chemical Cells
 A chemical cell provides the energy needed to drive an electric current in a circuit. It consists
of two different metals called electrodes and a conducting liquid called electrolyte.
 The chemical energy stored in the cell is converted into electrical energy when an electric
current flows in the circuit.
 Chemical cells are classified as either primary cell or secondary cell.

 Primary cells cannot be renewed once the chemicals are exhausted while secondary cells
can be renewed by recharging.
Primary cells
 In primary cells, chemical energy is directly changed into electrical energy. Consider the set
up below,
 The voltmeter pointer deflects showing existence of an electromotive force (e.m.f) across the
two plates. The voltmeter drops after a short time.
 The two metal plates used must have different rates of reaction when immersed in the lemon
fruit. In this case zinc is more reactive than copper.
Simple primary cell
 Simple primary cells consist of zinc and copper plates as electrodes and dilute sulphuric acid
as the electrolyte in a container as shown,
Working of a simple cell
 Dip zinc and copper plates into a beaker containing dilute sulphuric acid. Connect the two
plates to a bulb.

 Observe what happens to the bulb immediately when it is connected.
 Allow the set up to run for some time and note what happens to the bulb.
Observation
 When the bulb is connected it lights brightly but dims after sometime. Bubbles form around
the copper plate.
 When potassium dichromate is added into the container, the bubbles on the copper plate
disappear and the bulb brightness is restored.
Explanation and defects of a simple cell
 The hydrogen ions in the electrolyte pick up electrons and form an insulating layer of
hydrogen gas bubbles around the copper plate making it difficult for the electrons to flow.
This is what causes the bulb to be dim.
 The process by which hydrogen bubbles form around the copper plate is called polarisation.
 Polarisation can be minimised by adding a depolariser e.g. potassium dichromate. A good
depolariser should not react with the electrolyte.
 When zinc reacts with sulphuric acid, it dissolves and exposes hidden impurities of carbon
and iron. These impurities form small cells called local cells.
 These local cells cause the zinc to be used up even when current is not being supplied.
 This defect is called local action. It is minimised by applying a layer of mercury on the zinc
plate. This process is called amalgamation.
 In this process mercury dissolves off zinc leaving the impurities buried in the electrode. It can
also be minimised by use of pure zinc.

The Leclanche’ Cell
 The leclanche‟ cell is an improvement of the simple cell. The defects of polarisation and local
action have been minimised.
 The carbon rod (positive terminal) is surrounded with manganese (IV) oxide mixed with
carbon powder.
 The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolariser, reacting with the hydrogen gas formed on
the carbon rod to produce water. This process however is slow and hence large currents
should not be drawn steadily for a long time.
 Carbon powder increases the effective area of plate, which in effect reduces opposition to
the flow of current.
 The zinc plate is dipped in ammonium chloride solution, which converts zinc to zinc chloride
when the cell is working. Local action is still a defect in this cell.
 The cell is used for purposes where current is not drawn from it for a very long time e.g. in
operating bells and telephone boxes. It has a longer life span than the simple cell.
The Dry Cell
 Referred as a dry cell because it has no liquid. The ammonium chloride solution in the
leclanche‟ cell is replaced with ammonium chloride jelly or paste.
 Manganese (IV) oxide and carbon powder act as a depolariser. The hydrogen gas produced is
oxidised to form water, making the cell to become wet after being used up.

 The zinc case acting as a negative electrode gets eaten away by ammonium chloride to form
zinc chloride. Local action is still a defect in this cell. The cell cannot be renewed once the
chemical action stops.
NOTE: Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell within a short time. Shorting its
terminals can also ruin it. The cells must be stored in dry places.
 They are used in radios, torches, calculators e.t.c
Assignment
Write advantages and disadvantages of dry cells
Secondary Cells
 A secondary cell stores electrical energy in a chemical form. It must first be charged with
electricity.
 The chemical reactions in a secondary cell are reversible i.e electrical energy produced during
charging is changed to chemical energy and stored in the cell. When the cell is in use the
stored chemical is once again changed to electrical energy.
Making A Simple Secondary Cell
 Dip two clean plates into a beaker containing dilute sulphuric acid. Connect the circuit as
shown below,
 Close the switch and allow the current to flow for some time.
Observation
 The lead plate connected to negative terminal of the battery becomes coated with a chocolate
brown colour. The other plate remains grey. Gas bubbles are seen on the plates.
Explanation
 Sulphuric acid is electrolysed, giving off oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode.
The oxygen reacts with the lead to give lead (IV) oxide, which is deposited at the anode.
Hydrogen gas formed at the cathode has no effect.
Lead-Acid Accumulator
 This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost-effective of the secondary cells.

 A 12V lead acid accumulator has six cells connected in series. Each cell has several plates
made in the form of a lattice grid, the positive plate carrying lead (IV) oxide and the negative
plates having spongy lead.
 The plates are very close to one another and are prevented from getting into contact (short
circuiting) by having insulating sheets separating them.
 The surface area and the number of plates in a given cell determine the current- carrying
capacity of the battery. The charge (electrical energy) stored is directly proportional to the
surface area of the plates.
 The container used in the construction of the lead acid accumulator must be mechanically
strong, highly acid proof with insulating properties.
 As electrical energy is taken from the cell, sulphuric acid reacts with lead (IV) oxide and lead
to form lead sulphate (white solid). This makes the density of sulphuric acid to fall.
 When the density of sulphuric acid falls, the cell cannot provide any more electrical energy. It
is said to be discharged.
 To regain energy, the cell is recharged by connecting a direct current (d.c) source as shown,
 When connected in this manner, chemical reactions are reversed. The density of sulphuric
acid is restored. The lead sulphate is converted to lead and lead (IV) oxide. The charging is
complete when hydrogen and oxygen bubbles are freely released from the plate.
Capacity Of Lead – Acid Accumulator
 The capacity of the lead-acid accumulator is the total amount of current that can be drawn in a
given time from the battery. This is the total amount of charge,
Q= It expressed in Ah.
 Lead-acid accumulators give strong current over along time compared to other cells because
of an effective low internal resistance.
Example
A battery is rated at 30Ah. For how long will it work if it steadily supplies
current of 3A?
Q=It but I=3A and Q=30Ah
30=3t
t=10Hrs
Maintenance of accumulators
1) The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly and maintained above the plate.

2) The accumulator should be charged when the e.m.f of the cell is below 1.8V and when the
relative density of the acid is below 1.12.
3) Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a very long time.
4) The accumulator should not be left in a discharged condition for a long period.
5) Shorting or overcharging the accumulator the accumulator should be avoided.
6) The terminals should always be kept clean and greased.
7) The accumulator is not placed directly on the ground but not on an insulator.
Alkaline Accumulators
 The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution such as potassium hydroxide.
 The common types are nickel-cadmium and nickel-iron accumulators.
 The nickel-iron accumulator is shown below,
Advantages of alkaline accumulators over lead-acid accumulators
1. Large currents can be drawn from them.

2. Can be kept in a discharged condition for a very long time before the cells are ruined.
3. They require little attention to maintain.
4. They are lighter (portable).
Disadvantages
1. They are very expensive.

2. They have a lower e.m.f per cell.
Uses of Alkaline Accumulators
 They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where large currents might be needed for
emergency.
END

FORM TWO WORK
CHAPTER 1 ; MAGNETISM
 Magnets are substances that are able to attract and hold items.
Properties of Magnets
1. They are double poled substances with both the North and South poles as shown.
2. From the Basic law of Magnetism, Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
 Repulsion is a sure method of determining whether two substances are magnets since
attraction occurs between any pole of a magnet and a magnetic material or between unlike
poles while repulsion occurs only between two like poles of a magnet.
3. The greatest magnetic force is concentrated around the poles of a magnet.
4. A free suspended magnet always rests in the North-South direction as shown.
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials

 Magnetic materials are those that are strongly attracted by magnets while non-magnetic are
those that are not affected (attracted) by magnets.
 Iron, steel, cobalt and nickel are magnetic substances, while wood, glass and copper are
examples of non-magnetic substances.
 Substances that are repelled by magnets are said to be diamagnetic whereas those which are
strongly attracted i.e. iron, nickel, cobalt are called ferromagnetic materials.
 The materials that are so lightly attracted such that the magnet seems to have no effect on
them e.g Aluminium are called paramagnetic materials (mostly non-magnetic materials).
Properties of Magnetic field lines

1) They originate from North and end at the south pole.
2) They repel each other sideways forming a closed paths which never cross other lines of
force.
3) They are closer when the fields are strongest and viceversa.

Magnetic Field Pattern
 Magnetic field is the space around a magnet where magnetic influence (force) is felt.
 The fields are stronger near the poles of the magnet and weaker away from the poles.
Plotting field patterns
 A magnetic line of force is the path along which a North pole would move if free to do so.
 A line of force gives the direction of the magnetic field at each point along it.
 Their closeness is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field or of the force that would
be exerted by the bar magnet.
a) Field pattern around a bar magnet
b) Field pattern between unlike poles
 Each magnet have its own magnetic field thus they combine to produce a single magnetic
field as shown.

c) Field pattern between like poles
 Point X is called the neutral point where the resultant magnetic field is zero i.e no fields at
this point.
d) Field pattern of a horse -shoe magnet
 Direction of lines of force is from north pole to south pole being more concentrate between
the poles.
 A horse shoe magnet is more powerful than a bar magnet.
Effect of soft iron rod and ring

a) Soft iron rod
 Lines of force from the magnet get concentrated along the soft iron rod as shown.
 The lines emerge on the far end of the rod , thus preventing them from reaching certain
regions.
b) Soft iron ring
 It concentrates the magnetic lines of force preventing them from entering point X as shown.

 Region X is said to be shielded by the ring from magnetic fields.
 Some electric measuring instruments and watches are shielded this way from magnetic fields
not reaching some areas.
Example 1
Sketch the magnetic field patterns for the arrangement shown below
Solution
The Earth’s Magnetic Field
 By the law of attraction, the earth‟s contents make up a magnet whose south pole lies at
the north.
 A compass needle thus aligns itself in the direction of the earth‟s magnetic field.
 It has a uniform magnetic field

The Domain Theory
 A magnet is made up of tiny magnets. When it is broken into two or more pieces, the pieces
retain their magnetism each having north and south as shown.
 A magnet hence contains small magnetic groups called domains that vary in size and shape.
 The domain contains small sub-atomic magnet called dipoles which in the same direction in a
domain.
 In an un-magnetized crystal the directions of these domains are different hence their resultant
magnetism is zero as shown
.
 When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field the atomic magnets rotate and
eventually all domains face the same direction as shown.
 When this happens then the material becomes magnetized. When a material is magnetized we
say it is saturated.
 This means that the magnetism of the material cannot be increased by any other method and
this is the domain theory of magnetism.
Methods of magnetisation
 Magnetisation is the process of making a magnet from a magnetic material
1. Induction method
2. Stroking method
3. Hammering
4. Electrical method

1. Induction method
 This is a process by which magnets are made by placing ferromagnetic materials in a
magnetic field as shown.
 The ends of the pins attracted to the magnet acquire opposite polarity to that of the
magnet while the lower end of the pin acquire the same polarity.
 The pins become magnetised and the dipoles in them get aligned in the same direction.
 Materials like iron lose their magnetism easily and are said to be soft while others like
steel gain magnetism slowly but retain it longer and are therefore said to be hard and are
used to make permanent magnets.
2. Stroking method
1) Single stroking
 The object to be magnetized is placed on a bench then a bar magnet is dragged along the
length of the bar from one end to the other as shown.
 This is repeated several times and the object becomes magnetized.

 The end of the rod where stroking ends acquire an opposite pole (S) to that of a stroking
magnet.
 The disadvantage of this method is that it produces magnets in which one pole is nearer the
end of the magnetised material than the other.
2) Double stroking
 The bar to be magnetised is stroked from the centre outwards using two permanent magnets
simultaneously as shown.

 The ends acquire opposite polarities to that of the magnets.
 If same poles of magnets are used for stroking the ends acquires similar poles.
3) Hammering (mechanical) method
 The method uses the influence of the earth‟s magnetic field.
 The bar to be magnetised is placed in a north-south position and the upper end hammered
several times.
4) Electrical method
 This is the use of magnetic effect of an electric current through a solenoid (insulated wire of
many turns).
 A direct current (d.c) is passed through the solenoid as shown.
 The polarity of the magnet depends on the direction of the electric current and can be
identified by the following rules.
a) Clock rule -it states that, on viewing one end of the bar, the current flows in a clockwise
direction, then that end is a south pole, if anticlockwise then it is a north pole.
b) The right hand grip rule -it states that, if a coil carrying a current is grasped in the right hand
such that the fingers point in the direction of current in the coil, then the thumb points in the
direction of North Pole.
 Allowing current to flow for a long time does not increase the extent of magnetic saturation,
instead causes overheating of the solenoid which affects magnetism.
Demagnetisation
 Demagnetizing is the process of removing magnetic properties of a magnet.
 The following methods are which a magnet can lose its magnetism;
a) Hammering them hard with their poles facing E-W direction.
 The magnets are faced in East-West direction so that they don‟t retain some magnetism due to
the earth‟s field.
b) Heating them strongly
c) Placing a magnet inside a solenoid and passing an a.c. current through it for a short time.

 The magnet losses its power because alternating current reverses many times per second
disorienting the dipoles.
Storing magnets
a) Magnets should be stored in pairs with unlike poles adjacent to each other attached to pieces of soft
iron called keepers.
b) Magnets should not be hammered especially with their poles facing E-W direction.
c) Magnets should not be heated strongly or dropped roughly on hard surfaces.
d) Magnets should not be placed near alternating currents.
e) Magnets should be kept dry and clean since rust can make them lose their magnetism.
Hard and soft magnetic materials

a) Soft magnetic material
 Are materials that are magnetised easily but also loss their magnetism easily e.g Iron, Nickel,
Cobalt and their alloys.
 They can be magnetised by very weak fields e.g earth‟s magnetic fields.
 They are used in making electromagnets, transformer cores and for magnetic shielding.
b) Hard magnetic material
 Are materials difficult to be magnetised but once magnetised, they retain their magnetism for
a long time e.g steel (dipoles are difficult to be aligned)
 Are used in making permanent magnets.
Application of magnets
1. Used in making other magnets
2. Used in making loud speakers
3. Used in making moving coil meters
4. Used in making telephone speakers.
5. Used in making magnetic compasses.
6. Used in making Bicycle dynamos, generators and electric motors.
7. Used in hospitals to remove a piece of iron from an eye.

Example2
Briefly describe how you can construct a simple plotting compass (magnetic compass)
Solution
Scale;
 Take a white paper and shape it in such a way that it can be pasted on the inside bottom of a
plastic container and mark the compass direction as shown.
Pointer;
 Shape a small steel plate, magnetise it and mark the North Pole as shown.
 Determine the centre of gravity of the pointer and make a dent at the point of the centre of
gravity to act as the pivot. Pivot the pointer at this point using a pin supported at the centre of
the bottle top by a small cork.
Top cover;
 Using a proper adhesive, seal the top of the plastic container with a clear transparent plastic
paper.
Assignment; klb pg 27-28, Q10, 11, 15
THE END
CHAPTER 2 ; MEASUREMENT II
Measurement of length
 Measurements of length such as the diameter of a wire and that of a test tube cannot be
obtained directly using a metre rule but are done using callipers and micrometre screw gauge.
 The two types of callipers used are engineer‟s calliper‟s and vernier callipers.
Engineer’s Callipers
 Consist of a pair of hinged jaws which are closed until they touch the object in a desired
position.

 The distance between the jaws is then transferred to a metre rule to give the diameter.
Vernier Calliper
 Vernier callipers is used when higher accuracy in measurement is required and this cannot be
done using a metre rule.
 It has two scales; main scale and vernier scale. Outside jaws are used to measure both
lengths and external diameters, inside jaws for measuring internal diameters.
 The main scale is divided into cm. The vernier scale is divided into 10 equal divisions and it
is 0.9 mm in length. The accuracy (least count) of vernier callipers is 0.10 mm or 0.01cm.
 The reading is taken in two steps;
a) The main scale is read at zero mark of the vernier scale. The values given in cm.
b) The vernier is read at the position where a mark on the vernier scale is exactly lined
up with a mark on the main scale. The values are given as a two decimal of a cm.
Examples
1. Give the reading in the following diagram.
Solution
Main scale reading: = 2.7 cm

Vernier scale reading: = 0.04 cm
Adding both we get 2.74 cm.
2. What is the reading of the vernier callipers shown below?
Solution
Main scale reading - 7.6 cm
Vernier scale reading - 0.04 cm
Adding both readings we get 7.64 cm.
Zero Error
 When jaws of Callipers are closed without any object between them, the zero mark on the
main scale should coincide with the zero of vernier scale, otherwise it has a zero error which
may be positive or negative.
 If the zero mark of the vernier is to the left of the zero mark of the main scale, then it has a
negative zero error and vice versa.
 Actual measurements are always obtained by subtracting the error taking considerations of
the sign in the error (nature of the error given)
Example
Give the actual readings of the vernier Callipers in the examples above if (1) has a zero error of
+0.01cm and (2) has a zero error of -0.03cm.
Solution
1) Reading = 2.74cm
Error = 0.01cm
Actual reading = 2.74 – 0.01 = 2.73cm
2) Reading = 7.64cm
Error = -0.03cm
Actual reading = 7.64 - -0.03
= 7.64 + 0.03 = 7.67cm.
Micrometre Screw Gauge
 It is a device used to measure small lengths (diameters).

 It has two scales; the sleeve scale and thimble scale. The sleeve scale is divided into upper
and lower scales with the upper division in mm and lower divisions in 0.5 mm.
 Thimble scale is divided into 50 equal divisions each division consisting of 0.01 mm.

 The thimble with 50divisions has 0.5mm divisions (pitch) on the sleeve scale while those with
100divisions have 1mm divisions (pitch) on the sleeve scale.
 A pitch is the distance moved by the spindle in one complete rotation of the thimble (smallest
division on the sleeve scale)
 It has an accuracy (least count) of 0.01 mm i.e
Least count = = =
 The reading is taken in two steps;

a) The reading on the sleeve scale is read at the point where it touches the edge of the
thimble in mm and half mm.
b) The thimble scale is read at the point where the centre line of the sleeve is parallel to
the thimble scale division and the two readings summed up.
Examples
1. Give the reading in the following.
Solution
Sleeve reading = 3.5 mm
Thimble reading = 0.45 mm
Adding up we get 3.95 mm.
2. What is the reading in the following micrometer screw gauge?

Solution
Sleeve scale reading – 4.0 mm
Thimble scale reading - 0. 32 mm
Adding up the two we get 4.32 mm.
Assignment;
Draw the scale of a micrometer screw gauge with a pitch of 0.5divisions on the thimble whose
reading is 3.68mm.
Zero error
 It arises when the zero mark of the thimble scale does not coincide exactly with the centre line
of the sleeve scale as shown.
 Actual measurements are always obtained by subtracting the error taking considerations of
the sign in the error (nature of the error given). Calculation is done the same way as for the
vernier calliper.
Significant figures
 The number of significant figures is determined by counting the number of digits from the
first significant figure on the left.
 The higher the number of significant figures the more accurate (correct) a measure is.
 All non-zero digits are significant e.g 41.6 has 3SF
 All zeros between non-zero digits are significant e.g 108.05 has 5SF.
 Zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of un understood decimal point (decimal
point not indicated), may or may not be significant e.g 452000 may be correct to 3, 4, 5 or 6
SF.
 All zeros to the right of a decimal point and following a non-zero digit are significant e.g
27.00 have 4SF.

 All zeros on the left of a non-zero digit are not significant but place holders e.g 0.007 and
0.0007 has 1SF.
Assignment
Write the following numbers correct to 3SF.
1. 657.65
2. 27.002
3. O.000084926
4. 7342.561
Standard Form
 A number is said to be in standard form when written in the form A x 10n , where A is greater
than or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is an integer.
 If the number lies between 0 and 1, the index n becomes negative but if it is equal to or
greater than 1, the index n is positive.
Example
Express the following numbers in standard form.
a) 0.0000009047 = 9.047 x 10-7 (4SF)

b) 2670 = 2.670 x 103 (3SF)
c) 0.0048 = 4.8 x 10-3 (2SF)
Prefixes.
Note
 1 = 10-6s
or

1s = 106
 5Kg = 5 x103g
Decimal Places
 A decimal place indicates the place value of a number to the right of the decimal point in a
figure.
 The number of digits to the right of the decimal point determines the accuracy of the number
give i.e the more the digits the more accurate the number is.
 In rounding off, the number is rounded up if the digit occupying the next lower place value is
equal or greater than 5 and rounded down if it is less than 5.
The oil drop Experiment

a) Estimating the volume of an oil drop
 Hold a drop of oil using a wire loop and place it near a millimetre scale as shown.

 Using a hand lens, determine the diameter of the drop. Assuming the oil drop is spherical;
3
b) Estimating the size/thickness/diameter of an oil molecule

 Set up the apparatus as show below.
 Lycopodium powder has low density and is used to make the oil patch visible.
 Wedged beams are used for levelling while the waxed beams are used to estimate the
diameter of the spread.
 Gently release the oil drop on the surface of water and measure the diameter of the circular oil
patch formed using a metre rule.
Volume of the oil patch = Cross-section area of the patch(circular) x its thickness (t)
= 2 x t = 2t
Since, Volume of oil drop = volume of the oil patch, then;
3 2 3 2
= t or = t
Assumptions
i. The oil drop is spherical in shape.

ii. The oil drop spreads into a circular patch.
iii. The oil patch is one molecule thick i.e spreads into a monolayer.
iv. Volume of the oil drop equals volume of the oil patch.
Examples
1. A drop of olive oil, whose volume is 0.12 mm3, was placed on a surface of clean water. The oil
spread and formed a patch of area 6.0 × 104 mm2. Estimate the size of the olive oil.
Solution
Volume = 0.12 mm3. Area of the oil patch = 6.0 × 104 mm2.
Volume = area × thickness of the patch, therefore

Thickness of the oil patch = volume / area
= 0.12 / 6.0 × 104 = 2.0 × 10-6 mm or 2.0 × 10-9 m.
2. Suppose an oil drop has a volume of 0.10 mm3 and forms a film with a radius of 10 cm. Calculate,
the thickness of the oil film.
Solution
Area of the film = πr2 = 3.14 × 10 × 10 = 314 cm2 = 31,400 mm2.
Thickness of the oil film = volume / area, hence 0.10 / 31,400 = 3.0 × 10-6 mm.
(The thickness of the oil film is called upper limit to the size of molecule because the molecule cannot
be bigger than the thickness of the oil film)
Assignment; klb pg 47 Q 6 and 11.
END
CHAPTER 3 ; TURNING EFFECT OF A FORCE

Turning effects
 The turning effect of a body is called the moment of that force. The turning effect produced
depends on both the size of the force and the distance from the pivot.
 Activities in which a force produces a turning effect include closing or opening a door,
opening and closing a tap, tightening a nut using a spanner, riding on a sea saw etc.
 The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force applied and the perpendicular
distance from the pivot (or turning point) to the line of action of the force as shown.
Hence, Moments of a force = Force F × perpendicular distance from pivot d.

=Fxd
 SI unit of moment is thus Newton-metre (Nm)
The principle of moments

 The principle of moments states that “when a body is in balance or in equilibrium, the
sum of the clockwise moments equals the sum of anti-clockwise moments”.
Examples
1. A uniform rod of negligible mass balances when a weight of 3 N is at A, weight of 3 N is at
B and a weight of W is at C. What is the value of weight W?

Solution
Taking moments about the fulcrum, O then
Anti-clockwise moments = (3 × 1) + (3 × 3)
= 3 + 9 = 12 Nm
clockwise moments = 3W
Anti-clockwise moments = clockwise moments
3 W = 12 Nm
W=4N
2. The following bar is of negligible weight. Determine the value of „x‟ if the bar is balanced.
Solution
The distance from the turning point to the line of action can be determined as,
Clockwise moments = 10 × 30 = 300 N cm,

Anticlockwise moments = 10 × „x‟ = 10 x. N cm.
Using the principle of moments
10 x = 300, hence x = 30 cm.

3. Study the diagram below and determine the value of X and hence the length of the bar.
Solution
Clockwise moments = 15x N + 5(X × 20) N
Anticlockwise moments = (20 × 10) + (60 × 10) N cm, = 800 N cm.
800 N cm = 15X + 5X + 100
800 n cm = 20X + 100
20X = 700
X = 35 cm.
Therefore, the length of the bar = 40 + 20 + 35 + 20 = 115 cm.
Parallel Forces
 Any suspended uniform body (its weight is evenly distributed) e.g a metre rule, its
weights acts at its centre or midpoint i.e it balances at its centre. For a metre, it
balances at 50cm mark.
 Consider the forces F1, F2, W1, W and W2 at a point A shown below.
 Forces F1 and F2(upward forces) produces anticlockwise moments about point A and
their sum is given as; F1d2 + F2d4.
 Forces W1, W and W2 (downward forces) produces clockwise moments about A and
their sum is given as W1d1 + Wd3 + W2d5.
 It can be shown that, for parallel forces, the sum of clockwise moments equals the
sum of anticlockwise moments i.e
F1d2 + F2d4 = W1d1 + Wd3 + W2d5
Also; sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces i.e
F1 + F2 = W1 + W +W2

Example
A uniform metre rule of weight 1.6N supported by spring balance at 32cm mark. The metre rule is
balanced horizontally by a 1.2N weight suspended as shown.
Find;
a) The point where a 1.2N is suspended.

b) The reading on the spring balance.
Solution
i. Taking moment about 32cm mark and letting 1.2N be dm from 32cm mark, then
Anticlockwise moments = clockwise moments
1.2 x d = 1.6 x (0.5 – 0.32)
1.2d = 1.6 x 0.18
d = 0.24m
its suspended at the (32-24) = 8cm mark
ii. Since the rule is balanced,
Upward forces = downward forces, hence;
The reading on the spring balance = 1.6 + 1.2 = 2.8N
Anti-parallel forces (Equal parallel forces in opposite direction)

 A couple or antiparallel forces are a pair of equal and parallel forces acting in different
direction.
 This forces produces a turning effects and examples include;
i. Forces applied on a wheel spanner when tightening or untightening a nut.
ii. Forces applied when opening a water tap.
iii. Forces applied on a steering wheel of a car.
 A moment of anti-parallel forces is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between them as shown.

Moments = F x d
Examples
Two vertical, equal and opposite forces act on a metre rule at the 12cm and 80cm marks
respectively. If each of the forces has a magnitude of 3.6N, calculate their moment on the metre
rule about the 28cm mark.
Solution
Total Moments = One of the forces x perpendicular distance between them
= 3.6 x (0.80-0.12)
= 3.6 x 0.68
= 2.448Nm
The figure shows parallel forces F1 and F2 acting in opposite direction along the sides AD and CB of
a rectangular horizontal plate ABCD.
Two equal and opposite forces of 3N act along the sides CD and AB. The plate measures 0.8m by
0.6m. calculate F1 and F2 given that the plate does not rotate.
Solution

Taking moments about A; 3 x 0.8 = F2 x 0.6
F2 = = 4.0 N
Also; Taking moments about C; F1 x 0.6 = 3 x 0.8
F1 = = 4.0N
Therefore; F1 = F2
Application of anti-parallel Forces

1. Steering Wheel
 Cars are made to turn round corners by exerting two equal and opposite forces F acting
tangentially to the steering wheel as shown.
 The wheel is pivoted at its centre O, and rotates about O in a clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction depending on the direction of the forces.
2. Water tap
 It is opened or closed by applying two anti-parallel forces as shown.
 The two forces produces a moment about the axis of rotation O to either open or close the
tap.
3. Bicycle Handle-bars
 When a bicycle is turned round a bend , two anti-parallel forces are applied as shown.
 The forces produce a moment about the axis of rotation O
 Anti-parallel forces are also applied in water sprinklers and wheel spanners.
Assignment;klb pg 67 Q 5, 7 and 9.
END

CHAPTER 4 ; EQUILIBRIUM AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Centre of gravity (C.o.G)
 Is the point where the resultant force due to the earth‟s gravitational pulls acts on a body.
 It is also defined as the point where the total weight of a body seems to act through or
concentrated.
 A body will always balance at its centre of gravity.
Centre of gravity (C.o.G) of regular objects (shapes)
 For regular shaped bodies the C.G is at the geometric centre of the body as shown below.
Object Diagram Centre of gravity
Uniform rod By balancing, the C.o.G is at the centre

of the rod.
Square plate Construct the diagonals. The point of

intersection is C.o.G
Cone Construct the perpendicular bisector

from the base. The point of intersection
gives the C.o.G
Cylinder Construct the vertical and horizontal

axes. The point of intersection
(midpoint of axis) gives the centre of
gravity.

L-shape Divide the L-shape into two rectangles
and construct diagonals on each. Join
the points of intersection then bisect the
line. The point where the bisector meets
the line is the C.O.G.
Centre of gravity (C.o.G) of irregular shaped lamina
 For irregular bodies their weight still acts at the centre of the gravity and the law of moments
can be used to determine the weight of the body.
 Lamina is a thin layer or plate of a material.
 When determining the C.o.G of irregular shaped lamina, the principle involved is that, when a
body is freely suspended, it always hangs such that the C.o.G is vertically below the point of
suspension.
Example 1
The figure below shows a uniform bar of weight „W‟ and length 80 cm. If a force of 20 N keeps it
in balance, determine the weight „W‟ of the bar.
Solution
Taking moments about the pivot, clockwise moments = W × 20 N cm.
Anticlockwise moments = 20 × 30 N cm.
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
20 W = 600, therefore W = 30 N.
Examples 2
1. A uniform rod of length 1.0 m is hung from a spring balance as shown and balanced in horizontal
position by a force of 1.6 N. Determine;
a) The weight of the rod
b) Reading of the spring balance.

Solution
a) Let the weight of the rod be „W‟. W acts at 50 cm mark, therefore taking moments about point of
suspension, clockwise moments = W × 0.2 Nm = 0.2W Nm.
Anticlockwise moments = 1.6 × 0.3 = 0.48 Nm.

Using the law of moments, then
Anticlockwise moments = clockwise moments
0.48 = 0.2 W, hence W = 2.4 N
b) Upward forces = downward forces

Downward force = W + 1.6 N
= 2.4 + 1.6
= 4.0 N
Upward force = reading of the spring balance = 4.0 N
Example 3
A uniform rod is 1.0 m long weighs 5 N. It is supported horizontally at one end by a spring and the
other end rests on a table as shown below. A mass of 2kg is hung from the rod as shown; determine,
a) Reading of the spring balance
b) Reaction force, F, from the table.
Solution
a) The 2kg mass and the weight of the rod (5 N) gives clockwise moment while the spring balance
provides anticlockwise moments.
Clockwise moments = (2 × 10) × 0.4 + (5 × 0.5) = 10.5 Nm.

Anticlockwise moments = S × 1 (reading of the spring balance)
1S = 10.5, hence S = 10.5 N.

b) Upward forces = downward forces
Downward forces = (2 × 10) + 5 = 25 N

Therefore F+ 10.5 = 25, hence F = 14.5 N.
States of Equilibrium
Stable equilibrium
 If a body is displaced by a small amount of force it returns to its original position as shown.
 The vertical line through the C.o.G still falls inside the base when pushed.
 The body has a broad base and a low C.o.G and when pushed and when pushed, the C.o.G is
raised but it falls to make it as low as possible.
Unstable equilibrium
 If a body is displaced by a small amount of force it toppled over and does not return to its
original position as shown
 The body has a narrow base and a high C.o.G and when pushed, the C.o.G is lowered and the
body falls to make it as low as possible.
 The vertical line from the C.o.G falls outside the base when pushed.
Neutral equilibrium
 A body is at rest in whichever position it is placed in i.e. it does not rise or fall when
displaced.
 When a force is applied on the body, the position of C.o.G does not change but the force only
displaces the body to a new position as shown.

Factors affecting stability of objects
a) The area of the base
 If the base is wide, the vertical line through C.o.G remains within the base even if the body is
tilted hence its more stable, while a narrow base area is unstable.
b) The position of the centre of gravity
 If the C.o.G is high, the object losses its stability and viceversa.
 The C.o.G can be lowered by making the base heavier to increase stability.
Application of stability
1) Buses are made more stable by having light materials on the upper parts of the body and
heavy engines at the lower part.
2) Racing cars have wide wheels to increase base area and hence lower the C.o.G to be more
stable.
3) Passengers are not allowed to stand in the upper deck of a double decker bus for more
stability of the bus.
4) A Bunsen burner has a wide heavy base.
5) Chairs, stools, tripods etc have three or more legs which are slightly inclined outwards to
improve stability.
6) A person alighting from a lighting bus spreads out his/her legs to increase the area of the base.
7) A person carrying a bucket of water in one hand has to lean to the other side to adjust his
C.o.G.
Assignment; klb pg 81 Q7
END
CHAPTER 5 ; REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES

Types of curved surfaces/mirrors
a) Concave mirror
 Are curved mirrors whose reflecting surface curves inward as shown.
 They are also called spherical mirrors or converging mirrors

 It is obtained when the outside part of a spherical glass is silvered or when the inside of the
spherical glass is highly polished to become reflectors.

b) Convex mirrors
 Are curved mirrors whose reflecting surfaces bulges outwards as shown.
 They are obtained when the inside part of a spherical glass is silvered or when the outside of a
spherical glass is highly polished to become reflectors.
 They are also called diverging mirrors and an example of spherical mirrors.
c) Parabolic mirrors
 Are special curved mirrors cut from a section of a cone to form either concave parabolic
mirror or a convex parabolic mirror.
 When the inner surface of the cone is highly polished, a concave parabolic mirror is
produced as shown.
 They produce a wide parallel beam or converge a large beam of light to a point.
Definition of terms
 Consider the mirrors shown below.
i. The pole, p is the centre of the mirror.

ii. The centre of curvature, c is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror is part.
 It is in front of the mirror for a concave and behind for a convex.
iii. Principal axis is the line drawn through the pole of the mirror and the centre of curvature.
iv. Principal focus, F is a point at which all rays parallel and close to the principal axis
converges after reflection for a concave mirror.
 For a convex mirror is appoint at which all rays parallel and close to the principal axis
appear to diverge from after reflection by the mirror.
 It is real for a concave and virtual for a convex mirror.
v. Focal plane is a plane perpendicular to the principal axis and passes and passes through the
principal focus.
vi. Radius of curvature, r is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror is part.
vii. Focal length, f is the distance from the pole of the mirror to its principal focus.
Note that; Reflection of light by curved mirrors also obeys the principal of reversibility of light
which states that the paths of light rays are reversible.
Laws of reflection and curved mirrors

 Consider a reflection shown where a line drawn from C through the point of incidence M is
normal to the surface of the mirror.
From geometry, <QMC = <MCF (alternate angles)
Since PF = FC; then, when M is very close to P, PF = MF
Hence, <MCF = <CMF, therefore i = r where i = incident angle and r = reflection angle.
 This shows that curved mirrors also obeys the laws of reflection.
Ray Diagrams
 They are used to locate and give the characteristics of images formed by curved mirrors and
include the following.
i. A ray through C or appearing to pass through C.
 This ray is reflected along the same path as shown.

ii. A ray parallel and close to the principal Axis.
 This ray is reflected through the principal focus for a concave mirror but for a convex mirror,
it appears to emerge from the principal focus after reflection as shown.
iii. A ray through the principal focus of a concave mirror or appearing to be directed to
principal focus of a convex mirror.
 This ray if reflected parallel to the principal axis as shown.
iv. A ray at an angle to the principal Axis and incident to the pole.
 This ray is reflected in such a way that the angle of incident, i , equals angle of reflection, r, as
shown.

Image formation and characteristics
 Full lines represent real rays and objects while dotted lines represent virtual rays and images.
i. Concave Mirrors
 The nature, size and position of the image of an object formed by a concave mirror depend on
its position from the mirror as follows.
a) Object at infinity
 Image is formed at F. It is real, inverted and diminished as shown.
b) Object at C
 Image is formed at C. It is real, inverted and the same size as the object as shown.
c) Object behind C
 Image is formed between C and F. It is real, inverted and diminished as shown
d) Object at F
 Image formed is at infinity as shown.

e) Object between F and P
 Image is formed behind the mirror. It is virtual, erect and magnified as shown
2). Convex mirrors.

 Image is always formed behind the mirror. It is virtual, erect and always diminished as
shown.
Differences between real and virtual images

Real image Virtual image
It can be focused on a screen It cannot be focused on a screen since it is formed

by apparent intersection of rays.
Formed by a convergent reflected beam. Formed by a divergent reflected beam
Formed by real rays (full lines) Formed by virtual rays (dotted lines)
Graphical construction of ray diagrams

 When constructing a ray diagram;
i. Draw a horizontal straight line, say AB to represent the principal axis.
ii. Draw a line, say QR at right angles to AB at pole P to represent the mirror.
Linear Magnification (m)

 Is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object in one dimension, also called
Transverse magnification.
Magnification (m) = =
Magnification (m) = =

Examples
1. Determine the size, position and nature of the image of an object 5.0 cm tall, placed on the principal
axis of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm, at a distance 35 cm from the mirror.
Solution
Let 1 cm represent 5 cm. Then the focal length is 3 cm.
Object distance = 7 cm, object height = 1 cm.
From the scale drawing,

Image position = 5.4 cm × 5 = 27 cm in front of the mirror.
Image size = 0.75 cm × 5 = 3.75 cm.
Image is real and inverted.
2. A vertical object 5 cm high is placed 10 cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm. find
the position, size and nature of image formed. Determine the magnification of the image.
Solution
Let 1 cm represent 5 cm, then the focal length = 3 cm, object size = 1 cm
Object distance = 2 cm.
From the scale drawing,

Image position = 1.2 cm × 5 = 6.0 cm behind the mirror.
Image size = 0.6 cm × 5 = 3.0 cm.
The image is virtual and erect.
Magnification = image dist. / object dist. Hence 6 /10 = 0.6 (diminished).
Expt 1: To determine the centre of curvature of a concave mirror

Apparatus: white screen with cross-wires, Mounted concave mirror, candle, Metre rule.

Procedure
 Arrange the apparatus as shown
 Place the candle behind the screen to illuminate the cross-wires.

 Move the mirror forward and backwards until a sharp image I is formed on the screen.
 Measure distance r,
Conclusion
 O, must be the centre of curvature of the mirror and the distance r, is the radius of curvature.
 The focal length f, can also be given as, f =
Expt 2: To determine the focal length f of a concave mirror.

Apparatus; Metre rule, A distance object e.g a window, Concave mirror, White screen.
Procedure
 Hold the mirror to face an illuminated window.

 Move a white screen in front of the mirror until a sharp image of the window is formed on the
screen as shown.
 The distance from the mirror to the screen f, is the focal length of the mirror (should be
measured)
Relationship between f and r

Consider a single ray AB parallel to the principal axis and incident to the mirror at B. the ray is
reflected through F as shown.

 From the law of reflection; r = i and BF = FC
 When B is close to P then BF = PF therefore PF = FC hence F is midway for P and C.
Thus, FP =
Therefore, f =
The Mirror Formula

 It gives the relationship between, u, v and f as:
 When applying this formula;

i. All distances are measured from the mirror as the origin.
ii. Distances of real objects and images are considered positive (+)
iii. Distances of virtual objects and images are considered negative (-)
iv. Focal length for a concave is considered positive (+) while for a convex is considered
negative (-)
Graphical analysis of the mirror formula
a) A graph of against is as shown;
 From the mirror formula,


y=
b) A graph of uv against (u + v)

from the graph, gradient (G) =
hence; gradient (G) = f.
c) A graph of magnification (m) against v.
The graph is of a straight line with gradient equal to and the y-intercept is -1.
Proof
From the mirror formula,
or m =
Comparing this equation with equation of a straight line y = mx +c gives
Gradient (m) = and c = -1.
Applications of curved mirrors

a) Concave mirrors
i. Used as shaving mirrors.
ii. Used by dentists when examining teeth.
iii. Used as reflectors behind a projector lamp.
iv. Used in telescopes for astronomical observation.
v. Used in solar concentrators e.g in solar cookers.
b) Convex mirrors
i. Used as driving mirrors.
ii. Used in supermarkets so that the attendants can monitor large floor area since;
 They form an upright image regardless of the object distance.

 They provide a wide field of view so that the overtaking traffic can easily be seen.
Note ; The disadvantage is that they form a dimished image, giving the impression that the
vehicles behind are farther away than they actually are.
c) Parabolic mirror
 They produce a wide parallel beam or converge a large beam of light to a point. They are
widely used in making search lights, car headlights or in spotlights.
Defects of spherical mirrors

 Narrow parallel beams of light close and parallel to the principal axis always converge at
the focal point of a concave mirror after reflection.
 For a wide parallel beams, the rays are brought to a different principal focus ,F after
reflection.
 The defect is called spherical aberration which produces a blurred focus.
 The reflected rays intersect to form a surface called a caustic curve centred about the
principal focus, F.
 A parabolic mirror overcomes this defect of focus where all parallel rays are brought to a
single focus as shown.
 In spotlights, a light source e.g a bulb is placed at the principal focus of the parabolic
mirror which will produce a parallel beam after reflection from the principle of
reversibility of light hence a parallel beam of high intensity is produced.
Assignment; klb pg 121 Q 6, 7 and 17.
END
CHAPTER 6 ;MAGNETIC EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

 Hans Christian Oersted discovered the magnetic effect of a current using a compass needle.
 He showed that a magnetic field is produced when an electric current flows through a
conductor.
 The direction on the compass needle also depended on the relative position of the compass
from the wire and also on the direction of the current as shown.

 When charges flow, they have an associated magnetic field which interacts with the field due
to magnetic compass causing deflection of compass needle.
 Ampere‟s swimming rule predicts the direction of the compass needle deflection.
 This rule states that “if one imagines one is swimming along a wire in the direction of the
current and facing the compass needle, then the north pole of the needle will be deflected
towards the swimmer‟s left hand”
Magnetic Field-pattern of a straight current-carrying conductor

 The magnetic field produced by a straight conductor:
i. Forms a pattern of concentric circles around the conductor.
ii. Is perpendicular to the current.
 This can be demonstrated as follows.
1. Using Iron filings
 Set up the apparatus as shown below.
 Close the switch, sprinkle Iron filings on the card and tap the card while observing what
happens.
 It is observed that the ion filings settle in a concentric circles round the wire becoming
less significant as the distance from the centre increases.
2. Using magnetic compass
 When a magnetic compass is used instead of iron filings, the compass needles are aligned
in a circle pointing in a clockwise direction as shown below.
 When the current is reversed, the needles point in the anticlockwise direction.

Rules for predicting direction of magnetic field in a straight conductor
carrying current
1. Fleming’s right-hand grip rule
 It states that, if a conductor carrying current is grasped in the right hand with the thumb
pointing along the wire in the direction of the conventional current, the fingers will point in
the direction of the magnetic field.
2. Maxwell’s corkscrew rule

 It states that, if a right-handed screw is driven forward in the direction of the conventional
current, then the direction of rotation of the screw is the direction of the field lines.
Magnetic field pattern of a circular current- carrying loop

 The field pattern of a circular current-carrying loop for a single coil is shown below.
 The right-hand grip rule for a loop carrying a current states that, if the fingers of the right
hand encircle the current loop such that they point in the direction of current, the thumb points
in the direction of the magnetic field formed through the inside of the loop as shown.

Magnetic field pattern of a solenoid carrying Current
 A solenoid is a cylindrical coil of wire acting as a magnet when carrying electric current as
shown.
 When the fields inside and outside the solen
oid is
explored, the following properties emerge:
i. The field near the ends is non-uniform compared to the field inside the solenoid.
ii. The field at the ends is weaker than that inside the solenoid.
iii. The fields outside the solenoid is oppositely directed to that inside the solenoid.
iv. The field outside the solenoid is less than that inside the solenoid.
 A solenoid thus behaves like a bar magnet and is referred to as an electromagnet since its
magnetism arises from the flow of current.
Rules of polarity of an electromagnet

1. The clockwise and anticlockwise rule
 It states that, if the direction of current in the coil as observed from one end is clockwise, this
end is the south pole and if the current is anticlockwise, the end becomes the North pole.
2. The right hand grip rule
 It states that, if a coil carrying current is held in the right hand such that the fingers encircle
the loops while pointing in the direction of current flow, the thumb points in the direction of
the North Pole.
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet

i. The size of current in the solenoid.
 Increase in the size of current in the solenoid increases the strength of an electromagnet and
vice versa.
ii. The number of turns of wire in the solenoid.
 Increase in the number of turns of the solenoid increases the strength of an electromagnet.
iii. The length of the solenoid.
 Increasing the length of the solenoid decrease the strength of an electromagnet.

iv. The shape of the core.
 The strength of an electromagnet depends on the shape of the core.
 A U-shaped core produces more extension for a given current than a straight core hence it is
more efficient than the straight iron core that uses only one pole for attraction.
 Using iron core produces a stronger electromagnet than using other materials.
Force on current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field (motor effect)

 A conductor carrying current in a magnetic field experiences a force that causes it to move as
shown.
 When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

i. The rod AB rolls along the brass rods X and Y towards the plastic support.
ii. The direction of movement of the rod AB changes when either the direction of the current
or magnetic field is reversed.
iii. The rod moves faster when current is increased.
iv. The magnitude of force is maximum when the angle between the conductor and the field
is 900 .The force decreases to zero when the conductor is parallel to the magnetic field i.e
0
 This force is produced as a result of the interaction between the magnetic field around the
conductor due to current flow and that one due to the permanent magnet.
 The force acting on the conductor can be increased by:
1. Increasing the amount of current.
2. Using stronger magnet (U-shaped) .
3. Increasing the length of the wire inside the magnet.
 The direction of force is predicted by Fleming’s left hand rule which states that, if the left
hand is held with the thumb, the first finger and the second finger mutually at right angles so
that the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger in the
direction of current, then the thumb points in the direction of motion.

Force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field
 Since a moving charge produces a magnetic field, an electron moving through a magnetic
field will experience a force in the direction according to Fleming‟s left-hand rule as shown.
Force between parallel conductors carrying current.
 Two wires carrying current in the same direction attract each other and the amount of
attraction depends on:
a) Distance of separation.
 The closer they are, the greater the attraction.
b) Angle of inclination.
 The more acute the angle, the lesser the attraction.
 The current in each wire produces a magnetic field that interacts with that produced in the
other wire, resulting in an attractive force as shown.
 When current flows in opposite direction, the conductors repel each other and the amount of
repulsion depends on distance of separation and angle of inclination as explained above.
 The interaction of the magnetic fields results in a repulsive force as shown.

Examples
1. The figure shows a conductor carrying a current between the poles of the magnet.
Draw another diagram to show the direction of force acting on the conductor.
solution
2. A wire is placed in magnetic field as shown below.
The current flows through the wire. In which direction will the wire move?
solution
The wire moves upward
Application of electromagnets
 Electromagnets are commonly applied in the following devices;
1) Electric Bell.
2) Telephone receivers (Earpiece)
3) Magnetic relay (Switch)
4) Moving-coil loudspeaker
5) Moving-coil meter
6) Circuit breakers
7) Magnetic tape pick-up (head)
8) Electric motor
1. Electric bell
 When the switch is closed the current passing through the solenoids magnetizes them and
they pull the soft iron armature which makes the hammer hit the gong therefore producing
sound as shown.

 When the hammer hits the gong the contact between the spring and the screw is broken and
then stops the current from flowing.
 The soft iron core loses its magnetism and releases the armature which is then pulled back by
the screw.
 The contact between the spring and the screw is regained and the process repeats itself again
and again therefore the gong is struck continuously.
2. Telephone receiver.
 It consists of a u-magnet made by attaching two soft-iron bars to the end of a short permanent
magnet as shown.
 The solenoids are wound in opposite directions around the bars. When the phone is lifted the
current flows through the solenoids depending on the microphone on the other end of the line.
 These varying current spasms induce magnetism of varying strengths in the iron bars which in
turn causes the magnetic alloy diaphragm to vibrate differently producing sound.
3. Magnetic Relay / switch
 Is switching device which uses an electromagnet.
 A small current flowing in one circuit produces an effect that controls ( switches on
or off ) other heavy current circuits.

 When circuit Q is closed, small current flows through the solenoid E which forms an
electromagnet and in turn attracts the soft iron Armature A.
 This closes the contact in circuit p by pushing the spring metal strip.
 When current Q is switched off, electromagnet losses its magnetism and the Armature
A go back to its original position switching off the circuit P.
 A magnetic relay is used in controlling power supply to sockets and lights in big
industries.
4. D.C Electric Motor
 Is a device that converts electrical energy to kinetic energy.
 Consists of a rectangular coil of wire mounted on an axle which can rotate between
the poles of a magnet as shown.
 For the rotation to be continuous the ends of the coil is connected to half-rings called
the split-ring commutators.
 D.C motors are useful as car starter motors, hand drills, machine motors, fans etc.
 When current is switched on, it flows through the coil in the direction shown.
 By Fleming‟s left hand rule, side AB of the coil experiences an upward force and side
CD a down ward force which are equal and opposite.
 The forces cause the coil to rotate in clockwise direction until it reaches its vertical
position.
 In this position, the brushes touch the space between the two halves of the split rings,
cutting off current flowing in the coil hence no force acts on both sides of the coil.
 Since the coil is in rotation, its moment carries it past this position and the two split
rings exchange brushes.

 The direction of current through the coil is reversed and consequently the direction
of force on each side of the coil changes a process called commutation.
 Side AB experiences a downward force and CD an upward force thus the coil ABCD
will continue rotating in the clockwise direction so long as the current is flowing
through it.
 The speed of rotation of the coil increases with increase in current and when the
terminals of the battery are reversed, the rotation of the coil also changes.
Ways of increasing the power of an electric motor
i. Winding the coil on a soft iron core which concentrates its magnetic field in the coil
increasing the force.
ii. Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
iii. Using a stronger magnet.
iv. Multiplying the number of coil and commutater segments.
 Note; The poles of the magnet are curved to provide a radial magnetic field.
5. Circuit Breakers
 In modern domestic wiring, circuit breakers and not fuses are often used to protect electrical
components from excessive flow of current as shown.
 When excess current flows through the circuit, increased magnetic power of the
electromagnet opens the switch, stopping current flow.
 Once the problem causing the excessive current flow has been corrected, the switch is closed
by mechanical means.
6. Moving coil loud speaker
 One of the features of the loudspeaker is the coil attached to the centre of the cone and is in
the field between the poles of a circular magnet as shown.

 The varying current from the amplifier makes the coil to move very rapidly back and forth.
 This in turn causes the cone to vibrate, so producing the sound we hear.
 The magnet is cylindrical to provide a radial magnetic field so that the coil cuts the field at
right angles for maximum force to act on it.
7. Magnetic tape pick-up (Head)
 Has a coil wound on a soft iron core as shown.
 The music or speech to be recorded is converted to a corresponding electrical current that

flows through the coil of an electromagnet producing a magnetic field of varying power.
 A magnetic audio-tape moving past the gap has its magnetic coating magnetised
correspondingly by the intense field of the electromagnet.
Assignment; Klb pg 152 Q 5 and 6
END
CHAPTER 7: HOOKE’S LAW

Definition of terms
Strength of a material
 Ability of a material under a stretching or compression to resist breakage .
Stiffness of a material
 The resistance a material offers to forces which tend to change its size/shape or both.
Ductility of a material
 The quality of a material which leads to permanent change of size and shape.
Brittleness
 The quality of a material which leads to breakage just after the elastic limit is reached.
Elasticity
 Is the ability of a material to recover its original shape and size after the force causing
deformation is removed. Examples of such materials include rubber bands, spring and metal
wires.
 Materials which do not recover their original size and shape (deformed permanently) are said
to be plastic. Examples include plasticine, copper, lead, wrought iron etc.

Expt: To Illustrating The Stretching Of A Spiral Spring
Apparatus
A spiral spring with a pointer attached, a metre rule, retort stand, two sets of clamps and bosses, 8
30gram masses.
Procedure
i. Set up the apparatus as shown and note the position of the pointer as P o when the spring is
unloaded. P o…………………cm
ii. Increase the load in steps of 30grams and record the new readings of the pointer for each load
in the table below.
Mass on Stretching Loading Unloading Mean Extension Extension (N/m)

Spring force (cm) (cm) (cm) (e) in (cm) (e) in (m)
in (Kg) F = mg (N) (mean-P o)
0.00
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.21
0.24

iii. Unload the spring in steps and again record the pointer readings.
iv. Plot a graph of stretching force (F) against extension, e.g
Observation
 The spring returns to its original length on unloading.
 The ratio of stretching force to extension is constant.
 The graph of a stretching force F against extension e is a straight line through the origin.
Conclusion
 Extension e is directly proportional to the stretching force F and the same is obtained if a wire
is used though with a steeper slope.
 If greater weights are used, the spring is overstretched and the following graph is obtained.
 Point E is called Elastic limit, beyond this point, the spring undergoes permanent deformation
and where extension will not be directly proportional to force.
 B is the yield point, beyond this point the spring breaks.
 These leads us to Hooke‟s law which states that for a helical spring or other elastic material,
extension is directly proportional to the stretching force provided the elastic limit is not
exceeded. i.e F α e or F = Ke where K is a constant called spring constant.
 From the graph of stretching force F against extension e,
Gradient = = spring constant
Units for K is N/m
 The area under the graph represents the work done in stretching the spring as shown.
Work done = area under the graph

= Fe but F = Ke hence
Work done = (ke)e
= ke2

Factors affecting the spring constant
 Type of the material.
 Length of the spring.
 Diameter of the spring.
 Thickness of the wire used to make the spring.
 Number of turns per unit length.
Compressing a spring
 The change in length when the two ends of a spring is squeezed together is called
compression.
 The variation of length against compression obeys Hooke‟s law as shown.
 Beyond the point E, the turns of the coil are pressing onto one another and further increase in
the force achieves no noticeable in the length.
Arrangement of springs
Series arrangement
 Given that the force of 10N extends a single spring by 3cm, the total extension for the two
springs will be 3x2 = 6cm.
 In this case, the lower spring is assumed to be weightless.

Parallel Arrangement
 Given a force of 15N extends a single spring by 4.5cm, the extension in the above
arrangement would be 1.5
Example 1
 If the springs shown below are similar and the constant of proportionality (k) is 100Nm ,
determine total extension in each arrangement.
Example 2
 A mass of 100g is suspended from the lower end of a spring extends by 100mm and the
elastic limit is not exceeded, what is the spring constant?
Solution
F = 1oog = 1N, e = 100mm = 0.1m
F= Ke
1N = k x 0.1m
K= , k = 10N/m
END

CHAPTER 8; WAVES
 A wave is a disturbance that moves through a medium e.g a small stone thrown into a
pond sends out ripples (waves) in the water. The energy from the stone is transferred
through the water in a form of a disturbance.
Types of waves
1. Electromagnetic waves
 They do not require material medium for transmission and can pass through a vacuum
e.g radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays, UV rays, micro-waves, radiant heat, light etc.
 They are transverse in nature.
2. Mechanical waves
 Require material medium for transmission.
 The transmission is affected by the vibration of particles in the medium e.g sound waves and
water waves and can be either transverse or longitudinal.
Transverse waves
 They consist of a crest and a trough.
 In this case the displacement of the particles is perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave (disturbance) travels.
 A pulse is a single non-repeated disturbance. Examples are water waves, light and radio
waves.
 If the pulses are repeated periodically (regularly) they produce a series of waves called
periodic transverse wave train.
Longitudinal waves
 Particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of movement of the disturbance.
 When several turns of a spring are pulled together (compression) and then released they tend
to spread out to their original position. When pulled apart (rarefaction) they also turn to their
original position.
 In this case the displacement of the spring is parallel to the motion of the wave and this is
known as longitudinal. Examples are the sound waves.

Progressive waves
 Are waves that move continually away from the source carrying the energy away from the
source to other parts of the medium.
 They can be transverse or longitudinal.
Characteristics of waves
1. All waves have speed(distance covered by a wave in one second) which depends on the nature of
disturbance.
2. All waves have wavelength (distance between two successive points in a wave) represented by the
symbol λ and is measured in metres.
 All waves have frequency „f‟ which is the number of complete oscillations made by a particle
in one second. It is measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
 The period of a wave is the time required for a particle to complete one oscillation hence it is
measured in seconds.
Therefore T = 1 / f or f = 1 / T
The speed „v‟ is given as; v = λ / T, since f = 1 / T then
v = (1 / T) × λ = f λ or v = f λ. This is the wave equation.
4. All waves have amplitude which is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium as
the wave passes.
Examples
1. A rope is displaced at a frequency of 3 Hz. If the distance between two successive crests of the
wave train is 0.8 m, calculate the speed of the waves along the rope.
Solution
v = f λ = 3 × 0.8 = 2.4 m Hz = 2.4 m/s.
2. The figure below illustrates part of the displacement-time graph of a wave travelling across water at
a particular place with a velocity of 2 ms-1. Calculate the wave‟s;
a) Amplitude
b) Frequency (f)
c) Wavelength (λ)
Solution
a) From the graph, maximum displacement (a) = 0.4 cm
b) From the graph, period T = time for one cycle = 0.20 seconds

So f = 1 / T = 1 / 0.20 = 5 Hz.
c) Velocity = f λ hence λ = 2 / 5 = 0.4 m.
Phase and phase difference

 Particles in a wave motion which happen to be oscillating in the same direction and at the
same level of displacement in their oscillation are said to be in phase.
 The displacement time graphs for such particles are identical as shown.
 Particles in a wave motion can also be in phase even though they have different amplitudes as
shown.
 Consider two identical pendulums with bobs P and Q as shown.
 When released simultaneously in the opposite direction shown, they pass through the rest
position at the same time but moving in the opposite direction.
 They also reach positions of max. displacement but on opposite sides of the rest position i.e
the wave oscillate 1800 out of phase on opposite levels of displacement and moving in
opposite direction as shown.

 If the masses are both displaced to position x and P is released first then Q as P crosses
position Y, the resulting oscillations will be 900 out of phase as shown by the displacement-
time graph.
Example
1) Waves on a spring are produced at the rate of 20 wavelengths every 5seconds. Find?
a) Frequency of the wave motion.
f = 20/5
= 4Hz
b) If the wavelengths of the waves is 0.01m, find the speed of the waves.
V= f
= 0.01 x 4
= 0.04m/s
c) Find the periods of the waves.
T = 1/f
= ¼
2) A water wave travels 12m in 4s. if the frequency of the wave is 2Hz, calculate the speed and
the wavelengths of the wave?
Assignment
KLB BK2 pg 183 qns 3,4,5 and 6.
END

CHAPTER 9 ; SOUND
 Is a form of energy produced by vibrating bodies.
 Sound is an important example of a longitudinal wave which is composed of both
compressions and rarefactions.
Sources of sound
1) Vibrating wire/string
 When a tightly fixed wire at its ends is plucked at the middle, sound is produced.
 When a light feature is placed on the wire, it jumps off showing that the wire is vibrating.
 It is applied when playing a guitar where the string is plucked to produce sound.
2) Vibrating wooden strip
 When one end of a strip is held firmly on a table while the free end is plucked to vibrate,
sound is produced.
3) Vibrating drum
 When the skin of a drum is struck, it vibrates producing sound and if few grains of sand is
placed on it, they are displaced up and down showing the presence of a vibratory motion.
4) Vibrating turning fork
 Prongs of a turning fork are made are made to vibrate when struck against a hard surface e.g a
wall while the stem is held firmly in the hand.
5) Vibrating Air column/ blowing a whistle

 When air is blown across the mouth of a test tube or a whistle, sound is heard since the air
column in the tube is vibrating.

6) Air siren
 A siren is a form of a disc with a ring of equally spaced holes equidistant from the centre.
 When it is rotated at a constant speed and air blown through the holes, sound of a given
frequency is heard.
 If the holes are not equally spaced, sound produced will be unpleasant to the ear (noise).
7) A card struck on a cog wheel
 When the wheel rotates with a card pressing tightly against the teeth, sound is produced.
8) Voice box (Larynx)
 The human voice box contains vocal cords which vibrate to produce sound.
 Other sources of sound include vibrating membrane of loud speakers, cell phones and
telephone receivers.
Propagation of sound energy

 When a body vibrates, the adjacent air molecules are set into vibrations producing a series of
compression (regions of high pressure) and rarefactions (regions of low pressure).
 Energy is thus transferred to the air particles just as the motion of the vibrating body as
shown.
 A progressive sound wave is a travelling wave. The sound energy moves forward in the
medium without the medium itself moving.
 Vibrations of the particles are parallel to the direction of the sound energy.

Expt; To show that sound requires a medium for propagation.
Procedure
 Switch on current to make the bell ring continuously as air is pumped out slowly using the
vacuum pump.
 Observe what happens.
Observation
 The intensity of sound diminishes as air in the jar becomes less.
Explanation
 A vacuum does not transmit sound and the little sound that reaches out does so only through
the connecting wires, rubber and the wall of the jar.
Factors affecting velocity of sound in air

1. Temperature
 Velocity of sound increases with increase in temperature.
 Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles making them to move faster
transferring energy from one particle to the other.
2. Humidity
 When the amount of water vapour is high in the air, it increases the speed of sound.
 Molecules in liquids are closer compared to gases hence easier to pass energy from one
particle to another.
3. Direction of wind
 If wind is moving in the opposite direction of sound, the speed of sound is reduced by the
value of the wind speed.

 If wind and the sound is moving in the same direction, the speed of sound is increased by the
value of the wind speed.
Transmission of sound in solids, liquids and gases

 Solids transmit sound at a speed of 6000m/s but the velocity varies from place to place
depending on the density of the material i.e denser solids transmit sound faster.
 Liquids also transmit sound e.g a swimmer hears clearly the sound of water waves when
underneath.
 Liquids transmit sound energy at different speeds depending on its density and temperature.
 The velocity of sound in fresh water is 1400m/s and in salty water 1500m/s.
 Gases transmit sound slowest due to large intermolecular distances while solids transmits
sound fastest.
 Speed of sound in is 320m/s
Property of sound waves

Reflection of sound
 When sound falls on a hard surface e.g a wall, it is reflected.

 The reflected sound is called an echo.
 Sound can also be reflected from a liquid surface although it is weaker.
 Since the echo time is shorter, the echo overlaps with the original sound making it to be
prolonged an effect called Reverberation.
 Due to this, soft materials such as cotton wool, rubber and carpets are used to absorb sound
energy hence no echos can be heard.
 These material can be used to make walls of broadcasting studios, lecture theatre walls and
ceiling boards.
Expt; To demonstrate reflection of sound
 Point the tube with the clock towards a hard wall at an angle of incident ,i.
 Listen to the reflection of the sound from the wall at different angles of reflection, r as shown.
Observation
 The reflected sound is loudest when angle i = r and also when both tubes and the normal to
the wall lie on the same plane.
Conclusion
 Sound waves obey the law of reflection.

Application of reflection of sound
1. Determining the speed of sound
 From definition,
Speed =
 Since an echo is heard when sound travels from the source to the reflecting surface and then
back through the same path, then distance covered is twice the distance between the source
and the reflecting surface, thus
Where d is the distance between the source and the reflecting surface and t is the total time
taken for an echo to be heard.
2. Pulse Echo Technique
 It involves determining distances by producing sound of a known speed and measuring the
time taken to receive the echo.
From ,
 This technique is used in ships to determine the depth of sea.
Examples
a) A boy strikes a railway line (steel) with a hammer. If the speed of sound in steel is 5,200 m/s,
determine the time taken for the sound to reach another boy 2.3 km down the railway line
with his ear on the rail.
Solution
Time taken = distance / speed = 2300 / 5200 = 0.44 seconds.
b) A girl claps her hands once at a distance 250 m from a vertical cliff. If the temperature in the
surrounding is 50C, how long does it take for her to hear the echo?
Solution
Distance travelled = 250 × 2 = 500 m
Speed of sound = (331.5 m/s at 00 c) the speed in air increases at about 0.6 m/s per 0 C.
Therefore speed at 50 C = 331.5 + (0.6 × 5) = 334.5 m/s
Time taken = distance / speed = 500 / 334.5 = 1.5 seconds.
c) Two boys stand 200m from a wall. One bangs two pieces of wood together while the other
starts a stop watch and stops it when he hears the echo. If the time shown on the stop watch is
1.2seconds, calculate the speed of sound.
Solution
= 333.3m/s

d) A ship sends out an ultrasound whose echo is received after 10seconds. If the wavelength of
the ultrasound in water is 0.05m and the frequency of the transmitter is 50khz, calculate the
depths of the ocean.
Solution
Velocity of waves = frequency x wavelength
= 50000 x 0.05
= 2500m/s
Depth = 2500 x x 10
= 12,000m
END
CHAPTER 10 ; FLUID FLOW

 A fluid is any substance that can flow freely and includes both liquid and gases.
 The study of motion of fluids is called hydrodynamics.
 A flowing fluid experiences internal friction called viscosity.
 To study fluid flow, the following assumptions are made:
1. Fluids are considered to be incompressible
2. We assume that they have little or no internal friction or viscosity.
Types of flow
a) Streamline (steady) flow
 The path followed by a particle of a moving fluid is called a line of flow.
 A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid velocity at
that point.
 A Streamline flow is one where, at a given point , each and every molecule of the fluid travels
in the same direction and with the same velocity.
 Laminar flow is a steady flow where the particles in a given streamline have the same
velocity which may be different from other particles in the adjacent parallel layers as shown.

b) Turbulent/ Disorderly flow
 It is a flow in which the speed and direction of the fluid particles passing any point vary with
time.
 It is characterised by whirls and eddies.
 A streamline flow becomes turbulent when;
a) The speed of the fluid exceeds a certain critical value.
b) There are obstacles (of non-streamlined shape) on the path of the fluid.
c) There is a sudden change in the shape of the pipe or direction of flow.
Expt; To investigate the effect of a ruler on streamlines
Procedure
 Move the ruler with the sharp edge cutting through water.
 Repeat the expt with blunt/flat side of the ruler and note the following;
i. The force required to move the ruler.
ii. The ripples on the water caused by its movement.
Observation
 Less effort is required to move the ruler in water as shown in (a) due to a streamline flow.
 More effort is required in (b) due to the formation of ripples (disorderly flow) or eddies. The
ripples or eddies have a drag effect on the object moving through the fluid.

Effect of various shapes on streamlines
 Streamline shapes move more easily in a fluid because there is no eddies behind to offer
resistance hence less effort is required to pull them.
Differences between streamline and Turbulent flow.
i. Turbulent has formation of eddies while streamline have no eddies formed.

ii. Streamline particles passing a given point have same velocity and moving in the same
direction while in turbulent flow particles at a point may have different velocity and moving
in a different direction.
iii. Streamline is an orderly flow while Turbulent is a disorderly flow.
Shapes designed for streamline flow.

 They are designed in way that they easily cut through fluids with no formation of eddies
which reduces resistance to their motion.
 They include cars, aeroplanes, ships, submarines, rockets etc. there are other bodies which are
naturally streamlined e.g birds and Fish.
Deriving The Equation of Continuity

Assumptions
i. The fluid flows steadily.

ii. The fluid should be incompressible.
iii. The fluid is non-viscous
Definition of terms
 Volume flux (flow rate) is the volume of a fluid passing through a given section of a tube of
flow per unit time. SI unit is m3 /s.
 Mass flux is the mass of the fluid that flows through a given sections per unit time. SI unit is
Kg/s.
Consider a fluid flowing (streamline flow) through a horizontal pipe with different cross-sectional
areas as shown.

 Let the cross-sectional area in both sections be A1 and A2 and the corresponding speeds of
the fluid be V1 and V2 respectively.
Volume of the fluid entering through region 1 equals to volume leaving through region 2 per
unit time i.e
Volume influx (entering) = Volume efflux (coming out)
Since Volume flux = Area of Cross-section x distance, then,
A1 d1 = A2 d2
Since Velocity = , then, d = Vt, but, t = 1s hence, d = v
Therefore, A1 V1 = A2 V2
Hence, AV = Constant (k)
 The above equation is known as the equation of continuity. Since A1 > A2, then V2 > V1. i.e.
the speed increases when a tube narrows.
Note; Mass flux = Density x Volume flux.
Example 1
A horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area 50 cm2 carries water at the rate of 0.20 litres per second.
Determine the speed;
a) Of water in the pipe.
b) When the tube narrows to 20 cm2 at another point.
Solution
a) Volume efflux = 0.20 L per second = A v
From V (volume) = A v, then v = V / A = 0.20 × 10-3 / 50 × 10-4 = 0.04 m/s

b) Since A1 v1 = A2 v2 then v2 = (0.05 × 0.04) / 0.02 = 0.1 m/s
example 2
Water flows through a pipe at rate of 200cm3 /s. Given that the speed of water is 20cm/s, find the
cross-section area of the pipe.
Solution
Flow rate = AV, 200cm3 /s = A x 20cm/s

2
A=

Example 3
Water flows along a horizontal pipe of cross-section area 40cm2 which also has a constriction of area
5cm2 . If the speed at the constriction is 4m/s, calculate;
a) The speed in the wider section.

b) Mass flux (density of water = 1x103 Kg/m3 )
Solution
a) A1 V1 = A2 V2 , 40cm2 x V1 = 5cm2 x 4m/s

V1 =
b) Mass flux = density x volume flux
But, Volume flux = AV = 5 x 10-4 m2 x 4m/s = 20 x 10-4 m3 /s
Mass flux = 1000Kg/m3 x 20 x 10-4 m3 /s = 2Kg/s
Exercise; klb pg 215, Q4, 5 and 6
Bernoulli’s principle
 It states that, for an incompressible, non-viscous fluid with a steady flow, the sum of pressure,
the Kinetic energy per unit volume and Potential energy per unit volume is a constant. i.e
2
But K.E = and
Thus, , Since, , then
2
P+ + , where p = atmospheric pressure.
 A pressure difference is needed to make a liquid flow through a pipe. This is caused by
friction between the liquid and the walls of the pipe.
Expt; To investigate the relationship between speed of water and pressure it exerts
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown,
 Fill the glass tube and vertical tubes with water up to the same height.
 Open the outlet and supply the glass tube with water such that the amount of water entering is
equal to that flowing out.
Observation
 Tube B fitted at the narrow section of the glass tube contains water at a lower level than
others.

 When water flows at a narrow part of the glass tube (Y), it moves faster hence pressure
exerted at that point is reduced.
Conclusion
 When the speed of fluids increases, the pressure exerted is reduced.

 This leads us to a Bernoulli’s effect which states that, provided a fluid is non-viscous,
incompressible and with streamline flow, an increase in its velocity produces a
corresponding decrease in the pressure it exerts.
Examples to illustrate Bernoulli’s effect

1) A piece of paper placed on top of two books as shown below.
 When air is blown into the channel below the paper, pressure under the paper decreases since
the air is made to move faster.
 High atmospheric pressure acting from above thus presses the paper to curve inwards.
2) A light paper held in front of the mouth gets lifted up when air is blown horizontally over it
due to reduced atmospheric pressure above as shown.
3) Two light balls suspended close to each other move closer when air is blown between them as
shown.

 The moving air between them lowers pressure hence high pressure acting on the outside
causes them to move closer.
4) The spinning ball-when a very light ball is moving in through still air with constant speed, the
streamlines are uniformly spread as shown.
 If the ball is made to spin as it moves, the ball curves out of its initial path as shown.
 As it spins, it drags air along with it which opposes the relative motion on one side of the ball.
This causes a reduction in the relative speed and the streamlines are spread.
 On the opposite side, the dragged air is in the direction of the relative motion, resulting in an
increase in speed and consequential decrease in pressure.
 Pressure difference on the two sides of the ball produces a resultant force that causes the ball
to curve out of its initial path.
5) Lifting a light Ball using a Funnel-streamlines as air is blown down the narrow section of the
funnel are very close to each other, signifying high velocity and therefore low pressure as
shown.
 When the streamlines emerge into the wider section, they spread, signifying reduced velocity
and therefore high pressure.
 The high pressure below the ball (atmospheric pressure) lifts the ball up.

Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
1) The Aerofoil
 Is a structure designed in such a way that, the fluid flowing above moves with high
speed than below e.g the air craft wing as shown.
 Since the fluid flowing above has to travel a longer distance than that below, it travels
faster (low pressure) compared to low speed (high pressure) underneath.
 The difference in pressure gives rise to the lift of the aerofoil called dynamic lift.
2) Bunsen Burner
 When a gas from a cylinder is flow into the Bunsen burner, its velocity is increased when
it passes through the nozzle as shown.
 This decreases the pressure above the nozzle causing high atmospheric pressure from
outside to draw air inside the barrel.
 Air and the gas then mix as they rise up and when ignited, a flame is produced.
3) A Spray Gun
 When the piston is moved forward, air is made to flow through the barrel causing low
pressure at the mouth of B.
 Due to increased pressure on surface of the liquid, the liquid is compelled to move up tube B
and blown to the nozzle by the air from the barrel.
 The velocity of the liquid is increased as it passes through the nozzle because of the reduced
cross-section area thus the liquid emerges as a fine spray.

4) The Carburettor
 Inside the carburettor the air passage is partially constricted at the point where petrol mixes
with air hence air intake increases the speed of air while decreasing the pressure inside for
petrol to vaporize quickly before it gets to the cylinder where combustion occurs as shown.
Hazards Of Bernoulli’s Effect

a) Blowing off of roof-tops
 Air flowing over a roof-top has a high velocity compared to the one flowing underneath.
 Pressure acting on the roof from underneath is higher than that acting from above hence the
roof may be blown off.
b) Road accidents
 A small car travelling at a very high speed is likely to be dragged into a long truck travelling
in the opposite direction also at high speed.
 Air between them moves with a very high speed reducing pressure between them.
 The atmospheric pressure acting from the sides of the two vehicles will push them together
increasing chances of accident.
Example 4
Water with negligible viscosity flows steadily through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section
area. At a point A of cross-section area 10cm2 , the velocity is 0.2m/s. Calculate;
a) The velocity at a point B, of cross-section area 2.5cm2 .

b) The pressure difference between A and B, given that the density of water is 1000Kg/m3 .
Solution
a) From the equation of continuity;

A1 V1 = A2 V2
10 x 10-4 x 0.2 = VB x 2.5 x 10-4
VB = 0.8m/s
b) P = V2 B – V2 A )
= x 10 3 (0.64-0.04)
= 3 x 10 2 N/m2
END

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STUDENT’S NOTE BOOK 1 & 2

WAMALWA KELAS FERDINAND

FORM ONE NOTE

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 1

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 2

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 3

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 4

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 5

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 6

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 7

CHAPTER 1; INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Branches of physics/key areas in physics

Relationship between physics and other subjects/disciplines

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 8

Career opportunities in physics

Basic Laboratory Rules and precautions

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 9

First aid measures

Electric current Ampere A

Thermodynamics temperature Kelvin K

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 10

Amount of substance Mole Mol

 Graduated in cm and mm with the smallest unit of measurement of 0.1cm.

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 11

Measurement of curved length

EXPERIMENT: Measuring the circumference of a cylinder using a thread.

Apparatus ; A Cylinder, a thread and a metre rule.

 Wrap a thin thread say 10 times around the cylinder

 The circumference of the cylinder will be given by;

Measurement of thickness/diameter of a wire

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 12

Height of a rod = 180cm

Length of shadow of a rod = 116cm

Length of shadow of a tree = 840cm

Determine the height of the tree?

1 kilometre square Km2 1000 000m2

1 metre square m2 1m2

1 centimetre square Cm2 0.0001m2

1 millimetre square Mm2 0.000 001m2

Area of regularly shaped objects

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 13

Area of irregular-shaped surfaces

Complete squares = ……………….cm2

Unit Symbol Comparison with m3

1 kilometre cubed Km3 1000 000 000m3

1 metre cubed M3 1m3

1 centimetre cubed Cm3 0.000 001m3

1 millilitre ml 0.000 001m3

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 14

Volume of regularly shaped solids

V = cross-section area x height

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 15

Determining volume of irregularly-shaped objects

a) Using a measuring cylinder

 Pour water into a measuring cylinder and record its volume as V 1.

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 16

 The volume of the object V = V 2 – V1 .

c) Using Eureka can/ displacement can

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 17

1 milligram Mg 0.000 001Kg

 Density of solids are determined by the formula shown above i.e

If volume of a substance = volume of water, then

BY W.K. FERDINAND Page 18

Preparatory Physics Form 1 & 2

Preparatory Physics Form 1 & 2